What do the artefacts uncovered at The London Mithraeum reveal

about the role of the site within the context of Roman London?
The London Mithraeum was discovered in 1954 by W.F. Grimes during post-war
excavations following the devastation caused by the Blitz during World War 2 on
London’s financial district. The site revealed not only the remains of the London
Mithraeum but also a hoard of artefacts from the Roman Britain period which
offer great insight into the rituals and beliefs of Mithraic worshippers as well as
the day-to-day lives of Roman Londoners. This essay will explore the findings
from the site to help us understand the religious practices of the Mithraic cult
and the cultural significance this provides for Roman London
The Mithraic cult itself was a mystery religion centred around the god Mithras.
Mithras was a cosmic deity of Eastern origin and is commonly depicted slaying a
bull, a central theme of Mithraic worship known as the tauroctony. This scene
which is frequently depicted in Mithraic temples, is believed to symbolise the
god’s power and victory over darkness and its role within the mythology and
cosmology of the cult. One of the first recorded instances of the cult of Mithras
comes from Plutarch, who wrote that these worshippers ‘celebrated there certain
secret rites, among which those of Mithras continue to the present time’.1 The
cult spread across the Roman Empire with sites being found in locations such as
Italy, Syria and in the UK. The three British sites at Hadrian’s wall, Wales and in
London, imply a popularity amongst soldiers posted at far flung corners of the
empire and merchants frequenting major cities within the Roman Empire. The
secretive nature of the cult as well as a lack of substantial records means its
rituals and beliefs remain largely a mystery to modern historians. As a result, the
London Mithraeum site offers a unique opportunity to investigate the practices of
the cult through physical evidence. Among the artefacts discovered include
sculptures and reliefs depicting Mithras as well as deities associated with the
Mithraic cult. We also find inscriptions which reveal dedications from worshippers
providing us insight into the social composition of the Mithraic community.
Everyday objects, pulled from the site and the subterranean Walbrook River
uncovered at the site such as tools, coins and pottery also aid in understanding
the daily lives of the Mithraic worshippers and local Roman Londoners suggesting
the temple as being not only a place of worship but also a communal hub where
locals gathered. These findings have helped historians create an understanding
of both the cult and of the daily lives of citizens within Roman London.
Within this essay I will study a selection of artefacts found at the Mithraeum and
shed light on what these may inform us regarding the ritualistic practices and life
of the Mithraic community of Roman Britain. Moreover, I will examine the broader
implications of these findings by comparing them with other Mithraic sites across
the Roman Empire. Through this comparative analysis I will aim to identify the
potential regional variances and commonalities within Mithraic worship which
contribute to our understanding of the cult’s adoption across various provinces of
the Empire, as well as its subsequent decline. Also, by analysing the material
everyday items found nearby I will hope to gain valuable insight into the social
dynamics and cultural significance of the site, enhancing our understanding of
Roman religious life and the legacy of Mithras.

1
Plutarch, Pompey, 24.5.
Statues and Deities
The discovery of the London Mithraeum provided a bounty of artefacts that
helped shed light on the Mithraic cult and its rituals. These offered valuable
understanding into the practices and beliefs of the Mithraic worshippers.
Amongst these objects were statues, inscriptions and carvings that help us
better understand the activities of the cult as well as lend insight into its
eventual decline.
The layout of the Mithraeum is typical with other Mithraea across the Roman
Empire as being a small, subterranean structure designed to resemble a cave
wherein Mithras slew the primordial bull. At the far end of the temple, an altar or
statue of Mithras would have been placed serving as the focal point of worship.
One of the most significant discoveries found at the London Mithraeum is the
marble head of the Mithras2, which may have formed part of a greater statue,
serving as the focal point of the temple. Analysis of the head shows it is made of
marble from Carrara in Italy, a quarry that was frequently used in Roman times 3
Shepherd suggests the materials used as well as the quality of the head show
that the sculpture was likely carved in Italy. The statue may have been
commissioned in Italy and brought by a soldier or merchant to hold a position of
reverence within the Mithraeum. The absence of the remainder of the sculpture
raises an intriguing question regarding the fate of the once intact statue.
Shepherd states that ‘The carving of the head and neck of a statue in a block
separate from the body was a common practice.’ 4 It is possible that only the
head was made from marble whilst the rest was made from perishable material
which may not have survived the several centuries it lay buried. However, this
may be disproven owing to some of the findings made from perishable materials
including wooden tablets and leather shoes. These artefacts have managed to
survive due to the waterlogged soil owing to their discovery by the Walbrook.
Instead, the statue looks to have been deliberately destroyed or looted,
particularly during periods of religious or civil strife. The head was discovered in
two pieces with the neck portion severed in what appear to have been
deliberately taken off with a blunt force such as an axe and was later buried
intentionally apart from the remainder of the body. 5
The ‘decapitation’ of Mithras could imply a symbolic death of the Mithraic cult in
London and reflects the actions of early Christians who sought to eradicate
pagan worship. St. Augustine and other Christian writers documented the
systematic destruction of pagan temples and idols as the new religion gained
prominence throughout the Roman world. In The City of God St. Augustine refers
to Christians who ‘overthrew the temples and broke the images of the false
gods.’6 The pattern of Vandalism, particularly the deliberate defacement and
decapitation of statues, is evident not only in Mithraic sites but across many
temples dedicated to pagan gods throughout the Roman Empire. The Serapeum
of Alexandria, a major temple complex dedicated to the god Serapis, was
destroyed by a Christian mob in 391 CE, and the statues within were defaced
and broken. In Rufinus’ Ecclesiastical History he provides an account on the
2
CIMRM 815.
3
Shepherd, 1998, P. 109.
4
Shepherd, 1998, P. 165.
5
Shepherd, 1998, P. 165.
6
St. Augustine, The City of God, 18.54.
destruction of a statue dedicated to Serapis in Alexandria wherein ‘one of the
soldiers, armed with faith rather than weapons, seized a double-headed axe,
drew himself up, and struck the old fraud on the jaw with all his might.’ 7 These
acts of vandalism highlight the transitional period of religious conflict and
transformation within the Empire, marking the decline of paganism and the rise
of Christianity. Shepherd’s own theory on the decapitation of Mithras via a
weapon such as an axe, bears resemblance to the decapitation of Serapis which
could prove to be evidence of iconoclastic activities committed by Christians
representing the triumph of Christianity over the older pagan religions.
Alexandria was not alone in its desecration of the God Serapis as his intricately
carved head8 was found within the London Mithraeum along with the head of the
Roman goddess of wisdom Minerva9. The further absence of bodies and
deliberate burial may help prove the notion that the temple suffered deliberate
desecration as we are provided more deities whose heads have been
symbolically removed and buried. Their presence within the Temple of Mithras
highlights the syncretic nature of the religious practices of Roman London,
wherein multiple deities were worshipped within the same space. Serapis was a
deity associated with wealth and, like Mithras, had connections to the sun being
derived from the Egyptian god Osiris. His likeness has been found at other
Mithraic sites across Rome such as that in Alexandria showing his connection to
the Mithraic cult however as Shepherd states the appearance of Minerva is less
common as ‘there are no known instances of the worship of Minerva in other
Mithraea.’10 The status of Minerva could in part have some relation to the
syncretic goddess Sulis-Minerva who was venerated at the cult of Aquae Sulis
where a gilt bronze head was found at the Roman ruins at Bath. The cult of Sulis
Minerva at Bath is particularly noted for its combination of the local goddess
Sulis, associated with the hot springs at Bath, with Minerva, reflecting the Roman
practice of adopting local deities into their own religious pantheon. Her status as
a deity sacred to the Romano-British people, may highlight the local nature of the
Mithraeum due its relative proximity to Bath, the London Mithraeum therefore
has a distinct British environment when compared to its contemporaries across
the Roman Empire. These heads do not seem to have the blunt force trauma that
Mithras carries and instead the heads were removed from their bodies as they
were likely assembled in separate parts, Harris suggests the burial of these
heads may show that the heads were valued and so were ‘carefully hidden with a
view to their recovery in better times’.11 We can take this mean that the burials
of the heads may have been performed by those who desecrated the temple and
wished the sell the heads at a later date, or could have been performed by
worshippers of the Mithraeum symbolically burying the heads to prevent further
desecration and destruction as can be seen with the trauma mark along Mithras’
neck.
Alongside the heads of deities Mithras appears within a carved relief which
depicts the Tauroctony,12 a central motif within the Mithraic cult which depicts

7
Rufinus, Ecclesiastical History, 11.23.
8
CIMRM 818.
9
CIMRM 820.
10
Shepherd, 1998, P. 167.
11
Harris, 1965, P. 12.
12
CIMRM 810.
the deity slaying a bull. Around the Tauroctony is displayed the 12 signs of the
zodiac, representing the cosmic aspect of Mithraism. The zodiac represents a
form of star map, which would be of great importance to travellers which may
explain its rise in popularity particularly amongst these groups in the Roman
Empire. The star map may have been used in rituals to invoke celestial powers or
to align religious ceremonies with cosmic events. This artefact therefore
underscores the Mithraic emphasis on the heavens and the belief in a cosmic
order that governed both the natural and spiritual worlds. The relief itself
includes an inscription which can be translated as ‘Ulpius Silvanus, emeritus of
the Second Legion Augusta, paid his vow; enlisted at Orange.’ 13 Whilst the
inscription cannot tell us much about Ulpius Silvanus, it reveals his identity as a
seemingly high-ranking veteran of the Roman Army. The Second Legion Augusta,
spent much of its time stationed in Roman Brittania so it is possible that Silvanus
commissioned either the London Mithraeum or simply the relief alone. Bowden
states that Silvanus ‘may have decided to use what money he had to create a
Mithraeum, of which he would, we may assume, have been the leader, the Pater.
He may have commissioned the relief that bears his name’ 14 Vermaseren is also
of the belief that ‘Silvanus must have been a Pater with a good knowledge’15
From what we can gather on Silvanus, this indicates Silvanus as being a veteran
of the Roman army who was enlisted in Arausio in what is now modern France
and in coming to Britain with the second legion spread his dedication of the cult
of Mithras be it in simply providing the relief that bares his namesake or also
constructing the temple itself and becoming the Pater of the Mithraic cult.
Another statue appears16 which in contrast to Mithras, Serapis and Minerva is
mostly intact albeit missing its head. This statue is believed to represent a
Roman Genius and is depicted holding a cornucopia and a serpent twining
around his wrist. A ship’s prow appears to burst through the waves upon his
pedestal to show a power over the sea. Shepherd interprets this figure as a
‘personification of London, with ship, waves, cornucopia and torcs or garlands
alluding to the wealth and activities of a busy sea-port.’ 17 This deity may
therefore represent the merchants who travelled around the empire and shows
this Genius as a protector of Roman London. Shepherd continues that it is likely
the statue was moved to the Mithraeum as ‘the statuette must have stood
elsewhere before it reached the Walbrook Mithraeum.’ 18 Whilst the reason for its
movement is unknown it is possible that it was brought to the Mithraeum due to
its status as a societal hub for merchants and travellers who have come to
Roman London. Alongside the head of Minerva, this statue therefore may be
emblematic of the syncretic aspects of the Mithraic temple as being not only a
home for worshippers of Mithras alone but a ritualistic social hub for local
Romano-British people as well as merchants, travellers and soldiers to engage as
a community.
These statues, reliefs and inscriptions at the London Mithraeum offer a
fascinating insight into the rituals and ceremonies of the Mithraic cult whilst also

13
CIMRM 811.
14
Bowden, 2018, P. 2.
15
Vermaseren, 1974, P. 31.
16
CIMRM 812.
17
Shepherd, 1998, P. 172.
18
Shepherd, 1998, P. 172.
providing aspects unique to that found at the London Mithraeum which help us to
reconstruct the spiritual landscape of Roman London. The destruction of these
artefacts, likely at the hands of early Christians, speaks to the religious turmoil
that gripped the Roman Empire with the eventual triumph of Christianity.

Everyday and Household Objects

Alongside the ritualistic artefacts discovered at the London Mithraeum site are
also household and everyday items which would appear mundane but can still
provide us insight into the lives of Roman era Londoners. These findings, many of
which were pulled and preserved from the adjacent Walbrook River shape our
understanding of the Mithraic community by providing physical evidence of their
domestic activities, personal habits and economic interactions.
Among the discoveries at the London Mithraeum are various types of pottery
fragments, including storage jars, bowls, and cups. The presence of numerous
vessels and storage jars show a great deal of preparation and storage of food
and drink, likely used in the communal meals or religious feasts, integral to
Mithraic worship. The diversity of the pottery has origins tracing back to different
parts of the Roman Empire many of which come from Gaul showing a high
amount of trade with Brittania’s neighbour across the channel along with other
more local items from Verulamium and Camulodunum 19, in what is now modern-
day St. Albans and Colchester respectively. This indicates a well-connected trade
network and the integration of the Mithraic community within the broader Roman
economy. Tools, including knives and other implements, were uncovered,
indicating the types of activities that took place in and around the temple. 20 The
presence of these tools implies that the temple complex might have hosted
communal gatherings where food preparation and other practical tasks were
carried out, further integrating the sacred and mundane aspects of life.
Alongside these were discovered bones of animals, highlighting the festal
activities of the cult. Remnants of Cattle, Pigs, Sheep, Chickens and other birds
were discovered within the temple grounds. 21The large number of ‘domesticated’
animal bones shows a great deal of feasting took place within the Mithraeum and
highlights the importance in communal feasting. The animal bones may also
suggest that some form of animal sacrifice may have taken place with the large
amount of cattle compared to other mammals alluding to the central motif of
Mithraism being the sacrificial killing of the bull by Mithras.
Numerous Roman coins were also discovered at the site, serving as vital tools for
dating the layers of occupation and providing evidence of the economic activities
and currency circulation in Roman London. 22 The coins span several centuries,
bearing the images of emperors such as Trajan, Vespasian and Constantine
reflecting the long-term use and significance of the Mithraeum. Some coins also
bear some religious significance with some deities appearing and one coin
bearing the phrase ‘Soli Invicto Comiti’ This phrase which refers to the
unconquered sun may have perhaps being ritualistically selected and buried as

19
Shepherd, 1998, P. 111.
20
Shepherd, 1998, P. 125.
21
Shepherd, 1998, P. 209.
22
Shepherd, 1998, P. 100.
form of payment. As Shepherd states, ‘Mithras was closely associated with Sol’
and so it seems likely that the Mithraeum continued to be a deposit for coins
related to the Sun God.
Personal items such as bone hairpins, combs and jewellery were found, 23 offering
a glimpse into the grooming habits and adornment practices of the temple’s
visitors. These artefacts highlight the daily life and personal care routines of the
individuals frequenting the Mithraeum. The bone hairpins and combs, indicate a
high level of craftsmanship and the importance on personal appearance.
Jewellery pieces, including rings and bracelets, suggest a sense of identity and
status among the worshippers, providing a connection to the ancient community.
The waterlogged conditions of the site remarkably preserved organic materials,
including leather shoes and offcuts. 24 These items provide a small glimpse into
the fashion and practical attire of Roman Londoners. As we can see from the
leather shoe sole, the hobnails have been arranged in a decorative pattern
highlighting that even the soles of a person’s feet were considered articles of
fashion rather than mere practicality. The preservation of such materials allows
archaeologists to study the techniques and styles of Roman footwear. The shoes,
varying in size and style, suggest a diverse community with individuals from
different walks of life participating in the Mithraic rituals.
Wooden writing tablets, some retaining legible inscriptions, were among the
most remarkable finds. These tablets provide rare and valuable insights into the
literacy and administrative practices of the time. Deciphered by Roman
handwriting expert Roger Tomlin, the tablets include a record of the oldest
financial record in Roman London which appears to pe-date the construction of
the Mithraeum, ‘wherein on 8 January AD 57 Tibullus, the freedman of Venustus,
writes that he owes Gratus, the freedman of Spurius, 105 denarii’. 25 This states
that a freed slave owes another freed slave 105 Denarii. Whilst the tablets do not
enlighten us with the reason for the large debt or whether the debt was settled,
it does provide insight into the transactions that took place within London and
the practices of freed slaves who were able to borrow and lend this sum of
money.
The artefacts uncovered at the London Mithraeum reveal a vibrant and
interconnected community whose religious, economic, and domestic lives were
deeply intertwined. The preserved leather shoes, wooden writing tablets offer a
tangible connection to the daily life of Roman Londoners, enhancing our
understating of their world. These findings provide a comprehensive picture of
Mithraic worshippers in Roman Britain, illustrating their rituals, beliefs and daily
activities. The artefacts continue to shape our understanding of this enigmatic
cult and its place within the broader tapestry of Roman history.

How do the discoveries at the London Mithraeum compare to other

similar sites found across the Roman Empire?
The artefacts uncovered at the London Mithraeum have helped enrich our
understanding of the rituals and beliefs of Mithras worshippers in Roman Britain.
23
Shepherd, 1998, P. 132.
24
Shepherd, 1998, P. 148.
25
Tomlin, 2016, P. 153.
Through this lens we can compare this to other Mithraic sites across the Roman
Empire and draw a comparison between the findings at the London Mithraeum
and other Mithraic sites across the Roman Empire. Sites, such as those in Ostia,
Rome and Dura-Europos contain similar artefacts including altars, statues and
other ritualistic paraphernalia which illustrate the practical aspects of Mithraic
worship. The Tauroctony is a clear recurring theme which appears prominently at
all these sites, indicating a shared symbolic core in Mithraic rituals. However, the
London Mithraeum offers unique insights through its specific finds, such as the
wooden writing tablets that provide insight into the financial aspects of Roman
life as well as the statues of Minerva and the genius which appear localised to
the London Mithraeum. The London Mithraeum, with its more provincial and
smaller setting, contrasts with other Mithraeums that often-served larger urban
centres or military outposts. The Mithraeum at Ostia, Rome’s port city, was part
of a bustling commercial hub, reflecting a different scale and context of
worshippers, perhaps with a closer-knit social structure. This contrasts with the
grander, more cosmopolitan Mithraic temples, which likely served a more diverse
and transient population.
The Mithras head found in London, whilst significant, differs in scale and
craftsmanship from some of the grander sculptures found in Rome, such as the
sculpture housed in the British Museum. Mithras sculptures seen in their entirety
such as the Townley sculpture26 and the sculpture brought from Rome by Charles
Standish27 depicts the Tauroctony in its entirety with the sacrificial slaying of the
bull. Within this depiction the great level of craftsmanship allows us to see in far
finer detail the additional elements such as the way Mithras holds the bull into
submission with one foot planted on the bull’s hoof and his hand grasping at the
bull’s mouth as he plants his knife into the bull. We can also see a dog, scorpion
and serpent in fine detail which also provide further symbolism relating to the
beliefs of Mithras worshippers. These elements can be found within the carven
relief found at the London Mithraeum, however they appear cruder than the
intricately carved Roman sculptures. It is likely that the head of Mithras found in
London, was part of a sculpture similar to the Standish sculpture, which can be
ascertained by the angle of the head appearing to twist his neck to gaze into the
distance rather than look down upon his kill which suggests a form of grief in the
act of slaying the bull. However, we can ascertain a lack of finer craftsmanship
compared to the Standish sculpture as can be seen particularly in the hair as well
as the facial expression which appears more vacant compared with the youthful
longing seen within the Standish sculpture. The London head was roughly carved
at the back suggesting, the head was not intended to be viewed from the rear.
This again suggests a lesser quality of craftsmanship, by ‘cutting corners’ so that
detail is not apparent in areas that are not likely to be seen, whereas the more
intricate Roman sculptures appear exquisite from all angles. These differences
highlight the commonalities that are associated between the cult of Mithras in
Rome and London, however, show the provincial nature of London Mithraic
worship and reflects the local resources and artistic capabilities available to
Roman Britons. Those worshippers who may have commissioned the temple and
artefacts it housed, may well have been wealthy merchants or high-ranking
military officials such as Silvanus, as Harris states ‘whether merchants, militia, or

26
CIMRM, 593
27
CIMRM 592.
civil government officials, it is clear that they were men of wealth and taste’. 28
However, their disparate location prevented them from being able to use the
highest quality craftsman who plied their trade in Rome. This underscores the
relative modesty of the London Mithraeum compared to the more opulent
Mithraic temples in the heart of the Empire.
A similar observation can be made when comparing the Dura-Europos Mithraeum
which once stood on the eastern boundary of the Roman Empire, providing a
diametric parallel with the London Mithraeum found on its far western reaches.
The Dura-Europos site, houses two reliefs 2930 which share the common site of the
Taurochtony also found on the London relief, as well as inscriptions providing
detail on the persons who dedicated the two reliefs. However, these reliefs
provide new details such as the depictions of those family members who
dedicated the reliefs which is not common amongst other Mithraea but appears a
common attribute in other Palmyrene artefacts. The inscriptions are also written
in Greek script, highlighting a preference for Greek in the Hellenic eastern
provinces and provides an insight into the linguistic schism between the Latin
west and the Greek East.
Conclusion
The discoveries at the London Mithraeum, not only enhance our understanding of
the rituals and beliefs of Mithras worshippers in Roman Britain but they also
provide a comparative framework for examining similar sites across the Roman
Empire. The artefacts from London, from the mundane to the sacred, offer a
nuanced picture of a provincial Mithraic community, emphasising both the
commonalities and local variations in Mithraic worship. By comparing these
findings to those from other Mithraic sites, we gain a richer, more comprehensive
understanding of the Mithraic cult and its place within the broader religious
landscape of the Roman Empire. The ongoing display and interpretation of these
artefacts in modern museums ensure that this ancient cult continues to inform
and fascinate contemporary audiences, bridging the gap between the past and
present.

Bibliography

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Classics Teaching, vol. 19, issue. 38, 2018, pp.1-3.
Harris, E. ‘The Oriental Cults in Roman Britain’, Leiden : E.J. Brill, 1965.
Plutarch, Pompey, Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.
Rufinus of Aquileia, Ecclesiastical History, Translated by Philip R. Amidon.

28
Harris, 1965, P.17.
29
CIMRM 37.
30
CIMRM 40.
Shepherd, J.D. ‘The Temple of Mithras, London: Excavations by W.F. Grimes and A.
Williams at the Walbrook’, London, English Heritage, 1998.
St. Augustine, The City of God, Translated by Marcus Dods.
Tomlin, R. S. O. ‘Roman London’s first voices: writing tablets from the Bloomberg
excavations, 2010–14’, MOLA, 2016.
Vermaseren, M.J. (Maarten Jozef), ‘The Mithraeum at Ponza’, Leiden : E.J. Brill,
1974.

CIMRM
37. Lower tauroctony. Dura Europos, Syria
40. Upper tauroctony. Dura Europos, Syria.
592. A free-standing tauroctony from Rome, now in British Museum, London.
593. The "Townley tauroctony". A very early tauroctony from Rome, now in
British Museum, London.
810. Tauroctony, Walbrook Mithraeum, London, Britain.
811. Tauroctony, Walbrook Mithraeum, London, Britain.
812. Cloaked figure with altar. Walbrook Mithraeum, London, Britain.
815. Head of Mithras, from Walbrook Mithraeum, London, Britain.
818. Head of Serapis, from Walbrook Mithraeum, London, Britain.
820. Minerva, from Walbrook Mithraeum, London, Britain.