Visit https://ebooknice.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks

(Ebook) Radiation Physics of Metals and Its

Applications by L I Ivanov, Yu M Platov ISBN
9781898326830, 1898326835

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebooknice.com/product/radiation-physics-of-
metals-and-its-applications-1133404

Explore and download more ebooks at ebooknice.com

Here are some recommended products that might interest you.
You can download now and explore!

(Ebook) Radiation Physics of Metals and Its Applications by Lev

Ivanovich Ivanov, Yurii Mikhailovich Platov ISBN 1898326835

https://ebooknice.com/product/radiation-physics-of-metals-and-its-
applications-2127170

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook by Loucas, Jason; Viles, James

ISBN 9781459699816, 9781743365571, 9781925268492, 1459699815,
1743365578, 1925268497

https://ebooknice.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-6661374

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) SAT II Success MATH 1C and 2C 2002 (Peterson's SAT II Success)

by Peterson's ISBN 9780768906677, 0768906679

https://ebooknice.com/product/sat-ii-success-
math-1c-and-2c-2002-peterson-s-sat-ii-success-1722018

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Matematik 5000+ Kurs 2c Lärobok by Lena Alfredsson, Hans

Heikne, Sanna Bodemyr ISBN 9789127456600, 9127456609

https://ebooknice.com/product/matematik-5000-kurs-2c-larobok-23848312

ebooknice.com
(Ebook) Encyclopedia Of Mathematics And Its Applications, Geometry Of
Sporadic Groups Volume 1 Petersen And Tilde Geometries by A. A. Ivanov

https://ebooknice.com/product/encyclopedia-of-mathematics-and-its-
applications-geometry-of-sporadic-groups-volume-1-petersen-and-tilde-
geometries-42925972
ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Master SAT II Math 1c and 2c 4th ed (Arco Master the SAT
Subject Test: Math Levels 1 & 2) by Arco ISBN 9780768923049,
0768923042

https://ebooknice.com/product/master-sat-ii-math-1c-and-2c-4th-ed-
arco-master-the-sat-subject-test-math-levels-1-2-2326094

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth Study:

the United States, 1919-41 2nd Edition by Benjamin Harrison ISBN
9781398375147, 9781398375048, 1398375144, 1398375047

https://ebooknice.com/product/cambridge-igcse-and-o-level-history-
workbook-2c-depth-study-the-united-states-1919-41-2nd-edition-53538044

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Geometry of Sporadic Groups II: Representations and Amalgams

(Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications 91) by A. A. Ivanov,
S. V. Shpectorov ISBN 9780521623490, 0521623499

https://ebooknice.com/product/geometry-of-sporadic-groups-ii-
representations-and-amalgams-encyclopedia-of-mathematics-and-its-
applications-91-1887614
ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Geometry of Sporadic Groups: Volume 1, Petersen and Tilde

Geometries (Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications) (v. 1)
by A. A. Ivanov ISBN 9780521062831, 0521062837

https://ebooknice.com/product/geometry-of-sporadic-groups-
volume-1-petersen-and-tilde-geometries-encyclopedia-of-mathematics-
and-its-applications-v-1-2007396
ebooknice.com
RADIATION PHYSICS OF METALS
AND
ITS APPLICATIONS

i
ii
 RADIATION PHYSICS
OF METALS
AND ITS APPLICATIONS

L I Ivanov and Yu M Platov

A.A. Baikov Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science,

Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow

CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE PUBLISHING

iii
Published by

Cambridge International Science Publishing

7 Meadow Walk, Great Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AZ, UK
http://www.cisp-publishing.com

First published 2004

© L.I. Ivanov and Yu.M. Platov

© Cambridge International Science Publishing

Conditions of sale
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo-
copy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library

ISBN 1-898326-8-35

iv
 Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1
FORMATION OF RADIATION POINT DEFECTS AND THEIR
INTERACTION WITH EACH OTHER AND WITH SOLUTE
ATOMS IN METALS ........................................................................ 1
1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Formation of primary radiation defects .......................................................... 2
1.3. Interaction of interstitials with each other and with solute atoms ................ 11
1.4. Interaction of vacancies with each other and with solute atoms ................... 20
References ................................................................................................................ 23

Chapter 2
DIFFUSION PROPERTIES OF POINT DEFECTS AND SOLUTES IN
PURE METALS AND ALLOYS ................................................... 25
2.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 25
2.2. Diffusion in pure metals and alloys by the interstitial dumbbell mechanism 25
2.3. Diffusion of solute substitutional atoms by the vacancy mechanism ........... 34
References ................................................................................................................ 38

Chapter 3
BUILDUP AND ANNEALING OF RADIATION DEFECTS IN PURE
METALS AND ALLOYS ............................................................... 39
3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 39
3.2. The stages of recovery of structure-sensitive properties in irradiated metallic
materials ....................................................................................................... 40
3.3. The buildup of radiation defects during irradiation in the vicinity of absolute
zero ............................................................................................................... 42
3.4. Main equations of formation and thermal annealing of point defects during
irradiation. .................................................................................................... 44
3.5. Characteristic temperature ranges of radiation damage in formation and
thermally activated annealing of non-correlated point defects ..................... 48
3.6. Kinetics of buildup of radiation defects during the formation of complexes
with solute atoms .......................................................................................... 51
3.7. The formation and growth of clusters and dislocation loops in pure metals

v
 and solid solutions in irradiation .................................................................. 59
3.7.1 Theory of the size distribution of clusters and dislocation loops of the
interstitial type and its application for analysis of the experimental data .. 65
3.7.2. The kinetics of buildup of interstitials and vacancies in pure metals and solid
solutions during the formation and growth of dislocation loops ................. 71
3.8. Formation and growth of voids in pure metals and alloys under irradiation 83
3.8.1. Nucleation of voids in alloys ........................................................................ 86
3.8.2. Growth of voids in alloys ............................................................................. 99
References .............................................................................................................. 110

Chapter 4 ......................................................................................... 115

RADIATION-STIMULATED PHASE CHANGES IN ALLOYS ....... 115
4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 115
4.2. Radiation-enhanced diffusion ..................................................................... 116
4.2.1. The mechanisms of radiation-enhanced interdiffusion .............................. 117
4.2.2. Radiation-enhanced diffusion of solutes and interdiffusion ...................... 122
4.2.3. The experimental data for radiation-enhanced diffusion, their analysis and
interpretation.............................................................................................. 124
4.3. Intensification of the processes of ordering, short-range clustering and
breakdown of solid solutions in irradiation ................................................ 135
4.3.1. Ordering ..................................................................................................... 135
4.3.2. Short-range clustering and break-down of supersaturated solid solutions 138
4.4. Phase instability of metallic materials under irradiation ............................ 145
4.4.1. Instability of under-saturated solid solutions ............................................ 146
4.4.1.1.The mechanisms of instability of under-saturated solid solutions ............. 146
4.4.1.2.Analyses of the experimental data ............................................................. 150
4.4.2. Variation of the phase composition in compensation by point defects of
deformation effects of phase transformations ............................................ 155
4.4.3. Phase instability, determined by dynamic radiation defects ...................... 155
4.4.4. Phase instability caused by transmutation effects in nuclear reactions .... 157
4.5. Coalescence ................................................................................................ 159
4.6. Phase changes in industrial and advanced constructional materials for nuclear
and thermonuclear engineering .................................................................. 160
4.6.1. Low-alloy ferritic steels .............................................................................. 160
4.6.2. Bainitic, martensitic and ferritic–martensitic steels .................................. 161
4.6.3. Austenitic steels .......................................................................................... 166
4.6.3.1.Austenitic Cr–Ni steels ............................................................................... 167
4.6.3.2.Austenitic chromium–manganese steels ..................................................... 175
4.6.4. Vanadium-based alloys .............................................................................. 179
References .............................................................................................................. 185
185
Chapter 5
RADIATION-RESISTANT STEELS AND ALLOYS WITH ACCEL-
ERATED REDUCTION OF INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY ... 194
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 194

vi
5.2. Main directions and problems of development of reduced-activation
materials ..................................................................................................... 196
References .............................................................................................................. 214

Chapter 6
MAIN PRINCIPLES AND MECHANISMS OF RADIATION DAM-
AGE OF STRUCTURAL METALLIC MATERIALS .................... 216

6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 216

6.2. The main principles and mechanisms of the variation of the mechanical
properties of metallic materials during irradiation ..................................... 217
6.2.1. The mechanical properties in active tensile and impact ............................ 217
loading ....................................................................................................... 217
6.2.1.1.Pure metals and diluted solid solutions ..................................................... 217
6.2.1.2 Aluminium-based alloys ............................................................................ 232
6.2.1.3.Ferritic steels ............................................................................................. 237
6.2.1.4.Austenitic steels .......................................................................................... 248
6.2.1.5.Vanadium-based alloys .............................................................................. 258
6.2.2. The mechanisms of radiation hardening and embrittlement ..................... 265
6.2.2.1. Radiation hardening .................................................................................. 265
6.2.2.2. Radiation embrittlement ............................................................................ 283
6.2.3. Irradiation creep ........................................................................................ 292
6.2.3.1. Experimental data ..................................................................................... 293
6.2.3.2.The mechanism of irradiation creep .......................................................... 304
6.3 Swelling ...................................................................................................... 322
6.3.1. Austenitic chromium–nickel steels ............................................................. 324
6.3.2. Austenitic chromium–manganese steels ..................................................... 334
6.3.3. Ferritic steels ............................................................................................. 337
6.3.4. Vanadium-based alloys .............................................................................. 339

vii
viii
 Lev Ivanovich IVANOV, Doctor of
Physico-Mathematical Sciences, Laureate
of the State Prize of the USSR, Honoured
Activist in Science and Technology of
Russia, Head of the Laboratory ‘The effect
of radiation on metals’ of the A.A. Baikov
Institute of Metallurgy and Materials
Science, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow

Yurii Mikhailovich PLATOV, Doctor of

Physico-Mathematical Sciences, Chief
Scientist at the same Institute.

The authors of this books belong to pioneers of Russian radiation

materials science who originated systematic investigations of
the behaviour of solids in the conditions of reactor and cosmic
irradiation and worked on the development of a number of radiation-
resistant materials for atomic power engineering. In this book,
they present the results of many years of experimental and theoretical
investigations, carried out by themselves and other leading experts,
into fundamental and applied aspects of the radiation physics
of metals

ix
x
INTRODUCTION

The development of a modern energy based in nuclear power engineering

and further advances in the exploration of space are determined to a large
degree by the development of metallic materials for various functional
applications, corresponding to the requirements of service reliability, economic
efficiency and minimum disruption of ecology. The successful realisation
of these requirements depends mainly on the application of metals and alloys
characterised by high radiation resistance and accelerated decrease of induced
radioactivity.
The physical fundamentals and principles of the development of these
materials are based on the systematisation and further development of the
considerations regarding the mechanisms and factors controlling changes
in the structure, properties and activation parameters of irradiated objects,
analysis of the mechanisms and the development of methods reducing the
negative effect of radiation. We have also attempted to present the main
material of this book using approach to the investigated problem
Special attention in the monograph is given to the analysis of the ef-
fect of the type and concentration of impurity and alloying elements and
also phase changes in the mechanism of buildup of radiation defects and
radiation damage to metallic materials. The considerations regarding the
interaction of radiation point defects with each other and with solutes, the
diffusion of point defects and solutes, radiation-enhanced diffusion and phase
transformations in irradiation were used as a basis when describing these
processes. These problems are studied extensively in the book.
Detailed analysis of radiation damage and methods of suppressing this
type of damage on the basis of taking into account the actual structure and
the chemical and phase composition of metals and alloys has become possible
to a large degree because of the advances in a number of fundamental areas
of the radiation physics of solids: theory of defects in alloys, low-temperature
kinetics of the buildup and annealing of radiation defects in diluted and
concentrated solid solutions, radiation-enhanced diffusion, phase instability.
The most important results obtained in this area include mainly the development
of considerations on the interaction of interstitials with solute atoms, their
diffusibility and the mechanisms of migration in diluted and concentrated
solid solutions, the diffusion transfer of solid elements and their interac-
tion with sinks. A significant role in the development of considerations regarding
the radiation damage in alloys also belongs to the determination of rela-
tionships of the phase transformations and instability of the metallic ma-
terials under irradiation, including the processes of ordering, phase
separation and breakdown of solid solutions, segregation, coalescence
and dissolution of the phases.
A special section in the monograph is concerned with the selection of
components of alloys taking into account radiation ecological requirements.

xi
In particular, this problem is important for ‘clean’ fusion power engineering,
because the absence in these reactors of traditional fission fuel creates, when
using materials with accelerated decrease of induced radioactivity, the most
suitable conditions for the efficient solution of the problem of increasing
the service reliability of reactors, utilisation and processing of radioactive
waste. At present, the problem of application of reduced-activation materials
is becoming more and more important also in the area of conventional atomic
power engineering.
Within the framework of this problem, the appropriate chapter of the
monograph includes the calculation and experimental estimates of the parameters
of activation of individual chemical elements and alloys, examination of
a number of methods of reducing the activation of materials, analysis of
general directions and problems of the development of reduced-activation
radiation-resistant alloys. In the final chapter of the monograph, attention
is given to the main experimental relationships and the mechanisms of radiation
damage in a number of pure metals and structural metallic materials in atomic
and fusion power engineering, determined by the processes of radiation
hardening, embrittlement, creep and swelling.
When writing the monograph we have used to a large degree the theoretical
and experimental data obtained in the laboratory ‘The effect of radiation
on metals’ of the Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science of the Russian
Academy of Sciences, and also the results of the joint investigations with
other laboratories of the Institute, domestic and foreign scientific centres.
We are grateful to all co-authors of these studies.
A significant contribution to the presented material has been provided
by Prof. L.N. Bystrov of the laboratory ‘The effect of radiation on met-
als’ and Profs. A.C. Damask and J.J. Dienes of the Brookhaven National
Laboratory, USA.
In preparation of the monograph we were greatly helped by scientists
of our laboratory S.V. Simakov, V.I. Tovtin, N.A Vinogradov, O.N. Nikitushkina
and V.A. Polyakov. We are also grateful to Academician N.P. Lyakishev,
Director of the Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science of the Rus-
sian Academy of Sciences, for his considerable attention to studies in the
radiation physics of solids and metals science and for his help in publishing
this monograph.

xii
 Chapter 1

FORMATION OF RADIATION POINT DEFECTS

AND THEIR INTERACTION WITH EACH
OTHER AND WITH SOLUTE ATOMS IN
METALS

1.1. INTRODUCTION

When an atom of a metal receives from a moving particle an en-

ergy equal to or higher than some threshold value T d (of the order
of 20–40 eV), the atom is displaced from its position in the crys-
tal lattice. Depending on the energy of the primary knocked out atom
T which is determined mainly by the type and energy of radiation,
the nature of the irradiated target, the crystallographic direction and
the angle of collision of the particle with the atom of the lattice,
various configurations and structures of radiation defects may ap-
pear, starting from isolated point defects–vacancies and interstitials
(Frenkel pairs) and ending with spatial zones of damage characterised
by a complicated structure of defects.
Single Frenkel pairs form at energies of the primary-knocked out
atoms in the range T d < T < 2.5 T d which is characteristic of, for
example, irradiation of copper with the electrons with an energy of
< 1 MeV. At higher energies of the primary knocked out atoms, a
cascade of atoms collisions appears leading to the formation of a
more complicated structure of radiation defects. The processes of
interaction of radiation with the crystal lattice of metals during the
formation of radiation defects and also the methods of modelling
these processes have been examined in detail in [1].
The defects, formed during elementary acts of the interaction of
the moving particles with matter usually belong to the primary radiation
defects. The subsequent kinetic evolution of the structure of radiation
damage is determined by the processes of spatial overlapping of the

1
volumes of primary damage and/or diffusion of freely-migrating point
defects and solutes.
In this chapter, attention will be given to the main relationships
governing the formation of primary radiation defects. Special attention
is given to the problem of formation of freely-migrating vacancies
and interstitials, because the concentration of these defects plays a
significant role in the processes of formation and evolution of secondary
radiation defects.
In this chapter, attention is also given to the current assumptions
regarding the interaction of point defects with each other and with
the solute atoms. In a general case, this interaction determines the
structures of defect and defect–impurity complexes and diffusion pa-
rameters of the vacancies, interstitials and solutes. The interaction
mechanisms may already play a specific role in the stage formation
of primary radiation defects where the athermal or thermally-
activated formation of different defect and defect–impurity configu-
rations, may modify the final structure of defects, characteristics of
pure metals. At temperatures at which the point defects are mobile,
their concentration and mechanisms of interaction with each other
and with the solute atoms may be the main factors determining the
evolution of the structure of radiation damage and the variation of
the properties of materials during irradiation.

1.2. FORMATION OF PRIMARY RADIATION DEFECTS

At present, the theoretical analysis of the formation of primary radiation

defects is carried out using two main approaches: calculations us-
ing the theory of simple binary collisions and the modified Kinchin–
Pease model, and computer modelling using the molecular dynam-
ics method.
Within the framework of the theory of binary collisions, the total
number of the Frenkel pairs, formed during transfer of energy T to
a primary-displaced atom from a particle with the initial energy E,
can be determined from the equation:

d σ ( E,T )
Tmax

ν (E ) = ∫ dT ν (T ) (1.1)
Td
dT

In equation (1.1) dσ(E, T)/dT is the differential cross-section for

the transfer by an incident particle of energy in the range from T

2
to T + dT to the primary-displaced atom, ν(T) is the number of Frenkel
pairs formed by recoil atoms of this energy range, T d is the threshold
energy of displacement, and T max is the maximum energy which can
be transferred by the particle to the primary-displaced atom. For the
electrons, this energy is:

2 E ( E + 2me c 2 )
Tmax = (1.2)
Mc 2

For the neutrons and heavy ions, T max is expressed by the equa-
tion:

4EM 1M 2
Tmax =
( M1 + M 2 ) (1.3)
2

In equations (1.2) and (1.3), E is the energy of the bombarding

particle, M and M 2 is the mass of the atoms of the target, m e is the
mass of the electrons, c is the velocity of light, M 1 is the mass of
the neutron or ion. The boundary conditions for the cascade func-
tion in the modified Kinchin–Pease model [2] are determined by the
equations

ν(T ) = 0at T < Td ,

ν(T ) = 1at T ≤ T < 2.5Td ,
E (1.4)
ν(T ) = d at T ≥ 2.5Td ,
2.5Td

where E d is the energy of damage. This energy differs from energy

T by the value of inelastic losses of the primary-displaced atom.
The primary-displaced atom with the recoil energy in the range
T d < T < 2.5 T d forms only one stable Frenkel pair. A cascade of
atomic collisions forms at higher energies. At relatively high recoil
energies, intensive atomic collisions, formation and recombination
of Frenkel pairs take place in the vicinity of the trajectory of the
primary-displaced atom, i.e. the core of the cascade. This process
is accompanied by the formation of chains of focused atomic col-
lisions leading to the separation of vacancies and interstitials in the
Frenkel pairs and localisation of the interstitials at the periphery of

3
the cascade. The formation of chains of atomic displacements was
detected for the first time in [3] in computer modelling of the process
of atomic collisions in copper, using the molecular dynamics method.
The final structure of the cascade consists of a neutral zone with
a higher concentration of defects of the vacancy type, and a periphery
characterised by the localisation of individual interstitials or by clusters
of these atoms.
Intracascade recombination, characterising cascade efficiency, for
similar models may be evaluated by means of analytical expressions
presented in, for example, [4,5].
At specific energies of the primary-displaced atom, branching of
the cascade may take place. The mean number of sub-cascades in
a cascade within the framework of the Kinchin–Pease modified model
is expressed by the equation [6]:

Ed
ν sc = (1.5)
2, 5 Esc

The comparison of the theoretical calculations within the framework

of the examined model of simple binary collisions with the experimental
data results in a large difference of the results, especially at high
energies of the primary-displaced atoms [7]. With increase of recoil
energy to several kiloelectronvolts in the experiments for particles
of different type, the results show a large decrease of the efficiency
of formation of defects with a subsequent tendency for saturation
[8]. This disagreement between the theory and the experiment is evi-
dently associated with the factor of mutual recombination of the point
defects, which is very difficult to take into account within the framework
of similar models, especially at the energies of formation of sub-
cascades.
The main special features of the process of development of a cascade
and the structure of the damaged zone, examined within the framework
of the model of simple binary collisions, are in qualitatively agreement
with the results of computer modelling conducted using of the molecular
dynamics method. At the same time, in current experiments with com-
puter modelling at high energies of primary recoil atoms, the results
show a principal special feature of the process of development of
a cascade, i.e. the formation of a thermal peak [7,9,10]. In the range
of the thermal peak, temperature may be considerably higher than
the melting point. The realistic nature of formation of the molten
zone in the experiments with computer modelling has been confirmed

4
by estimates of the kinetic energy of the atoms, atomic density and
the parameter of the long-range order in the region of the thermal
peak [7, 10].
The rapid increase of temperature in the zone of the thermal peak
greatly intensifies the process of mutual recombination of defects,
and the formation of a molten zone leads to the formation of cluseters
of interstitials at the periphery of the cascade as a result of the effect
of two mechanisms which were not previously observed: the mechanism
of ballistic displacement of interstitials from the molten zone [9],
and the mechanism of formation of clusters under the effect of a
shockwave formed during rapid cooling of the melting zone [10].
The intensification of the mutual recombination of the point defects
during the formation of a thermal peak is one of the most impor-
tant consequences of computer modelling because this fact is in agree-
ment with the actual experimental data.
It is also important to mention that the formation of subcascades
which in the experiments with computer modelling was observed for
the first time in [10] for a recoil energy of 25 keV, was accompa-
nied by the merger of molten zone of two subcascades. In fact, this
result contradicts of widely held opinion [4,6,11] according to which
the formation of subcascades results in a decrease of the spatial cor-
relation between the defects in the cascade, decreases their density
and, consequently, suppresses the recombination processes, supporting
the retention of a large part of residual defects.
One of the applied aspects of the theory of formation of primary
radiation defects was associated with the need for correct calculation
of the number of displacement per atom (dpa):

d σ ( E,T )
Tmax Emax

Nd = t ∫ dT ν (T ) ∫ ϕ ( E ) dT dE
i (1.6)
Td Emin

In equation (1.6) E min is the minimum energy of the particle re-

quired for the displacement of the atoms, Emax is the maximum energy
of the particles in the spectrum, ϕ i (E) is the spectral density of the
flux of particles, t is radiation time.
The dpa parameter has been regarded for many years as one of
the main parameters in comparison and modelling of the effect of
radiation of different types and energy on materials and also in evalu-
ation of the dose dependence of the degree of radiation damage. In
reality, this parameter can be regarded only as a very rough approxi-
mation because, depending on recoil energy and the radiation dose,

5
it does not expresses adequately the degree of radiation damage and,
evidently, does not provide information on the structural composition
of radiation defects. One can present a large number of examples
of inadequacy of this criterion, for example, as clearly indicated by
the results of [12,13].
In recent years, there has been a tendency for comparing the ef-
ficiency of structural phase changes under the effect of radiation of
different type and energy on the basis of the evaluation of the con-
centration of freely-migrating defects avoiding recombination or merger
into clusters in the process of primary radiation damage. Evidently,
this criterion has an obvious advantage in comparison with the dpa
parameter, especially at elevated temperatures, characterised by rapid
diffusion-controlled processes of the nucleation and growth of clusters,
dislocation loops and voids, and also phase changes of different type.
Theoretically, the fraction of freely-migrating point defects may
be evaluated either on the basis of the theory of binary collisions
in the modified Kinchin–Pease model or directly in computer modelling
of the process of atomic collisions.
In a general case, within the framework of the model of binary
collisions, it is possible to calculate any fraction of defects η(T) formed
by all primary-displaced atoms with an energy lower than T [11]:

1
T
d σ ( E , T ')
η(T ) = ∫ dT ' ν (T ')
ν ( E ) Td dT ' (1.7)

where quantity ν(E) is determined by expression (1.1), and the cal-

culation of ν(T ') using equation (1.7) is carried out using conventional
boundary conditions (1.4)
Evidently, equation (1.7) may also be used for calculating the fraction
of freely-migrating defects within the framework of the following
simple model. Assuming, to a first approximation, that the freely-
migrating defects are formed only by those primary-displaced atoms
whose recoil energy is in the range T d = T < 2.5 T d , their fraction
may be evaluated using equation (1.7) with the appropriate integration
range.
The general relationships governing the formation of primary radiation
defects, including freely-migrating defects, are directly indicated by
the results of calculations carried out in [11] using equation (1.7)
for particles of different type and energy (Fig. 1.1).
The energy of the primary-displaced atoms T 1/2 at which η(T) =
0.5 in Fig. 1.1, characterises the ‘hardness’ of the primary recoil

6
 1
2 3
4
7

5 6

T, eV
Fig. 1.1. Fraction of defects formed by primary-displaced atoms with an energy
lower than T by particles of different type and energy in copper and nickel [11].
1) 1 MeV e, 2) 200 keV H, 3) 2 MeV He, 4) 2 MeV Ne, 5) 2 MeV Ar, 6) 2 MeV
Kr.

spectrum. This quantity is the mean-weighted energy of the recoil

spectrum, with 50% of all radiation defects formed above and be-
low this energy.
Figure 1.1 indicates that with an increase of the energy and mass
of the particles the number of defects formed in the range of high
recoil energy continuously increases. The degree of spatial corre-
lation of defects increases in this case. It is characteristic that for
the neutrons, regardless of their small mass, the spectrum of pri-
mary-displaced atoms is relatively hard. This is associated with the
fact that the atomic displacements during neutron radiation takes place
at very low impact parameters. Therefore, on the basis of comparison
with the ions which may transfer not only high energies during direct
elastic collisions but also small amounts of energy during Coulomb
interaction over large distances, the fraction of the defects, formed
in the energetically dense cascades, is considerably higher for neutrons.
The very narrow energy spectrum of recoil (30–60 eV) is provided
by electrons with an energy of 1 MeV characterised by the forma-
tion of only isolated Frenkel pairs.
The above considerations are applicable in qualitative analysis
of the experimental data obtained in evaluation of the fraction of
stable defects. The information on the fraction of freely-migrating
defects may be obtained on the basis of analysis of the results of
direct and indirect experiments.
The indirect experiments include the investigations carried out
at temperatures at which the point defects are immobile. The con-
centration of stable Frenkel pairs is evaluated in these experiments

7
on the basis of measurement of the variation of the properties of
materials (electrical resistance, lattice parameters, etc.) in the process
of radiation using the available values of the properties for the unit
concentration of Frenkel pairs. However, it is evident that these ex-
periments provide some averaged-out information on the total con-
centration of residual radiation defects because of the non-additive
contribution of defects of different type and configuration to the
measured properties. The direct investigations include investigations
carried out at temperatures at which point defects are mobile and
the variation of the properties of irradiated objects is determined
directly by the concentration of the defects and the diffusion parameters.
Analysis shows that the main relationships, determined in both
direct and indirect experiments, are in qualitative agreement with
the results of the previously-examined theoretical calculations. As
an example, Fig. 1.2 shows the relative efficiency of formation of
mobile defects in relation to the mean-weighted recoil energy T 1/2
obtained on the basis of analysis of the experimental data in the ex-
amination of surface segregation in Ni–12.7at.% Si alloy at a temperature
of ~800 K [14]. The efficiency, presented in Fig. 1.2, is normalised
for the efficiency of formation of freely-migrating defects for protons
with an energy of 1 MeV. Identical dependences were also obtained
for Cu–Au and Mo–Re alloys [15,16].
Figure 1.2 shows that the fraction of freely-migrating defects

1 MeV H
Relative efficiency

2 MeV He

3 MeV Li

3 MeV Ni
3.25 MeV Kr

T 1/2 , eV

Fig. 1.2. Relative efficiency of different ions for the formation of freely-migrating
defects in relation to the mean-weighted recoil energy T 1/2 [14].

8
decreases with the mass and energy of the ions, i.e. with an increase
in the energy of primary-displaced atoms, showing a tendency to satu-
ration. The identical nature of the dependence, as already mentioned,
is also observed in low-temperature experiments [8].
As reported in [15, 16], one of the main problems in the quan-
titative estimates of the fraction of freely-migrating defects is as-
sociated with its temperature–energy dependence. Analysis of the
experimental data in the appropriate low temperature [8] and high-
temperature [14, 16] experiments shows that the fraction of freely-
migrating defects, evaluated on the basis of the results of experi-
ments carried out at elevated temperatures, decreases more rapidly
with the energy of primary-knocked out atoms [15, 16]. In the low-
temperature experiments, the fraction of the stable Frenkel defects
decreases with increasing recoil equal energy, reaching a saturation
at a concentration of ~25% of the calculated number of displacements.
For increased radiation temperatures, the concentration of freely-
migrating defects for a recoil energy of > 25 keV, typical of fission
and fusion neutrons, decreases to approximately 1% [15]. The qualitative
interpretation of the temperature–energy dependence was carried out
in [15, 16], assuming the intensification of intra-cascade recombi-
nation and of the processes of recombination and formation of clusters
of defects in the region of adjacent cascades. In our view, in the
interpretation of this temperature–energy dependence it is also necessary
to take into account the effect of thermal oscillations of the atoms
of the lattice on the dynamics of defect formation. As shown in [17,
18], in modelling the process of atomic collisions in Cu, the mean
distance between the vacancy and the interstitial in the Frenkel pairs
is almost halved with an increase of the irradiation temperature from
zero to 293 K. This is associated with an increase of the probability
of defocusing of sequences of substituting atomic collisions with an
increase of the amplitude of atomic oscillations. It is evident that
the given process supports an increase of the spatial correlation between
defects and, consequently, increase of the intensity of mutual recom-
bination and probability of the formation of clusters. This mecha-
nism should be more pronounced in cascades with a higher energy
density in which the total density of atomic displacements is higher.
The analysis results showing a reasonably good agreement of the
experimental and calculated data in the evaluation of the fraction
of freely-migrating defects have been published in [19]. The calculations
were based on the model proposed in [19, 20] which, in fact, rep-
resents a modified variant of the previously examined model within
which the fraction of the defects for any energy range of primary-

9
displaced atoms is evaluated using equation (1.7). In the model [19,
20) in the evaluation of the fraction of freely-migrating defects attention
is given to the formation of stable isolated Frenkel pairs not only
from the primary-displaced recoil atom but also in subsequent secondary
generations of atomic collisions. In this case, in addition to the energy
condition of formation of stable isolated pairs T d < T < 2.5 T d , of
the factor of the spatial instability of individual vacancies and interstitials
was also taken into account. It was assumed that the stable isolated
point defects form in sequences of atomic collisions whose distance
exceeds the radius of interaction of point defects for their recom-
bination or formation of complexes.
Taking these factors into account, equations modified in relation
to equation (1.7) were obtained and used as a basis for calculations
of the fraction of stable Frenkel pairs in nickel in irradiation with
ions of different energy and mass. The results of these calculations
and the corresponding data are presented in Table 1.1.
In Table 1.1, from [19], the experimental data for [21] are pre-
sented in the form of quantities η exp , normalised in relation to the
absolute fractions of freely-migrating defects. On the basis of the
relatively good quantitative agreement between the calculated and
experimental data it is possible to assume that the main assumptions
of the accepted model are evidently accurate. In the course of cal-
culations, it was also possible to determine several relationships gov-
erning the effect of the order of generation of secondary atomic col-
lisions on the evaluated fraction of freely-migrating defects. For light
ions H + , He + and Li + up to 95% of all free Frenkel pairs are formed
by primary-displaced atoms. Their fraction may be evaluated using
equation (1.7) in which the integral should be additionally multi-
plied by parameter β < 1, characterising the spatial instability of
the point defects. For high-energy ions of Ni + and Kr + , a significant

Table 1.1 Calculated and experimental values of the fraction of Frenkel defects
in nickel irradiated with particles of different type and energy [19]

Irra d ia tio n η cal, % η exp, % Lite ra ture

1 M e V H+ 8.8 20 [2 1 ]
2 M e V He + 7.1 9.6 [2 1 ]
2 Me V Li+ 6.4 7.4 [2 1 ]
3 0 0 k e V N i+ 1.2 1.5 [2 2 ]
3 Me V N i+ 1.6 1.6 [2 1 ]
3 . 2 5 Me V K r+ 1.4 <0.4 [2 1 ]
2 keV O + 1.7 1.5 [2 3 ]

10
contribution to the fraction of formation of freely-migrating defects
is provided by generations of higher orders. For example, for Kr +
and Ni + (300 keV) only 40 and 25% of the total concentration of
mobile defects are formed by primary-displaced atoms. These special
features are also in agreement with the calculations of formation of
defects only by primary-displaced atoms (Fig. 1.1) which show that
the fraction of the freely-migrating defects decreases with an increase
of the energy and mass of the ions.
In conclusions, it should be mentioned that the analysis of the
fraction of the freely-migrating defects in direct experiments should
be carried out on the basis of radiation-enhanced diffusion in the
examined materials. With the exception of [19], this approach has
not been used in the analysis of experimental data because, in particular,
the mechanisms of radiation-enhanced diffusion determine the dy-
namic concentration of freely-migrating defects and, consequently,
variations of the properties of the irradiated materials.

1.3. INTERACTION OF INTERSTITIALS WITH EACH OTHER

AND WITH SOLUTE ATOMS

A significant contribution to the investigation of the examined a problem

has been provided by the initial studies for computer modelling of
the stability of different configurations of interstitials and their com-
plexes [27–29]. It was established that in the FCC and the BCC lattices
the dumbbell configurations <100> and <110>, respectively, are most
stable, Fig. 1.3. The results of subsequent theoretical calculations
and experimental data are in complete agreement with these con-
siderations. They have been published in a number of original and
review studies [28–33].
Figure 1.4 shows the results of calculation of the stability of double
complexes of the dumbbell configurations of interstitials in the FCC
lattice, obtained by Vineyard [25]. The stability of double and more

Fig. 1.3. Dumbbell configurations of interstitials in FCC (a) and BCC (b) lattices.

11
Fig. 1.4. Configuration of complexes from two interstitials in the FCC lattice
[25]: a) unstable; b) binding energ y B = 0. 36 eV; c) B = 0.40 eV; d) B =
0.46 eV.

complicated complexes of the interstitials in the FCC and BCC lattices

has been investigated many times in a number of investigations. The
results of these investigations can be found in, for example, [29, 30,
34–36]. According to the results of calculations carried out in [35,
36], the most stable double complex in the FCC lattice is represented
by two parallel dumbbells in the position of the nearest lattice sites,
slightly inclined (< 10°) in the {110} plane. The energy difference
between the inclined configuration and the identical non-inclined
complex consisting of two parallel [001] dumbbells is very small
[~0.01 eV]. The evaluation of the stability of the volume clusters
of interstitials in the dumbbell configuration in relation to the number
of interstitials in the clusters shows [36] that when the number of
interstitials in a cluster exceeds 10–13, they become unstable and
transform into two-dimensional formations.
At the same time, it should be mentioned that the validity of the
results of theoretical calculations in relation to the reflection of the
real structure of defect configurations depends to a large degree on
the selection of the calculation methods and the potential of atomic
interaction. For example, in [37] when modelling by the molecular
dynamics method on the basis of the pseudopotential theory of the
stability of different configurations of self-interstitials in α-Fe, it
was shown that the most stable configurations of the interstitials are,
in contrast to the results of other identical calculations, crowdions

12
in the close-packed direction <111>. One of the crowdions repre-
sents a configuration in which two atoms are localised symmetri-
cally in relation to the centre of the elementary cube of the BCC
lattice. In the second crowdion configuration, an interstitial atom
is implanted between the nearest neighbours. Within the limits of
the calculation error, the energy of formation of these crowdions is
identical. Evidently, only accurate experiments can confirm the validity
of different theoretical estimates.
The results of interaction of interstitials with substitutional at-
oms were initially analysed in [38] for the octahedral configuration
in the FCC lattice of copper. The authors of [38] used the method
of lattice statistics and also an approach in which the forces, act-
ing from the side of the defect and the solute atom were calculated
from the values of their dilation changes in the lattice.
The results of the calculations show that the interaction of the
interstitials with the solute atoms with the dilation volumes of different
sign greatly differs. The most stable positions of the interstitials for
the substitutional atoms with ∆V > 0 (oversized atoms) positions (1,0,0)
and (1,1,1) (Fig. 1.5a) which, at the same time, for the atoms with
∆V < 0 are unstable. In the vicinity of an impurity with ∆V < 0
(undersized atoms) the interstitial is stable only in the position (2,1,1)
(Fig. 1.5b).
Figure 1.5c shows the configuration of the most stable hetero-
geneous nucleus of a cluster of interstitials, constructed on the basis
of the results of calculations conducted by the summation of the energies
of the corresponding paired interactions.
The theoretical analysis of the stability and mechanisms of mi-
gration of the self-interstitial and mixed dumbbell configurations was
carried out for the first time in [13]. The calculations were conducted
by methods of the theory of perturbation and computer modelling
using the Morse and Born–Mayer potentials. In the calculations, it

Fig. 1.5. The nearest stable positions of an octahedral interstitial in the vicinity
of a substitutional atom with ∆V > 0 (a), ∆V < 0 (b) and the structure of a heterogeneous
nucleus of a cluster of interstitials in the FCC lattice (c) [38].

13
was assumed that the impurities with the positive and negative dilation
volumes displace the position of the minimum of the potential of
atomic interaction in the pure solvent R 0 by the value +r and –r, re-
spectively. The binding energy of a mixed dumbbell is character-
ised consequently by the value and sign of the so-called mismatch
parameter ε = r 0 /R 0 , associated with the relative dilation volumes
of the impurity by the relationship: ∆V/V∆ ≈ 6ε [39]. The results
of calculations of the binding energy of the mixed dumbbell by the
method of the theory of perturbation in relation to the value of parameter
ε are presented in Fig. 1.6. They show that the positive energy of
binding in the mixed dumbbell <100> is possible only for r 0 < 0,
i.e. the formation of these dumbbells is possible only for undersized
impurities (∆V < 0). Calculations by the method of computer modelling
using the Morse and Born–Mayer potentials show that for high negative
values of r 0 when –ε > 0.06, the mixed dumbbell becomes unsta-
ble, as in the case of positive values of ε > 0.03.
The results of calculations of the binding energy in the <100>
self-interstitial dumbbell–substitutional atom complexes, carried out
also in the above study, are presented in Fig. 1.7. The values of the
binding energy in Fig. 1.7 are given for undersized atoms in the units
of the binding energy of the mixed dumbbell. For the atoms with
positive dilation volumes, the sign of the interaction energy changes
to the opposite sign together with the variation of the sign of r 0 . In
addition to the data for the Morse potential, the values in the brackets

E dmd , eV

. . .

Fig. 1.6. The binding energy of a mixed dumbbell in relation to the value of the
mismatch parameter ε in the FCC lattice [30].

14
Fig. 1.7. Binding energy in different self-interstitial dumbbell <100>–impurity
atom complexes in the FCC lattice [30].

are the results of calculations for the Born–Mayer potential.

The calculations indicate that in the (101) and (202) positions,
the undersized interstitials are bonded relatively strongly in the com-
plexes with the self-interstitial dumbbells. For low values of r 0, these
configurations become unstable and at –ε > 0.025 they transform to
the mixed dumbbells.
The binding energy of the self-interstitial dumbbells with the solutes
with the positive dilation volumes is lower than that with the un-
dersized substitutional atoms and is considerably lower than the binding
energy of the mixed dumbbell. This shows that the oversized
substitutional atoms are less effective traps for the self-interstitial
dumbbell than the solutes with negative dilation volumes.
Subsequent theoretical calculations [40–44], confirmed one of the
main conclusions of [30], according to which stable mixed dumb-
bells do not form for the atoms of the solutes with
∆V > 0. This result is one of the most important consequences of
theoretical analysis because it shows that the diffusion transfer of
impurities and solutes with positive dilation volumes by the self-
interstitial dumbbell mechanism in metals and alloys with the FCC
lattice ineffective. In this case, the mobility of the self-interstitial
dumbbells should decrease because of their periodic capture by the
atoms with ∆V > 0. The transfer of the solutes should in this case

15
be controlled by the vacancy mechanism. The configuration of the
most stable complexes, calculated in [40–42], for the majority of
impurities in the FCC lattice of aluminium did not, however, cor-
respond to the results obtained in [30].
In these investigations, using the molecular dynamics method and
interaction potentials obtained from the first principles, the configu-
rations of the complexes were determined for a number of substitutional
impurities with ∆V < 0 (Be, Li, Zn) and ∆V > 0 (Mg, Ca). In the
FCC lattice of Al, the configuration of the most stable complex cor-
responded to the calculations in [30] only for Zn and was represented
by a mixed dumbbell <100>. For the oversized solute Ca, for ex-
ample, the most stable configuration was the one in which the self-
interstitial dumbbell was situated in the nearest lattice site in re-
lation to the calcium atom. According to the estimates in [30], this
complex is generally unstable, as indicated by Fig. 1.7.
The formation of stable mixed dumbbells <100> in a number of
irradiated FCC metals for undersized atoms has been confirmed by
direct channelling experiments [31]. For irradiated BCC metals, as
indicated by these experiments, the interstitials with the undersized
impurities form stable mixed dumbbells <100>. This result is in agree-
ment with relatively recent theoretical calculations carried out in [33]
in which the molecular dynamics method was used to estimate the
stability of mixed dumbbells using the approach applied in the cal-
culations in [30]. In this work as in [30], the potential used in the
calculations (these calculations were carried out using the nonequilibrium
Johnson potential) was modified taking into account the mismatch
parameter. The results show that, in this case, the mixed dumbbell
<110> is stable, like the mixed dumbbell <100> in the FCC lattice,
only for impurities with negative dilation volumes. At ε < –0.15,
it is not stable and transforms into the tetrahedron or octahedral con-
figuration.
A large part of experimental investigations in the evaluation of
the efficiency of the interaction of interstitials with the solute at-
oms has been carried out using the method of measurement of electrical
resistance in examination of annealing or of the kinetics of buildup
of defects at temperatures of the recovery stage II. In these inves-
tigations, the defect–impurity interaction is analysed on the basis
of the value of the relative radii of capture of the interstitials by
impurity traps, determined when processing the experimental data
within the framework of specific modelling representations.
Analysis shows that it is usually not possible to accurately systematise
these and other experimental data obtained in the examination of

16
the interaction of interstitials and solutes within the framework of
the model [30]. A detailed analysis was also carried out, in particular,
in a review in [45] on the basis of analysis of a large number of
experimental results. We believe that a highly characteristic example
of this type is provided by comparison of the results obtained for
diluted silver–copper and copper–silver alloys in which the relative
dilation volumes are equal to –0.28 and +0.43, respectively [46]. Ex-
periments show [47] that the oversized atoms of Ag and Cu are far
more efficient traps for interstitials than the undersized atoms of copper
in the silver lattice. Estimates carried out in [47] show that the relative
radius of capture of interstitials by atoms of silver in copper–sil-
ver alloys is three times higher than the value for silver–copper alloys.
On the whole, it is note possible to detect any specific relationships
in the efficiency of capture of the interstitials by the solutes with
the dilation volumes higher than and lower than zero.
One of the reasons for mismatch is associated with the simpli-
fied theoretical representations of the model in [30]. The type and
stability of the complexes may be determined not only by the value
and sign of the dilation volumes but also by special features of the
electronic structure of the defects and impurities which are not taken
into account in the model in [30]. As already mentioned, this possibility
is shown in [40–42] which considered the interaction potentials obtained
from the first principles.
At the same time, when processing the experimental data, it is
very complicated to take into account the actual reactions of the defects
and defect–impurity interaction. In irradiation or subsequent annealing,
these reactions may lead to the formation of complexes of differ-
ent type and size. Taking also into account the non-additive nature
of the contribution from the defects of different type to the meas-
ured properties (for example, electrical resistance), the results of
the investigations may provide some average values in this case.
To conclude this section, we shall examine several consequences
resulting from the considerations on the non-equivalent groups of
the interstitials in the FCC lattice [38, 48]. They make it possible
to analyse the possible structure of the interstitial complexes within
the framework of a simple geometrical approach.
Analysis carried out in [38, 48] shows that all possible positions
of the interstitials during their migration through the crystal are
subdivided into four characteristic groups which are such that every
interstitials remains in its group during migration.
If the octahedral configuration is the stable configuration of the
interstitials, and the dumbbell configuration is the saddle configuration,

17
then in a single jump any of the three coordinates of the interstitials
should change by +2a. In relation to some separated atom of the lattice,
these groups have the coordinates: (2n 1 + 1, 2n 2 , 2n 3 ), (2n 1, 2n 2+1,
2n 3 ) (2n 1 , 2n 2 , 2n 3 + 1), and (2n 1 , 2n 2 + 1, 2n 3 + 1), where n i are
integer numbers, 2a is the lattice parameter. All the coordinates, pre-
sented above, are expressed in the units of a.
Identical non-equivalent groups for the migration of interstitials
in the dumbbell configuration <100> are characterised by the co-
ordinates of the centre of the masses of the dumbbell (n 1, n 2, n 3) and
its orientation ξ(x, y, z) (Table 1.2).
During migration of a defect in an ideal infinite crystal, all these
groups are equivalent because of the translational invariance of the
ideal crystal. In the presence of a second defect, this equivalency
is partially or completely moved and, consequently, this results in
a number of interesting consequences.
On the basis of the non-equivalent groups, we shall examine initially
the stability of the complexes presented in Fig. 1.4, taking into account
the results of calculations by Vineyard [25].
It is assumed that one of the interstitials in the complex occu-
pies the fixed position (0,0,0,X), i.e., according to Table 1.2 it belongs
to the group I. It may also be seen that an unstable configuration
(Fig. 1.4a) forms only when both interstitials belong to the same group.
The case in Fig. 1.4a corresponds to the position of the second interstitial
(1,1,0,Y).
The configuration in Fig. 1.4b corresponds to the position of the

Table 1.2 Non-equivalent groups <100> of interstitials in the dumbbell configuration

[48]

Gro up n1 n2 n3 ξ

2n 1 2n 2 2n 3 X
I 2n 1 + 1 2n 2 + 1 2n 3 Y
2n 1 + 1 2n 2 2n 3 + 1 Z

2n 1 2n 2 2n 3 Y
II 2n 1 2n 2 + 1 2n 3 X
2n 1 2n 2 + 1 2n 3 + 1 Z

2n 1 2n 2 2n 3 Z
III 2n 1 + 1 2n 2 2n 3 X
2n 1 2n 2 + 1 2n 3 + 1 Y

2n 1 + 1 2n 2 + 1 2n 3 Z
IV 2n 1 + 1 2n 2 2n 3 + 1 Y
2n 1 2n 2 + 1 2n 3 + 1 X

18
second interstitials (1,1,0,X) from group II.
The identical configuration forms if the second interstitial atom
belongs to group III and occupies the position of the type (1,0,1,X).
The configuration in Fig. 1.4c may form if the second interstitial
belongs to the groups II, III and IV with the positions of the type
(0,1,1,Z), (0,1,1,Y) and (1,1,0,Z), respectively. The formation of the
configuration, is shown in Fig.1.4d, is possible is the second interstitial
belongs to the group IV with the position of the type (0,1,1,X).
All the stable complexes of the interstitials (Fig. 1.4b–d) are char-
acterised by similar binding energies. Analysis shows that the prob-
abilities of formation of the corresponding configurations are ex-
pressed by the ratio 2:3:1 and mutual transitions are possible be-
tween the configurations 1.4b–1.4c and 1.4c and 1.4d.
In conclusion, it should be stressed that in both the octahedral
and dumbbell configurations of the interstitials, the binary complexes
of the defects, belonging to one group, are unstable.
Within the framework of the considerations regarding the non-
equivalent groups it was also shown [38,48] that the interaction of
self-interstitial dumbbells with the solutes may be accompanied by
the formation of complexes of two types: the self-interstitial–impurity
atom complex with the possibility of a subsequent transition to a
mixed dumbbell and stable ‘self-interstitial dumbbell–impurity atom’
complexes. Figure 1.8 a–c shows the formation of mixed dumbbells
during the interaction of self-interstitial dumbbells, belonging to the
groups I–III, respectively (Table 1.2) with the substitutional atom
situated at the origin of the coordinates. Figures 1.8a–c reflect in
this case, for each group, the results of reactions of one of the self-
interstitial dumbells with the substitutional atom, localised at the
origin of the coordinates. The self-interstitial dumbells, belonging
to group IV (Table 1.2), cannot form a mixed dumbbell. Possible
configurations of the complexes with the solute for the self-inter-
stitial dumbells of the group IV are shown in Fig. 1.8d. It should
be mentioned that in the case of the dumbells, belonging to the groups
I–III, the formation of complexes of the type of 1.8d is not possi-
ble. The different binding energies in the complexes 1.8a–1.8c and
1.8d assume the possibility of existence in FCC metals of traps of
at least two types. This does not contradict the experiments with the
buildup and annealing of radiation defects in diluted solid solutions
at temperatures of stage II of recovery [45, 49–52].

19
 l

Fig. 1.8. Configuration of complexes of dumbbells with solutes for non-equivalent

groups I–III (a–c, respectively) and group IV (d) in the FCC lattice [48].

1.4. INTERACTION OF VACANCIES WITH EACH OTHER

AND WITH SOLUTE ATOMS

In this section, we shall not examine different models and methods

of calculating the interaction of vacancies and solutes and we shall
not analyse in detail the large number of experimental results ob-
tained in the determination of the binding energy of vacancy complexes.
These data have been published in detail in, for example, the pro-
ceedings of Argonne, Kyoto and Berlin conferences on defects, their
properties and interaction in metals [53–55]. However, we shall discuss
briefly several aspects of the examined problem.
In [56], using the method of the Green functions, the authors pre-
sented the results of calculations of interaction of vacancies with
impurities of different type in copper, nickel, silver and palladium
(3d and 4ps in Cu and Ni and 4d and 5sp in Ag and Pd). Calcula-
tions were carried out for the position of the nearest neighbours. The
results of [56] provide convincing information on a number of general
quantitative and quantitative relationships of the interaction of vacancies
with the solute atoms in metals and are in a relatively good agreement
with the literature experimental data.
The calculations show that for all four metals, sp impurities strongly
interact with vacancies. Their positive binding energy is approxi-

20
mately proportional to the difference of the valencies of the matrix
and solutes. In fact, a similar result is obtained from a simple model
of interaction within in the framework of the Thomas–Fermi approxi-
mation (equation (1.8)). In contrast to this, the impurities of tran-
sition metals in the positions of the nearest neighbours are repulsed.
The maximum repulsive energy is ~0.2 eV. The calculated binding
energies of the divacancies in copper, nickel, silver, and palladium
are 0.076, 0.067, 0.079 and 0.11 eV, respectively. The configura-
tion and evaluation of the stability of more complicated vacancy com-
plexes can be found in, for example, [29, 30, 57]. The results of
these calculations, which have already been mentioned, are in a relatively
good agreement with the experimental data presented in [56], and
show that the binding energy of the vacancies in these metals with
the solute atoms is in the range 0.1–0.4 eV. According to the analysis
of the published experimental data, these values of the binding energy
are on average characteristic of the majority of other metals.
The formation of transmutation products of nuclear reactions and
the interaction with radiation defects may greatly modify the mechanisms
of radiation damage and the effects of radiation. A special role in
the intensification of the processes of swelling and embrittlement
is displayed by transmutation gases, in particular helium and hydrogen.
Therefore, the problems of interaction of the atoms of these gases
with radiation defects are of considerable significance. Within the
framework of this problem, attention should be given to the results
of theoretical analysis of the interaction of hydrogen and also of helium
and other inert gases with vacancies and interstitials, are presented
in [58, 59]. Calculations in [59] were carried out for the positions
of the solute atoms of inert gases: substitutional and interstitial (in
the octahedral position). For the atoms of helium in the interstitial
and substitutional positions, closest to the vacancy, the calculated
binding energies were 0.65 and 0.47 eV, respectively. With an in-
crease in the size of the atoms of the gases, the binding energy increases
and for xenon in the interstitial position it is > 3 eV. According to
the calculations, the atoms of the inert gases are effective traps also
for self-interstitials. For example, for helium, the binding energy in
a complex with an self-interstitial dumbbell is ~0.5 eV. Calculations
of the interaction of hydrogen or helium atoms with a vacancy show
[59] that for the single atom of hydrogen the most stable position
is directly in the vacant site of the lattice. The configurations of
the stable complexes for two atoms of hydrogen or helium maybe
of two types. The first configuration is a complex in which one of
the atoms of the gases is in a vacancy and the atom occupies the

21
nearest interstitial position. The second stable complex represents
a dumbbell of two solutes of the gases spaced at the same distance
from the vacancy. The calculations show that, being effective traps
for point defects, the atoms of the gases greatly restrict their dif-
fusibility.
Analysis of the diffusion of solutes in the alloys by the vacancy
mechanism is usually carried out on the basis of the multifrequency
theory of vacancy jumps [60, 61]. The theory is based on the model
in which the interaction of the vacancies with the solute atoms is
described within in the framework of the Thomas–Fermi approxi-
mation. The energy of interaction in this case is:

 Z 0 Z1e 2 exp ( − k0 r )

E= (1.8)
r

In equation (1.8) Z0e is the charge of the vacancy regarded as having

the valency equal to the valency of the solvent, Z 1e is the effective
charge of the impurity equal to the difference Z 1|e| = (Z 2–Z0) |e|, where
Z 2 is the valency of the dissolved element. The screening parameter
k 0 has the following form:

1/ 2
a 
k0 = 2.95  0  (1.9)
 rs 

where a0 is the Bohr radius, rs is the radius of the sphere whose volume
relates to a single conductivity electron.
An important parameter of the multifrequency theory of diffusion
is the binding energy of the vacancy with the atom of the solutes
which determines the degree of localisation of the solutes at the vacancy
and, consequently, the efficiency of its diffusion transfer by the vacancy
mechanism. This fact also indicates the importance of accurate evaluation
of the binding energy on the basis of theoretical calculations and
the results of experimental investigations. The fundamentals of the
theory of diffusion of solutes by the vacancy and interstitial mechanisms
are examined in detail in the following chapter of this book.

22
REFERENCES

1 Kirsanov V.V., et al, Processes of radiation defect formation in metals,

Energoizdat, Moscow (1985).
2 Norgett M.J., et al, Nucl. Eng. Design, 33, 50 (1975).
3 Gibson J.B., et al, Phys. Rev., 120, 1229 (1960).
4 Thompson M., Defects and radiation damage in metals, Mir, Moscow (1971).
5 Babaev V.P., et al, Cascades of atomic displacements in metals, Preprint
ITEF-110 (1982), p.40.
6 Ishino S. and Sekimura N., Ann. Chim. Fr., 16, 341 (1991).
7 De la Rubia T.D. and Phythian W.J., J. Nucl. Mater., 191/194, 108 (1992).
8 Kinney J.H., et al, J. Nucl. Mater., 121/122, 1028 (1984).
9 English C.A., et al, Mater. Sci. Forum, 97/99, 1 (1992).
10 De la Rubia T.D. and Guinan M.W., Mater. Sci. Forum, 97/99, 23 (1992).
11 Rehn L.E. and Okamoto P.R., Mater. Sci. Forum, 15/18, 985 (1987).
12 Simons R.L., J. Nucl. Mater., 141/143, 665 (1986).
13 Zinkle S.J., J. Nucl. Mater., 155/157, 1201 (1988).
14 Okamoto P.R., et al, J. Nucl. Mater., 133/134, 373 (1985).
15 Rehn. L.E., J. Nucl. Mater., 174, 144 (1990).
16 Rehn L.E. and Wiedersich H., Mater. Sci. Forum, 97/99, 43 (1992).
17 Tenenbaum A., Phil. Mag., 37, 731 (1978).
18 Tenenbaum A., Rad. Eff., 39, 119 (1978).
19 Naundorf V., et al, J. Nucl. Mater., 186, 227 (1992).
20 Naundorf V., J. Nucl. Mater., 182, 254 (1991).
21 Rehn P.R., et al, Phys. Rev., B30, 3073 (1984).
22 Miller A., et al, Appl. Phys., 64, 3445 (1988).
23 Naundorf V. and Abromeit C., Nucl. Instr. Meth., B43, 513 (1989).
24 Johnston R.A., Phys. Rev., 134, 1329 (1964).
25 Vineyard G.H., Disc. Farad. Soc., No.31, 7 (1961).
26 Johnston R.A. and Brown E., Phys. Rev., 134, 1329 (1964).
27 Jonhston R.A., Phys. Rev., 145, No.2, 423 (1966).
28 Scholz A. and Lehman C., Phys. Rev. B., 6, 1972 (1972).
29 Schroeder K, In: Point Defect Behaviour and Diffusion Processes, Metals
Society, London, 1977.
30 Dederichs P.H., et al, J. Nucl. Mater., 69/70, 176 (1978).
31 Howe L.M. and Swanson M.L., In: Solute–Defect interaction: Theory and
Experiment. Proc. Int. Seminar, Kingston (1985), Toronto (1986).
32 Marangos J., et al, Mater. Sci. Forum, 1, 225 (1987).
33 Kevorkyan U.R., Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 106, 379 (1988).
34 Bullough R. and Perrin R.C., Proc. Roy. Soc. A., 305, 541 (1968).
35 Schober H.R. and Zeller R., J. Nucl. Mater., 69/70, 341 (1978).
36 Ingle K.W., et al, J. Phys. F: Metal. Phys., 11, 1161 (1981).
37 Vasil'ev A.A. and Mizandrontsev D.B., Pis'ma Zhurn. Eksper. i Teor. Fiziki,
16, No.13, 45 (1990).
38 Ivanov L.I., et al, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 64, 771 (1974).
39 Bartels A., et al, J. Nucl. Mater., 83, 24 (1979).
40 Lam N.Q., et al, J. Phys. F: Metal Phys., 10, 2359 (1980).
41 Lam N.Q., et al, J. Phys. F: Metal Phys., 11, 2231 (1981).
42 Doan N.V., et al, In: Point defects and defect interactions in metals, To-
kyo Univ. Press, Tokyo (1982), p.372.

23
43 Takamura S., et al, J. Phys: Condens. Mater., 1, 4519 (1989).
44 Takamura S., et al, J. Phys: Condens. Mater., 1, No.1, 4527 (1989).
45 Robrok K.G., In: Phase transformations under radiation, Metallurgiya,
Chelyabinsk (1989).
46 King H.W., J. Mater. Sci., 1, 79 (1966).
47 Mauri F., et al, In: Point defects and defect interactions in metals, Tokyo
University Press, Tokyo (1982), p.383.
48 Ivanov L.I., et al, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 69, K33 (1975).
49 Dworshak, F., et al, J. Phys. F: Metal. Phys., 8, No.7, L153 (1978).
50 Swanson M.L. and Howe L.M., Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res., 218,
613 (1983).
51 Bartels A., et al, J. Phys. F: Metal. Phys., 12, No.11, 2483 (1982).
52 Tokamura S. and Kobiyama M., Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 90, No.1, 269 (1985).
53 Properties of atomic defects in metals, J. Nucl. Mater., 69/70, 856 (1978).
54 Point defects and defect interactions in metals, Tokyo Univ. Press, Tokyo
(1982), p.991.
55 Vacancies and interstitials in metals and alloys, Mater. Sci. Forum, 15/18,
1442 (1987).
56 Klemradt U., et al, Phys. Rev. B., 43, No.12, 9487 (1991).
57 Masuda K., in ref. 53, p.105.
58 Baskes M.I., et al, J. Nucl. Mater., 83, No.1, 139 (1979).
59 Whitmore M.D. and Carbotte J.P., J. Phys. F: Metal. Phys., 9, No.4, 629
(1979).
60 Le Claire A.D.: in ref.53, p.70.
61 Le Claire A.D., Phil. Mag., 21, No.172, 819 (1970).

24
 Chapter 2

DIFFUSION PROPERTIES OF POINT DEFECTS

AND SOLUTES IN PURE METALS AND
ALLOYS

2.1. INTRODUCTION

The diffusion properties of point defects and solutes have a controlling

effect on the special features of structural-phase changes and the
efficiency of radiation damage of metallic materials. The currently
diffusion considerations will be used many times in a number of chapters
of this book for describing the individual mechanisms and for
interpretating the experimental data. The basis for this is a brief ana-
lytical preview of the corresponding theoretical assumptions, pre-
sented in this chapter, and published in a number of monographs and
original particles. The review also contains the essential experimental
data. When examining this problem, special attention is given to dif-
fusion mechanisms based on the migration of self-interstitial and mixed
dumbbell configurations of interstitials because this mechanisms in
comparison with, for example, vacancy mechanisms, have been studied
far more extensively in the scientific literature and, basically, have
been published only in the original or review articles.

2.2. DIFFUSION IN PURE METALS AND ALLOYS BY THE

INTERSTITIAL DUMBBELL MECHANISM

The migration of a stable dumbbell <100> in an impurity FCC lattice

is a sequence of elementary jumps with a saddle octahedral configu-
ration. The transitions of the dumbbell from one stable position to
the nearest following stable position is accompanied by a change
of its initial orientation by 90°. In pure metals, the diffusion mo-

25
 FCC metals

BCC metals

Fig. 2.1. Dependence of migration temperature of self-interstitial dumbbell configuration

T I in cubic metals on Debye temperature T D [7].

bility of interstitials is very high and greatly exceeds the mobility

of vacancies.
Theoretical estimates and experimental results for the annealing
of radiation defects at temperatures of recovery stage I for the energy
of migration of self-interstitial dumbbells in the FCC and BCC metals
give typical values in the range 0.05–0.2 eV [1–5]. The values are
considerably lower than the energy of migration of the vacancies
in pure metals which, for example, for aluminium, copper and tungsten
are equal to 0.62, 0.70 and 1.7 eV [6].
In [7], on the basis of analysis of the experimental data for the
annealing of radiation defects in a number of metals, the authors
established a correlation between the migration temperature of self-
interstitials (a dumbbell consisting of two atoms of the solvent) T I
and Debye temperature T D (Fig. 2.1). These dependences, which in
[7] are analysed on the basis of special features of the phonon spectra
of the examined materials and vibrational modes of defects, are ap-
proximated in the case of the FCC and BCC metals by the following
equations:

TI ( FCC ) = 0.14 TD , TI (BCC) = 0.075 TD (2.1)

The solutes greatly modify the migration mechanisms of dumb-

bells and decrease the diffusion mobility of the interstitials both as

26
a result of the formation of less mobile mixed dumbbells (for ele-
ments with ∆V < 0) and as a result of periodic capture of self-interstitials
of elements both with ∆V < 0 and ∆V > 0.
The model which can be used, using the results in [8], for nu-
merical estimation of the mobility of interstitials and solutes in diluted
solid solutions with FCC lattices by the dumbbell mechanism, has
been proposed in [9]. The model is based on the method of Lidiard
complexes [10, 11] and on assumptions regarding the complexes of
the type a and b [8, 12]. The complexes of type a represent a con-
figuration of an self-interstitial dumbbell with an atom of the dis-
solved element which may transform into a mixed dumbbell during
migration of the self-interstitial dumbbell. In a complex of type b,
the self-interstitial dumbbell prior to dissociation may only migrate
in the vicinity of the impurity without forming a mixed dumbbell.
Evidently, this process does not lead to the transfer of the solutes.
Within the framework of the model [8], the formation of complexes
of the type a and b is characteristic for undersized and oversized
solutes, respectively (see section 1.3).
The authors of [9] obtained equations for calculating the coef-
ficient of diffusion of dumbbells D i (c B) and the coefficients of dif-
fusibility of solutes by the interstitial mechanism in an infinitely
diluted D i B (0) and a diluted solid solution D i B (c B ). The following
characteristic frequencies were used in these calculations:
ω 0 – the frequency of jumps of a self-interstitial dumbbell con-
figuration, including the displacement of the dumbbell with the variation
of its orientation by 90°;
ω1 and ω1' – the frequency of rotation of the self-interstitial dumbbell
around the atoms of impurities in the complexes a and b, respec-
tively;
ω 2 ' – the frequency of formation of a mixed dumbbell;
ω 2 – the frequency of dissociation of a mixed dumbbell;
ω 3 and ω 3 ' – the frequency of dissociation of the complexes of
type a and b;
ω 4 and ω 4 ' – the frequency of formation of complexes of type a
and b;
ω i – the frequency of retention of the mixed dumbbell;
ω R – the frequency of variation of the orientation of the mixed
dumbbell by 90°. The equation for the diffusion coefficient of the
dumbbells in a diluted alloy has the following form [9]:

27
 Di (1 + βi cB ) + K pa γ pa cB
Di (cB ) = (2.2)
1 + K i cB

In equation (2.2), the coefficient of diffusion of the dumbbells

in a pure solvent D i is:

Di = 0.44λ i2 ω0 (2.3)

where λ i is the length of a elementary jump of the dumbbell.

The equations for the coefficients of diffusion mobility of ele-
ment B in an infinitely diluted alloy and in the A–B alloy with the
composition c B have the following form [9]:

DiB ( 0 ) = K pa Dpa (2.4)

K pa D pa (1 + K i cB ) + 2σi Di K i cB
DiB ( cB ) = (2.5)
1 + K i cB

The values of β i , K pa , γ pa , K i and σ i in equations (2.2), (2.4) and

(2.5) are functions of frequencies ω k and ω k' (k = 0,1,...) [9], examined
previously.
Figure 2.2 shows the resultant numerical calculations carried out
in [9] of the coefficients D i(c B) and DiB (cB) in a diluted alloy of copper
with 1 at% of the solutes and coefficient D iB(0) in an infinitely diluted
alloy at a temperature of 300 °C in relation to the value of the parameter
of dimensional mismatch ε. The frequencies ω 2 and ω R were esti-
mated using the dependence E Bmd (ε) from [8], shown in Fig. 1.6. Other
required frequencies were also calculated on the basis of the results
of [8].
From the dependences, presented in Fig. 2.2, it follows that:
1. The mobility of interstitials in the dumbbell configuration decreases
with an increase of the absolute value of the dilation volume of the
dissolved element, with the largest increase recorded for the impurities
with ∆V < 0.
2. In an infinitely diluted alloy, the diffusion mobility of elements
with ∆V > 0 decreases with an increase of the dimensional mismatch
in comparison with the diffusion mobility of the solvent, and in the
case of ∆V < 0 it increases. For a diluted alloy, the nature of the

28
 M 2 , s –2
–

Fig. 2.2 . Variation of diffusion coefficients D i (0), D iB (c B ) [9] and D ie (c B ) in

a diluted alloy of copper in relation to the mismatch parameter ε .

dependence for ε > 0 does not change. For solutes with ε < 0, the
dependence theD i B (c B) is non-monotonic; with increasing |ε| diffu-
sion mobility initially increases, reaches the maximum value and then
decreases.
The model proposed in [9] can be used for the quantitative cal-
culations of the diffusion parameters if we know the corresponding
interaction potentials, required for estimating the frequencies ω k and
ω k '. The approximate estimation of the diffusion mobility of the
interstitials and vacancies in the diluted solid solutions is obtained
usually using the expressions for the effective diffusion coefficients.
The considerations regarding the effective diffusion coefficients
e
D v,i are based on the mechanism of periodic capture of migrating defects
by impurity traps with the formation of complexes and their sub-
sequent dissociation. It may be shown that for the case in which the
recombination of the interstitials and vacancies on deffect–impurity
complexes plays no significant role, the expression for D ev,i has the
following form (see, for example, [13]):

Dv ,i
Dve,i =
1 + 4πrtv ,i ctv ,i exp ( EvB,i / kT ) (2.6)

In contrast to the accurate expressions being the function of several

frequencies, equation (2.6) contains actually only one unknown pa-

29
rameter, i.e. the binding energy of point defects and solutes EBv,i which
can be determined from the experiments.
Using equation (2.6), it is possible to determine, in relation to
the mismatch parameter, the effective mobility of interstitials in a
diluted copper alloy with 1 at% of solutes at 300 °C in order to compare
with the results of numerical calculations carried out by A. Barbu
[9]. For quantity E iB in equation (2.6) we shall accept, in accord-
ance with the data in [8], the values of the binding energy in a mixed
dumbbell (for impurities with ∆V < 0) and the binding energy in the
complexes of type b (for impurities with ∆V > 0).
The comparison of D i(cB) and Die(cB) (Fig. 2.2) shows that the agree-
ment of the results of the calculations obtained using the equations
(2.2) and (2.6) is highly satisfactory. Evidently, the small quanti-
tative difference is associated with the simplified approximation of
E i B by the selected interaction energies.
In transition to concentrated alloys, the effective mobility of the
interstitials greatly decreases in comparison with pure metals and
diluted solid solutions. This is shown clearly in a number of inves-
tigations, including examination of the kinetics of buildup and and
annealing of defects at temperatures of the recovery stages II and
III by the method of measuring electrical resistance in silver-zinc,
silver–palladium, palladium–silver [14, 15] and iron–chromium-nickel
[16, 17] alloys, radiation-enhanced diffusion in silver–zinc [18] and
copper–nickel [19] alloys, and structural changes in
aluminium–zinc [20, 21] and silver–zinc [18, 22] alloys in electron
irradiation in a high-voltage microscope.
In [14, 15] a large decrease of the mobility of interstitials results
in complete suppression of the mutual recombination of defects in
the process of irradiation and annealing of defects at temperatures
of the second recovery stage.
For Fe–16Cr–20Ni alloy, with a composition similar to the com-
position of the matrix solid solution of steel 316, the energy of migration
of interstitials according to the experimental data in [16] is ~0.9 eV.
This value is considerably higher than the energy of migration of
interstitials in pure iron and nickel (~0.3 eV [2,23] and 0.15 eV [2],
respectively). The relatively high energies of migration of interstitials
were also recorded for Ag–8.75 at% Zn alloy (E im > 0.46 eV for tem-
peratures higher than 90 °C) [18] and Cu–44 at% Ni alloy (E im =
0.48 eV) [19].
High energies of the migration of interstitials were also deter-
mined for concentrated alloys Fe–18.5Mn–7.5Cr (0.7 eV) and Fe–
7Mn–4.5Si–6.5Cr (1.1 eV) in examination of the nucleation of dis-

30
location loops in the process of electron irradiation in a high-voltage
microscope [24].
The authors of [14, 15] proposed a hypothesis according to which
a large decrease of the mobility of interstitials in concentrated al-
loys is associated with a high probability of the repeated capture
of the interstitials by the solute atoms after dissociation of a de-
fect–impurity complex. Within the framework of these considera-
tions, according to the results of theoretical investigations [24], it
is possible to explain completely the main relationships of the ki-
netics of buildup of radiation defects in pure metals, diluted and con-
centrated alloys at temperatures of recovery stages II, associated with
a decrease of the effective mobility of interstitials.
Attention will be also given to the main results of theoretical in-
vestigations carried out by Bocquet [26–28] which make it possi-
ble to interpret qualitatively a number of experimental special features,
associated with the diffusion mobility of interstitials in alloys. The
theory is based on a simple two-frequency model in which the dumbbells
of the type A–A and B–B migrate with frequency ω R . For an self-
interstitial dumbbell A–A, this frequency is also the frequency of
capture of the dumbbell by the atoms of the dissolved element B
resulting in its transformation into a mixed dumbbell A–B. The mixed
dumbbell may dissociate with frequency ω L < ω R. In the schema, the
frequencies ω L and ω R are evidently linked by the relationship:

ωR
θ= = exp ( E AB
B
/ kT ) (2.7)
ωL

B
where E AB is the binding energy of the mixed dumbbell A–B.
Figure 2.3 shows the results of numerical calculations of the ratio
D i (c B )/D i (0) for different θ = ω R /ω L in relation to c B [27].
Figure 2.3 shows that when ω L <<ω R , the mobility of interstitials
in the alloy rapidly decreases. In the limit, the interstitial may be
situated in a trap of atoms B, surrounded by the atoms A, and, con-
sequently, its migration over large distances becomes almost impossible.
The concentrations of the dumbbells A–A, A–B, and B–B at the
total concentration of the interstitials in the alloy A–B, being c i , with
the framework of the models [26, 28] are equal to respectively:
2
 cA 
cAA = ci PAA = ci   (2.8)
 c A + cB θ 

31
Fig. 2.3. Variation of D i (c B )/D i (0) ratio in relation to the concentration of solute
c B for different values of parameter θ [26–28].

cB θ
c AB = ci PAB = ci
( c A + cB θ ) (2.9)
2

2
 cB θ 
cBB = ci PBB = ci   (2.10)
 c A + cB θ 

PAA + 2 PAB + PBB = 1 (2.11)

The equations (2.7)–(2.10) show that at relatively high irradia-

tion temperatures the course of different structural–phase transitions
in solid solutions is controlled mainly by diffusion reactions in which
the dumbbells of the type A–A take part. With a decrease in tem-
perature and increasing concentration, the relative probabilities of
formation of the dumbbells of the type A–B and B–B (in compari-
son with A–A) continuously increase which also increases the fraction
of their participation in different diffusion reactions, including in
the general flux of the interstitials to sinks. In this case, as a re-
sult of the preferential departure of the interstitials to sinks in the
form of the dumbbells A–B and B–B, the tendency for the instability
of the solid solution with respect to the chemical and phase com-
position, including the formation of segregation zones in the vicinity
of the sinks, becomes stronger.

32
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
get enough of that at five cents per glass. If it was abundant in the
saloons across State Street immediately after a beer wagon had
discharged its cargo, the price was five cents; as it became scarcer
the price rose to ten cents, and then to the famine price of fifteen
cents. As the price rose we endured parched throats as best we
could until reports reached us of a renewed supply of the beverage
when, regardless of the demands of business, there would be a rush
of officials and clerks alike to take advantage of the abundance and
normal price to quench our, by that time, consuming thirst.
Before dark I was excused from duty and walked through the five or
more miles of ruins to my previous night’s refuge. Preparations to
leave were being made by all the people who had not already gone.
Two of us before midnight came down to the Chicago and North
Western Railway station at Wells and Kinzie Streets. It was an eerie
walk down Lincoln Avenue to Wells, thence south to the station, over
three miles. The night was pitch dark. Most of the distance on Wells
Street south of Wisconsin Street had been built up with frame
cottages. The street was several feet above the natural surface of
the lots. The owners had laid in their winter’s supply of anthracite,
then substantially the only coal used for domestic heating and
cooking. Each of those coal piles had taken fire and was burning.
There were many hundreds of them. The intense blackness of the
night, the heat from the burning coal, the blue flames now bursting
into little spurts of red, the crackling of the coal as lumps were
splitting up, the unexpected glare of a sudden high spurt of red fire,
the complete silence except the noises referred to, the absence of
any other human beings in the entire distance traversed, made a
nearly speechless walk as well as a fearful one, and I, at least, had
the feeling that the fires of hell were about us and the imps of Satan
waiting amidst them for unwary victims. Could Dante have
experienced such a night he might have added further terrors to his
Inferno. Our relief was intense when we boarded the train for a
nearby suburban town, and as fire sufferers were given a free ride.
The next morning found me back at my temporary desk with old
Chicago only a memory, but with high hopes for the new and greater
Chicago which every ambitious young man was already convinced
would surely rise out of the ashes of the old one. Looking backward
over the past half century, we see that those hopes have been more
than justified, and that the city of today with its motto, “I Will,”
exceeds in accomplishments the visions of its then most enthusiastic
prophets of future greatness.
FRANK J. LOESCH
10 South La Salle Street, Chicago, October 12, 1925.

FOOTNOTE:
[1] Read before The Chicago Literary Club, Oct. 12, 1925.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PERSONAL
EXPERIENCES DURING THE CHICAGO FIRE, 1871 ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying
copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of
Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything
for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund
from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law
in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated
with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this
agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached
full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the
terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears,
or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning
of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebooknice.com