GREENHOUSE CULTIVATION

1. Designs and classifica on of greenhouse

2. Orienta on Of Greenhouse / Polyhouse
3. Components of green house
4. Plant growing structures/containers in green house produc on
5. Environmental factors influencing greenhouse cul va on
6. Media prepara on and fumiga on
7. Drip irriga on and fer ga on systems greenhouse cul va on
8. Cost es ma on for green/polyhouse construc on
9. Problem management in greenhouse cul va on
10. Special hor cultural prac ces in greenhouse produc on
11. Physiological disorders of greenhouse grown cut flowers Carna o
12. Post harvest handling prac ces for cut flowers

1. Designs and classifica on of greenhouse

Greenhouses are frames of inflated structure covered with a transparent material in which
crops are grown under controlled environment condi ons. Greenhouse cul va on as well as
other modes of controlled environment cul va on have been evolved to create favorable
micro-climates, which favours the crop produc on could be possible all through the year or
part of the year as required. Greenhouses and other technologies for controlled
environment plant produc on are associated with the off-season produc on of ornamentals
and foods of high value in cold climate areas where outdoor produc on is not possible. The
primary environmental parameter tradi onally controlled is temperature, usually providing
heat to overcome extreme cold condi ons. However, environmental control can also include
cooling to mi gate excessive temperatures, light control either shading or adding
supplemental light, carbon dioxide levels, rela ve humidity, water, plant nutrients and pest
control.

Classifica on of greenhouse based on suitability and cost

a) Low cost or low tech greenhouse
Low cost greenhouse is a simple structure constructed with locally available materials such
as bamboo, mber etc. The ultra violet (UV) film is used as cladding materials. Unlike
conven onal or hi-tech greenhouses, no specific control device for regula ng environmental
parameters inside the greenhouse are provided. Simple techniques are, however, adopted
for increasing or decreasing the temperature and humidity. Even light intensity can be
reduced by incorpora ng shading materials like nets. The temperature can be reduced
during summer by opening the side walls. Such structure is used as rain shelter for crop
cul va on. Otherwise, inside temperature is increased when all sidewalls are covered with
plas c film. This type of greenhouse is mainly suitable for cold clima c zone.
b) Medium-tech greenhouse
Greenhouse users prefers to have manually or semiautoma c control arrangement owing to
minimum investment. This type of greenhouse is constructed using galvanized iron (G.I)
pipes. The canopy cover is a ached with structure with the help of screws. Whole structure
is firmly fixed with the ground to withstand the disturbance against wind. Exhaust fans with
thermostat are provided to control the temperature. Evapora ve cooling pads and mis ng
arrangements are also made to maintain a favourable humidity inside the greenhouse. As
these system are semi-automa c, hence, require a lot of a en on and care, and it is very
difficult and cumbersome to maintain uniform environment throughout the cropping period.
These greenhouses are suitable for dry and composite clima c zones.

c) Hi-tech greenhouse
To overcome some of the difficul es in medium-tech greenhouse, a hi-tech greenhouse
where the en re device, controlling the environment parameters, are supported to func on
automa cally.

Cost involved
1. Less expensive greenhouse without fan and pad Rs.300 to 500/m2

2. Medium cost greenhouse with pad and fan system Rs.800 to Rs.1100/m2
without automa on

3. Expensive greenhouses with fully automa c Rs.2000 to Rs.3500/m2

control system

Other classifica ons

The greenhouse can also be classified based on type of structures, type of glazing, number
of spans, environmental control etc. The various types are as follows.

Classifica on as per type of structure

a. Quonset type
b. Curved roof type
c. Gable roof type

Classifica on as per glazing

a. Glass glazing
b. Fiberglass reinforced plas c glazing
i. Plain sheet
ii. Corrugated sheet
c. Plas c film
i. Ultra violet stabilized low density poly ethylene
ii. Silpaulin
Classifica on based on number of spans
a. Free standing or single span
b. Mul span or ridge and furrow or gu er connected

Classifica on based on environmental control

a. Naturally ven lated
b. Passive ven la on

Poly house
The crops grown in open field are exposed to vivid environmental condi ons, a ack of
insects and pests, whereas the polyhouse provides a more stable environment. Polyhouse
can be divided in to two types
a) Naturally ven lated polyhouse
These polyhouse do not have any environmental control system except for the provision of
adequate ven la on and fogger system to prevent basically the damage from weather
aberra ons and other natural agents..

b) Environmental controlled polyhouse

This type of polyhouse helps to extend the growing season or permits off-season produc on
by way of controlling light, temperature, humidity, carbon-dioxide level and nature of root
medium.

Carna on under high-tech greenhouse

Shade house
Shadehouses are used for the produc on of plants in warm climates or during summer
months. Nurserymen use these structures for the growth of hydrangeas and azaleas during
the summer months. Apart from nursery, flowers and foliages which require shade can also
be grown in shadehouses. E.g. Orchids, These shade structures make excellent holding areas
for field-grown stock while it is being prepared for shipping to retail outlets. Shadehouses
are most o en constructed as a pole-supported structure and covered with either lath
(lathhouses) or polypropylene shade fabric. Polypropylene shadenets with various
percentages of ven la ons are used. Black, green, and white coloured nets are used, while
black colours are the most preferred as it retains heat outside.

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2. Orienta on of greenhouse / polyhouse

The design of greenhouse should be based upon sound scien fic principles which facilitates
controlled environment for the plant growth. Controlled environment plant produc on
systems are used widely throughout the world to produce plant materials and products at a
me or place, or of a quality that can not be obtained outdoors. Controlled environment
agriculture requires far more capital investment per unit area than field agriculture and thus
must essen ally be correspondingly more intensive to jus fy investment costs. The
greenhouse is a structure covered with a transparent material for admi ng natural light for
plant growth. The main components of greenhouse like structure, covering/glazing and
temperature control systems need proper design for healthy growth of plants.
Under Indian condi ons, Quonset type, mul span greenhouse is most suitable, because of
its low cost and ease of fabrica on. Ultra violet resistant low density polyethylene (UVLDPE)
single film cladding of 200 micron thickness is sufficient for Naturally Ven lated ( NV)
greenhouse and fan and pad (FP) greenhouses. This should be fully ghtened by stretching
on the structure to avoid fluter and tearing. It should not be nailed or screwed to the
structure as it gives the chance for tearing. The T-Lock of LLock should be used for fastening
the sheet at structure, as this does not tear the sheet and sheet replacement is easy.

Design
The structure has to carry the following loads and is to be designed accordingly.
a) Dead load: weight of all permanent construc on, cladding, hea ng and cooling
equipment, water pipes and all fixed service equipments to the frame.

b) Live load: weights superimposed by use (include hanging baskets, shelves and persons
working on roof). The greenhouse has to be designed for a maximum of 15 kg per square
meter live load. Each member of roof should be capable of suppor ng 45 kg of concentrated
load when applied at its centre.

c) Wind load: The structure should be able to withstand winds of 110 kilometer per hour
and at least 50 kg per square meter of wind pressure.

d) Snow load: These are to be taken as per the average snowfall of the loca on
The greenhouse should be able to take dead load plus live load or dead load plus wind load
plus half the live load.
The greenhouses are to be fabricated out of Galvanized Iron Pipes. The founda on can be
60cmx60cmx60cm or 30 cm diameter and one meter depth in PCC of 1:4:8 ra o. The ver cal
poles should also be covered to the height of 60 cm by PCC with a thickness of 5cm. This
avoids the rus ng of the poles.

Orienta on
Orienta on of the greenhouse is a compromise for wind direc on, la tude of loca on and
type of temperature control. Single greenhouses with la tude above 40°N should have ridge
running east to west to allow low angle light to enter from side rather than ends. Below
40°N the ridge of single greenhouses should be oriented from north to south, since the
angle of sun is much higher. This orienta on permits the movement of shadow of the gu er
across the green house. The loca on and orienta on of the greenhouse should avoid falling
of shadow on the adjacent greenhouses. To avoid the shading effect from one green house
to another greenhouse these should be oriented East to West. However, the wind direc on
and la tude are also to be considered.

Wind effects
If the greenhouse is naturally ven lated, the advantage of natural wind direc on has to be
taken to the maximum possible. The maximum dimension (length) of greenhouse should be
perpendicular to the wind direc on especially in summer. For fan and pad greenhouse the
natural wind direc on should be same as the air blown by fan.

Size of the greenhouse

The dimension of NAV GH should not be more than 50m x 50m. Bigger the greenhouse,
more will be the temperature build up due to poor ven la on. The length of evapora vely
cooled greenhouse should not be more than 60m.

Spacing between greenhouses

The spacing between naturally ven lated green house should be 10 to 15 m so that the
exhaust from one greenhouse should not enter the adjacent greenhouse.

Height of greenhouse
The maximum height can be up to 5m for 50m x 50m green house and this can be reduced
as per the reduced size of the green house. Higher is the greenhouse more is the wind load
for structure and glazing. The side ven la on can be of 2 m width and roof ven la on is 1m
in width.

Structural design
The greenhouses are to be designed for necessary safety, serviceability, general structural
integrity and suitability. The structure should be able to take all the necessary dead, live,
wind and snow loads. The founda on, columns and trusses are to be designed accordingly.
The greenhouse structures are to be designed to take up the loads as per design loads
prescribed by the Na onal Greenhouse Manufactures Associa on (NGMA of USA) standards
–1994.
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3. Components of greenhouse

Roof: transparent cover of a green house.

Gable: transparent wall of a green house

Cladding material: transparent material mounted on the walls and roof of a green house.

Rigid cladding material: cladding material with such a degree of rigidity that any deforma on of
the structure may result in damage to it. Ex. Glass

Flexible cladding material: cladding material with such a degree of flexibility that any
deforma on of the structure will not result in damage to it. Ex. Plas c film

Gu er: collects and drains rain water and snow which is place at an elevated level between two
spans.

Column: ver cal structure member carrying the green house structure Covering polyho
Purlin: a member who connects cladding suppor ng bars to the columns

Ridge: highest horizontal sec on in top of the roof

Girder: horizontal structure member, connec ng columns on gu er height

Bracings: To support the structure against wind

Arches: Member suppor ng covering materials

Founda on pipe: Connec on between the structure and ground

Span width: Center to center distance of the gu ers in mul span houses

Green house length: dimension of the green house in the direc on of gable

Green house width: dimension of the green house in the direc on of the gu er Covering polyho
Covering polyhouse with cladding material stage – Covering polyhouse with cladding material stage – Covering
III IV V

Covering polyhouse with cladding material stage – VI

Greenhouse ready for takingup

Cladding material
Polythene proves to be an economical cladding material. Now long las ng, unbreakable and
light roofing panels-UV stabilized clear fiber glass and polycarbonate panels are available.
Plas cs are used in tropical and sub-tropical areas compared to glass/fiberglass owing to
their economical feasibility. Plas cs create enclosed ecosystems for plant growth. LDPE (low
density polyethylene) / LLDPE (linear low density polyethylene) will last for 3-4 years
compared to polythene without UV stabilizers.

Comparison of different kinds of covering materials

Transmission
Sl. Type Durability Maintenance
Light Heat
No.
 1. Poly ethylene One year 90% 70% Very high

2. Poly ethylene UV resistant Two years 90% 70% High

3. Fiber Glass Seven years 90% 5% Low

4. Tedlar coated Fiber Glass Fi een years 90% 5% Low

5. Double strength Glass Fi y years 90% 5% Low

6. Poly carbonate Fi y years 90% 5% Very low

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4. Plant growing structures / containers in greenhouse produc on

The dura on of crop in greenhouse is the key to make the greenhouse technology profitable
or the dura on of produc on in greenhouses should be short. In this context, use of
containers in greenhouse produc on assumes greater significance. The containers are used
for the following ac vi es in greenhouse produc on.
• Raising of seedlings in the nursery
• Growing plants in greenhouses for hybrid seed produc on of flowers
• Growing plants for cu lower produc on.
• Growing po ed ornamental plants.

Advantages of containers in greenhouse produc on

• Increase in produc on capacity by reducing crop me.
• High quality of the greenhouse product
 • Uniformity in plant growth with good vigour.
• Provide quick take off with li le or no transplan ng shock.
• Easy maintenance of sanita on in greenhouse
• Easy to handle, grade and shi or for transporta on.
• Be er water drainage and aera on in pot media.
• Easy to monitor chemical characteris cs and plant nutri on with advanced
irriga on systems like drips.

Advantages and disadvantages of plant growing containers

Containers Advantages Disadvantages

Clay pot Low cost Slow to work with pots and dry out fast
Easy water management They are heavy to handle

Fiber block Easy to handle Slow root penetra on

Short life

Fiber tray Minimum use of space Hard to handle when wet

Single peat No media prepara on Requires individual handling Limited sizes can
Pallet Low storage be handled
requirement

Prespaced No media prepara on

Peat pallet Limited to small sizes

Single peat Good root penetra on Difficult to separate

Pot Easy to handle in field

Available (square /
round) in large sizes

Strip peat pot Good root penetra on Slow to separate

Protrays Easy to handle Reusable May be limited in sizes

Plas c pack Easy to handle Roots may grow out of

container

Plas c pot Reusable Requires handling as single plant

Good root penetra on

Polyurethane Easy to handle Requires Requires regular fer liza on

foam less medium Reusable

Soil band Good root penetra on Requires extensive labour

 Soil block Excellent root Expensive machinery
penetra on

Perforated Easy to handle Requires regular fer ga on

Plas c tray Requires less medium Roots may grow out of the container
Available in many sizes
reusable

Perforated Less expensive Less durable

Polyethylene Reusable bags Requires less storage space

Selec on of suitable containers depends upon the crop to be produced in greenhouse, plant
characteris cs like crop stage, dura on, vigour, growth habit, root system, etc. Generally
long dura on, deep rooted and vigorous crop plants require bigger containers compared to
short dura on, shallow and less vigorous ones. The containers provide op mum condi on
for germina on of seed and growth and development of transplants.

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5. Environmental factors influencing greenhouse cul va on

Plants need an op mum temperature for maximum yield and quality. The greenhouses in
plain and coastal region of India needs cooling. The greenhouses in mild climates and coastal
region can be naturally ven lated. The greenhouses for hot summer climates of northern
plains have to evapora vely cooled or with fan and pad (FP). The greenhouses for northern
plains may require both cooling and hea ng depending on the crop.

Natural ven la on
The greenhouse has to be thoroughly ven lated for control of temperature. It should be
no ced that the temperature built up in the greenhouse is not exceeding 2°C throughout
the year. Further during hot months the temperature in the greenhouse was same as the
ambient temperature.

Unconven onal method of hea ng and cooling

a) Hot and cold water can be sprinkled on the greenhouse covered externally with
the shadenet
b) Use of earth tunnel for cooling in summer and hea ng in winter
c) Construc on of greenhouse in a trench for hea ng in winter cooling in summer
d) Circula ng the borewell water in pipes laid on the floor of the greenhouse

Hea ng of greenhouse
The hea ng of greenhouses in cold climates like winter in North India or
Himalayan Region at high al tudes is advisable for ge ng be er produce. Double
covering of glazing with an air cushion of 2 cm to 10 cm reduces the hea ng load
considerably.

Hea ng systems
These can be of the following types
a. Boiler
1. With hot water tube
2. With steam pipes
b. Unit heaters
c. Infrared heaters
d. Solar heaters

Boiler
This system is used for very big greenhouses and is a centralized system of hea ng. The
boiler of necessary capacity is provided in the greenhouse. The fuel for boiler can be coal or
fuel oil. The hea ng of the greenhouse is generally done through hot water at 85°C or steam
at 102°C. Water or steam pipes are installed above the beds of crop and along the side wall.
The steam system is cheaper than hot water system. To reduce the length of pipe to be used
a number of hot water or steam pipe coils can be used and green house air circulated over
them by blower for hea ng.

Unit heaters
These are localized system of hea ng and a number of unit heaters are to be provided in the
greenhouse at a height of about 3 meter to distribute heat evenly in the greenhouse. In a
unit heater the fuel is combusted in the chamber at bo om. Hot fumes rise inside the heat
exchanger tubes, giving heat to the walls of the tubes. Smoke exists at the top. A fan forces
cool air of the greenhouse over the outside of heat exchange tubes, where it picks up heat.

Infra-red heaters
The fuel gas (LPG) is burnt and the fumes at a temperature of about 480°C are passed in 10
cm diameter pipes kept overhead at a height of 1.5m above plants. Reflectors are provided
over the full length of pipe to radiate the infra red rays over the plants. The plants and soil
only get heated without much hea ng of air. The infra red hea ng pipes can be provided at 6
to 10 meters interval all along the length of greenhouse. The temperature of fume gases at
exist is about 65°C and exhaust fan is provided for maintaining the flow of fumes.

Solar hea ng
Flat plate solar heaters are used to heat the water during day me. The hot water is stored
in the insulated tanks. The hot water is circulated in pipes provided along the length of the
greenhouse during night. Supplementary or emergency hea ng systems are provided for
hea ng the greenhouse during cloudy or rainy days.

Environmental control
Temperature control
The thermostat can be coupled to water circula ng pump or exhaust fan for controlling the
temperature inside the greenhouse. However, the lowest achievable temperature in fan and
pad greenhouse is not below the wet bulb temperature in any case.

Rela ve humidity control

The humidistat coupled to water circula ng pump or exhaust fan to control the rela ve
humidity inside the fan and pad greenhouse. The maximum achievable rela ve humidity is
90% only in fan regulated (FR) greenhouse. The RH in Non ven lated (NV) GH can be
increased by providing foggers.

Light intensity control

In certain areas where natural illumina on is absent or very low, illumina on for plants may
be provided by ar ficial sources. Incandescent bulbs generate excessive heat and are
unsa sfactory in most instances. Fluorescent tubes are useful as the sole source of light for
African violets, gloxinias and many foliage plants which grow sa sfactorily at low light
intensi es. Excessive light intensity destroys chlorophyll even though the synthesis of this
green pigment in many plants is dependent upon light. Chrysanthemum is a classic example
for a short-day plant., however, flower buds will not form unless the night temperature is
high enough. Chrysanthemum is flowered on a year-round basis as a cut flower or po ed
plant simply by controlling the length of day and temperature.

Quality of light
Quality of light refers to its wave-length composi on. Light in the orange-red por on of the
visible spectrum from either sunlight or ar ficial illumina on is most effec ve in causing the
long-day response in plants. Far-red radia on appears to have the opposite effect. It is
probable that the wave lengths ac vate some hormonal mechanism within the plant which
brings about the specific effect of light on growth or flowering.

Fan and pad

Selec on of fan
The fans should deliver the required air at 15mm sta c pressure. The maximum center to
center spacing between the tow fans should be of 7.5m. The height of the fans is to be
determined based on the plant height which is proposed to be grown in the greenhouse.
The fan blades and frame are to be made of non-corrosive materials like aluminium/stainless
steel.

Design
The cross fluted cellulose pad is preferred. These are available mostly in 100mm thickness.
One meter of pad height is given for every 20m of pad to fan distance. How ever, the fan to
pad distance should not exceed 60m. The air flow rate should be of 75 cubic
meter/minute/sq.m of pad. The water flow rate should be of 9 litres per minute/linear
meter pad. The uniform distribu on of water on pad is to be maintained.
Maintenance of pad
The algae will grow and salts will deposit on pads if these are not maintained properly. Good
control of algae can be obtained without using chemicals by the following methods.
1. By shading the pads and sumps
2. By drying the pads daily
3. By avoiding nutrient contamina on
4. By draining and disinfec ng the sump regularly
5. By replenishing 20% of circula ng water each me to avoid scaling of minerals.

Maintenance of fan
1. The lubrica on of bearings should be done regularly
2. The v belt should be ghtened as per requirement
3. The levers should be properly lubricated.

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6. Media prepara on and fumiga on

Soil mixes used for greenhouse produc on of po ed plants and cut flowers are highly
modified mixtures of soil, organic and inorganic materials. When top soil is included as a
por on of the mixture, it is generally combined with other materials to improve the water
holding capacity and aera on of the po ng soil. Many greenhouses do not use topsoil as an
addi ve to the soil mixes, but rather use a combina on of these organic and inorganic
components as an ar ficial soil mix. When managed properly as to watering and fer liza on
prac ces, these ar ficial mixes grow crops that are equal to those grown in top soil.

Media prepara on for greenhouse produc on

The media used in greenhouse generally have physical and chemical proper es which are
dis nct from field soils.

 A desirable medium should be a good balance between physical proper es like water
holding capacity and porosity.

 The medium should be well drained.

 Medium which is too compact creates problems of drainage and aera on which will
lead to poor root growth and may harbour disease causing organisms.

 Highly porous medium will have low water and nutrient holding capacity, affects the
plant growth and development.

 The media reac on (pH of 5.0 to 7.0 and the soluble salt (EC) level of 0.4 to 1.4 dS/m
is op mum for most of the greenhouse crops).
  A low media pH (<5.0) leads to toxicity of micronutrients such as iron, zinc,
manganese and copper and deficiency of major and secondary nutrients while a high
pH (>7.5) causes deficiency of micronutrients including boron.

 A low pH of the growth media can be raised to a desired level by using amendments
like lime (calcium carbonate) and dolomite (Ca-Mg carbonate) and basic, fer lizers
like calcium nitrate, calcium cyanamide, sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate.

 A high pH of the media can be reduced by amendments like sulphur, gypsum and
Epsom salts, acidic fer lizers like urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate,
mono ammonium phosphate and aqua ammonia and acids like phosphoric and
sulphuric acids.

 It is essen al to maintain a temperature of the plug mix between 70 to 75ºF.

Irriga on through mist is a must in plug growing. Mis ng for 12 seconds every 12
minutes on cloudy days and 12 seconds every 6 minutes on sunny days is desirable.

 The pH of water and mix should be monitored regularly.

Gravel culture
Gravel culture is a general term which applies to the growing of plants with out soil in an
inert medium into which nutrient solu ons are usually pumped automa cally at regular
intervals. Haydite (shale and clay fused at high temperatures), so - or hard-coal cinders,
limestone chips, calcareous gravel, silica gravel, crushed granite and other inert and slowly
decomposing materials are included in the term “gravel”. The more important greenhouse
flowering crops include roses, carna ons, chrysanthemums, gardenias, snapdragons, lilies,
asters, pansies, annual chrysanthemums, dahlias, bachelor bu ons and others.

Desirable nutrient level in greenhouse growth media

Concentra on (mg/l)
S. No. Category
NO3 N P K

1. Transplants 75 125 10-15 250-300

2. Young pot & foliage plants 50 90 6-10 150-200

3. Plants in beds 125 225 10-15 200-300

Media ingredients and Mix

Commercially available materials like peat, sphagnum moss, vermiculite, perlite and locally
available materials like sand, red soil, common manure/ compost and rice husk can be used
in different propor ons to grow greenhouse crops. These ingredients should be of high
quality to prepare a good mix. They should be free from undesirable toxic elements like
nickel, chromium, cadmium, lead etc.
Pasteuriza on of greenhouse plant growing media
Greenhouse growing medium may contain harmful disease causing organisms, nematodes,
insects and weed seeds, so it should be decontaminated by heat treatment or by trea ng
with vola le chemicals like methyl bromide, chloropicrin etc.

Agent Method Recommenda on

Heat Steam 30 min at 180° F

Methyl bromide 10 ml/cu. . of medium Cover with gas proof cover for 24-48 hr.
Aerate for 24-28 hr before use.

Chloropicrin (Tear gas) 3-5 ml/cu. . of Cover for 1-3 days with gas proof cover
medium a er sprinkling with water. Aerate for 14
days or un l no odour is detected before
using.

Basamid 8.0 g/cu. . of medium Cover for 7 days with gas proof cover and
aerate for atleast a week before use.

Formalin 20 ml/l of water (37%) Apply 2 l/cu. . cover for 14 to 36 hr and

aerate for at least 14 days.

Disinfec on of the growing media can also be achieved by fungicides or bactericides

Fungicides and their effect on a few fungi

Chemical Rate of Effect against

applica on

Captan 2 g/l of Pythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and

water Phytophthora. Some extent to root and stem
rot, white mold,black rot, crown rot and
damping off.

Metalaxyl + Mancozeb 1 g/l of water Pythium, Phytophthora, Fusarium and other

(Ridomil MZ 72 WP) soil borne pathogens

Temperature necessary to kill soil pests

 115°F for water molds (Pythium and Phytophthora)

 120°F for nematodes

 135°F for worms, slugs and cen pedes

 140°F for most plant pathogenic bacteria

 160°F for soil insects

  180°F for most of weed seeds

 200°F for few resistant weed seeds and plant viruses

Fumiga on in greenhouse
Physical propaga on facili es such as the propaga on room, containers, flats, knives,
working surface, benches etc. can be disinfected using one part of formalin in fi y parts of
water or one part sodium hypochlorite in nine parts of water. An insec cide such as
dichlorvos sprayed regularly will take care of the insects present if any. Care should be taken
to disinfect the seed or the plan ng materials before they are moved into the greenhouse
with a recommended seed treatment chemical for seeds and a fungicide –insec cide
combina on for cu ngs and plugs respec vely. Disinfectant solu on such as trisodium
phosphate or potassium permanganate placed at the entry of the greenhouse would help to
get rid off the pathogens from the personnel entering the greenhouses.

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7. Drip irriga on and fer ga on systems in greenhouse cul va on

The plant is required to take up very large amounts of water and nutrients, with a rela vely
small root system, and manufacture photosynthates for a large amount of flower per unit
area with a foliar system rela vely small in rela on to required produc on.

Watering system
Micro irriga on system is the best for watering plants in a greenhouse. Micro sprinklers or
drip irriga on equipments can be used. Basically the watering system should ensure that
water does not fall on the leaves or flowers as it leads to disease and scorching problems. In
micro sprinkler system, water under high pressure is forced through nozzles arranged on a
suppor ng stand at about 1 feet height. This facilitates watering at the base level of the
plants.

Equipments required for drip irriga on system include

i) A pump unit to generate 2.8kg/cm2 pressure
ii) Water filtra on system – sand/silica/screen filters
iii) PVC tubing with dripper or emi ers

Drippers of different types are available

i) Labyrinth drippers
ii) Turbo drippers
iii) Pressure compensa ng drippers – contain silicon membrane which assures uniform flow
rate for years
iv) Bu on drippers- easy and simple to clean. These are good for pots, orchards and are
available with side outlet/top outlet or micro tube out let
v) Pot drippers – cones with long tube
Water out put in drippers
a. 16mm dripper at 2.8kg/cm2 pressure gives 2.65 litres/hour ( LPH).
b. 15mm dripper at 1 kg/cm2 pressure gives 1 to 4 litres per hour

Filters: Depending upon the type of water, different kinds of filters can be used.

Gravel filter: Used for filtra on of water obtained for open canals and reservoirs that are
contaminated by organic impuri es, algae etc. The filtering is done by beds of basalt or
quartz.

Hydrocyclone: Used to filter well or river water that carries sand par cles.

Disc flitersL: Used to remove fine par cles suspended in water

Screen filters: Stainless steel screen of 120 mesh ( 0.13mm) size. This is used for second
stage filtra on of irriga on water.

Fer ga on system
In fer ga on system an automa c mixing and dispensing unit is installed which consists of
three systems pump and a supplying device. The fer lizers are dissolved separately in tanks
and are mixed in a given ra o and supplied to the plants through drippers.

Fer lizers
Fer lizer dosage has to be dependent on growing media. Soilless mixes have lower nutrient
holding capacity and therefore require more frequent fer lizer applica on. Essen al
elements are at their maximum availability in the pH range of 5.5 to 6.5. In general Micro
elements are more readily available at lower pH ranges, while macro elements are more
readily available at pH 6 and higher.

Forms of inorganic fer lizers

Dry fer lizers, slow release fer lizer and liquid fer lizer are commonly used in green houses.

Slow release fer lizer

They release the nutrient into the medium over a period of several months. These fer lizer
granules are coated with porous plas c. When the granules become moistened the fer lizer
inside is released slowly into the root medium. An important thing to be kept in mind
regarding these fer lizers is that, they should never be added to the soil media before
steaming or hea ng of media. Hea ng melts the plas c coa ng and releases all the fer lizer
into the root medium at once. The high acidity would burn the root zone.

Liquid fer lizer

These are 100 per cent water soluble. These comes in powdered form. This can be either
single nutrient or complete fer lizer. They have to be dissolved in warm water.

Fer lizer Applica on Methods

1. Constant feed
Low concentra on at every irriga on are much be er. This provides con nuous supply of
nutrient to plant growth and results in steady growth of the plant. Fer liza on with each
watering is referred as fer ga on.

2. Intermi ent applica on

Liquid fer lizer is applied in regular intervals of weekly, biweekly or even monthly. The
problem with this is wide variability in the availability of fer lizer in the root zone. At the
me of applica on, high concentra on of fer lizer will be available in the root zone and the
plant immediately starts absorbing it. By the me next applica on is made there will be low
or non existent. This fluctua on results in uneven plant growth rates, even stress and poor
quality crop.

Fer lizer injectors

This device inject small amount of concentrated liquid fer lizer directly into the water lines
so that green house crops are fer lized with every watering.

Mul ple injectors

Mul ple injectors are necessary when incompa ble fer lizers are to be used for fer ga on.
Incompa ble fer lizers when mixed together as concentrates form solid precipitates. This
would change nutrient content of the stock solu on and also would clog the siphon tube
and injector. Mul ple injectors would avoid this problem. These injectors can be of
computer controlled H.E. ANDERSON is one of the popular mul ple injector.

Fer lizer Injectors

Fer lizer injectors are of two basic types: Those that inject concentrated fer lizer into water
lines on the basis of the venturi principle and those that inject using posi ve displacement
A. Venturi Principle Injectors
1.Basically these injectors work by means of a pressure difference between the irriga on
line and the fer lizer stock tank.
a) The most common example of this is the HOZON propor oner.
b) Low pressure, or a suc on, is created at the faucet connec on of the Hozon at the suc on
tube opening. This draws up the fer lizer from the stock tank and is blended in to the
irriga on water flowing through the Hozon faucet connec on.
c) The average ra o of Hozon propor oners is 1:16. However, Hozon propor oners are not
very precise as the ra o can vary widely depending on the water pressure.
d) These injectors are inexpensive and are suitable for small areas. Large amounts of
fer lizer applica on would require huge stock tanks due to its narrow ra o.

B. Posi ve displacement injectors.

1. These injectors are more expensive than Hozon types, but are very accurate in
propor oning fer lizer into irriga on lines regardless of water pressure.
2. These injectors also have a much broader ra o with 1:100 and 1:200 ra o being the most
common. Thus, stock tanks for large applica ons areas are of manageable size and these
injectors have much larger flow rates.
3. Injec on by these propor oners is controlled either by a water pump or an electrical
pump.
4. Anderson injectors are very popular in the greenhouse industry with single and mul ple
head models.
a.Ra os vary from 1:100 to 1:1000 by means of a dial on the pump head for feeding
flexibility.
b.Mul head installa ons permit feeding several fer lizers simultaneously without
mixing. This is especially significant for fer lizers that are incompa ble (forming precipitates,
etc.) when mixed together in concentrated form.
5. Dosatron feature variable ra os (1:50 to 1:500) and a plain water bypass.
6. Plus injectors also feature variable ra os (1:50 to 1:1000) and operates on water pressure
as low as 7 GPM.
7. Gewa injectors actually inject fer lizer into the irriga on lines by pressure.
a. The fer lizer is contained in a rubber bag inside the metal tank.
Water pressure forces the fer lizer out of the bag into the water supply.
b. Care must be taken when filling the bags as they can tear.
c. Ra os are variable from 1:15 to 1:300.
8. If your injector is installed directly in a water line, be sure to install a bypass
around the injector so irriga ons of plain water can be accomplished.

General problems of fer ga on

Nitrogen tends to accumulate at the peripherous of we ed soil volume. Hence, only roots at
the periphery of the we ed zone alone will have enough access to Nitrogen. Nitrogen is lost
by leaching and denitrifica on. Since downward movement results in permanent loss of NO3
–N, increased discharge rate results in lateral movement of N and reduces loss by leaching.

Phosphorous
It accumulates near emi er and P fixing capacity decides its efficiency. Low pH near the
emi er results in high fixa on.

Potassium
It moves both laterally and downward and does not accumulate near emi er. Its distribu on
is more uniform than N&P.

Micronutrients
Excep ng boron, all micronutrients accumulates near the emi er if supplied by fer ga on.
Boron is lost by leaching in a sandy soil low in organic ma er. But chelated micronutrients of
Fe, Zn can move away from the emi er but not far away from the roo ng zone.

8. Cost es ma on for green house construc on

A model project proposal for floriculture industry
A. Title of the project:
Title should be brief and apt. It should be indicate clearly the main business ac vity. Eg.
Produc on of Rose cut flowers for domes c and export market.

B. Introduc on:
Give a line of introduc on of the proposed business. Jus fica on for star ng the business,
scope and compe on should be clearly stated.

C. Produc on technology:
Give detailed account of the en re produc on process along with the scien fic basis for
each step.

D. Project components: For cut flower produc on

1. Land
2. Greenhouse
3. Plan ng material
4. Irriga on
5. Fer liza on system
6. Grading and packing room
7. Refrigerated van
8. Office equipment
9. Import of technology
10. Labour charge
11. Technical manpower
12. Pes cides, Fer lizers, preserva ves

Give the cos ng for each of the major components and classify them into
A. Fixed cost –Permanent items
B. Recurring cost –plan ng, cul va on, maintenance, storage, packing and transporta on
costs.

E. Project yield
Es mate the total produc on expected in different years and the realiza on expected
through sales.

F. Margin money
25% of the total cost that has to be invested by the entrepreneur.

G. Repayment
Principal and interest are to be repayable in seven years with a moratorium for the first year
on interest and for 2 years on principal.

Budget requirement
For a one hectare greenhouse to produce Rose cut flowers.
A. Fixed cost

S. No. Item Amount in lakhs

1. Land and development 4.0

2. Green house 13.0

3. Cold storage 10.0

4. Grading and packing room 5.0

5. Office area 2.5

6. Refrigerated van 1.0

7. Generator set 2.0

8. Fax, telephone, Computer 1.0

9. Furniture 0.5

10. Power supply installa ons 1.5

11. Water supply system, drip irriga on and mis ng 6.0

liners

12. Plan ng material and plan ng 30.0

Total fixed cost 76.5 lakhs

B. Recurring costs

S. No. Item Amount in lakhs

1. Electricity charges / year 6.0

2. Manures and fer lizers 1.0

3. Plant protec on 1.0

4. Preserva ves 3.0

5. Packing material 2.0

6. Air freight 125.0

7. Labour charges 3.0

8. Commission / duty/ insurance 15.0

9. Salaries 5.0

10. Overhead costs 0.5

11. Maintenance cost 1.0

12. Miscellaneous 3.7

Total recurring cost 166.2

Total investment for the project = Fixed cost + Recurring cost = 76.5 + 166.2 in first year=
242.7.

Project yield
No. of rose plants per hectare of greenhouse = 60,000
No. of flowers expected per plant = 100 to 150
No. of exportable quality flowers /plant = 60 to 100
Price per flower in interna onal market = Rs. 6 to 11
Total exportable flowers /ha @ 100 flowers /plant = 60 lakhs flowers
Gross income through exports @ 50 flowers/plant = 300 lakhs (minimum).

9. Problem management in greenhouse cul va on

The troubles which arise in the culture of crops in the greenhouse may be divided into
several groups a) failure to supply the essen al factors for op mum growth such as light,
moisture, carbon dioxide and heat in amounts necessary for each individual crop b) fer lizer
deficiencies c) fer lizer excesses d) toxic gases e) a acks by insects, animals, and allied pests
and f) suscep bility to fungus, bacteria and virus troubles.

Fer lizer deficiencies

Symptoms of deficiencies of various fer lizers have been studied over a period of years with
plants in greenhouses.

Chlorosis
This is a term used to denote the loss of normal green colour from the foliage whether it is
on the older, more mature leaves or the younger foliage. The en re leaf may be affected, or
just areas between the veins, in which case the yellowing is most usually in irregular patches
shading into the green colour. Some mes only the margin of the leaf or leaflets may be
yellow, while the centre of the foliage is almost a normal green.

Necrosis
This refers to the death of the area severely affected by chlorosis. Necro c spots or areas
can also be caused by spray or aerosol damage, sunscald and other such factors which may
have no rela on of fer lizer.

Nitrogen deficiency
Generally the en re plant becomes lighter green, but the effect will be most no ceable on
the older foliage. Gradually the oldest leaves loose their green colour, and most plants
become yellow. The flowers are smaller and may lack well-developed colour.

Phosphorus deficiency
A purplish colora on developing first on the underside of the pe ole, or leaf stem, which
spreads to the main veins of the leaf is characteris c of this deficiency.

Potassium deficiency
The margins of the leaves of the older foliage become yellow, and the chlorosis progresses
toward the mid-por on of the foliage as this deficiency increases in severity. The older
leaves may drop in extreme cases of deficiency. Certain fumigants may cause marginal
burning or chlorosis, and some mes droplets of spray or fumigant may result in spots or
blotches of chloro c or necro c nature.

Calcium deficiency
In sand culture, a typical symptom is the development of short clubby roots followed in a
ma er of several weeks by their death. In many cases insufficient calcium is associated with
a low pH of the soil.

Iron deficiency
This is a rather common trouble although an actual lack of iron may not be the primary
cause. As iron deficiency becomes more intense, necro c areas appear on sca ered por ons
of the yellow coloured leaves and the affected foliage may drop. Iron can become deficient
in soil, but o en the symptoms of this deficiency are induced by other causes from injury to
the roots by over-watering or over fer liza on. Nematodes, or other soil pests interfering
with root growth can also induce iron chlorosis symptoms.

Boron deficiency
The number of cases where this is a limi ng factor are few, and most of them are with
certain rose and carna on varie es. The new foliage is thick or leathery and quickly becomes
chloro c. The rose flowers are usually very malformed. The stem p dies, giving rise to
growth of shoots immediately below, which in turn die at the p, and a ‘witches broom’
effect is observed. Because deficiency symptoms can some mes be confused with the
effects of some other environmental factor of cultural prac ce, a thorough review of
fer lizer applica on, soil tes ng, soil type, watering prac ces, and other procedures is
warranted before hasty conclusions are reached.

Fer lizer excesses

An unfortunate belief among many growers is that when a plant does not grow under
apparently favorable condi ons, the trouble can be overcome by applica ons of fer lizer.
This prac ce has resulted in untold damage or loss of crops, as more o en than not the
original trouble could have been too much fer lizer in the soil. If addi onal fer lizer is
applied when no more is needed, the results can be very injurious. Some mes the difference
between a high but safe nutrient level and an injurious nutrient level is not very great and
the margin of safety may be extremely small. Therefore, it behaves the grower to test the
soil in case of doubt to determine the advisability of fer lizer applica on.

Nitrogen excess
The plants exhibit heavy, rank growth, with large, dark green leaves that are o en crisp and
break easily. Addi onal nitrogen may inhibit root ac on, causing typical symptoms of iron
chlorosis. If the root system is killed, the plants wilt excessively and never recover. This
yellowing of the top foliage is very common in chrysanthemums and snapdragons. Over 75
ppm of nitrates is not safe.

Phosphorus excess
Over doses of phosphorus precipitate the iron from the soil solu on and make it insoluble
and unavailable, causing iron chlorosis to develop. Over 25 ppm may cause trouble.

Potassium excess
Up to a certain point, excessive potash apparently is not injurious. Greater amounts inhibit
root ac on and may cause chlorosis, wil ng, or immediate death of the plant. Over 60ppm is
dangerous.

Calcium excess
Usually the pH of the soil will rise when there is excessive calcium. This causes iron chlorosis
in many plants and has been called over liming injury. Over 300 ppm is high.

Iron excess
In the normal pH range of soil, there is li le danger of excessive iron since phosphorus or
calcium will precipitate it from the soil solu on. At ph 5.0 or lower, iron becomes very
soluble, and on hydrangeas brown dots appear on the leaves, indica ng iron is being
precipitated as water vapor is lost by transpira on.

Sulfate excess
A low pH may o en be characteris c of soils high in sulfates. Some mes high sulfates are
encountered at pH 6.5. Over 600 ppm is toxic to most plants.

Boron excess
This trace elements is o en found in soil to which unleached cinders have been added or
where boric acid has been applied indiscriminately. Certain water supplies may have rather
high amounts of boron. On roses, the serra ons on the margin of the leaflets of the lower
leaves turn black and the remaining leaves turn yellow and drop.
Aluminum excess
This is not troublesome except on hydrangeas that are being blued. Roots are burnt, and the
plants wilt.

Soluble salts excess

Too much fer lizers in the soil injures or kills roots, and plant growth is severely reduced.

Remedial measures for excess fer lizer

When fer lizer levels rise to the point where they become toxic, immediate steps must be
taken to remove the excessive materials. Excessive nitrogen leaching with heavy waterings
and applica on of of straw mulch Excessive phosphorus can not be leached. Only by
addi on of lime or iron sulfate Excessive potassium leaching may wash some quan ty, but in
clay soils removal may be almost impossible. Excessive calcium Acidifying the soil excessive
iron Raising the pH or by addi on of phosphorus excessive sulfates Leaching and avoiding
the use of sulfate forms of fer lizers excessive boron Water glass, or sodium silicate can be
dissolved in water at the rate of 100 cubic cen meters per gallon and applied to the soil.
Excessive aluminum raising the pH or by adding phosphorus excessive soluble salts leaching.

Injury by toxic gases

Natural gas
This gas usually contains 95 per cent methane and 4 to 5 per cent ethane and frequently
causes injury to greenhouse plants. The common source of injury is from corroded or leaky
gas pipes inside or outside the greenhouse. This injuries usually occur during winter when
the ven lators kept closed. Very small concentra ons of gas are sufficient to cause damage
to plants, its detec on is difficult by sense of smell. One part to 350 will cause a headache
a er 2 hours, whereas 1 part of natural gas in 10,000 to 100,000 of air will injure many
plants. The best method of detec on is through the use of tomato plants. In the presence of
gas the leaves of tomato turn downward, because of epinas c response, which causes
pe oles of leaves to grow more rapidly on the upper side. Carna ons exposed to low
concentra ons will develop long s gmas, but this may also occur in bright weather in
unshaded greenhouses. In case of prolonged exposure of young buds even 1 part to 100,000
may kill the buds and flowers fail to develop. Rose foliage on the upper shoots exhibits
epinasty, or a bending downward of the pe ole. Severe leaf drop may follow and the flower
colour o en fades. Bulbous plants usually develop twisted foliage and the flowers do not
open properly.

Ethylene gas
This gas apparently is a by-product of metabolic processes and is given off in very small
quan es by plants or their parts. Dropping of flowers a er pollina on is thought to be
associated with ethylene vapors. The carna on flowers close or may appear “sleepy”, that is,
the ends of the petals curl inward due to ethylene gas.
Sulphur dioxide
In very low concentra ons this gas is toxic to plants. Sulphur dioxide enters the leaf through
open stomata and kills the cells nearby, thus showing patches of dead ssues sca ered over
the leaf and frequently affec ng the margins. Middle-aged leaves are more suscep ble than
young leaves.
Damage from sulphur dioxide is commonly found in locali es where coal is burnt in large
quan es. Foggy days are par cularly dangerous. The common prac ce of using sulphur on
hea ng pipes in rose houses to control mildew is responsible for leaf drop on some varie es.

Mercury damage
Many plants are quickly damaged by vapors from metallic mercury. This damage is
manifested in roses by peduncles of young buds turning yellow and later black. The color of
flowers turns dark and leaves are scorched. Breaking of mercury thermometers or the use of
bi chloride of mercury on beds as a disinfectant is the usual way in which mercury may be
released. Control measures consist of removing all possible traces of mercury and covering
the areas where mercury was spilled or applied with a 2-inch thickness of iron filings. Paint
containing mercury as a fungicide should not be applied to rose houses.

2,4-D
The fumes of 2,4- dichlorophenoxy ace c acid and related compounds used as weed killers
cause bending, curling, and other malforma ons of leaves, stems, flowers or bracts. Fumes
or ‘dri ’ from a spray applied along the side of a greenhouse may enter through the doors or
side vents cause trouble. Therefore, it is well to prevent trouble by keeping such sources of
poten al damage out of the greenhouse, boiler room, po ng shed, or any place where the
fumes could conceivably enter a greenhouse.

Phenol compounds
Many materials containing phenol or its deriva ves are toxic to plants. Tar, carbolic acid,
pentachlorophenol and many others of similar nature should never be used under glass.
Treatment of wooden bench members with wood preserva ves containing phenol
compounds results in severe damage to the plants.

10. Special hor cultural prac ces in greenhouse produc on

The aim of greenhouse cul va on is to obtain high yield and good quality flower with in a
short period. Several methods for forcing flowers can be used successfully to obtain high
yield and quality.

Rose
Deshoo ng
Sprou ng of buds just below flower, from the point between shoot and leaf lead to smaller
bud size. So these shoots should be removed regularly.
Dead shoot removal
In the old plants the dead shoot or dried shoots on plants are observed which will be the
host for fungi. So regulary these have to be removed.

Soil loosening on beds

A er 6 months or so, there is every chance that the soil become stony and it has to be
loosened for efficient irriga on.

Bending
Leaf is a source of food for every plant. There should be balance between source
(assimila on ) and sink (Dissimila on).

Mother shoot bending

A er plan ng 2 to 3 eye buds will sprout on main branch, these sprouts will grow as
branches and these branches in turn form buds. This is don’t to ini ate bo om breaks or
ground shoots which will form main framework of plant structure. The mother shoot is bend
on 2nd leaf or nearer to the crown region. The first bo om break or ground shoot will start
coming from the base. These ground shoots form the basic framework for produc on and
thereon the ground shoots should be cut at 5th five pair of leaves and medium ground
shoots should be cut at 2nd or 3rd five pair of leaves.

Defolia on
The removal of leaves is known as defolia on. It is done mainly to induce certain plant
species to flower or to reduce transpira on loss during periods of stress. Defolia on may be
done by removal of leaves manually or by withholding water. The shoots are defoliated a er
pruning.

Carna on
Support system (Ne ng)
Good support material is metal wire mesh width of 7.5 x 7.5 cm to 15 x 15 cm. The cheapest
support material is net with nylon. Minimum at every 3 meters, the wires should be
supported with poles. The poles at the beginning and the end of each bed should be strong
enough and be in cast concrete. For an op mal support of the crop, an increasing width of
meshes may be used. Eg. The bo om net of 7.5 x 7.5 cm, then 12.5 x 12.5 cm and the upper
nets 15 x 15 cm.

Pinching
Pinching refers to breaking out the p of shoot with few leaves and encouraging growth of
side shoots. There are three types of pinching
a) single b) one and half and c) double pinches
Pinching is done at a stage when the plants are young and between of 7-15cm height. Since
very tender shoots are usually pinched, no special tool is required. It is done by snapping the
shoot p manually. A sharp knife or blade may be used for pinching. When the plant a ains
6 nodes, the first pinch is given. This is referred as ‘single pinch’. This would give rise to six
lateral shoots. With a ‘ one and half pinch’, 2-3 of these lateral shoots are pinched again. For
the ‘double pinch’ all the lateral shoots are pinched off. Other than carna on, pinching is
also prac ced in marigold, Gomphrena (single pinch), and spray types of chrysanthemum
(double pinch).

Disbudding
Disbudding refers to removal of side shoots so that the central/terminal bud receives
maximum food for the full development. In standard carna ons, side buds should be
removed where as in spray carna ons, the terminal bud has to be removed.

Chrysanthemum
Pinching out the apical bud
As soon as the bud stems begin to elongate in other words as soon as the buds have just
separated from one another, it is used to pinch out the central bud, this improves the spray
shape. If pinching out is done too early, damage may be caused to the side buds, so it is
carried out between 2nd and 3rd weeks before harves ng.

11. Physiological disorders

Plant disorders may be either due to nutri onal deficiencies or unsuitable growing storage
condi ons. In appropriate temperature atmospheric or erra c water or food supply, poor
light, unsa sfactory atmospheric condi ons may also cause deficiencies of the mineral salts
that are essen al for healthy plant growth.

Rose
Blind wood
The normal flowering shoot on a greenhouse rose possesses fully expanded sepals, petals,
and reproduc ve parts. The failure to develop a flower on the apical end of the stem is a
common occurrence-such shoots are termed blind. The sepals and petals are present, but
the reproduc ve parts are absent or aborted. Blind wood is generally short and thin, but it
may a ain considerable length and thickness when it develops at the top of the plant. This
may be caused by insufficient light, chemical residues, insect, pests, fungal diseases and
other factors.

Bull heads or malformed flowers

The center petals of the bud remain only partly developed and the bud appears flat. They
are common on very vigorous shoots, par cularly bo om breaks, and it is possible that
there is a lack of carbohydrates to develop the petals. The cause of bull heading is as yet
unknown, how ever, thrips infesta on will also cause malformed flowers.

Colour fading
Off- coloured flowers present a problem with some yellow varie es in that the petals may be
green or a dirty white instead of a clear yellow. Raising the night temperature several
degrees will reduce the number of off-coloured flowers. Occasionally the pink or red
varie es develop bluish-coloured flowers. This is very o en associated with use of organic
phosphate and various other kinds of insec cides.

Limp necks
The area of the stem just below the flower “wilts” and will not support the head. Some mes
this is due to insufficient water absorp on; cu ng off the lower 1 to 2 inches of stem and
placing the cut stem in water at 37°C will revive the flower.

Blackening of rose petals

This is caused by low temperature and high anthocyanin content. GA3 treatment causes
accumula on of anthocyanin in petals of Baccara roses. This effect was more pronounced at
low temperature (20°C at day and 4°C at night) than in higher temperature (30°C at day and
20°C at night).

Nutri onal disorders

Iron deficiencies can cause pale foliage. Adjus ng the pH of the soil may solve this problem

Carna on
Spli ng of calyx
The calyx may split down either half or completely. The petals are deprived of their support,
which results into bending down of petals. Thus, the regularity of shape and structure of the
flower destroyed. Spli ng is associated with weather, par cularly where light and
temperature fluctuate. Some reduc on in spli ng can be obtained by keeping the night
temperature at 5°F. High plant density per unit area caused more calyx spli ng. Increasing
doses of N reduced the number of split calyces while increase in potassium rates enhanced
it. Varie es tolerant to calyx spli ng are Epson, palmir etc.

Curly p
This disorder affects the growing ps which curl and become distorted. Tips of the young
shoots fail to separate and con nua on of growth results in a characteris c curvature. Poor
light and other adverse condi ons are thought to be the causes of the disorder. Water stress
and potassium deficiency are suspected causes for a physiological curly p and die-back of
carna on flowers.

Chrysanthemum
Blindness
It occurs when the night temperature is too low and the days are short at the me when
flower buds are forming. A rose ed type of growth is indica ve of this difficulty. Center
petals that fail to develop can be due to excessive heat; or in dark weather some varie es
apparently lack enough food to open the flower. Chlorosis, or yellowing of the upper foliage,
is generally associated with over watering, excessive fer lizer in the soil, or insects or
diseases a acking the root system. Con nued growth of shoots and failure to form flower
buds when short days are started the mean night temperature was too low. Sunscald is
prevalent on standards in flower in very warm weather. The petals turn brown and dry up.

Gerbera
Bushiness
An abnormality characterized by numerous leaves, short pe oles and small laminae, which
gives some cul vars of gerbera a bushy appearance known as bushiness. Nodes are not
clearly dis nguished and no internode elonga on is seen.

Stem break
It is common post harvest disorder in cut gerberas. This is mainly caused by water
imbalances. It could be ethylene controlled and associated with early senescence associated
with water stress.

Yellowing and purple margin

Nitrogen deficiency causes yellowing and early senescence of leaves. Phosphorus deficiency
causes pale yellow colour with purple margin. Increase in levels of nitrogen and phosphorus
were found to promote development of suckers and improve flowering in gerbera.

Anthurium
Excess light
Leaves appear bleached in the centers and may have brown ps. To control this problem,
shade should be given so as to reduce the light level to 1800-2500 foot-candles.

Gladioli
Fluoride injury
Leaf scorch of gladioli due to the presence of fluorine compounds in the atmosphere which
accumulated on the ps of leaves. The injury is associated with heavy applica on of super
phosphate.

12. Postharvest handling prac ces for cut flowers

Cut flower quality and longevity are influenced by pre and post harvest prac ces. Nearly 20-
40% of the cut flowers produced are lost due to faulty harves ng, post harvest handling,
storage, transporta on and marke ng. These losses can be reduced by careful harves ng,
post harvest handling, temperature management, sanita on and judicious use of floral
preserva ves.

Harves ng
Maturity of the cut flower mainly decides its post harvest life. The flowers must reach
certain stage of development before harves ng. Most of the cut flowers are harvested in the
early morning or late in the a ernoon. Flowers are harvested with sharp knife or secature.
Rose
Harves ng is done at the ght bud stage when the colour is fully developed and the petals
have not yet started unfolding.

Gladioli
The spikes are cut in ght bud stage when colour has fully developed in the mature
unopened buds leaving 4 leaves on the plant.

Carna on
Standard carna on flowers are harvested when the outer petals unfold nearly perpendicular
to the stem. Spray types are harvested when two flowers open and the remaining buds
show colour.

Chrysanthemum
Standard flowers are cut soon a er the disappearance of green colour in the centre of the
flowers and the center petals are fully expanded. Pompons are cut when they are fully
developed. Spray types should be cut when the central flower is open and the surrounding
flowers are well developed and the varie es which shed pollen badly will have to be cut
before they become unsighty. Cu ng the stem while the flowers are slightly on the “green”
side is preferred because it offers a be er quality product for the customer. The stems are
harvested by pulling them out and breaking of the root system leaving it behind in the
bed/field be ploughed into the soil when bed/field is prepared for next crop.

Orchid
Flowers are harvested when they are fully open as the flowers cut prior to their maturity will
wilt before reaching the wholesaler.

Anthurium
Flowers are harvested when the spathe completely unfurls and the spadix is well developed.
Harves ng the blooms, when one third of the flowers on the spadix mature, change of
colour can be observed that moves from base to p of spadix. At this stage the flowers are
harvested. Harves ng has to be done during cooler parts of the day i.e.) early morning or
late evening In general the cut blooms are placed in water held in plas c buckets
immediately a er cu ng from the plant. Delay in keeping in water allows air entry into the
stem and causes blockage of the vascular vessels. Cut flowers a er harvest should be shi ed
to pre cooling chambers in refrigerated vehicles having 2-4°C temperature as they
deteriorate most rapidly at high temperature. A er reaching the cooling chamber, another
cut is given above the previous cut in roses, whereas in orchids lower 0.75 cm of the
peduncle is cut. In gladioli, 2.5 cm diagonal cut is made to expose maximum capillary ssues
for absorbing more water

Pre cooling
Pre cooling removes field heat rapidly from the freshly harvested cut flowers. Precooling
lowers respira on rate, water loss and ethylene synthesis. Most of the me, greatest loss
occurs due to delay in precooling. Generally two methods of cooling are followed. The first
one is room cooling and the other one is forced air-cooling. In room cooling, the flowers are
held in buckets which are placed in a cooler. In the forced air cooling system, the flowers
packed in perforated boxes are subjected to cool air blasts for a specific period in a closed
room to remove field heat. The flowers take 20-30 minutes for cooling in forced cooling
depending on the flower type and ini al temperature in the box. Proper temperature (1.7°C
to 4°C) and rela ve humidity (90-95%) maintenance are cri cal to the success of precooling,
otherwise the flowers will dessicate.

Postharvest handling prac ces for important cut flowers

Rose
Roses must be placed in a bucket of water inside the polyhouse immediately a er harves ng
and transported to cold storage (2-4°C). The length of me depends upon the variety and
quality of the roses.The flowers are graded according to the length. It varies from 40-70 cm
depending on the variety and packed in 10/12 per bunch

Carna on
A er harvest, the flower stems have to be trimmed at the base and should be immediately
placed in a bucket of preserva ve solu on of warm and deionized water. A good
preserva ve solu on for carna ons should be acidic (pH 4.5) with 2-5% sucrose and a
biocide not phytotoxic to carna ons. A er keeping in preserva ve solu on for 2 to 4 hours,
flowers should be placed in a refrigerated room at 0-2°C for 12-24 hours. The flowers can be
stored for two to four weeks before marke ng. For this, the flowers have to be packed in
cartons lined with polyethylene film. These cartons should have sufficient vent holes. The
full cartons should be pre-cooled with out lid. The plas c is then loosely folded on top of the
stems and the lid is closed. These cartons are stored in cool chambers designed to
maintained 0°C with good air circula on and a constant rela ve humidity of 90-95%.

Chrysanthemum
A er harvest, the stem have to be cut at equal length (90 cm is the standard), bunched in
five pu ng a rubber band at the base and sliding them into a plas c sleeve and pu ng the
bunches in plas c buckets filled with water. Early morning on the day of shipment (or night
before) the bunches can be packed in boxes.

Gerbera
Harves ng is done when outer 2-3 rows of disc florets are perpendicular to the stalk. The
heel for the stalk should be cut about 2-3 cm above the base and kept in fresh chlorinated
water.

Orchids
Storage
Since most orchid flowers are long-lived on the plants, they should not be harvested un l
needed. If these are to be cut they should be stored at 5-7°C. At this temperature most
orchid flowers can be stored for 10 to 14 days. Plas c film storage is a rac ve and can be
u lized.

Packaging
Packaging is another important aspect in the flower trade. An ideal package should be
air ght, water proof, strong enough to withstand handling and small in volume. Many ways
are followed to pack orchid flowers. Cymbidium spikes are o en packed 100 flowers to a
box. Standard florist boxes are used for the packing of Ca leya floors.
Hawaiin Dendrobium is packed in 4 dozen sprays per box. Keeping of a wet co on at the cut
end of the flower stem which is wrapped with a polythene wrapper helps to maintain
humidity.

Vase- life
Immediately a er arrival, the lower 0.75 cm of the peduncle is cut off, and the flower is
inserted into a fresh tube of water containing preserva ve. In case of spray type of orchids,
the basal 2.5cm of the stem is cut upon arrival, placed in warm water at 38°C with a
preserva ve and hardened off at 5°C. Foliar applica on of aluminium chloride at 500ppm,
ammonium molybdate at 100 ppm or boric acid at 1000ppm increased the vase-life
of Oncidium.. Hydroxyquinoline resulted in addi onal bloom opening of the flowers and also
increased the vase-life.

Anthurium
Flowers can be easily stored at 13°C for 2-3 weeks. The flowers, which are harvested when
3/4th of the length of the spadix colour changes, lasts longer than the other flowers which
are harvested either early or late. The average vase life depends upon life of flowers range
between 12-24 days depending upon the cul vars. Anthurium is packed in cartons lined with
impervious polyethylene shee ng of adequate length and width so that, when packed, the
sheet can be folded over to prevent the moisture of the dampened flowers and packing
material from dampening the box itself. Newspaper is used to line the carton, and shredded
newspaper is used to cushion spathes that are arranged in rows facing opposite direc ons.
Each individual spathe is wrapped and tucked with un-printed newspaper or other white
paper.