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Technology-Supported
Environments for
Personalized Learning:
Methods and Case Studies

John O'Donoghue
University of Central Lancashire, UK

InformatIon scIence reference

Hershey • New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Technology-supported environments for personalized learning : methods and case studies / John O'Donoghue, editor.
p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Summary: "This book explores the metaphor of anytime and anywhere individual education as well as the idea of tailoring
instruction to meet individual needs"--Provided by publisher.

ISBN 978-1-60566-884-0 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-885-7 (ebook) 1.

Computer-assisted instruction. 2. Individualized instruction. I. O'Donoghue,
John, 1959-
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British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Dedication

There is a before and there is an after. There is a day, a moment when, abruptly, one life ends and another
begins. In the blink of an eye, you are where you never desired yourself to be, people unrecognisable to
yourselves, transformed beyond your own understanding. With no going back. This is what happened
to me.
In May I received the news that we all must fear and dread. Without any signs or symptoms I was
diagnosed with cancer. This devastating news is traumatic for the individual, but the effect on my family
is difficult to comprehend.
This book is dedicated to Carole, my beloved wife, who has been my strength, salvation, nurse, men-
tor and eternal soul mate. Life would have been very different for me without her at this present time. I
thank her for her love and loyalty under such difficult times.
Words are insufficient to express my love and affection. Many tears have been shed over the inter-
vening weeks, but with Carole and my children Hannah and Alice we look positively forward. At such
moments, I understood the importance of saying “I LOVE YOU” in time and to give our loved ones the
time that they deserve.
Nothing in life is more important than your family. Give them the time they deserve, because these
things cannot be put off till “some other time.”
Value always what we all too often take for granted, especially as time passes.

John O'Donoghue
Table of Contents

Preface ..............................................................................................................................................xviii

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................. xxvii

Chapter 1
Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning ...................................................................... 1
Gráinne Conole, Open University, UK

Section 1
Infrastructural and Cultural Issues

Chapter 2
Breaking the Hierarchy: Democratising the Institutional Web Space .................................................. 16
Beth Granter, University of Sussex, UK

Chapter 3
PLE: A Brick in the Construction of a Lifelong Learning Society ....................................................... 30
Sabrina Leone, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Italy

Chapter 4
Community@Brighton: The Development of an Institutional Shared Learning Environment ............ 50
Stan Stanier, University of Brighton, UK

Chapter 5
eLearning: Institutional Provision and Student Expectations ............................................................... 74
Barbara Newland, Bournemouth University, UK
Maria-Christiana Papaefthimiou, University of Reading, UK

Chapter 6
Personalising Teaching and Learning with Digital Resources: DiAL-e Framework Case Studies ...... 91
Kevin Burden, The University of Hull, UK
Simon Atkinson, Massey University, New Zealand
Chapter 7
Personalised eLearning in Further Education ..................................................................................... 109
Elfneh Udessa Bariso, College of North East London, UK

Section 2
Pedagogical Issues

Chapter 8
The Impact of Interactive and Collaborative Learning Activities on the Personalised
Learning of Adult Distance Learners .................................................................................................. 128
Richard Hall, De Montfort University, UK
Steve Mackenzie, De Montfort University, UK
Melanie Hall, Staffordshire University, UK

Chapter 9
Blogs and the eFlective Practitioner: Professional, not Confessional ................................................ 149
Paul Lowe, University of the Arts London, UK
Margo Blythman, University of the Arts London, UK

Chapter 10
Building Practitioner Skills in Personalised eLearning: Messages for Professional
Development ....................................................................................................................................... 167
Ruth Pilkington, University of Central Lancashire, UK

Chapter 11
Using ePortfolios in Higher Education to Encourage Learner Reflection and Support
Personalised Learning ......................................................................................................................... 185
Susi Peacock, Queen Margaret University, UK
Kate Morss, Queen Margaret University, UK
Alison Scott, Queen Margaret University, UK
Jane Hislop, Queen Margaret University, UK
Lindesay Irvine, Queen Margaret University, UK
Sue Murray, Queen Margaret University, UK
Simon T Girdler, Queen Margaret University, UK

Chapter 12
Personalised Learning: A Case Study in Teaching Clinical Educators Instructional
Design Skills ....................................................................................................................................... 212
Iain Doherty, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Adam Blake, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Chapter 13
Research-Led Curriculum Redesign for Personalised Learning Environments:
A Case Study in the Faculty of Information Technology.................................................................... 235
Len Webster, Monash University, Australia
Patricie Mertova, Monash University, Australia
Kim Styles, Monash University, Australia
Lindsay Smith, Monash University, Australia

Chapter 14
Video-Enriched Learning Experiences for Performing Arts Students: Two Exploratory
Case Studies ........................................................................................................................................ 248
Alberto Ramírez Martinell, Lancaster University, UK
Julie-Ann Sime, Lancaster University, UK

Chapter 15
Enabling Personalised Learning through Formative and Summative Assessment ............................. 268
Neil Andrew Gordon, University of Hull, UK

Section 3
Technological Issues

Chapter 16
“You Can Take Out of it What You Want”: How Learning Objects within Blended Learning
Designs Encourage Personalised Learning ......................................................................................... 285
Debbie Holley, London Metropolitan University Business School, UK
Lyn Greaves, Thames Valley University, UK
Claire Bradley, London Metropolitan University, UK
John Cook, London Metropolitan University, UK

Chapter 17
Into the Great Wide Open: Responsive Learning Environments for Personalised Learning ............. 305
Dirk Thißen, IMC (UK) Learning, UK
Volker Zimmermann, IMC AG, Germany
Tilman Küchler, IMC AG, Germany

Chapter 18
Personalisation and the Online Video Narrative Learning Tools V-ResORT and the ViP .................. 324
Gordon Joyes, University of Nottingham, UK

Chapter 19
Shared Spaces and ‘Secret Gardens’: The Troublesome Journey from Undergraduate Students
to Undergraduate Scholars Via PebblePad.......................................................................................... 341
Marina Orsini-Jones, Coventry University, UK
Chapter 20
Physical Metaphorical Modelling with LEGO as a Technology for Collaborative
Personalised Learning ......................................................................................................................... 364
Stuart Nolan, Hex Induction, UK

Chapter 21
Using ePortfolios to Evidence Practice Learning for Social Work Students ...................................... 386
Samantha Osborne, University of Kent, UK
Ruben Martin, University of Kent, UK
Louise Frith, University of Kent, UK

Chapter 22
Effective Assignment Feedback through Timely and Personal Digital Audio Engagement............... 409
Anne Nortcliffe, Sheffield Hallam University, UK
Andrew Middleton, Sheffield Hallam University, UK

Chapter 23
Contemporary Music Students and Mobile Technology..................................................................... 429
Thomas Cochrane, Unitec, New Zealand

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 455

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 493

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 505

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface ..............................................................................................................................................xviii

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................. xxvii

Chapter 1
Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning ...................................................................... 1
Gráinne Conole, Open University, UK

This introductory chapter considers the discourse of the concept of personalisation and how it can be
supported through technology-enhanced learning. It looks at the policy rhetoric and considers to what
extent it is realised in practice. The chapter describes a range of illustrative examples of how technolo-
gies are being used to meet the personalised learning agenda.

Section 1
Infrastructural and Cultural Issues

Chapter 2
Breaking the Hierarchy: Democratising the Institutional Web Space .................................................. 16
Beth Granter, University of Sussex, UK

This chapter, inspired by direct experience from working on the development of the University of Sus-
sex’s Student Personal Learning and Social Homepages (SPLASH) project, discusses how ‘Web 2.0’
technologies can be used to make institutional websites more democratic. The SPLASH mashup project
was non-typical in that it intended to create an environment which would be fully customisable by the
learner, so that no content was obligatory. Examples from working on this project are used to illustrate
benefits which can be gained from, and barriers to the uptake of, more open publishing methods and
an organically structured site architecture. Issues affecting learners, tutors, the institution as a whole,
and how the power dynamic between all three may change, are discussed. Parallels are drawn between
teaching methods online and those offline, both traditional and modern.

Chapter 3
PLE: A Brick in the Construction of a Lifelong Learning Society ....................................................... 30
Sabrina Leone, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Italy
The attainment of lifelong learning objectives is being mediated by a complex process of innovation in
education and society, by the integration of institutional actions and by the major role of coordination that
university has assumed. The revolution that technology has engendered in every field has flowed into a
rethinking of knowledge, knowledge management, teaching and learning, networks and the individual.
The knowledge society requires new roles and skills, new forms of communication and a new awareness
as “active citizens”. Consequently, the shifting role of education systems in networked organizations is
decisive in order to support learners in forming diverse personal learning networks to deeply understand
complex fields. This chapter aims to discuss consistency (i.e. solidity and reliability) and effectiveness
(i.e. success, usefulness and value) of a personal learning environment as a new learning space and to
highlight its contribution and relevance to lifelong learning. PLE critical points and approaches will be
discussed exploiting three case studies.

Chapter 4
Community@Brighton: The Development of an Institutional Shared Learning Environment ............ 50
Stan Stanier, University of Brighton, UK

This chapter details the implementation of a university-wide social networking platform “Community@
Brighton” – using the open source Elgg platform and describes the technical, institutional and educa-
tional issues arising from the two years of experience in running the platform. The strategic vision of
providing a social network platform alongside an institutional VLE to provide an integrated Shared
Learning Environment is also explored, including key case studies and discussion on the challenges
such technologies place on existing models of online learning and teaching.

Chapter 5
eLearning: Institutional Provision and Student Expectations ............................................................... 74
Barbara Newland, Bournemouth University, UK
Maria-Christiana Papaefthimiou, University of Reading, UK

Students who have grown up in the digital age have certain expectations for learning in Higher Educa-
tion (HE). “Using a complex mix of virtual and face-to-face environments, personal and institutional
technologies, learners of all ages are developing new working practices around the technologies available
to them. Increasingly, they look for flexibility and openness in the institutional policies and provision
that support their learning.” (JISC, 2007). The divide between the institutional eLearning provision
and the expectations of students who have grown up in a digital world was highlighted through the
UK eLearning benchmarking exercise. Institutional eLearning provision and processes within the HE
sector were investigated and analysed through this exercise, which was led by the Higher Education
Academy (HEA) in collaboration with the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC). This paper
presents the experience of two UK Universities, Bournemouth and Reading, whose participation in the
benchmarking exercise provides examples of institutional provision. Subsequent Pathfinder funding
enabled them to build on their strengths with projects aimed at narrowing the divide between student
expectations of eLearning and institutional provision. The eRes: Innovative eLearning with e-Resources
project (Bournemouth) encourages students to use quality e-resources in their learning. The “Driving
Institutional Reform: Exploring Change with Technology” (DIRECT) project (Reading) has developed
a framework to transform its internal quality management processes.
Chapter 6
Personalising Teaching and Learning with Digital Resources: DiAL-e Framework Case Studies ...... 91
Kevin Burden, The University of Hull, UK
Simon Atkinson, Massey University, New Zealand

This chapter describes the ways in which individual academics have sought to realise a degree of per-
sonalisation in their teaching practice through their engagement with the DiAL-e Framework (Digital
Artefacts for Learner Engagement). The DiAL-e Framework (www.dial-e.net) is a new conceptual model,
articulated as a paper-based and web-based tool, for designing learning engagements. The policy and
theoretical context, evolution of the framework and the methodology used to utilise the framework with
academic staff seeking to personalise the learning experience is outlined. Details of three case studies
resulting from this early work are described and conclusions drawn as to how such frameworks might
assist staff in thinking about personalised learning scenarios.

Chapter 7
Personalised eLearning in Further Education ..................................................................................... 109
Elfneh Udessa Bariso, College of North East London, UK

Electronic media can contribute to personalisation of learning both in formal and informal contexts.
Efforts are made both at individual and organisational levels in Further Education to harness new tech-
nologies to enhance personal learning experiences. Personalised eLearning supports contents, activities
and collaboration aimed at meeting the needs and wants of the learner (Hill, 2004 & 2008; Coryell &
Chlup, 2007). However, some technology critics argue that there is very little research to support whether
eLearning is an effective approach to minimise the exclusion of disadvantaged groups in society, e.g.
learners of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) (Webb, 2006). The author contends that use
of technology could act as a barrier to participation in learning. This study was conducted to assess the
extent to which eLearning resources promote integrative/explorative learner-centred Computer Assisted
Language Learning (CALL). This chapter reports on the findings of a qualitative action research project
involving one-to-one interviews with learners (n=12) at the College of North East London (CONEL)
on their deployment of various new technologies (virtual and personal learning environments) in ESOL
studies during the academic year 2007/8. Additionally, three focus group interviews were held including
six learner interviewees each (n=18). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with four colleagues
who actively integrated CALL into delivery of their ESOL sessions. Data was also collected from pro-
gramme reviews, course evaluation reports and a research diary. The results of the study suggest that new
technologies promote personalised learning when applied with careful planning even among learners
who appear to be technophobic or are reluctant to use e-resources. Barriers hindering the integration of
e-resources into the curriculum are discussed and possible solutions are also suggested.
 Section 2
Pedagogical Issues

Chapter 8
The Impact of Interactive and Collaborative Learning Activities on the Personalised
Learning of Adult Distance Learners .................................................................................................. 128
Richard Hall, De Montfort University, UK
Steve Mackenzie, De Montfort University, UK
Melanie Hall, Staffordshire University, UK

The adoption across higher education of participatory, collaborative and connective ‘read/write web’
tools and synchronous classrooms has the potential to extend learner engagement and motivation. Em-
bedding these user-centred tools within curriculum practices offers the possibility for a sixth-generation
iteration of distance learning that frames a learner-focused pedagogy. This pedagogy is underpinned by
problem-based activities that pivot around a cycle of needing/wanting, doing, digesting and feedback.
They are supported by a facilitating tutor taking a connectivist approach to stimulate learning. This
chapter highlights both the drivers for this sixth-generation iteration and the subsequent development
of a model know as SCORE 2.0, or Synchronous Community Orientated Reflective and Experiential
2.0. The impact of this model on two cohorts of adult distance learners is discussed, in order to evaluate
opportunities for future pedagogical development.

Chapter 9
Blogs and the eFlective Practitioner: Professional, not Confessional ................................................ 149
Paul Lowe, University of the Arts London, UK
Margo Blythman, University of the Arts London, UK

In a context of mass higher education it can be a challenge to build a reasonable level of personalised
learning into the student experience. This chapter explores the relationship between personalised learn-
ing, reflection and the use of blogs in the building of a collaborative learning community through op-
portunities to build professional identity. The authors outline how the postgraduate programme in the
Media school at the London College of Communication, University of the Arts London uses web 2.0
tools on the photography programme, in particular blogs, in developing reflective practitioners within
a collaborative community of practice. The unique opportunities presented by live blogs in opening up
the process of articulating experience into learning, enhance what the authors characterise as the ‘E-
flective practitioner’.

Chapter 10
Building Practitioner Skills in Personalised eLearning: Messages for Professional
Development ....................................................................................................................................... 167
Ruth Pilkington, University of Central Lancashire, UK

The chapter suggests the implementation of personalised learning within Higher Education raises fun-
damental issues and challenges when developing academic staff to support this form of learning and
explores some of the challenges raised. It discusses the value of personalised learning for professional
development in particular within the context of UK Professional Standards for HE staff. The chapter
uses a case study to illustrate the issues and solutions offered by personalised eLearning and identifies
particular issues of literacy, prior learning and comfort with respect to online delivery that need to be
recognised for both developers and professional learners. The case study draws on a Joint Informations
Systems Committee (JISC) funded project under the RePRODUCE banner and compares findings with
existing traditional means of developing staff, as well as discussing the processes represented and the
contributions that can be made when personalising learning more widely within HE.

Chapter 11
Using ePortfolios in Higher Education to Encourage Learner Reflection and Support
Personalised Learning ......................................................................................................................... 185
Susi Peacock, Queen Margaret University, UK
Kate Morss, Queen Margaret University, UK
Alison Scott, Queen Margaret University, UK
Jane Hislop, Queen Margaret University, UK
Lindesay Irvine, Queen Margaret University, UK
Sue Murray, Queen Margaret University, UK
Simon T Girdler, Queen Margaret University, UK

Personalisation, with its emphasis on learner choice and lifelong learning, challenges educators to pro-
vide an innovative, student-centric educational experience. New technologies have great potential to
support personalisation; however, institutions must review their approaches to assessment and feedback
and their strategies to learning and teaching as well as increasing opportunities for collaborative learning
and extending their external partnerships. This is a significant agenda for any institution. In this chapter,
through the authors’ four case studies drawn from different subject areas in a higher educational institu-
tion, they illustrate how ePortfolios when integrated into the curriculum and combined with reflection
can support personalised learning. The authors’ also discuss the challenges of such an approach includ-
ing lack of learner engagement with the reflective process, an increase in tutor time, restricted learner
access to technology and the need for dynamic ePersonalisation. They offer suggestions for educators
in addressing such issues in order to provide a truly personalised learning experience.

Chapter 12
Personalised Learning: A Case Study in Teaching Clinical Educators Instructional
Design Skills ....................................................................................................................................... 212
Iain Doherty, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Adam Blake, University of Auckland, New Zealand

The authors consider personalised learning in the context of delivering a specialist postgraduate course
– ClinEd 711, ELearning and Clinical Education – at the Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences,
University of Auckland. They describe the pedagogical theory underlying the course design and our
experience of delivering ClinEd 711 with particular reference to the personalised learning process that
the course design facilitated. They present their research results for the student experience of ClinEd
711 and discuss changes made to the course as a result of student feedback. They make reference to the
introduction of student-led modules to further personalise the students’ learning experience. ClinEd 711
is a specialist postgraduate course with low student numbers; with this in mind the authors discuss the
implications of their pedagogical approach for those educators involved in teaching larger classes. They
conclude their paper with a discussion of the role of the educator in personalised learning.

Chapter 13
Research-Led Curriculum Redesign for Personalised Learning Environments:
A Case Study in the Faculty of Information Technology.................................................................... 235
Len Webster, Monash University, Australia
Patricie Mertova, Monash University, Australia
Kim Styles, Monash University, Australia
Lindsay Smith, Monash University, Australia

This chapter provides a case study outlining strategies which represent a starting point in the develop-
ment of a personalised learning environment (PLE). The initial strategies focus on student engagement
in two units run by the Faculty of Information Technology at Monash University, Australia. The case
study looks at changing the approach to a more personalised learning environment in the respective IT
units, and it also outlines how the changes were made based on a meta-analysis research of the Australian
Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ).

Chapter 14
Video-Enriched Learning Experiences for Performing Arts Students: Two Exploratory
Case Studies ........................................................................................................................................ 248
Alberto Ramírez Martinell, Lancaster University, UK
Julie-Ann Sime, Lancaster University, UK

To close the gap between formal education and professional practice, Higher Education (HE) practitio-
ners need to be aware of the importance of offering realistic learning scenarios where students can profit
from personalised learning opportunities and meaningful learning. In this chapter, the authors study the
extent to which viewing video recordings of the individual performances of dance and music students
benefited the learning process. Evidence was gathered from two groups of undergraduate performing
arts students at a HE institution in the United Kingdom, and from their corresponding teachers, who
independently offered their students a personalised way of accessing visually relevant feedback on
their performances via a virtual learning environment. Results suggest that this access to personalised
learning facilitated critical reflection and learning from experience. It enabled the students to reposition
themselves in relation to their actual performance, fostered their will to learn, and reaffirmed them as
potential professional performers.

Chapter 15
Enabling Personalised Learning through Formative and Summative Assessment ............................. 268
Neil Andrew Gordon, University of Hull, UK

This chapter considers some ways in which personalised learning can potentially be delivered by means
of appropriate assessment and the use of associated technologies. Recognising that for many students,
learning is driven by summative assessment, the chapter considers how by blending summative and
formative assessment, students can be encouraged to develop and take responsibility for their own
learning along with ways in which technology can make this assessment be tailored to the individual
student. The approaches described can support and encourage self-regulated learning – itself an effective
way of providing the more general concept of student-centred learning. The framework of learning that
is engendered – with the use of technology – has the potential to allow an educational pathway which
reflects individual students’ needs and aptitudes, and which can thus provide a form of personalised
learning. This chapter describes some of the relevant theory – which forms the context within which this
work is based and has developed - before then describing two case studies where this blend of formative
and summative assessment is described and analysed. This is followed by a discussion of some of the
more general issues.

Section 3
Technological Issues

Chapter 16
“You Can Take Out of it What You Want”: How Learning Objects within Blended Learning
Designs Encourage Personalised Learning ......................................................................................... 285
Debbie Holley, London Metropolitan University Business School, UK
Lyn Greaves, Thames Valley University, UK
Claire Bradley, London Metropolitan University, UK
John Cook, London Metropolitan University, UK

This chapter shows how a suite of learning objects were developed by the Centre for Excellence in
Teaching and Learning for Reusable Learning Objects (www.RLO-CETL.ac.uk), one of 74 CETLs be-
ing funded by the UK’s Higher Education Funding Council for England. The learning objects were used
to support students within a blended learning context. It shows student personalised learning: learning
that can be any time (in the 24 hour digital world), any place (the university experienced in the home or
workplace), any where (limited only by the students choice and internet access – trains, boats, planes,
global learning). It focuses on two case studies at UK Higher Education institutions that demonstrate any
time, any place learning. London Metropolitan University (London Met) and Thames Valley University
(TVU), have both used and reused learning objects in different contexts. In each case study the back-
ground and the resulting blended learning design is outlined, followed by evaluation data illustrating the
student experience and how the learning design and the learning objects have encouraged personalised
learning. The chapter concludes with the start of the third iteration of use – to facilitate informal learning
‘any where’, through the incorporation of learning objects that can be used on mobile phones.

Chapter 17
Into the Great Wide Open: Responsive Learning Environments for Personalised Learning ............. 305
Dirk Thißen, IMC (UK) Learning, UK
Volker Zimmermann, IMC AG, Germany
Tilman Küchler, IMC AG, Germany
Personalisation is a key requirement to motivate learners to use learning technology and self-paced
content. Whereas most research and technologies focus on personalisation of content, this paper focuses
on the personalisation of the tools and platform technologies for learning. When designing a learning
environment, most organisations worked in the past on their internal business processes and content but
did not focus on what the learner really does with the learning tools the organisation provided to them.
Changing the perspective to the user shows, that they create today “around the organisational solutions”
their own technology-enhanced learning world using a whole set of technologies: Learning management
system (LMS) of the company, learning management system of a further education institution or of a
university, different social network platforms, search engines, open web services in the internet like blogs
or wikis, and a lot more other applications. Therefore the challenge for organisations today is how they
can manage this variety of technologies by also enforcing the creativity and motivation of the users to
personalise and individualise their learning environment. This paper proposes a solution by describing
an architecture for a responsive and open learning environment. It delivers examples and a procedure
how such a solution can be built step-by-step. The approach can be used in schools, higher education
institutions, corporations or further education institutions.

Chapter 18
Personalisation and the Online Video Narrative Learning Tools V-ResORT and the ViP .................. 324
Gordon Joyes, University of Nottingham, UK

This chapter describes two tools for personalised learning that were outcomes of projects led by the
author for use in educational settings. These are the Virtual Resources for Online Research Training
(V-ResORT) and the Virtual Interactive Platform (ViP) learning tools. The former was designed to
support post graduate research students to develop an understanding of educational research through
an exploration of researcher video narratives. The latter was designed to support online communities
in sharing and critiquing videos of practice. These tools support the development of a learner identity
characterized by proactive participation in construction and reconstruction of knowledge rather than pure
consumption. This involves an engagement with communities of practice which it is argued is central
to personalised learning.

Chapter 19
Shared Spaces and ‘Secret Gardens’: The Troublesome Journey from Undergraduate Students
to Undergraduate Scholars Via PebblePad.......................................................................................... 341
Marina Orsini-Jones, Coventry University, UK

This chapter illustrates a curricular intervention carried out at Coventry University (UK) with under-
graduate students reading English. It explores how the students maximised their use of the tools available
within the ePortfolio software PebblePad. It discusses how the software tools were used to enhance and
personalise the students’ learning experience and engage in the discourse of ‘becoming researchers’ in
the second year module Dissertation Methods and Approaches. It proposes that the use of some ePort-
folio tools helped many students to become critical and to actively engage in their ontological journey
of transition to becoming independent thinkers. However it also reports that some problematic issues
surfaced following the implementation of the curricular action: some students find active learning and
active engagement in the scholarship of research ‘troublesome’. Finally this chapter gives consideration
to how to integrate the lessons learned from this experience into the curriculum for the next cohort of
students.

Chapter 20
Physical Metaphorical Modelling with LEGO as a Technology for Collaborative
Personalised Learning ......................................................................................................................... 364
Stuart Nolan, Hex Induction, UK

LEGO Serious Play is a business development process where users build metaphorical models from
LEGO bricks in order to explore and share their perceptions of various aspects of their working lives.
They model important symbolic elements of their personality, emotions, working practices, organization,
and the relationships between these elements in order to share stories that aid the construction of organiza-
tional knowledge. This chapter reports on trials using LEGO Serious Play with HE students from a range
of subject areas who used metaphorical modelling to articulate their learning autobiographies, current
situations, orientations to learning, and aspirations. The models helped students make informed choices
and helped staff to understand their needs and personalise the learning provision appropriately.

Chapter 21
Using ePortfolios to Evidence Practice Learning for Social Work Students ...................................... 386
Samantha Osborne, University of Kent, UK
Ruben Martin, University of Kent, UK
Louise Frith, University of Kent, UK

The University of Kent is piloting the use of ePortfolios in a number of departments; the School of Social
Policy, Sociology and Social Research took the opportunity to pilot ePortfolios to investigate whether
ePortfolios could improve communication and collaboration between student, placement supervisor and
academic tutors whilst Social Work students are out on work-based placement. Social Work students
are required to complete two reflective practice documents during each of their two placements during
Years 2 and 3 of their degree to assess their competence against a set of National Standards. The chap-
ter will discuss the adoption of a Personalised Learning Environment for recording assessed practice
and how the tools provided can enhance the different categories of users’ experiences both in terms of
reflective practice and personal development. The chapter gives a background to the pilot and describes
the different profiles of each user group which are students, academic staff, practitioners, and other
stakeholders. It will also examine to what extent the pilot is in line with government initiatives such as
the Leitch Review and Burgess Report and research into the use of ePortfolios for reflection; the issues
surrounding the introduction of new technology to non-traditional students and outside organizations;
how technology has changed student and practitioner’s perceptions and expectations in the production
of a collaborative body of evidence; and the future pedagogical implications of using technology with
Social Work students and practitioners.

Chapter 22
Effective Assignment Feedback through Timely and Personal Digital Audio Engagement............... 409
Anne Nortcliffe, Sheffield Hallam University, UK
Andrew Middleton, Sheffield Hallam University, UK
Audio feedback is a method that can provide rich, personal and detailed feedback that can convey more
than the written word. This is particularly achieved through the capturing of the expressive quality of
the speaker’s voice. Audio feedback has the potential to promote student engagement in the feedback
process, as it is not associated with the negative connotations of written feedback. This chapter will draw
upon the growing literature base and recent research. It will indicate how different approaches to using
audio technology can enhance the learning experience and the feedback process through its personal
and timely qualities. The chapter will conclude with guidelines for best practice for implementation of
audio feedback.

Chapter 23
Contemporary Music Students and Mobile Technology..................................................................... 429
Thomas Cochrane, Unitec, New Zealand

Five billion songs, and counting, have been downloaded (completely legally) through Apple Computer’s
online iTunes Store. The iTunes University links free educational content from over seventy tertiary
institutions worldwide, and is now available to New Zealand tertiary institutions. The Internet has revo-
lutionised the delivery and access of media and education – making access to a worldwide audience or
market merely a Google (or iTunes Store) search away! But, what are the real-world practicalities of
this for contemporary music students and teachers today? How can these tools be utilised to facilitate
personalised learning environments. Within this context, this chapter presents and evaluates a mobile
learning case study at Unitec in the Diploma of Contemporary Music on the Waitakere campus.

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 455

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 493

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 505

xviii

Preface

Technology catalyses changes not only in what we do but in how we think. It changes people’s awareness
of themselves, of one another, of their relationship with the world.1

Personalised learning seems to have been adopted as the new mantra in education. This is in part due to
the widespread availability of software which purports to support honourable aspects of learning, reflec-
tion, consolidation and extension…. to name but a few. The environment for learning has also radically
changed from didactic taught classroom or lecture based delivery to an environment which empowers
learners to take responsibility for their own learning. Such backgrounds as VLEs, MLEs, LMS and Web
2.0 tools, blogs, WIKIS, social networks all have changed the engagement between learner and teacher,
as well as between learner and learner. This is within a variety of contexts both formal and informal.
The political dimension is also attributable. The UK government is keen that children, pupils and
students will ‘enjoy and benefit from a personal learning experience’. Surely, learning has always been
personal? The way I learn is not the way you learn. This is true of how I experience and assimilate the
learning occurrence in the lecture hall. How I use a blog or social network site as my preferred learning
platform is inevitably and fundamentally different to any other user. The depth and meaning of reflec-
tion on my experience may be due to the rigours of my course and the often imposed assessment pattern
or personal as I want to ‘see’ how and how much I have learnt, understood, or can apply in a variety
of alternative scenarios. Personalisation, learner, pupil or student centredness advocate the use of the
learner’s own predilection, behaviour and activities.
The tension is between the formal institutional assessment regime and methods which are often inco-
herently mapped against the personal, individual learning strategies advocated by misaligned curriculum
ideologies which advocate personalised learning and independent activity based engagement. These do
not nestle comfortably within many institutions who feel it necessary to have generic examinations which
‘test’ against what was learned and remembered during a specific course, module or learning episode.
This is often to the detriment of utilising skills, knowledge and personal learning attributes which can
be assimilated within a future scenario or domain.
The content of this publication highlights the many areas in which practitioners are attempting to
implement learning technologies and reflects themes of current topical interest. Personalising learning and
the learner experience can be supported, enhanced and encouraged by the application and intervention of
technology. However, this must be carefully considered within the realms of what is both possible and
desirable. Internal and external factors also make a significant difference i.e. the institutional impediments
and often unsalable network access, the culture of the institution or environment, the engagement with
and by the students in formal, informal and situated learning. Finally technology, Web 2.0 and increas-
 xix

ingly social networks provide an opportunity to delve into additional learning experiences, but these do
need careful consideration if we are not to dilute the value, nature and experience of learning itself.
The book has three main sections: Infrastructural and Cultural Issues, Pedagogical Issues and
Technological Issues. The first section on infrastructure considers aspects related to the major infra-
structural, cultural and organisational changes required, if innovation is going to effect any change in
the institutional regime. It will focus on the role of the student and the tutor in the personalisation of
the learning process. The section on pedagogical issues presents descriptions of the different cases and
ways in which practitioners have attempted to use learning technologies and give personal examples
which illustrate both the potential and dangers of personalised learning technologies. The section on
technological issues will present descriptions of the “tools” that practitioners are using, outline their
strengths and weaknesses and highlight issues that need to be considered when planning to implement
new personalised learning environments.
Whilst the chapters are located within a section, the nature of technological use cannot be so compart-
mentalised - so many of the studies and topics reported here cut across many boundaries, infrastructural
and cultural, pedagogic and technological. The key issues highlighted and discussed include widening
access and participation, student-centred and collaborative learning and the changing role of the tutor/
pupil/ student.

Chapter DesCriptions

This book consists of 23 chapters, written by 47 authors, loosely grouped into the three sections as fol-
lows.
Introduction/ Chapter 1: Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning. Gráinne Conole.
This introductory chapter considers the discourse of the concept of personalisation and how it can be
supported through technology-enhanced learning. It looks at the policy rhetoric and considers to what
extent it is realised in practice. The chapter describes a range of illustrative examples of how technolo-
gies are being used to meet the personalised learning agenda.

section i: infrastructural and Cultural issues

Chapter 2: Breaking the Hierarchy: Democratising the Institutional Webspace. Beth Granter. This chapter,
inspired by direct experience from working on the development of the University of Sussex’s Student
Personal Learning and Social Homepages (SPLASH) project, discusses how ‘Web 2.0’ technologies
can be used to make institutional websites more democratic. The SPLASH project was non-typical in
that it intended to create an environment which would be fully customisable by the learner, so that no
content was obligatory. Examples from working on this project are used to illustrate benefits which can
be gained from, and barriers to the uptake of, more open publishing methods and an organically struc-
tured site architecture. Issues affecting learners, tutors, the institution as a whole, and how the power
dynamic between all three may change, are discussed. Parallels are drawn between teaching methods
online and those offline, both traditional and modern.
Chapter 3: PLE: A Brick in the Construction of a Lifelong Learning Society. Sabrina Leone. The
attainment of lifelong learning objectives is being mediated by a complex process of innovation in edu-
cation and society, by the integration of institutional actions and by the major role of coordination that
xx

university has assumed. The revolution that technology has engendered in every field has flowed into a
rethinking of knowledge, knowledge management, teaching and learning, networks and the individual.
The knowledge society requires new roles and skills, new forms of communication and a new awareness
as ‘active citizens’. Consequently, the shifting role of education systems in networked organisations is
decisive in order to support learners in forming diverse personal learning networks to deeply understand
complex fields. This chapter aims to discuss consistency and effectiveness of a personal learning en-
vironment as a new learning space and to highlight its contribution and relevance to lifelong learning.
PLE critical points and approaches will be discussed exploiting three case studies.
Chapter 4: Community@Brighton: The Development of an Institutional Shared Learning Envi-
ronment. Stan Stanier. This chapter details the implementation of a university-wide social networking
platform ‘Community@Brighton’ - using the open source Elgg platform and describes the technical,
institutional and educational issues arising from the two years of experience in running the platform.
The strategic vision of providing a social network platform alongside an institutional VLE to provide
an integrated Shared Learning Environment is also explored, including key case studies and discussion
on the challenges such technologies place on existing models of online learning and teaching.
Chapter 5: ELearning: Institutional Provision and Student Expectations. Barbara Newland and
Maria-Christiana Papaefthimiou. Students who have grown up in the digital age have certain expecta-
tions for learning in Higher Education. The divide between the institutional eLearning provision and
the expectations of students (who have grown up in a digital world) was highlighted through the UK
eLearning benchmarking exercise. Institutional eLearning provision and processes within the HE sector
are investigated and analysed through this exercise, which was led by the Higher Education Academy
in collaboration with the Joint Information Systems Committee. This chapter presents the experience
of two UK Universities, Bournemouth and Reading, whose participation in the benchmarking exercise
provides examples of institutional provision. Subsequent Pathfinder funding enabled them to build on
their strengths with projects aimed at narrowing the divide between student expectations of eLearning
and institutional provision.
Chapter 6: Personalising Teaching and Learning with Digital Resources: DiAL-e Framework Case
Studies. Kevin Burden and Simon Atkinson. This chapter describes the ways in which individual academ-
ics have sought to realise a degree of personalisation in their teaching practice through their engagement
with the DiAL-e Framework (Digital Artefacts for Learner Engagement). The DiAL-e Framework is
a new conceptual model, articulated as a paper-based and web-based tool, for designing learning en-
gagements. The policy and theoretical context, evolution of the framework and the methodology used
to utilise the framework with academic staff seeking to personalise the learning experience is outlined.
Details of three case studies resulting from this early work are described and conclusions drawn as to
how such frameworks might assist staff in thinking about personalised learning scenarios.
Chapter 7: Personalised eLearning in Further Education. Elfneh Udessa Bariso. Electronic media
can contribute to personalisation of learning both in formal and informal contexts. Efforts are made both
at individual and organisational levels in Further Education to harness new technologies to enhance per-
sonal learning experiences. This study was conducted to assess the extent to which eLearning resources
promote integrative/explorative learner-centred Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). This
chapter reports on the findings of a qualitative action research project involving one-to-one interviews
with learners at the College of North East London on their deployment of various new technologies in
ESOL studies during the academic year 2007/8. The results of the study suggest that new technologies
promote personalised learning when applied with careful planning even among learners who appear to
 xxi

be technophobic or are reluctant to use e-resources. Barriers hindering the integration of e-resources
into the curriculum are discussed and possible solutions are also suggested.

section ii: pedagogical issues

Chapter 8: The Impact of Interactive and Collaborative Learning Activities on the Personalised Learn-
ing of Adult Distance Learners. Richard Hall, Steve Mackenzie and Melanie Hall. The adoption across
higher education of participatory, collaborative and connective ‘read/write web’ tools and synchronous
classrooms has the potential to extend learner engagement and motivation. Embedding these user-centred
tools within curriculum practices offers the possibility for a sixth-generation iteration of distance learn-
ing that frames a learner-focused pedagogy. This pedagogy is underpinned by problem-based activities
that pivot around a cycle of needing/wanting, doing, digesting and feedback. They are supported by a
facilitating tutor taking a connectivist approach to stimulate learning. This chapter highlights both the
drivers for this sixth-generation iteration and the subsequent development of a model know as SCORE
2.0, or Synchronous Community Orientated Reflective and Experiential 2.0. The impact of this model
on two cohorts of adult distance learners is discussed, in order to evaluate opportunities for future peda-
gogical development.
Chapter 9: Blogs and the e-Flective Practitioner: Professional not Confessional. Paul Lowe and
Margo Blythman. In a context of mass higher education it can be a challenge to build a reasonable level
of personalised learning into the student experience. This chapter explores the relationship between per-
sonalised learning, reflection and the use of blogs in the building of a collaborative learning community
through opportunities to build professional identity. A postgraduate programme in the media school at
the London College of Communication, University of the Arts London uses Web 2.0 tools on the pho-
tography programme, in particular blogs, in developing reflective practitioners within a collaborative
community of practice. The unique opportunities presented by live blogs in opening up the process of
articulating experience into learning, enhance what is characterised as the ‘E-flective practitioner’.
Chapter 10: Building Practitioner Skills in Personalised eLearning: Messages for Professional
Development. Ruth Pilkington. The chapter suggests the implementation of personalised learning
within Higher Education (HE), raises fundamental issues and challenges when developing academic
staff to support this form of learning and explores some of the challenges raised. It discusses the value
of personalised learning for professional development in particular within the context of UK Profes-
sional Standards for HE staff. The chapter uses a case study to illustrate the issues and solutions offered
by personalised eLearning and identifies particular issues of literacy, prior learning and comfort with
respect to online delivery that need to be recognised for both developers and professional learners. The
case study draws on a Joint Informations Systems Committee funded project under the RePRODUCE
banner and compares findings with existing traditional means of developing staff, as well as discussing
the processes represented and the contributions that can be made when personalising learning more
widely within HE.
Chapter 11: Using ePortfolios in Higher Education to Encourage Learner Reflection and Support
Personalised Learning. Susi Peacock, Kate Morss, Alison Scott, Jane Hislop, Lindesay Irvine, Sue
Murray and Simon Girdler. Personalisation, with an emphasis on learner choice and lifelong learning,
challenges educators to provide an innovative, student-centric educational experience. New technologies
have great potential to support personalisation; however, institutions must review their approaches to
assessment and feedback and their strategies to learning and teaching as well as increasing opportuni-
xxii

ties for collaborative learning and extending their external partnerships. This is a significant agenda for
any institution. In this chapter, through four case studies drawn from different subject areas in a higher
educational institution, ePortfolios are integrated into the curriculum and combined with reflection to
support personalised learning. The challenges of such an approach are discussed including lack of learner
engagement with the reflective process, an increase in tutor time, restricted learner access to technology
and the need for dynamic ePersonalisation. Suggestions are offered for educators in addressing such
issues in order to provide a truly personalised learning experience.
Chapter 12: Personalised Learning: A Case Study in Teaching Clinical Educators Instructional
Design Skills. Iain Doherty and Adam Blake. This chapter considers personalised learning in the context
of delivering a specialist postgraduate course. It describes the pedagogical theory underlying the course
design and our experience of delivering a course with particular reference to the personalised learning
process that this course design facilitated. Research results for the student experience and discuss changes
made to the course as a result of student feedback are presented. Reference is made to the introduction
of student-led modules to further personalise the students’ learning experience. The course ClinEd 711
is a specialist postgraduate course with low student numbers; with this in mind the implications of our
pedagogical approach for those educators involved in teaching larger classes is considered. The chapter
concludes with a discussion of the role of the educator in personalised learning.
Chapter 13: Research-Led Curriculum Redesign for Personalised Learning Environments: A Case
Study in the Faculty of Information Technology. Len Webster, Patricie Mertova, Kim Styles and Lind-
say Smith. This chapter provides a case study outlining strategies which represent a starting point in
the development of a personalised learning environment (PLE). The initial strategies focus on student
engagement in two units run by the Faculty of Information Technology at Monash University, Austra-
lia. The case study looks at changing the approach to a more personalised learning environment in the
respective IT units, and it also outlines how the changes were made based on a meta-analysis research
of the Australian Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ).
Chapter 14: Video-Enriched Learning Experiences for Performing Arts Students: Two exploratory
Case Studies. Alberto Ramirez Martinell and Julie-Ann Sime. To close the gap between formal education
and professional practice, Higher Education (HE) practitioners need to be aware of the importance of
offering realistic learning scenarios where students can profit from personalised learning opportunities
and meaningful learning. In this chapter, the extent to which viewing video recordings of the individual
performances of dance and music students benefited the learning process are studied. Evidence is gath-
ered from two groups of undergraduate performing arts students at a HE institution in the UK, and from
their corresponding teachers, who independently offered their students a personalised way of accessing
visually relevant feedback on their performances via a virtual learning environment. Results suggest
that this access to personalised learning facilitated critical reflection and learning from experience. It
has enabled the students to reposition themselves in relation to their actual performance, fostered their
will to learn, and reaffirmed them as potential professional performers.
Chapter 15: Enabling Personalised Learning through Formative and Summative Assessment. Neil
Gordon. This chapter considers some ways in which personalised learning can potentially be delivered
by means of appropriate assessment and the use of associated technologies. Recognising that for many
students, learning is driven by summative assessment, the chapter considers how by blending summa-
tive and formative assessment, students can be encouraged to develop and take responsibility for their
own learning along with ways in which technology can make this assessment tailored to the individual
student. The approaches described can support and encourage self-regulated learning - itself an effective
 xxiii

way of providing the more general concept of student-centred learning. The framework of learning that
is engendered - with the use of technology - has the potential to allow an educational pathway which
reflects individual students’ needs and aptitudes, and which can thus provide a form of personalised
learning. This chapter describes some of the relevant theory, which forms the context within which this
work is based and has developed, then illustrates two case studies where this blend of formative and
summative assessment is described and analysed. This is followed by a discussion of some of the more
general issues.

section iii: technological issues

Chapter 16: “You Can Take Out of it What You Want”: How Learning Objects within Blended Learn-
ing Designs Encourage Personalised Learning. Debbie Holley, Lyn Greaves, Claire Bradley and John
Cook. This chapter shows how a suite of learning objects were developed by the Centre for Excellence
in Teaching and Learning for Reusable Learning Objects, one of 74 CETLs being funded by the UK’s
Higher Education Funding Council for England. The learning objects were used to support students
within a blended learning context. It focuses on two case studies at UK Higher Education institutions
that demonstrate any time, any place learning. London Metropolitan University and Thames Valley
University, have both used and reused learning objects in different contexts. In each case study the back-
ground and the resulting blended learning design is outlined, followed by evaluation data illustrating the
student experience and how the learning design and the learning objects have encouraged personalised
learning. The chapter concludes with the start of the third iteration of use - to facilitate informal learning
‘anywhere’, through the incorporation of learning objects that can be used on mobile phones.
Chapter 17: Into the Great Wide Open: Responsive Learning Environments for Personalised Learn-
ing. Dirk Thissen, Volker Zimmermannn and Tilman Küchler. Personalisation is a key requirement to
motivate learners to use learning technology and self-paced content. Whereas most research and tech-
nologies focus on personalisation of content, this chapter focuses on the personalisation of the tools
and platform technologies for learning. When designing a learning environment, most organisations
worked in the past on their internal business processes and content but did not focus on what the learner
really does with the learning tools the organisation provided to them. Changing the perspective to the
user shows, that they create today ‘around the organisational solutions’ their own technology-enhanced
learning world using a whole set of technologies: Learning management system (LMS) of the company,
of a further education institution or of a university, different social network platforms, search engines,
open web services in the internet like blogs or wikis, and a lot more other applications. Therefore the
challenge for organisations today is how they can manage this variety of technologies by also enforcing
the creativity and motivation of the users to personalise and individualise their learning environment.
Chapter 18: Personalisation and the Online Video Narrative Learning Tools V-ResORT and the ViP.
Gordon Joyes. This chapter describes two tools for personalised learning that were outcomes of projects
led by the author for use in educational settings. These are the Virtual Resources for Online Research
Training (V-ResORT) and the Virtual Interactive Platform (ViP) learning tools. The former was designed
to support post graduate research students to develop an understanding of educational research through
an exploration of researcher video narratives. The latter was designed to support online communities
in sharing and critiquing videos of practice. These tools support the development of a learner identity
characterized by proactive participation in construction and reconstruction of knowledge rather than pure
xxiv

consumption. This involves an engagement with communities of practice which it is argued is central
to personalised learning.
Chapter 19: Shared Spaces and ‘Secret Gardens’: The Troublesome Journey from Undergraduate
Students To Undergraduate Scholars via PebblePad. Marina Orsini-Jones. This chapter illustrates a
curricular intervention carried out at Coventry University (UK) with undergraduate students reading
English. It explores how the students maximised their use of the tools available within the ePortfolio
software PebblePad. It discusses how the software tools were used to enhance and personalise the stu-
dents’ learning experience and engage in the discourse of ‘becoming researchers’. It proposes that the
use of some ePortfolio tools helped many students to become critical and to actively engage in their
ontological journey of transition to becoming independent thinkers. However it also reports that some
problematic issues surfaced following the implementation of the curricular action: some students find
active learning and active engagement in the scholarship of research ‘troublesome’. Finally this chapter
gives consideration to how to integrate the lessons learned from this experience into the curriculum for
students.
Chapter 20: Physical Metaphorical Modelling with LEGO as a Technology for Collaborative Per-
sonalised Learning. Stuart Nolan. LEGO Serious Play is a business development process where users
build metaphorical models from LEGO bricks in order to explore and share their perceptions of various
aspects of their working lives. They model important symbolic elements of their personality, emotions,
working practices, organization, and the relationships between these elements in order to share stories
that aid the construction of organizational knowledge. This chapter reports on trials using LEGO Seri-
ous Play with HE students from a range of subject areas who used metaphorical modelling to articulate
their learning autobiographies, current situations, orientations to learning, and aspirations. The models
helped students make informed choices and helped staff to understand their needs and personalise the
learning provision appropriately.
Chapter 21: Using ePortfolios to Evidence Practice Learning for Social Work Students. Samantha
Osborne, Ruben Martin and Louise Frith. The University of Kent is piloting the use of ePortfolios in a
number of departments and took the opportunity to investigate whether they could improve communica-
tion and collaboration between student, placement supervisor and academic tutors whilst students are
out on work-based placement. The chapter discusses the adoption of a Personalised Learning Environ-
ment for recording assessed practice and how the tools provided can enhance the different categories
of users’ experiences both in terms of reflective practice and personal development. The chapter gives
a background to the pilot and describes the different profiles of each user group which are students,
academic staff, practitioners, and other stakeholders. It examines to what extent the pilot is in line with
UK government initiatives such as the Leitch Review and Burgess Report and research into the use of
ePortfolios for reflection; the issues surrounding the introduction of new technology to non-traditional
students and outside organizations; how technology has changed student and practitioner’s perceptions
and expectations in the production of a collaborative body of evidence; and the future pedagogical im-
plications of using technology with Social Work students and practitioners.
Chapter 22: Effective Assignment Feedback through Timely and Personal Digital Audio Engage-
ment. Anne Nortcliffe and Andrew Middleton. Audio feedback is a method which can provide rich,
personal and detailed feedback that can convey more than the written word. This is particularly achieved
through the capturing of the expressive quality of the speaker’s voice. Audio feedback has the potential
to promote student engagement in the feedback process, as it is not associated with the negative conno-
tations of written feedback. This chapter draws upon the growing literature base and recent research. It
indicates how different approaches to using audio technology can enhance the learning experience and
the feedback process through its personal and timely qualities. The chapter concludes with guidelines
and suggestions for best practice for the implementation of audio feedback.
Chapter 23: Contemporary Music Students and Mobile Technology. Thomas Cochrane. Five billion
songs, and counting, have been downloaded (completely legally) through Apple Computer’s online
iTunes Store. The iTunes University links free educational content from over seventy tertiary institutions
worldwide, and is now available to New Zealand tertiary institutions. The Internet has revolutionised the
delivery and access of media and education - making access to a worldwide audience or market merely a
Google (or iTunes Store) search away! But, what are the real-world practicalities of this for contemporary
music students and teachers today? How can these tools be utilised to facilitate personalised learning
environments. Within this context, this chapter presents and evaluates a mobile learning case study at
Unitec in the Diploma of Contemporary Music on the Waitakere campus.

ConClusion

Technology and the Web are valuable resources, enriching the educational resources we provide already.
The key is providing appropriate environments and then reinforcing the experiences with concrete activi-
ties. It is important that eLearning is recognised as a supplement to the personal interaction provided by
lecturers, teachers, parents and peers, not a replacement.
Technology provides opportunities never before available - such as remote global communication and
file sharing, reflection, consolidation, collaboration and exploration, simulation and active independent
individualised learning. Yet school, college and university departments are in danger of sabotaging -
through incomplete and, in some cases, detrimental implementation plans - the power of technology to
transform the teaching and learning process.
The twenty-three chapters included in this book were selected from a large number of submissions.
They cover vastly different subjects, group sizes and institutional types - music to social, whole class
to individual delivery and engagement, large universities to small departments, undergraduate to post
graduate. They are driven by the passion of the staff involved to ‘make a difference’, not by simply
using technology, but by applying technology in an innovative way to enhance, enrich and extend the
learning in which our students are involved.
The book presents case studies, research findings, developments and interventions which will pro-
vide guidelines and benchmarks with which the reader will be able to see how, why and where their
own implementation of technology is either struggling or ‘not making a difference’ within the context
of personalised learning.
My fervent hope is that this book will make a difference to the many classrooms of computers and
technology which increasing pervade and saturate our educational institutions and the lack of ‘real’ or
meaningful learner engagement provided by this intrusion.

John O’Donoghue
2009
xxvi

enDnote

1
Turkle, S. (1984). The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. New York: Simon and
Schuster.
 xxvii

Acknowledgment

I would like to thank IGI Global for affording me this opportunity to edit this book. It has reinforced my
concerns for the intransigence of educational communities to change. Equally it has reassured me that
change is possible, driven by the passion, enthusiasm and excitement of an increasing band of innova-
tors. Forty seven of them present their findings here in twenty three chapters. I thank them all.
I also thank all the referees who provided constructive and comprehensive reviews of all the chapters.
They work anonymously in the background, but their tireless effort is much appreciated.
Many thanks to the team at IGI Global, in particular Joel Gamon and Kristin Roth, who have answered
my queries, provided advice, guidance and support and patiently tolerated my inability to always keep
to the schedule.
Finally I must again thank all the authors for the excellent contributions. They have shared their work,
failures and successes. Email is wonderful and this publication would not have been possible without it.
The disadvantage of such a medium is that it does not provide me with the personal opportunity to thank
you all for contributing to a book which will hopefully enlighten, support and encourage colleagues to
venture into the technology supported learning and teaching arena.

John O’Donoghue
2009
 1

Chapter 1
Personalisation through
Technology-Enhanced Learning
Gráinne Conole
Open University, UK

introDuCtion (NSF, 2008; DfES, 2006; Becta, 2008; European

Commission, 2008). This chapter will consider the
There is a growing awareness that one-size-fits-all discourse of the concept of personalisation and how
approaches to school knowledge and organisation it can be supported through technology-enhanced
are ill-adapted both to individuals’ needs and to learning. This introduction will look at the policy
the knowledge society at large. To move beyond rhetoric and consider to what extent it is realised
uniform, mass provision can be described as “per- in practice. It will describe a range of illustrative
sonalisation” of education and of public services examples of how technologies are being used to
more widely.1 meet the personalised learning agenda.
This quote is the introduction to an OECD
(Organisation for Economic Cooperation and a starter for ten… Definitions
Development) publication (OECD, 2006) that il- of personalisation
lustrates the growing importance being placed on
the concept of personalised learning. This is evident What is personalisation? Although this seems to be
in the increasing reference to this and related terms a deceptively simple and common term, its usage
in national and international policy documents in an educational context is complex and subtle.
Dictionary definitions of the word ‘personalise’
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-884-0.ch001 include ‘to endow with personal or individual

Copyright © 2010, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

qualities of characteristics’,2 or ‘design or produce enabling learners to adapt the pace and depth of
(something) to meet someone’s individual require- study. [pg. 26]
ments.’3 It means many different things. A key role of learning professionals is to ensure
Indeed the personalisation agenda (like the that programmes of learning are geared to the
technology-enhanced learning agenda) raises needs of individuals and provide the right level of
profound questions about the nature of educa- challenge. Technology-based tools can improve
tion. This chapter will consider the ways in which assessment for learning by providing ways in
personalisation and personalised learning are which learners can demonstrate and share their
referenced from three perspectives: in policy achievements, as well as providing information on
discourse, in terms of technical developments progress. Combined with tailored content and re-
and pedagogically. It will provide a general, yet sources, there are greater opportunities for a more
comprehensive, overview of the field; looking both differentiated learning experience where learners’
at the vision and the challenges that attempting to needs are better understood and met. [pg.26] …
adopt a personalised approach raise. an understanding of how the use of technology
The increased interest in the concept of per- supports more personalised approaches to learn-
sonalised learning can in part be attributed to ing. [pg. 30]
the fact that policy makers and educationalists And the learner entitlement framework in-
have come to realise that a ‘one-size-fits-all’ ap- cludes the following statement:
proach to education is inappropriate and won’t
meet either individual or societal needs. It aligns Personalised learning which reflects learners’
closely with related policy agendas around the interests, preferred approaches, abilities and
development of the information society and the choices, and tailored access to materials and
concept of lifelong learning and the broader agenda content. [pg. 33]
concerned with living and working in a complex,
modern context. Similarly an EU document on Framework
Policy documents provide a useful rarefied Seven technology-enhanced learning activities
view of how the notion of personalisation is be- has numerous references to personalisation. Ac-
ing seen in an educational context. The policy commodate personalisation to respond to specific
document ‘Harnessing Technology: Transforming learning needs and contexts (mass- individualisa-
Learning and Children’s Services’ sets out the UK tion) pg 3 [The project 80days] will integrate mod-
Government’s plans for using Information and els of adaptive personalised learning and adaptive
Communication Technologies, and has recently interactive storytelling in gaming environments.
been updated by Becta (Becta, 2008). The concept Pg 6 [The project Grapple] aims at delivering a
of personalization is a strong theme throughout technology-enhanced learning environment for
the document: life-long learning, able to automatically adapt to
Critically, learners are making use of technol- personal preferences, prior knowledge, skills and
ogy to support flexible learning stimulated by their competences, learning goals and the personal or
personal use of technology. [pg. 3] Used well, social context in which the learning takes place.
technology enables more effective and more per- Pg 7
sonalised teaching and learning [pg. 11] Making And finally one of the core research questions
such [digital] resources more easily accessible to cited in the National Science Foundation (NSF)
both learners and practitioners will help to ensure report on ‘cyberlearning’ is;
that learners have greater choice and control over
their learning programmes, where appropriate

2
Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

Figure 1. Putting personalised learning at the centre of policy directives

How can cyberlearning infrastructure be used ing and working in modern society; in part it is
to mediate personalized learning across all the capitalising on the affordances of new technolo-
context in which it happens? Pg 38 gies and how they can be individually appropri-
ated and enable learners to be part of a global,
The power of technology to provide personalisa- connected distributed intelligence and in part it
tion will become greater and greater as we improve is due to a recognition that current educational
the quality of the instructional aspect of the Web- provision is too narrow and restrictive and is not
based course. Pg 42 meeting either the needs of individuals or society
as a whole. This section provides an overview of
Such powerful statements about personalisa- some of these factors.
tion point to a vision of an education system of
tomorrow which utilise technologies in innovative Society
ways to customise and personalise learning, to
equip today’s learners with the range of compe- Giddens, Beck and others point to the radical
tences and skills they will need to face the chal- changes which have occurred in society in the last
lenges of living and working in an increasingly few decades. We live in an increasingly connected,
complex societal context. ‘Networked Society’ (Castells, 2000). Giddens
(2000) outlines the impact of globalisation on all
the Context of Modern education aspects of our lives – from changing societal norms
and values to the blurring of national boundaries
The reasons for the emergence of the concept of and identities. Globalisation feels very real with to-
personalised learning are multifaceted. In part it day’s international concerns over global warming
is a response to addressing the challenges of liv- and the domino effect of the credit crunch around

3
 Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

the world. Beck (1992) warns of the unintended However, although new technologies are be-
consequences of technologies, whilst Virilio ing taken up and used in education, it might be
(2005) warns of our over reliance on technology argued that the impact across the sector is still
and outlines a nightmare dystopian future. relatively marginal with a significant amount
These wider societal forces and trends are hav- of teaching practice predominantly occurring
ing a profound impact on education. They raise through traditional approaches. The barriers for
fundamental questions about what is education in this lack of uptake are complex and are both
a modern context and how should it be delivered. technical and pedagogical. The challenge for the
We are seeing a diversification of life trajectories personalisation agenda is how to identify and
with individuals having multiple career paths. address these barriers.
Traditional high status professions such as law-
yers and doctors are no longer valued to the same Changing Learners and the
extend. Some are choosing alternative lifestyles, Implications for Educational Institutions
shunning the traditional career path. In a world
where content is essentially free (OECD, 2007; Within the wider societal context, recent research
Atkins et al., 2007) and where expertise is a click looking at learners and in particular their use of
away via a google search or a twitter query, what technologies, suggests that their patterns of learn-
is the role of educational establishments? Is formal ing and their attitudes to learning are changing (see
learning and associated accreditation increasingly for example ECAR, 2007; Kennedy et al., 2008;
loosing currency? Conole et al., 2008). Although some of the ideas
attributed to the so called ‘net generation’discourse
Technologies don’t bear close scrutiny, there is an emerging
pattern of changing behaviours. Today’s learners
The pace of technological change and its associ- see technology as core to their learning (Conole et
ated impact on society is phenomenal, as a scan al., 2008); computer and mobile ownership is high
of the NCM horizon reports4 that forecast future (ECAR, 2007). They use the Internet routinely to
technological development testifies. The relent- support their learning; to find information and to
less drive towards ubiquitous and mobile tech- discuss work with peers and teachers. They are
nologies continues, the next stage beyond social comfortable working with multiple representa-
networking and web 2.0 practices is emerging tions, are digitally literate, adopt an experiential
through the power of cloud computing, alterna- and outcomes-focused approach to their learning.
tive realities through virtual worlds and gaming However it is less clear to what extent they are able
technologies offer new forms of social practices to make academic judgements about the material
and interactions. As Pea and Wallis assert users and they find. It is not clear to what extent, if at all,
technologies are co-evolving and new practices they have improved higher order skills such as
are emerging that could not have been envisaged critical analysis and evaluation. Indeed immersion
(cited in NSF, 2008: 13). in such a technologically rich environment may
The affordances of new technologies in well lead to confusion for many students and a
terms of access to rich, multiple representa- need for scaffolding and support to guide them
tions of information and in terms of new forms appropriately in the use of these tools.
of communication and collaboration seem to Technologies have also had an increasing im-
offer exciting possibilities for education and in pact on teachers and others who support learning
particular offer a variety of means of achieving and teaching processes. Conole (forthcoming) pro-
personalised learning. vides a summary of some of the ways in which the

4
Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

role of teaching has changed in recent decades and with the promise of more flexible, responsive,
how technological developments have impacted and transparent systems of organisation. (OECD,
teaching and educational institutions. She argues 2006:18)
that the teaching role is changing and that many Providing a Government perspective, Miliband
teachers lack the necessary skills to harness the (2006) outlines three challenges in realising the
potential of new technologies and that they are personalisation agenda: excellence and equality,
confused by the bewildering array of technologies flexibility with accountability, and the need to
and the possible ways in which they can be used have a personal focus. He stresses that person-
to support learners. alised learning is not about returning to child-
The teacher-student nexus is also under threat; centred theories of learning, but a more holistic
in an information-rich, web 2.0 world where the approach to education. He then articulates five
focus is on user-generated content, peer dialogue components of personalised learning to guide
and co-construction of knowledge, the notion of policy development:
teacher as ‘expert’ and student as ‘receiver’ makes
little sense. 1. based on the strengths and weakness of
She also argues that educational institutions individual students, through effective use
are ill equipped to capitalise on the potential of of assessment and data
new technologies; working with legacy systems, 2. through development of competences and
unable (or unwilling) to undertake the radical confidence of learners
restructuring that is likely to be needed. 3. by providing appropriate curriculum
choice
perspectives on 4. through adopting a radical approach to the
personalising education organisation of learning and teaching – with
a shift towards a focus on student progress
I want to return to the OECD document on per- 5. by developing an appropriate infrastructure
sonalising learning referenced at the beginning of support – both technical and personal.
(OECD, 2006), as it provides a valuable summary
of both the historical development of the concept Järvelä (2006) reviews the research evidence
of personalised learning, along with some critical associated with personalised learning. She also dis-
reflections from key researchers in the field. tinguishes personalisation from individualisation
Hopkins (2006) provides a review of the foun- and from social learning and sees it as an approach
dations of personalisation, arguing that they are in educational practice and policy where every
partly historical and partly social. The concept learner matters. She outlines seven key dimensions
reflects the growing appetite for learning, and for achieving personalised learning.
links to the moral purpose driving personalisation.
He describes how the concept is in part a reac- 1. The development of key skills. What kind
tion against the traditional educational context: of knowledge will future learning and work
with the limitations of physical space, the lack situations need? Knowledge construction
of innovative uses of technology, the constraints and knowledge sharing form the core pro-
arising from the rigid nature of the curriculum, the cesses of learning, higher order skills (such
problems associated with teaching large classes, as the ability to evaluate, classify, make
and the conservative nature of many educational inferences, define problems and reflect) are
institutions. For Hopkins the challenge is to con- becoming increasingly important.
nect the possibility of truly personalised pedagogy

5
 Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

Through personalised learning, students are 7. Remembering that teachers are key. New
taught to use conceptual and factual knowledge in learning environments require complex
purposeful activities in authentic environments. design. Teachers will need to develop new
pedagogical reflective thinking skills in
2. The improvement of student learner skills. mentoring learning, mediating values and
The increasing importance of teaching learn- social skills as well as evaluating student
ers how to analyse, critique, judge, compare and their own activities.
and evaluate.
3. Encouraging learning through building Creating opportunities for sharing expertise and
motivation. By providing them with moti- discourse around shared texts and data about
vated learning schemas and opportunities student learning. (OCED, 2006: 42)
to work in different learning environments
so they can participate in the type of learn- She concludes by echoing the arguments made
ing activities that promote learning and earlier in this chapter; that we live in a constantly
understanding changing world; on a daily basis we need to make
4. Designing new learning environments for sense of a complex set of symbolic information
collaborative learning. Key in a rapidly and diverse cultural products. This places a heavy
changing society is the need to prepare cognitive load on individuals; ongoing, lifelong
learners to participate in socially organised learning is a critical means of tackling this.
activities. Paludan (2006) postulates on the future of
education, he argues there is something both politi-
How could the collaborative process in person- cally correct and inherently redundant about the
alised learning be regulated in order to favour the concept of personalised learning (OECD, 2006:
emergence of these types of interactions? How can 83) and cautions that in reality we are still a long
technology be designed to enhance personalised way from a personalised education system and
learning environments in ways that increase the that the inertia of current educational systems is
possibilities that such rich interactions occur? a major barrier to achieving the vision.
OCDE, 2006: 35 Leadbeater (2006) concludes by contextualis-
ing personalised learning in the wider UK agenda
5. Devising new models of assessment. of personalisation. He argues that the approach
Realising a truly personalised learning assumes that learners should be actively engaged
agenda will require radically different forms in setting their own targets, devising their own
of assessment with a great emphasis on the learning plans and choosing from a range of
process of learning rather than products. ways to learn.
6. The use of technology as a personal cognitive
and social tool. The need to develop models realising personalisation
that use technology to support individual and through technology-enhanced
social learning activities. ICT can increase learning environments
authenticity and interest, can build virtual
communities, can help share perspectives, There have been many good examples over the
can facilitate use of TEL inquiry and PBL last decade of the use of technology to foster par-
approaches, can provide innovative ways of ticular pedagogical approaches. Scardamalia and
integrating just in time support and interac- Bereiter (2006) through their knowledge forum,5
tion in different learning contexts. developed a innovative system for collective

6
Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

shared knowledge building. How could such a are beginning to utilise technologies in different
system be enhanced now to incorporate new web ways to support personalised learning.
2.0 practices and support personalisation? Dil-
lenbourg and others (see for example Dillenboug, Appropriating Individual Tools
1999; Dillenbourg et al., 1996) have developed for Personalised Learning
a range of collaborative learning environments,
which blur the boundaries between physical and A number of web 2.0 tools have been used in ways
virtual spaces. How might this be extended to that foster personalised learning. The website for
realise personalised learning – across different Pebblepad7 argues that it is much more than an
devices and in different contexts? A number of ePortfolio. It is a Personal Learning System being
researchers have designed learning environments used in learning contexts as diverse as schools,
to foster a particular pedagogical approach. For colleges, universities and professional bodies; by
example the work of Jonassen, Grabinger and learners, teachers and assessors; for PDP, CPD and
others (see for example Jonassen et al., 1995; L&T. PebblePad has been designed with the learner
Grabinger and Dunlop, 1996) on the development at the centre of the system. It provides scaffolding
of constructivist learning environments and au- to help users create records of learning, achieve-
thentic environments for support problem-based ment and aspiration and has a reflective structure
or scenario learning, such as Stagestruck (Harper underpinning all of its core elements.
et al., 2000) and SBL interactive (Stewart and Hirst (2008) has been exploring the notion of
Brown, 2008). an ‘uncourse’ as the antithesis to tradition OU
The question is what do we now need to do courses where everything that a student needs is
to build on this – to harness new technologies to provided for them. He has experimented with this
foster personalised learning? What new models notion by teaching a course via a blog. His central
do we need that combine the capacities that are argument is that research shows students are en-
needed to adopt a personalised learning approach gaged in a multitude of activities whilst studying
with the affordances of new technologies? and therefore courses should be designed to foster
As part of the broader personalisation agenda and enable this, rather than constrain students to
the term Personal Learning Environments (PLEs) a single, linear, teacher-directed narrative.
has gained currency over the last decade. The
wikipedia entry6 traces the emergence of the term, Individually Constructed PLEs
from early socio-constructivist systems such as
Colloquia through to today’s more commonly Atwell (2007) argues that a PLE is not an ap-
accepted notion of loosely coupled tools, fore- plication, but more of a new approach to using
grounding the social dimensions of learning. technologies for learning. In other words it is
This section will consider some recent exam- comprised of all the different tools we use in our
ples of initiatives that are attempting to leverage everyday life for learning. Leslie (2009) provides
technologies to foster personalised learning. The a link to a collection of representations of different
examples demonstrate how different initiatives PLEs. Looking at the figures what is striking is
are adopting different approaches to enabling the diversity of tools being used and the ways in
personalisation – some offer holistic, but learner- which individuals choose to represent their PLEs.
centred learning environments, others focus on Martin (2007) categorises her tools into three areas:
particular aspects – such as aggregating learning gathering information, processing information and
opportunities via an e-portfolio. This provides a acting on learning. In contrast, Delgrado (2007)
valuable snapshot of how teachers and learners using ELGG as his central focus, with all the links

7
 Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

to the tools linked into his personal profile. Leslie a mechanism for participants to connect with
categorises these into one of four types: tool- leading experts in the field. Because the course
orientated (where the representation emphasises used a range of technologies, participants were
the tools being used), use/action-orientated (where able to personalise the course to suit their own
what the tools are being used for in terms of learn- learning needs and to customised the learning
ing is emphasised), people-orientated (where the materials to suit their own preferred learning ap-
people involved in the network are highlighted) proaches. The course offered an interesting blend
and hybrid/abstract or other (which is a mixture of synchronous and asynchronous tools to support
of other representations). Leslie’s list illustrates different aspects of learning; opportunities to
the multitude of different ways that individuals discuss and reflect via blogs and forums, explora-
are appropriating technologies to suit their own tion of alternative communicative channels such
preferred way of learning. It is also evident that as second life, content aggregation via tagging
PLEs are not static; as users and tools co-evolve through delicious. Reflecting on the experience
so individual PLEs will change. For example, two Siemens concludes:
years after his PLE post, Atwell reflects that the
PLE he described in 2007 had changed (Atwell, Did we change the world? No. Not yet. But we
2008) arguing that it was not so much the shift (and I mean all course participants, not just Ste-
in technologies that was significant but the way phen and I) managed to explore what is possible
in which he is using them. online. People self-organized in their preferred
spaces. They etched away at the hallowed plaque
So whilst before my PLE comprised of a series of of “what it means to be an expert”. They learned
tools for managing learning, for consumption and in transparent environments, and in the process,
for creation, and tools for communication - today became teachers to others. Those that observed
the communication tools are central in managing (or lurked as is the more common term), hope-
my networked and collaborative learning. fully found value in the course as well. Perhaps
life circumstances, personal schedule, motivation
Extending Openness: From Open for participating, confidence, familiarity with the
Content to Open Courses online environment, or numerous other factors,
impacted their ability to contribute. While we
In 2008 Siemens and Downes ran a twelve-week can’t “measure them” the way I’ve tried to do
course ‘- Connectivism and Connective Knowl- with blog and moodle participants, their contin-
edge Online Course’.8 They described the course ued subscription to The Daily and the comments
as a MOOG (Massive Open Online Course). The encountered in F2F conferences suggest they
content, delivery and support for the course was also found some value in the course. http://ltc.
totally free, anyone could join and an impressive umanitoba.ca/connectivism/?p=182
2400 did, although the actual number of very
active participants was smaller (ca. 200). The Adopting a Web 2.0 Approach
course provides a nice example of an extension to Learning: SocialLearn
of the open movement, moving a step beyond the
Open Educational Resource movement to provid- What would a new university look like if we
ing a totally free course. Although designed in a started with a blank sheet of paper, capitalising
fairly conventional format – divided into topics on the very best of what we know about good
and spread over a number of weeks, the course pedagogy coupled with harnessing the potential
exploited a range of technologies and provided of new technologies? This is the question that has

8
Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

underpinned the development of a new initiative good learning is a combination of four things, i.e.
at the Open University, UK. The SocialLearn learning through:
project is exploring how web 2.0 technologies can
be harnessed for learning. SocialLearn expresses • thinking and reflection
the University’s aspiration to develop a new web- • conversation and interaction
based educational offering with the potential to • experience and activity
achieve significant business growth globally in • evidence and demonstration (see Figure 2)
ways that are consistent with OU values, which
is responsive to future conditions, and which is She goes on to describe a schema which using
cost-effective and scaleable (Walton et al., 2008). this framework as a means of mapping learning
There are four main aspects to SocialLearn. Firstly, principles and argues can such schema can be
each learner will have a learner profile, which used by teachers as a means of designing learn-
records their learning progress and can be used as ing activities and in particular effective use of
a mechanism to share goals, resources and activi- technologies.
ties. Secondly, the project is adopting an open API The previous section describing a range of
(Applications Programming Interface) approach different examples of how technologies are being
allowing developers to integrate with SocialLearn appropriated to support personalisation offer a
to allow the creation of loosely-coupled custom- starting point to begin to develop new pedagogical
ized personal learning environments. Thirdly, the models for personalisation. Is it possible to distil
project is developing a range of specialized learn- from these the essence of personalisation and how
ing applications that aim to facilitate and foster the affordances of technologies can be mapped to
web 2.0 learning approaches. Fourthly, a proof of create a technology-enhanced personalised learn-
concept site. Walton et al. (2008) conclude: ing environment? As Conole (2008) argues, this
is part of a wider problem in terms of capitalis-
SocialLearn is not a proposal to develop yet an- ing on the opportunities of new technologies for
other web-based platform for learning. The vision learning. The closest we have so far are theories
is much broader than that; we see it as an organi- that attempt to take account of the ubiquitous and
sational pedagogical and technical platform for connected nature of new technologies; such as
experimenting with disruptive technologies. connectivism. Siemens argues:

new Models of learning The starting point of connectivism is the individual.

for personalisation Personal knowledge is comprised of a network,
which feeds into organizations and institutions,
The previous section has described some of the which in turn feed back into the network, and
ways in which technologies are being used to foster then continue to provide learning to individual.
personalised learning. However, these practical This cycle of knowledge development (personal
examples are not grounded theoretically, there are to network to organization) allows learners to
no specific learning theories for personalisation. remain current in their field through the connec-
Nonetheless, there is a wide body of research tions they have formed.
generally on what constitutes good learning; from
more didactic instructionally focused theories There is a need to re-conceptualise learning for
through to those emphasising a socio-cultural the mobile age, to recognise the essential role of
perspective. Conole (2008) argues that in essence mobility and communication in the process of

9
 Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

Figure 2.

learning, and also to indicate the importance of Ledda, 2007; Campbell et al., 2007; Johnson,
context in establishing meaning, and the trans- 2004; Guldberg, 2004). Fraser (2006) writing
formative effect of digital networks in supporting about a policy document for the FE sector in the
virtual communities that transcend barriers of UK (DfES, 2006) highlights the following phrase
age and culture. in the report:

Although it can be argued that both of these Increasing personalisation so that individual
theories contain elements of personalisation, as needs and circumstances are built into the design
yet there is no unifying theory specifically around and delivery of education and training.
personalised learning. Until we have such theo-
ries our designs of learning environments that
attempt to foster personalisation are likely to be I’d argue that it is precisely this kind of misguided
atheoretical; there is a danger that they will be assurance - that the scope of individual needs and
technological deterministic. As Järvelä argues – circumstances can be anticipated to the extent that
‘models are needed for the effective use of tech- they can be built in to provision and delivered to
nology to support individual and social learning’ learners - that leads to exclusionary practice.
(OECD, 2006: 11)
In a TLRP commentary Pollard referring to
Counter arguments and the the UK Government’s Personalised Learning
Challenges of realising the Vision welcomes the vision but highlights four particular
challenges (Pollard, 2004). The first is conceptual
Despite the widespread enthusiasm and support – what are the theoretical and empirical founda-
for the concept of personalisation and person- tions for the concept of personalised learning?
alised learning, there are those who are sceptical The second is authenticity – is this really still
of some of the current discourse (see for example more about teaching and curriculum delivery than

10
Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

learning? The third questions how realistic and accreditations schemes increasingly have
achievable are the plans? And finally, what are the less meaning and individual portfolios gain
risks involved and how can they be managed? prominence - what is the purpose of tradi-
Realising the vision inherent in much of the tional educational institutions?
policy statements on personalisation brings with • There is a mismatch between the policy di-
it a set of challenges; many of which are not ex- rectives on personalisation and actual prac-
clusive to utilising technologies for personalised tice, how do we bridge the gap?
learning, but are equally relevant to the uptake of
technology in educational generally: We would like you to reflect on the issues raised
in this introductory chapter as you read through
• What does personalisation mean in a tech- the case studies, examples and reflections in the
nology-enhanced environment? remainder of the book. The concept of personalised
• How do we take account of a digital divide learning offers an exciting vision of a future of
that is ever narrower but deeper? learning that is truly tailored to individual needs,
• What new digital literacy skills will learn- abilities and interests. Technologies have much
ers and teachers need to capitalise on the to offer in terms of unlocking this potential, but
potential of new technologies to support their use will need to be pedagogical informed.
personalised learning? The chapters in this book give a glimpse of what
• True personalisation will require a radical is possible and a taster of future developments.
rethinking of the curriculum, the inertia
of existing educational systems and cul-
tures may be one of the biggest barriers to reFerenCes
change.
• Personalisation challenges existing norms Atkins, D., Seely Brown, J., & Hammond, A.
about assessment, what should be assessed, L. (2007). A review of the Open Educational
how can learners demonstrate what and Resource movement: achievements, challenges
how they have learnt? How can we shift and new opportunities. Report to the William
from a focus on the products of learning to and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Retrieved Feb-
more on the processes of learning? ruary 8, 2009 from http://www.hewlett.org/
• How can we ensure approaches to person- NR/rdonlyres/5D2E3386-3974-4314-8F67-
alisation are theoretically informed and 5C2F22EC4F9B/0/AReviewoftheOpenEduca-
how do we avoid adopting a technologi- tionalResourcesOERMovement_BlogLink.pdf
cally deterministic approach? Beck, U. (1992). Risk society towards a new
• A key challenge is to produce new peda- modernity. London: Sage.
gogical models which marry the affor-
dances of personalisation with the best af- Becta (2008). Harnessing technology: next gen-
fordances of technologies eration learning 2008-14. Retrieved February
• There is a blurring of the boundaries of 8, 2009 from http://publications.becta.org.uk/
formal and informal education; what is the display.cfm?resID=37348&page=1835
role of personalised learning across these
Campbell, R. J., Robinson, W., Neelands, J.,
contexts?
Hewston, R., & Mazzoli, L. (2007). Personalised
• There is a need for new business models
learning: ambiguities in theory and practice. British
– in a world where content and support is
Journal of Educational Studies, 55(2), 135–154.
potentially free, where formal, traditional
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8527.2007.00370.x

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 Personalisation through Technology-Enhanced Learning

Castells, M. (2000). The rise of the network society. ECAR. (2007). The ECAR study of undergradu-
Oxford: Blackwell. ate students and Information Technology. Edu-
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enDnotes
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Pollard, A. (2004). Personalised learning – a
1
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commentary by the teaching and learning re- ,en_2649_35845581_36168625_1_1_1_1,
search programme. Retrieved February 8, 2009 00.html
from http://www.tlrp.org/documents/person-
2
http://dictionary.reverso.net/english-
alised_learning.pdf definitions/personalisation
3
http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowl- personalize?view=uk
edge building: Theory, pedagogy, and technology. 4
http://www.nmc.org/horizon
In K. Sawyer (Ed.), Cambridge Handbook of 5
http://www.knowledgeforum.com/
the Learning Sciences (pp. 97-118). New York: 6
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_
Cambridge University Press. Learning_Environment
Sharples, M., Taylor, J., & Vavoula, G. (2005).
7
http://www.pebblelearning.co.uk/
Towards a theory of mobile learning, in R. An-
8
http://ltc.umanitoba.ca/wiki/Connectivism
drews & C. Haythornthwaite (eds.) The Sage
Handbook of Elearning Research. London: Sage,
pp. 221-47.

14
 Section 1
Infrastructural and Cultural
Issues
16

Chapter 2
Breaking the Hierarchy:
Democratising the Institutional Web Space
Beth Granter
University of Sussex, UK

aBstraCt
This chapter, inspired by direct experience from working on the development of the University of
Sussex’s Student Personal Learning and Social Homepages (SPLASH) project, discusses how ‘Web 2.0’
technologies can be used to make institutional websites more democratic. The SPLASH mashup project
was non-typical in that it intended to create an environment which would be fully customisable by the
learner, so that no content was obligatory. Examples from working on this project are used to illustrate
benefits which can be gained from, and barriers to the uptake of, more open publishing methods and
an organically structured site architecture. Issues affecting learners, tutors, the institution as a whole,
and how the power dynamic between all three may change, are discussed. Parallels are drawn between
teaching methods online and those offline, both traditional and modern.

introDuCtion This chapter will draw on experience gained

through the development of the Student Personal
Learning culture is but a slice of culture overall, Learning and Social Homepages (SPLASH) project
and people are becoming more important than at the University of Sussex, which was funded by
institutions in all facets of life. Command and con- JISC under the User-owned technology demonstra-
trol of organizational structures are giving way to tors strand (Granter, 2008). Challenges faced by the
democratizing networks. Learners, workers, all of project included managing negative institutional
us make decisions we previously would have taken attitudes towards critical content being published
to authorities for approval. (Cross, 2008) by students against the University, misconceptions
such as improved online communication being
thought to increase plagiarism, fears of defamation,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-884-0.ch002 fears that personalisation of the learning environ-

Copyright © 2010, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Breaking the Hierarchy

ment would damage institutional branding and between a number of people, often in a networked
fears of certain students’ viewpoints offending environment (Wikipedia, 2008).
other students.
This chapter hopes to address these concerns openness and utopia
and to deliver logical reasoning around how the
benefits of incorporating social media into an Openness is associated with values such as tol-
institutional website outweigh the risks, and how erance, individual freedom, lifelong learning,
in spite of any newly visible criticism, moving participation, empowerment and cooperation,
towards a more open publishing policy online as opposed to typical closed-world values of
will improve the reputation of the institution, as command and control, top-down management,
it will eventually be seen to be more honest and centralized and bureaucratic governance, over-
more trustworthy than those with closed publishing regulation. (Straub, 2008)
policies who operate under a hierarchy of strict
editorial control. Allowing students a voice will Web 2.0 technologies are creating a more demo-
add to the identity of the institution as one with cratic web by allowing anyone to publish content,
confidence in its ability to provide a high standard in comparison to the traditional unidirectional flow
of education and support and as an institution with of information from corporation to user. University
a ‘nothing to hide’ attitude. websites have previously consisted of institutional
Personalisation of the learning environment information being presented for the consumption
addresses the power imbalance in education, im- of their students, potential students, businesses and
proving the ability of students to learn from each all other audiences. A typical University website
other, thereby putting some power into the hands currently consists of reading lists and lecture notes
of the students. Giving students more choice over posted by tutors, promotional information written
the content they receive from the institution in turn by its press and communications division, and
puts extra pressures on the institution to provide departmental web content written by authorised
useful and interesting content; furthermore, the web editors. The offline version of this content
feedback available in the form of usage statistics would be traditional printed prospectus’, standard
will put major pressures on different institutional format lectures and the mainstream press.
units to perform to a high level as they compete While collaborative group work and student
for attention and space. Thus, within the context discussion has been increasingly encouraged in
of a history of corporate control of information, modern teaching, in the form of seminars etc.
projects aiming to create democratic personalised (Terenzini et al, 2001), it is only in the last few
learning environments are likely to find conflict years that the tools have been available which
within the institution itself. could mirror this more democratic style of learning
Although the term ‘Web 2.0’ is already be- online. The mainstream press has been opening up
ginning to be regarded as a dated term, its use its websites via user generated content in the form
here is appropriate because Web 2.0 describes of blogs and forums (and more recently, rich media
succinctly a number of theories and tools aligned (Plesser, 2006)) since the very beginning of the
with a more democratic use of the internet. In the twenty first century - allowing the public to have a
scope of this chapter, Web 2.0 is used to describe voice (Jenny, 2003). University websites seem to
blogging, wikis, forums, user generated content, have limited the use of Web 2.0 tools to the domain
online communities and social media. ‘Social of eLearning, conveniently maintaining complete
media’ here refers to any online tool or space institutional control over public facing content.
which allows communication and/or collaboration Initially conceived as a social networking mashup

17
 Breaking the Hierarchy

space, the SPLASH project was intended to create of institutional fears such as these. Individual
more than just an eLearning space – the blogging academics have raised concerns about defama-
aspect can be used as a public publishing platform tion, which they feared a university-endorsed
for any purpose within reason. However, creat- open publishing platform might facilitate. They
ing a very democratic space within an otherwise understood that the tools on the web could already
closed website is not changing the central system, be (and sometimes were being) used to discuss a
but is the equivalent of creating a co-operative tutor negatively – but it was when these same tools
commune in the woods in a city which remains were brought within a university website that the
essentially capitalist, when I believe we should content published through them would have to be
be taking steps to build the online equivalent of recognised and dealt with. The only consolation
an anarcho-syndicalist society; we were able to give was that they could use these
public feedback areas to gain knowledge of how
Anarcho-syndicalists view labour unions as a they might improve their teaching practice, and
potential force for revolutionary social change, in turn respond to dissatisfied students and help
replacing capitalism and the State with a new them with their issues. Of course this will not be
society democratically self-managed by workers. a satisfactory response to tutors who are aware of
(Wikipedia, 2008 (my emphasis)) being unpopular amongst their students.

Instead of mirroring existing societal structures Folksonomy

when building the web, we can choose to build
it as a new utopia. It is my view that when the Political centralization… is a relic belonging to the
utopian model is working online, we are one step social condition marked by industrial capitalism:
closer to achieving utopia offline. a myriad of interdependent industrial productions
that require homogeneity in order for there to be
reputation and Citizen Journalism the predictability that is necessary for the various
manufacturing outputs to be interoperable with
Currently, open publishing platforms such as one another. (Cole, 2008)
Wikipedia, citizen journalism sites such as Indy-
media and online social networking sites such as A strategy similar to political centralisation is
Facebook are flourishing, but there are institutional generally employed when designing, building and
concerns over adopting similar open publishing managing traditional university websites. Hence,
policies within the context of a university website. departmental sections of the whole website must
Educational institutions in general put a great each have a homogeneous semantic structure, not
deal of resources into maintaining their online only to ensure that usability is good across the
reputation as a professional institution. New social site for the end user, but perhaps because we are
media sites which allow users to publish their currently comfortable with this level of structure
own opinions of products and services, such as and control as it mirrors the structure we see in
GetSatisfaction.com, are seen by businesses to be our institutions, and in our society.
threatening as they provide the space for criticism When considering the offline organisation of
which could damage their reputation (Bowles, higher educational institutions, there is often con-
2006). ELearning projects hoping to harness flict between the opinions of students, lecturers and
the educational benefits of Web 2.0 technology central administrative teams – each being under
through wikis, blogs etc., are likely to be con- different pressures and having different needs from
fronted with barriers to their progress as a result the organisation. Hence, the University of Sussex

18
Breaking the Hierarchy

has had four restructures in seven years, much to Within any large organisation, there are likely
the frustration of many staff and students, who feel to be recurring disagreements between the central
their needs are not being met (Hodges, 2008). Since administration and departmental staff over how in-
the structure of an institutional website is likely formation on the institution’s website is organised,
to mirror that of the institution itself, restructures i.e. the information architecture of a site. Locally,
inevitably create a massive workload for web those closest to a particular area of study with
teams, who may be positioned by association as specialist knowledge will naturally want to have
having some responsibility for a new, unpopular, as much control as possible over their content, as
institutional structure, because of their technical they feel they are most qualified to organise it.
responsibility to control the website structure. As However, central teams have the understanding
with many universities, the relationship between that organising content in a uniform manner across
the University of Sussex as an institution and the departments makes browsing easier and is vital
University of Sussex Student Union (USSU) has for good usability of a website (Tidwell, 2005).
historically been less than perfect. As a university There is generally no dynamic interaction between
famous for direct action and its constituency of related items of content housed on separate de-
politically active students, there is often a feeling partmental web pages, that is, inter-departmental
of scepticism still held by USSU members towards links where topics or research cross boundaries
‘The Administration’. Protest marches on Sussex of categorisation rely on the web editors enter-
House, which houses Student Recruitment, the ing manual links which relies on the web editor
Press and Communications Division, Student being aware of related content elsewhere on the
Accounts and the Vice Chancellor’s Office, are site. There is no opportunity for comment, no
not uncommon. Increases in fees at a national automated track-backs for referenced content, no
level, and questions over University finances ability to create new links across subjects through
and management practices at a local level, are tagging. A hierarchy of editorial control operates
often the main causes for protest. In such a time where trained content creators are guided by web
of unrest, and particularly in the culture of protest editors who operate under the control of a PR and
that Sussex remains in today, it should be seen as Communications division.
courageous of the University to open up any of its
public facing web space to its students and staff Traditional hierarchies with their burgeoning
via post-moderation (ability to moderate after bureaucracies and disconnected silos are typical
content has gone ‘live’ on the site). It is yet to be manifestations [of the closed world]. The rise of
seen how any moderation will be handled by those social networking sites, virtual worlds, blogs, wikis
authorised, and how those being moderated will and 3D Internet give us a first idea of the poten-
respond. The Student Union’s Communications tial of the “interactive and collaborative web”
Officer was regularly consulted throughout the dubbed Web 2.0. Now we have the infrastructure
development of the SPLASH project, and the and tools to operate in new ways in open systems.
concerns he voiced were mainly around issues (Straub, 2008)
of moderation, privacy and control. Ensuring that
the student body felt comfortable using the system To overcome any power struggle between
we were building was of course very important departments and central teams over information
to the project, which had to balance the desire for architecture, it is possible to provide multiple ways
the opportunity for free-speech and public debate, of navigating content. A consistent top level and
with concerns over the potential for bullying and secondary level navigation system is certainly nec-
invasion of privacy. essary, and after consulting departments the central

19
 Breaking the Hierarchy

team should be able to create this navigation, The majority cannot and should not be rallied for
the main site map and traditional user journeys. discussion around a slogan, a word, or a picture.
Subject specific content can then be placed into But the idea remains the same: they should be able
the most relevant areas and categories, using the to meet around a problem chosen and defined by
institutional taxonomy, as is standard with current their own initiative. Creative, exploratory learn-
web Content Management Systems. In addition, ing requires peers currently puzzled about the
to create a parallel and organic navigation option, same terms or problems. Large universities make
feedback on the information architecture of a site the futile attempt to match them by multiplying
could come through the use of tagging. The content their courses, and they generally fail since they
could be tagged by any individual, which would are bound to curriculum, course structure, and
generate tag clouds made up of subject-specific bureaucratic administration.
folksonomies. People within departments may
then find it easier to navigate content via these tags Illich goes on to envisage a solution in the form
rather than the institutionally defined categories. of a system which did not yet exist at the time of
This more flexible and open approach to content his writing – a computer network where individu-
structure could also account for changes over als make contact for the purpose of discussion
time if this affects the way that the information around a topic chosen by themselves.
needs to be organised. Fears of abuse of such a
system could be reduced via a log-in system so the Knowledge economy
the person tagging is identifiable. Abuses could
also be flagged by other users so the system could A great deal has been written about e-government
be self-policing. and democracy, mainly with regard to American
In addition, the learning effect on students and politics. These studies suggest ways in which Web
staff alike of the opportunity to reorder and recat- 2.0 tools could be used to democratise government
egorise the content they are learning from will not processes via online referendums and increased
only be through the benefit of awareness of new discourse between governing councils and the
connections between topics, therefore enhancing public. In an article on the website Midwest
the solidification of the contents’ meanings in Populist America, Cole uses the well known ex-
the mind, but will also be through the benefit of ample of Nature’s experiment, which proved the
rethinking the learning experience itself – to think equivalence in reliability of the social knowledge
of it not as an experience requiring institutional platform Wikipedia to the traditionally produced
schooling, but one which can come from oneself Encyclopaedia Britannica (Giles, 2005), to support
and one’s community. Attempts at re-educating his argument that “radical democracy – a state that
our society into this frame of mind, where learning is, oftentimes, embodied by Web 2.0 communi-
outside the framework of the traditional institu- ties – is not only a deontological ideal – a social
tional schooling system is validated by all, echoes condition that we should strive to foster, because
Illich’s calls for “deschooling society”, which is it is inherently desirable – but a form of social
based on the theory that, “Most learning happens organization that is pragmatically endowed.” He
casually, and even most intentional learning is goes on to say that “social knowledge produces
not the result of programmed instruction” (Illich, knowledge constructs on a scale that supersedes in
1970). Returning to the topic of folksonomies and volume and quality the knowledge built from tra-
tagging, then, Illich states that, ditional social institutions, such as the Academe”
(Cole, 2008). Although more research is needed
to conclusively prove this statement, the initial

20
Breaking the Hierarchy

studies do seem to support this theory, which is to publish to be provided for them. Increasing
of great concern to those making a career out of numbers of researchers are likely to have their
their expertise. Historically, science is considered own blog or homepage already and this may
to be closely aligned to a ‘pure truth’ and proven reduce the likelihood of some institutions rec-
facts, distanced from opinion and unauthorised ognising the need to provide these services to
or unapproved research. While there should be its staff and students. However, aggregation of
no reason why theories and hypothesis cannot up-to-date content (e.g. via RSS) could be seen
be created more collaboratively and internation- as a valid method of supporting this content. The
ally, using Web 2.0 technologies as a tool to aide opportunity to publish alongside other research-
this process, the whole culture of academia has ers from the same institution is the benefit, not
grown around peer review, citation scores, and specifically the provision of a blogging platform
getting published in respectable journals (Hen- itself. Indeed, many researchers will value the
neberg, 1997). When anyone can self publish and opportunity to choose a platform for themselves
non-traditional open publishing spaces become that suits their needs or is familiar to them. On
respected, the knowledge economy itself becomes the other hand, less experienced users may need
unstable. a platform to be provided by the institution before
In the field of pharmaceutical research for ex- they feel they can ‘trust’ the software. Additionally,
ample, open publishing is likely to pose a problem when an institution aggregates the content of its
with regard to patents and sponsorships. Where researchers, it is providing a recognisable badge
huge finances are required to carry out practical of approval and authority to the work that a pre-
research, methods of production will need to viously independent, self-published researcher’s
remain under strict ownership of the sponsor. blog could not achieve.
Where there are great financial gains to be made
from finding a solution to a problem, collabora- student personal learning and
tion amongst strangers towards a common goal social homepages (splash)
will be rare. In Wallis’ review of the SAPIENS
project (which was set up to provide electronic The SPLASH project provides a simple blogging
versions of Scottish periodicals) he concludes platform to users, alongside an RSS feed output
that electronic publishing is “not cost free and a display where external blogs can be imported
subscription model is necessary to sustain such a and displayed on a user’s SPLASH Profile. A
service” (Wallis, 2004). Although this is a review major concern throughout the project was that the
of the practice of open access to traditional publica- user should keep total control and ownership of
tions and not specifically about open publishing, all of their content, even outside the lifetime of
the two are directly related because all or almost their university membership. To achieve this, the
all open publishing platforms are used to create SPLASH project took a very different shape to
freely available (open access) intellectual property other Personal Learning Environment (PLE) and
(Wikipedia, 2008). ePortfolio projects, by insisting that all content
In Web 2.0 culture, original content may be created by the user, except blog posts, would be
considered more trustworthy than that which has hosted externally. In the case of blog posts which
been rewritten by copywriters and editors. In order constituted the only university hosted, user-
to self-publish such original content, researchers generated content, a large factor in the project
need tools and training for online publishing, plan was that the blog should be easily export-
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21
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
phosgene and chloropicrin, phosgene and superpalite, and
phosgene and diphenylchloroarsine have been found.

Fig. 26.—Interior of a Shell Dump.

The English introduced the use of projectors in the Spring of

1917. They have a decided advantage over shell in that they hold a
larger volume of gas and readily lend themselves to surprise attacks.
As the Germans say, “the projector combines the advantages of gas
clouds and gas shell. The density is equal to that of gas clouds and
the surprise effect of shell fire is also obtained.”
Toward the close of the war, the Germans made use of a mixture
of phosgene and pumice stone. A captured projector contained
about 13 pounds of phosgene and 5½ pounds of pumice. There
seems to be some question as to the value of such a procedure.
Lower initial concentrations are secured; this is due, in part of
course, to the smaller volume of phosgene in the shell containing
pumice. Pumice does seem to keep the booster from scattering the
phosgene so high into the air, and at the same time does not prevent
the phosgene from being liberated in a gaseous condition. This
would indicate that pumice gives a more even and uniform
dispersion and a more economical use of the gas actually used.
Owing to its non-persistent nature (the odor disappears in from
one and a half to two hours) and to its general properties, phosgene
really forms an ideal gas to produce casualties.

Action on Man
Phosgene acts both as a direct poison and as a strong lung
irritant, causing rapid filling of the lungs with liquid. The majority of
deaths are ascribed to the filling up of the lungs and consequently to
the suffocation of the patients through lack of air. This filling up of the
lungs is greatly hastened by exercise. Accordingly, all rules for the
treatment of patients gassed with phosgene require that they
immediately lie down and remain in that position. They are not even
allowed to walk to a dressing station. The necessity of absolute quiet
for gassed patients undoubtedly partly accounts for the later habit of
carrying out a prolonged bombardment after a heavy phosgene gas
attack. The high explosive causes confusion, forcing the men to
move about more or less and practically prevents the evacuation of
the gassed. In the early days of phosgene the death rate was unduly
high because of lack of knowledge of this action of the gas. Due to
the decreased lung area for oxygenizing the air, a fearful burden is
thrown on the heart, and accordingly, those with a heart at all weak
are apt to expire suddenly when exercising after being gassed.
As an illustration of the delayed action of phosgene, a large scale
raid made by one of the American divisions during its training is
highly illuminating.
This division decided to make a raid on enemy trenches which
were situated on the opposite slope of a hill across a small valley. Up
stream from both of the lines of trenches was a French village in the
hands of the Germans. When the attack was launched the wind was
blowing probably six or seven miles per hour directly down stream
from the village, i.e., directly toward the trenches to be attacked. The
usual high explosive box barrage was put around the trenches it was
intended to capture.
Three hundred Americans made the attack. During the attack a
little more than three tons of liquid phosgene was thrown into the
village in 75- and 155-millimeter shells. The nearest edge of the
village shelled with phosgene was less than 700 yards from the
nearest attacking troops. None of the troops noticed the smell of
phosgene, although the fumes from high explosive were so bad that
a few of the men adjusted their respirators. The attack was made
about 3 a.m., the men remaining about 45 minutes in the vicinity of
the German trenches. The men then returned to their billets, some
five or six kilometers back of the line. Soon after arriving there, that
is in the neighborhood of 9 a.m., the men began to drop, and it was
soon discovered that they were suffering from gas poisoning. Out of
the 300 men making the attack 236 were gassed, four or five of
whom died.
The Medical Department was exceedingly prompt and vigorous in
the treatment of these cases, which probably accounted for the very
low mortality.
This is one of the most interesting cases of the delayed action
that may occur in gassing from phosgene. Here the concentration
was slight and there is no doubt its effectiveness was largely due to
the severe exercise taken by the men during and after the gassing.
It should be remarked in closing that while gas officers were not
consulted in the planning of this attack, a general order was shortly
thereafter issued requiring that gas officers be consulted whenever
gas was to be used.
 CHAPTER VII
LACHRYMATORS

Without question the eyes are the most sensitive part of the body
so far as chemical warfare is concerned. Lachrymators are
substances which affect the eyes, causing involuntary weeping.
These substances can produce an intolerable atmosphere in
concentrations one thousand times as dilute as that required for the
most effective lethal agent. The great military value of these gases
has already been mentioned and will be discussed more fully later.
There are a number of compounds which have some value as
lachrymators, though a few are very much better than all the others.
Practically all of them have no lethal properties in the concentrations
in which they are efficient lachrymators, though we must not lose
sight of the fact that many of them have a high lethal value if the
concentration is of the order of the usual poison gas. The
lachrymators are used alone when it is desired to neutralize a given
territory or simply to harrass the enemy. At other times they are used
with lethal gases to force the immediate or to prolong the wearing of
the mask.
A large number of the lachrymators contain bromine. In order to
maintain the gas warfare requirements, it was early decided that the
bromine supply would have to be considerably increased. The most
favorable source of bromine is the subterranean basin found in the
vicinity of Midland, Michigan. Because of the extensive experience of
the Dow Chemical Co. in all matters pertaining to the production of
bromine, they were given charge of the sinking of seventeen
government wells, capable of producing 650,000 pounds of bromine
per year. While the plant was not operated during the War, it was
later operated to complete a contract for 500,000 pounds of bromine
salts. They will be held as a future war asset of the United States.
 The principal lachrymators used during the War were:

Bromoacetone,
Bromomethylethylketone,
Benzyl bromide,
Ethyl iodoacetate,
Bromobenzyl cyanide,
Phenyl carbylamine chloride.

Chloropicrin is something of a lachrymator, but it has greater

value as a toxic gas.

Halogenated Ketones
One of the earliest lachrymators used was bromoacetone.
Because of the difficulty of obtaining pure material, the commercial
product, containing considerable dibromoacetone and probably
higher halogenated bodies, was used. The presence of these higher
bromine derivatives considerably decreased its efficiency as a
lachrymator. The preparation of bromoacetone involved the loss of
considerable bromine in the form of hydrobromic acid. This led the
French to study various methods of preparation, and they finally
obtained a product containing 80 per cent bromoacetone and 20 per
cent chloroacetone, which they called “martonite.” As the war
progressed, acetone became scarce, and the Germans substituted
methylethylketone, for which there was little use in other war
activities. This led to the French “homomartonite.”
Various other halogen derivatives of ketones have been studied
in the laboratory, but none have proven of as great value as
bromoacetone, either from the standpoint of toxicity or lachrymatory
power.
Bromoacetone may be prepared by the action of bromine (liquid
or vapor) upon acetone (with or without a solvent). Aqueous
solutions of acetone, or potassium bromide solutions of bromine,
have also been used.
 Pure bromoacetone is a water clear liquid. There are great
differences in the properties ascribed to this body by different
investigators. This probably is due to the fact that the monobromo
derivative is mixed with those containing two or more atoms of
bromine. A sample boiling at 126-127° and melting at -54°, had a
specific gravity of 1.631 at 0°. It has a vapor pressure of 9 mm. of
mercury at 20°.
While bromoacetone is a good lachrymator, it possesses the
disadvantage that it is not very stable. Special shell linings are
necessary, and even then the material may be decomposed before
the shell is fired. The Germans used a lead-lined shell, while
considerable work has been carried out in this country with enamel
lined shell. Glass lined shell may also be used. It is interesting to
note that, while bromoacetone decomposes upon standing in the
shell, it is stable upon detonation. No decomposition products are
found after the explosion, and even unchanged liquid is found in the
shell. It may be considered as having a low persistency, since the
odor entirely disappears from the surface of the ground in twenty-
four hours.
Bromoacetone was also used by the Germans in glass hand
grenades (Hand-a-Stink Kugel) and later in metal grenades. The
metal grenades weighed about two pounds and contained about a
pound and a half of the liquid.
Martonite was prepared by the French in an attempt more
completely to utilize the bromine in the preparation of bromoacetone.
They regenerated the bromine by the use of sodium chlorate:

NaClO₃ + 6HBr = NaCl + 3Br₂ + 3H₂O

In practice sulfuric acid is used with the sodium chlorate, so that
the final products are sodium acid sulfate and a mixture of 20 per
cent chloroacetone and 80 per cent bromoacetone, according to the
reaction:

5(CH₃)₂CO + 4Br + H₂SO₄ + NaClO₃ =

4CH₂BrCOCH₃ + CH₂ClCO CH₃ + NaHSO₄ + 3H₂O.
 This product is equally as effective as bromoacetone alone and is
very much cheaper to manufacture. In general its properties
resemble very closely those of bromoacetone.

German Manufacture of Bromoacetone

and Bromomethylethyl ketone[17]
These two products were prepared by identical methods. About
two-thirds of the product produced by the factory was prepared from
methylethyl ketone which was obtained from the product resulting
from the distillation of wood. The method employed was to treat an
aqueous solution of potassium or sodium chlorate with acetone or
methylethyl ketone, and then add slowly the required amount of
bromine. The equation for the reaction in the case of acetone is as
follows:

CH₃COCH₃ + Br₂ = CH₂BrCOCH₃ + HBr

Ten kg.-mols of acetone or methylethyl ketone were used in a
single operation. About 10 per cent excess of chlorate over that
required to oxidize the hydrobromic acid formed in the reaction was
used. The relation between the water and the ketone was in the
proportion of 2 parts by weight of the former to 1 part by weight of
the latter. For 1 kg.-mol. wt. of the ketone, 10 per cent excess over 1
kg. atomic-weight of bromine was used.
The reaction was carried out either in earthenware vessels or in
iron kettles lined with earthenware. The kettles were furnished with a
stirrer made of wood, and varied in capacity from 4,000 to 5,000
liters. They were set in wooden tanks and cooled by circulating
water. The chlorate was first dissolved in the water and then the
ketone added. Into this mixture the bromine was allowed to run
slowly while the solution was stirred and kept at a temperature of
from 30° to 40° C. The time required for the addition of the bromine
was about 48 hrs. When the reaction was complete, the oil was
drawn off into an iron vessel and stirred with magnesium oxide in the
presence of a small amount of water in order to neutralize the free
acid. It was then separated and dried with calcium chloride. At this
point a sample of the material was taken and tested. The product
was distilled to tell how much of it boiled over below 130° when
methylethyl ketone had been used. If less than 10 per cent distilled
over, the bromination was considered to be satisfactory. If, however,
a larger percentage of low boiling material was obtained, the product
was submitted to further bromination. The material obtained in this
way was found on analysis to contain slightly less than the
theoretical amount of monobromoketone.
It was finally transferred by suction or by pressure into tank-
wagons. At first lead-lined tanks were used, but later it was found
that tanks made of iron could be substituted. In order to take care of
the small amount of hydrobromic acid, which is slowly formed, a
small amount of magnesium oxide was added to the material. The
amount of the oxide used was approximately in the proportion of 1
part to 1000 parts of ketone. When the magnesium oxide was used,
it was found that the bromoketone kept without appreciable
decomposition for about 2 months. The yield of the product from 580
kg. of acetone (10 kg.-mol. wts.) was 1,100 kg. The yield from 720
kg. of methylethyl ketone (10 kg.-mol. wts.) was 1,250 kg.

Halogenated Esters
The use of ethyl iodoacetate was advocated at a time when the
price of bromine seemed prohibitive. Because of the relative price of
bromine and iodine under ordinary conditions, it is not likely that it
would be commonly used. However, it is an efficient lachrymator and
is more stable than the halogenated ketones, so that on a smaller
scale it might be advisable to use it.
It is prepared by the reaction of sodium iodide upon an alcoholic
solution of ethyl chloroacetate. It is a colorless oil, boiling at 178-
180° C. (69° C. at 12 mm.) and having a density of about 1.8. It is
very much less volatile than bromoacetone, having a vapor pressure
of 0.54 mm. of mercury at 20° C. Ethyl iodoacetate is about one-third
as toxic as bromoacetone, but has about the same lachrymatory
value.
 Aromatic Halides
“Benzyl bromide” was also used during the early part of the war,
usually mixed with bromoacetone. The material was not pure benzyl
bromide, but the reaction product of bromine upon xylene, and
should perhaps be referred to as “xylyl bromide.”
Pure benzyl bromide is a colorless liquid, boiling at 198-199° C.,
and having an odor reminiscent of water cress and then of mustard
oil. The war gas is probably a mixture of mono- and dibromo
derivatives, boiling at 210-220° C., and having a density at 20° C. of
1.3. The mixture of benzyl and xylyl bromides used by the Germans
was known as “T-Stoff,” while the mixture of 88 per cent xylyl
bromide and 12 per cent bromoacetone was called “Green T-Stoff.”
As in the case of the halogenated acetones, it is necessary to
use lead lined shell for these compounds. Enamel and glass lined
shell may be used and give good results. While they are difficult of
manufacture, satisfactory methods were being developed at the
close of the war.
“T-Stoff” may be detected by the nose in concentrations of one
part in one hundred million of air, and will cause profuse
lachrymation with one part in a million. It is a highly persistent
material and may last, under favorable circumstances, for several
days. While it is relatively non-toxic, French troops were rendered
unconscious by it during certain bombardments in the Argonne in the
summer of 1915.
A number of derivatives of the benzyl halides have been tested
and some have proven to be very good lachrymators. The difficulty
of their preparation on a commercial scale has made it inadvisable to
use them, and especially inasmuch as bromobenzyl cyanide has
proven to be such a valuable compound.

Bromobenzyl Cyanide
 Bromobenzyl cyanide is, chemically, α-bromo-α-tolunitrile, or
phenyl-bromo-acetonitrile, C₆H₅CHBrCN. It is prepared by the
action of bromine upon benzyl cyanide.
Benzyl cyanide is prepared by the action of sodium cyanide upon
a mixture of equal parts of 95 per cent alcohol and benzyl chloride.
The benzyl chloride in turn is obtained by the chlorination of toluene
at 100°. The material must be fairly pure in order that the benzyl
cyanide reaction may proceed smoothly. The cyanide is subjected to
a fractional distillation and that part boiling within 3 degrees (the pure
product boils at 231.7° C.) is treated with bromine vapor mixed with
air. It has been found necessary to catalyze the reaction by sunlight,
artificial light or the addition of a small amount of bromobenzyl
cyanide.
The product obtained from this reaction, if the hydrobromic acid
which is formed is carefully removed by a stream of air, is sufficiently
pure for use as a lachrymator. It melts from 16 to 22° C., while the
pure product melts at 29° C. It cannot be distilled, even in a high
vacuum. It has a low vapor pressure and thus is a highly persistent
lachrymator.
Bromobenzyl cyanide is about as toxic as chlorine, but is many
times as effective a lachrymator as any of the halogenated ketones
or aromatic halides studied. It has a pleasant odor and produces a
burning sensation on the mucous membrane.
Like the other halogen containing compounds, lead or enamel
lined shell are necessary for preserving the material any length of
time. In all of this work the United States was at a very marked
disadvantage. While the Allies and the Germans could prepare
substances of this nature and use them in shell within a month, the
United States was sure that shell filled at Edgewood Arsenal
probably would not be fired within three months. This means that
much greater precautions were necessary, both as to the nature of
the shell lining and as to the purity of the “war gas.”
The question of protection against lachrymatory gases was never
a serious one. During the first part of the war this was amply
supplied by goggles. Later, when the Standard Respirator was
introduced, it was found that ample protection was afforded against
all the lachrymators. Their principal value is against unprotected
troops and in causing men to wear their masks for long periods of
time.
The comparative value of the various lachrymators mentioned
above is shown in the following table:
Bromobenzyl cyanide 0.0003
Martonite 0.0012
Ethyl iodoacetate 0.0014
Bromoacetone 0.0015
Xylyl bromide 0.0018
Benzyl bromide 0.0040
Bromo ketone 0.011
Choroacetone 0.018
Chloropicrin 0.019
The figures give the concentration (milligram per liter of air)
necessary to produce lachrymation. The method used in obtaining
these figures is given in Chapter XXI.
 CHAPTER VIII
CHLOROPICRIN

During the spring of 1917, strange reports came from the Italian
front that the Germans were using a new war gas. This gas, while it
did not seem to be very poisonous, had the combined property of
being a lachrymator and also of causing vomiting. Large number of
casualties resulted through the men being forced to remove their
masks in an atmosphere filled with lethal gases. The gas had the
additional and serious disadvantage of being a very difficult one to
remove completely in the gas mask. The first American masks were
very good when chlorine or phosgene was considered but were of no
value when chloropicrin was used.
One of the interesting facts of chemical warfare is that few if any
new substances were discovered and utilized during the three years
of this form of fighting. Chlorine and phosgene were well known
compounds. And likewise, chloropicrin was an old friend of the
organic chemist. So much so, indeed, that several organic
laboratories prepared the compound in their elementary courses.
Chloropicrin was first prepared by the English chemist,
Stenhouse, in 1848, by the action of bleaching powder upon a
solution of picric acid. This was followed by a careful study of its
physical and chemical properties, few of which have any connection
with its use as a poison gas. The use of picric acid as an explosive
made it very desirable that other raw materials should be used.
Chloroform, which is the ideal source theoretically (since chloropicrin
is nitro-chloroform, Cl₃CNO₂), gave very poor yields. While it may be
prepared from acetone, in fair yields, acetone was about as valuable
during the war as was picric acid. Practically all the chloropicrin used
was prepared from this acid as the raw material.
 Manufacture
In the manufacture of chloropicrin the laboratory method was
adopted. This consisted simply in passing live steam through a
mixture of picric acid and bleaching powder. The resulting
chloropicrin passes out of the still with the steam. There was a
question at first whether a steam jacketed reaction vessel should be
used, and whether stirrers should be introduced. Both types were
tested, of which the simpler form, without steam jacket or stirrer,
proved the more efficient.

Fig. 27.—Interior of Chloropicrin Plant.

The early work was undertaken at the plant of the American

Synthetic Color Company at Stamford, Connecticut. Later a large
plant was constructed at Edgewood Arsenal. At the latter place ten
stills, 8 by 18 feet, were erected, together with the necessary
accessory equipment. The following method of operation was used:
The bleach is mixed with water and stirred until a cream is
formed. This cream is then pumped into the still along with a solution
of calcium picrate (picric acid neutralized with lime). When the
current of live steam is admitted at the bottom of the still, the
temperature gradually rises, until at 85° C. the reaction begins. The
chloropicrin passes over with the steam and is condensed. Upon
standing, the chloropicrin settles out, and may be drawn off and is
then ready for filling into the shell. The yield was about 1.6 times the
weight of picric acid used.

Properties
Chloropicrin is a colorless oil, which is insoluble in water, and
which can be removed from the reaction by distillation with steam. It
boils at 112° C. and will solidify at -69° C. At room temperature it has
a density of 1.69 and is thus higher than chloroform (1.5) or carbon
tetrachloride (1.59). At room temperature it has a vapor pressure of
24 mm. of mercury. It thus lies, in persistency, between such gases
as phosgene on the one hand, and mustard gas on the other, but so
much closer to phosgene that it is placed in the phosgene group.
Chloropicrin is a very stable compound and is not decomposed
by water, acids or dilute alkalies. The reaction with potassium or
sodium sulfite, in which all the chlorine is found as potassium or
sodium chloride, has been used as an analytical method for its
quantitative determination. The qualitative test usually used consists
in passing the gas-air mixture through a heated quartz tube, which
liberates free chlorine. The chlorine may be detected by passing
through a potassium iodide solution containing starch, or by the use
of a heated copper wire gauze, when the characteristic green color is
obtained.
An interesting physiological test has also been developed. The
eye has been found to be very sensitive to chloropicrin. The gas
affects the eye in such a way that its closing is practically involuntary.
A measurable time elapses between the instant of exposure and the
time when the eye closes. Below 1 or 2 parts per million, the average
eye withstands the gas without being closed, though considerable
blinking may be caused. Above 25 parts, the reaction is so rapid as
to render proper timing out of the question. But with concentrations
between 2 and 25 parts, the subject will have an overpowering
impulse to close his eye within 3 to 30 seconds. The time may be
recorded by a stop watch and from the values thus determined a
calibration curve may be plotted, using the concentration in parts per
million and the time to zero eye reaction. Typical figures are given
below. It will be noted that different individuals will vary in their
sensitivity, though the order is the same.

Conc. A B
p.p.m. Seconds Seconds
20.0 4.0 5.0
15.0 5.4 5.4
10.0 7.5 7.5
7.5 9.0 10.0
5.0 13.0 15.0
2.5 18.0 30.0
Fig. 28.—Calibration Curve of Eyes for Chloropicrin.

Protection
Because of the stability of chloropicrin, the question of protection
resolves itself into finding an absorbent which is very efficient in
removing the gas from air mixtures. Fortunately such an agent was
found in the activated charcoal used in the American gas mask. The
removal of the gas appears to take place in two stages. In the first,
the gas is adsorbed in such a way that the long-continued passage
of air does not remove it. In the second, the gas is absorbed, and
this, really excess gas, is removed by pure air passing over the
charcoal. The relation of these two factors has an important bearing
on the quality of charcoal to be used in gas masks. It appears that up
to a certain point an increase of the quality is desirable: beyond this,
it is of doubtful value.
Unlike phosgene, chloropicrin is absorbed equally well at all
temperatures. Moisture on the other hand has a very decided effect.
It appears that charcoal absorbs roughly equivalent weights of
chloropicrin and of water; the presence of water in the charcoal thus
displaces an approximately equal amount of chloropicrin.
In the study of canisters it has been found that the efficiency time
is approximately inversely proportional to the concentration.
Formulas have been calculated to express the relation existing
between concentration and life of the canister, and also between the
rate of flow of the gas and the life.
While water seems to have a decidedly marked effect upon the
life of a canister, this is not true of other gases, and the efficiency of
the canister for each gas is not decreased when used in a binary
mixture.

Tactical Uses
Because of the high boiling point of chloropicrin it can only be
used in shell. The German shell usually contained a mixture of
superpalite (trichloromethyl chloroformate) and chloropicrin, the
relative proportions being about 75 to 25. These were called Green
Cross Shell, from the peculiar marking on the outside of the shell.
Mixtures of phosgene and chloropicrin (50-50) have also been used.
The Allies have used a mixture of 80 per cent chloropicrin and 20
per cent stannic chloride (so-called N. C.). This mixture combines
the advantages of a gas shell with those of a smoke shell, since the
percentage of stannic chloride is sufficiently high to form a very good
cloud. In addition to this, it is believed that the presence of the
chloride increases the rate of evaporation of the chloropicrin. It has
been claimed that the chloride decreases the amount of
decomposition of the chloropicrin upon the bursting of the shell, but
careful experiments appear to show that this decomposition is
negligible and that the stannic chloride plays no part in it. This
mixture was being abandoned at the close of the war.
This N. C. mixture has also been used in Liven’s projectors and
in hand grenades. The material is particularly fitted for hand
grenades, owing to the low vapor pressure of the chloropicrin, and
the consequent absence of pressures even on warm days. As a
matter of fact, it was the only filling used for this purpose, though
later the stannic chloride was changed, owing to the shortage of tin,
to a mixture of silicon and titanium chlorides.
While chloropicrin is sufficiently volatile to keep the strata of air
above it thoroughly poisonous, it is still persistent enough to be
dangerous after five or six hours.
 CHAPTER IX
DICHLOROETHYLSULFIDE
“MUSTARD GAS”

The early idea of gas warfare was that a material, to be of value as

a war gas, should have a relatively high vapor pressure. This would, of
course, provide a concentration sufficiently high to cause casualties
through inhalation of the gas-ladened air. The introduction of “mustard
gas” (dichloroethylsulfide) was probably the greatest single
development of gas warfare, in that it marked a departure from this
early idea, for mustard gas is a liquid boiling at about 220° C., and
having a very low vapor pressure. But mustard gas has, in addition, a
characteristic property which, combined with its high persistency,
makes it the most valuable war gas known at the present time. This
peculiar property is its blistering effect upon the skin. Very low
concentrations of vapor are capable of “burning” the skin and of
producing casualties which require from three weeks to three months
for recovery. The combination of these properties removed the
necessity for a surprise attack, or the building up of a high
concentration in the first few bursts of fire. A few shell, fired over a
given area, were sufficient to produce casualties hours and even days
afterwards.
Mustard gas, chemically, is dichloroethylsulfide (ClCH₂CH₂)₂S.
The name originated with the British Tommy because the crude
material first used by the Germans was suggestive of mustard or
garlic. Various other names were given the compound, such as
“Yellow Cross,” from the shell markings of the Germans; “Yperite,” a
name used by the French, because the compound was first used at
Ypres; and “blistering gas,” because of its peculiar effect upon the
skin.

Historical
 It seems probable that an impure form of mustard gas was
obtained by Richie (1854) by the action of chlorine upon ethyl sulfide.
The substance was first described by Guthrie (1860), who recognized
its peculiar and powerful physiological effects. It is interesting in this
connection to note that Guthrie studied the effect of ethylene upon the
sulfur chlorides, since this reaction was the basis of the method finally
adopted by the Allies.
The first careful investigation of mustard gas, which was then only
known as dichloroethylsulfide, was carried out by Victor Meyer (1886).
Meyer used the reaction between ethylene chlorhydrin and sodium
sulfide, with the subsequent treatment with hydrochloric acid. All the
German mustard gas used during 1917 and 1918 was apparently
made by the use of these reactions, and all the early experimental
work of the Allies was in this direction.
Mustard gas was first used as an offensive agent by the Germans
on July 12-13, 1917, at Ypres. According to an English report, the
physiological properties of mustard gas had been tested by them
during the summer of 1916. The Anti-Gas Department put forward the
suggestion that it should be used for chemical warfare, but at that time
its adoption was not approved. This fact enabled the English to quickly
and correctly identify the contents of the first Yellow Cross dud
received. It is not true, as reported by the Germans, that the material
was first diagnosed as diethylsulfide.
The tactical value of mustard gas was immediately recognized by
the Germans and they used tremendous quantities of it. During ten
days of the Fall of 1917, it is calculated that over 1,000,000 shell were
fired, containing about 2,500 tons of mustard gas. Zanetti states that
the British gas casualties during the month following the introduction of
mustard gas were almost as numerous as all gas casualties incurred
during the previous years of the war. Pope says that the effects of
mustard gas as a military weapon were indeed so devastating that by
the early autumn of 1917 the technical advisers of the British, French,
and American Governments were occupied upon large scale
installations for the manufacture of this material.

Preparation and Manufacture

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