“THREE CLASSICAL MILESTONES INTRODUCTION °s theorem. There are three classical results: Wilson's Theore™ Fermat's Little theorem and Euler ‘These theorems play a significant role in the development ofthe theory of congruences. y of primes before his teacher John Wilson, during 1741-1793, produced an interesting propert Edward group waring. The prop lowing. Ifp is a prime number, then P divides (p—1)+1”. ‘This result is based on the basis of! {Fis given by both of them. Later, erty is the foll numerical computations. But no Proo Lagrange gave a proof known as id observed that the convence also holds. lt says that “if'p is a prime, then (P “Wilson’s Theorem” _1)!2—1(mod p)”. gubject was revived in Westen Europe, largely through the efforts ofa Pierre de Fermat (1601 - 1665), who is generally acknowledged to be Fermat was first to discover really deep properties of integers sms; Every integer is either a triangular number or a sum of 2 or 3 triangular numbers; every integer ig either a square or a sum of 2, 3 or 4 squares; every integer is either ear of@s ana 9 pentagonal numbers, and so on Fermat had proposed the ‘ed by their proper divisors become squares (ie, P+(1+74 lutions to this problem. One of the most striking is the famous In the 17th century, the remarkable French mathematician, the father of modern number theory: through the following surprising theoret a pentagonal number or t 2 problem of finding cubes that when increas 72) = 20%), He also provided six different sol fe soretron emt et acme Fermat’s little theorem enables us ‘to wol ‘This Theorem says that “17 8 prime isa positive integer /(P) such that a” 1 (mod p), whee f(p)= P-1- theorem is Euler's Theorem. In Euler’s theorem, there is ar The eect or co ee oes ‘where m is a positive integer and a is any integer witl -k with congruences involving only prime moduli. and a be any integer such that p does not divide 4, thers exponent $(m) su | @m)=1.[= INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRAAND NUMBER THEO, ERE Witson's THEOREM ‘We have seen in chapter 9, that the congruence ax =1(modm) has a unique solution if and only 1 (a,m)=1. Also, the solution is an inverse a of a modulo m. Suppose, the modulus is a prime p, Then positive least residues modulo p, i.e, integers 1 through (p—1) are invertible. For example, if p=7, then the positive least residues 1 through 7 are invertible. 1.1=2.4=3,5 =6=6=1(mod7). Hence | and 6 are self invertible. Let us have a look at the following Lemma, which shows that exactly two of them are self-invertible, Lemma — 10.1 : A positive integer a is self-invertible modulo p if and only if a= +1(mod p) Proof : Let a be self-invertible. Then a* (mod p) => pia -Lie, p|(a-1)(a+l) Then p|(a-1) or p|(a+l). Hence a=1(modp) or 1(mod p) Converesly, suppose a =1(mod p) or a=—I(mod p). In either case, a? =1(mod p) = a is self invertible modulo p. Note : In Lemma 10.1, there are exactly two least residues modulo p, which are self invertible, i, | and p—1. So, the congruence x? =1(mod p) has exactly two solutions I and (p—1) modulo p. For example, the self-invertible least residues modulo 19 are 1 and 18 = T° =1(mod19) and 18° =1(mod19) . Here, the solutions of the congruence x* =1(mod19) are I and 18 modulo 19. Example — 10.1: If p=13, verify that (p ~1)!=—1(mod p) Solution ; We have p = 13. (p—1)!=12!=1.23.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12. The least residues modulo 13 are | and 12. Rearranging the remaining factors into pairs in such a way that the residues in each pair ae inverses of each other modulo 13. 12! =1. (2.6). (3.4). (5.8). (7-11). (9.10). 12 = (1.12). (2.6). (3.4). (5.8). (7-11) . (9.10) =(-1).(-1).(-)).1.C1).(-1) (mod! 3) =(-1)' (mod13) = —1(mod13) Thus, (p-1 ee 1(mod13), which illustrates Willson’s theorem.2\Assicnt MILESTONES since p=13, we arrange them into =5 pairs, the positive least residues S examples, ent modulo p=l3) that are not self-invertible, wow, we state THEOTER Willison’ . + (Wilson’s Theorem) If p is a prime, then (p -1 =-1 (mod 2) peoret™ — 10.1 peak: p=2, then (p-)! so, the theorem is true when p=2. Let p>2- Since, the linear congruence ax =h (m dues 1 through (p~!) are invertible modulo p. By Lemma we can group the remaining (P ~3) residues, dm) bas a unique solution if and only if )=1, therefore, the least positive resi om Jn, two of them, | and p-| are their own inverses. So, = dio p-2 into a pairs of inverses a and b= «7 suc that ab = 1 (ond p) for every Pai 2 aod 7 Thus 23...(p -2) =1mod P)- Now, (p-1 1= 1 [2.3.(p- 2? 1 (p=1) (mod p) = -UmedP) Example ~ 10.2 : Verify Wilson’s theorem for p= 13- Sulution : Let us divide the integers 2. 3+ ~> 31 into Sa 3 such thet aa = (nod Peo ea (mod 13). Writing these congruences explicit 2.7 = | (mod 13) 3.9 = 1 (mod 13) 1 (mod 13) .8 = 1 (mod 13) 6.11 = 1 (mod 13). Multiplying these congruences W® 23.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11 21 (nod 13)- have => 11! 1 (mod 13) = 1212 122-1 (mod 13) ( Thus, (p— 1) 11 (mod p) wD 13, Note : ¢, Compare with Example10.! Now, we sate oad pee meee Wilson's Theorem.INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRAAND NUMBER THEO; m —~ 10.2 : [Converse of Wilson’s Theorem] =1(modn), then nis a prime. n be a positive integer such that (n —1)!= Let us assume that n is composite. suppose n=ab, where 1 a is one of the integers 2 through (7-1), so a|(n—1)!. herefore, a|{(n—I)!+1}-(n-)! Cea] and alc = alab+Be, where a=1,B=-1) alt , @=1, acontradiction, Thus, 1 must bea prime. ry and sufficient condition for a positive integer to be a prime = positive integer >2 is a prime if and only if (n—1)!=—I(modn). his result is the combination of Theorem 10.1 and 10.2] ‘or example : is not prime, because (9 ~1)!=8!= 40320 = 0(mod9) 0, (9—1)!# —I(mod9), on the other hand 11 is prime, since 11=1)!=10!= 3628800 = —I(mod11) and (7-1)!=720 = -I(mod7) => 7 is a prime. (modm) for m=8,12. — 10.3 : Solye the congruence x’ : For m=8 (a composite number) € {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7} - jere x=1,3,5,7. Then (mod8) » (mod8). 0(mod8). (mod 8) 0, x=1,3,5,7(mod8) are four solutions. or m = 12 (a composite number) € {0,1,2,3,....11}- jere x=1,5,7,11. Then ? 1 =0(mod12) = 0(mod12) 0(mod12) = 0(mod12) , x=1,5,7,11(mod12) are four solutions.4 4: Let @ bea solution of the congruence x” = (mod). Ne ~ oi show that m—a is aalso & solution. wot since a is @ solution of the congruence x? =1(modm), therefore @ =\(modm) aloo Qam-+a? =a (modm) [| m(m— 2a)] Now, (=) 1(modm) - So, (m-a)’ =1(modm) - « is a solution of the congruence x° =1(mod’m)- ‘This shows that m—- 5 :Ifp isa prime, prove that (p—1(P=2)--(P —H) =(-DFE(mod p) 1S SP ssample- saution : We have (p-D(p-2)-~ (p-k) = (-D-2).-) _1)' kmod p),1 Sk SP fe 10.6 : Prove that following, where ? is @ prime. faa (i) Let p be odd. Then P3..(p-2) act} ‘ aod p) where 1Sk=P- e hear Exampl (ii) Let p be odd. Then 24.(p- =) Solution ; () We know that p-k =—k(mod p) and Now, (p—1)!=1.2.3.4.5 ee _(p-4p-3)B-VP =D k=-(p-bycmod p) 1) = (ete cage {2(p-2)} =1(-)3.3)5-9) (p-P-9} (p-2)(p- 9} (mod p) (p-2)' (med P) AO) of =(p-D!=CD? TRE Again by Wilson’s theorem, (p-i=-lmodP) »C) Pie gns, _.Ap—ly' (mod p) From (2) and (3), we have -1= 1 mn = P335..(p-2F acne? mode) * (mod p) p}=—l(mod P) =[(p- DI} = 1mod p) © (ii) By Wilson’s theorem, (P— (p- |= 1(mod p) [rest p-2 24 Then by (i), cyt [2e-@ — 1p ]=1mod 2) : 324 (p-1p a)? (ood)aN INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRAAND NUMBER Tig, 2 Example ~ 10.7 : Verify that [((p-1)/2)!] =—1(mod p), for p=17. 8!=40320 =13(mod17) Solution : With P =17(254)- so) Example — 10.8 : Given a prime number p, establish the congruence (p-1)!=(P- 1) (mod 1+2+3 +... += 1). Solution : By Wilson’s theorem, (p - 1) !=-1 =—1 +p (mod p) > pl@-1)!-@-1) =13° =-1(mod17) We have 1424.+ (== LP Since p is even, is an integer and clearly eo epee 2: Also, (p - 1) |(@— 1) !-(@-1) = 2A (p-1)-(p1) Ae ( pal ?) = 1, since p is prime. 2 So, 21 andp divides (p-1) (P=). So HP = 1424 + (p= 1) divides (p - 1) !-(p-1) *. (p-1)! =(P—1) (mod 1 +2 +... +p- 1). Example — 10.9 : Find the remainder when 2 (28!) is divided by 31. Solution : By Wilson’s theorem we have @-}) 1 (mod p) => (p-2) (mod p) => 2(p—2)!=2 (mod p) => 2(p—2)(p—3)! =2 (mod p) => 2(p—3)!=-1 (modp) Putting p = 31, we get 2.(28 !) =— 1 (mod 31) 30 (mod 31) Therefore, the required remainder is 30. [_ Sil_gASSICALMILESTONES we uso + Verify that 429!) + S18 divisible 31. el : =1 (mod 31) i Wilson's ‘Theorem, 30: mr oae3ic! = 30 (mod 31) gta (mod 31) as (30, 31)=1. (mod 31), 5!= 120 +5 = 4+ 120= 124 (mod 31) “4(291) + 512 0(mod 31) Ce 124=431) = 31/429) +5): FERMA\ LITTLE THEOREM 1736, almost a century after The first proof of Fermat’s Little Theorem was given by Euler Fermat's announcement. We require the following Lemma for the proof of Fermat's little theroem; beginning with an example For example: take p=5, anda=~7 Clearly p f a. Then 1.7 =2(mod5) =4(mod5), 3.7 =1(mod5) and 4.7 = 3(mod5) Thus, the least residues of 1 7, 2.1, 3.7 and 4,7 are the same as the integers 1, 2,3 and 4 in some order, Now, we have the following Lemma. Lemma ~ 10.2 : Let p be a prime and @ be any integer such that P ¥ a, Then the least residues of the 24029 integers 4,2a,3a,...(p—l)a modulo p are a permutation of the integers 1,2,3-(P-D- a For the proof of the Lemma, we require "0 steps : Step -1 We wil show that O(c 2) Bag Jim. This is impossible, f ma and na modulo p are distinct if m=”, 1, Suppose ma = 0(mod p). Then p|ma. But (p,a)=1- So, P since m< p . Hence ma #0(mod p). Step -2.: Now, we have to show that the least residues of where 1(p-1)!a?" =(p-1)!\(mod p) But ((p-1)!,p)=1. Therefore, a?” =1(mod p) [sac=be(modm) and (c,m)=1=> Consider the following example : (modm)] Let p=5 and q=12. Then by Fermat’s Little Theorem the least residues of the integers 1.12,2.12,3.12,4.12 modulo 5 are the same as the integers 1.2.3.4 (mod 5) So, (1.12) (2.12) (3.12) (4.12) = 1.2.3.4 (mod 5), = 4\(12)' =-41(mod5) Since (4!,5)=1, therefore 1! = 1 (mod 5) i.e, a?” =1(mod p), where p=5,a=12 Example — 10.11 ; Find the remainder, when the first integer is divided by the second in the following (OMe ate tae GU) D4 ed 7) Solution : @ 7° =1(modi7) > (7) P= =1° (mod17) =7(mod17). I(mod17) and Then, 7°°.7°, ~-7=10(mod17) Thus, when 7! is divided by 17, the remainder is 10. Alternatively ; By Fermat’s Little Theorem, 7'° = 1(mod17). So, 71001 = 799 16627871 =(7'*)".787! sI°(-1)-7 = ~7 = 10(mod17) Thus, when 7! is divided by 17, the remainder is 10. (ii) By Fermat’s Little Theorem 15” =1(mod23) We have, 15° =(15)®.15" =U) 10a es =1°.24(-5) =12(mod 23) Thus, when 15! is divided by 23, the remainder is 12. |(mod 17) => 247 27" (mod17) _ permat’s Little theorem, 7 = 1(modi7). " (ry Pn 217" = 7" (mod17) =2.7=14(mod17) rhus, when 241%” is divided by 17, the remainder is 14. ople~ 10.12 : Find the remainder when 72°! is divided by 31. We have 72 = 10 (mod 31) 721! = 10% (mod 31) 10,31) = 1 and 31 is a prime, hence by Fermat’s Little theorem, we have tion 0%= 1 (mod 31) (10%) = 1 (mod 31) Also, 10? = 7 (mod 31) 10*= 49 =—13 (mod 31) 10° = (13) = 14 (mod 31) Now 72100 = 101% (mod 31) = 10% x 108 x 10? x 10 (mod 31) = 1x 147 10 (mod 31) = 5% 10 (mod 31) (7 14 «7=98 =5 (tod 31)) a = 19 (mod 31). fone the required remainder is 19. : Bossa: vn + Find the remainder when 219% is divided by 7- : Wehave (2, 7)= 1 and 7 is a prime. By Fermat's Litle theorem ws have = 1 (mod 7) (25) = 1 (mod 7) Now i an 1 (mod 7) 2s = 272386 23 (10 = 1x 16 (mod 7) hu = 2 (mod 7) S the x aie fequired remainder is 2. => 10” >, INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY Example — 10.14: Compute the least residue of 2° (mod341) . Solution : We have 341=31x11- By Fermat’s little theroem, 2'° =1(mod11) => 2° =1(mod11) _...(1) Soma (2) a 1(mod 11) and 23" = (2°)!1.2! =1(mod31)—_..(2) Since a=b(modm,) and a=b(modm,) = a=bmod{m,,m,], therefore from (1) and (2), 2*° = 1mod[1 1,31] > 2™° =1mod(343). Example — 10.15 : Compute the least residue of 13'* +19? (mod 247) Solution : We have 247 = 13.19 By Fermat's Little theorem, 13'° =1(mod19) and 19” =1(mod13) Therefore 13" +19" +0=1(mod19)_ ...(1) ["19 =0(mod19)] and 13° +197 =0+1=1 (mod13) __....(2) ['"13" =0(mod13) ] From (1) and (2), 13° +19" =1 mod[19,13] =1mod(247) Example — 10.16: Using Euler’s formula and Fermat’s little thereom, establish Wilson’s theorem. Solution : Let us state Euler’s formula : Let »>0 and x be any real number. Then Yale yaa) i We have to establish that if'p be a prime, then (p ~1)!=—1(mod p). For p=2, this result is true. Assume that p>2.Let n=p-I and x=0. a By (1), Sy (p-t}cam =(p-1)! ...(2) a i Since p is odd, by Fermat’s Little theorem, oleae ti =Scn(e71) —1(mod p) ta = (list? — 1 (mod p) = 0-1 (mod p) = ~ 1 (mod p) (@-) ee sz- 2 SICAL MILESTONES ree cAs. : [Inverse of a modulo p, using Fermat’s little Theorem] orem 10. The ? : Let p be a prime and a be any integer such that p Ya. Then g?*? is an inverse of a modulo p. py Fermat's little theorem, for any integer a and p be a prime such that p Ya, a?! =1(modp)- proof =1(mod p)- his implies that a” 2 js an inverse of a modulo p, a ip) ip So, aa For example : Let p =11 and a=16- Then by Theorem 10.5. 16° is an inverse of 16 mod 11. =() 5 =3'5=9 (mod 11). Thus, 9 is an inverse of 16 mod 11 1.e., 16.9 =1(mod 11). Therorem on inverse of an intoger a modulo p (Theorem 10.4) solving linear congurences with prime moduli. Theorem — 10.5: Let p bea prime and a be any integer sucl ‘(mod p) is given by x= a" (mod). solution if and only if (a, p)= }) can be used to obtain a formula for hn that p Ya. Then the solution of the linear congruence Proof : The linear congruence ax =6 (mod p) has a uniqu By Theorem 10.4, q?? is an inverse of a modulo p. Mul ie, p Ya. tiplying both sides of the congruence by af, we have a? *(ax) =a’ *b(mod p) = a?'x =a? *b(mod p) Sy ”*b (mod p) [ ra? =1(modp), by Fermat's little theorem] Consider the following example: Example — 10.17 : Sotve the linear congruence 8x=3(mod 11) Solution : We have a=8, p=11 By Tate re tere ioe gs sccinvetse of.2 mobile p 1c, 8? is an inverse of 8 modulo 11 Since 8=—3 (mod 11), thereforeGe INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORy | i= (oo) (aes =-(-2)'3 [. =-48=7(mod! 1) 2 (mod11)] Thus 7 is an inverse of 8 modulo 11. 8.7 =1 (mod11) (0) Hence, we have 8' =7 (modI 1). Multiplying both sides of the given congruence by 7, we have 7.8x=7.3 (mod! 1) => x=21(modi1) a O(mod11) Example ~ 10.18 : Solve the linear congruence 26. =12(mod17). Solution : Since 26x =12(mod17), therefore 9x =12(mod17) Le, x= (mod17) Now, 3x =4(mod17) = 6(3x) =6.4(mod17) => x =7(mod17) [18 =1(mod17)and 24 = 7 (mod17)] Now, we have to prove the following theorem, which shows that Fermat's little theorem can be extended to all positive integers a. Theorem — 10.6 : Let p be a prime and a be any positive integer. Then a? =a(mod p) - Proof : We consider two cases = Case - I: Suppose, p (a. Then by Fermat's little theorem, a”! =1(mod p) =a? =a(mod p) Case - II : Suppose, p Xa. Then p=a=0(modp) =a’ =0 (mod p) Also 0 =a(mod p)[p|a] [-@=6(modm)= a" = 5"(modm) For any positive integer 7} Therefore, a! =a(mod p) [~ (modm) andb=c(modm) => a=c(modm)] ‘Thus, in both cases, a” =a(mod p) i arr og CLASSICAL e: Let p=5.lfa=9 then forp Ya, 9% =1(mod5) \L MILESTONES for Exampl => 9° =9(mod5) 10, then for p|a, 10=0 (mod5) => 10° =0 (mod5) put 0=10 (mod5). So, 10° =10 (mod). 10.19 : Let a? =a(modg) and a’ =a(mod p) , where p ani ifa= d q are distinct primes and a,b Example ~ are arbitrary positive integers. Then show that a™ =a (mod pq) a: = a (mod p) = @i= (a)! 2a! =a (modp).... (1) Similarly, a za(modpq) --2) From (1) and (2), a?! 2a (mod[p,q]) =a” =a (mod pq) Example 10.20 : Let 7,4 be distinct primes and a, b arbitrary positive integers. Then (a) a’ =b"(mod p) =? a= (mod p) (b) pil +g?! =1 (mod pq) Solution show that Solution : (a) By Theorem 10.6, (a—b)? =a—b (mod p) But by Fermat's little theorem, a~b =a” -b’ =0 (mod p) Therefore, (a—b)? =0 (mod p) = @= b(mod p) (b) By Fermat's litte theorem, p! +g?" =1+0=1 (mod 4) and pt +q?!=0+1=1 (mod p) Therefore, pt! +g?" =1 (mod [p,q] =!(mod pq) Example — 10.21 : If'n be a positive integer, prove that ni—n is divisible by 30. Solution : (n—I)n(n-+1) is divisible by 3! ie, 31|(n—Da(n +) > 6|(n—-Dn(n +r? +1) =36|n'=n ie, n' ~n=0 (mod6). Wehave n' 3 be any prime. Then a” =a(mod6p)- nee asst tat =9, p,=3 and Py=P. p,=23.p=6p and [p,-hp;-l ps1 =[1,2,p-l=p- Then PiP2 =I (say) (mod p,p,p,) ie, a” =a(mod6p). ithout using Theorem 10.7) (mod p). Since pI is even, py Theorem 10.7, 4 independent Proof : ( py Theorem 10.7, a” . (aa =a" +1] =(a-)[a" Patt] (a+)[a” eel 50, ala” -a,a—1|a”—a, and atl|a?—a- (mod 6) . So, 2 Thus, a? =amod [p,6] =a (mod6p) i ‘he announced many theorems ‘without proof and also iter Leonhard Euler (1707-1 783), applied his skill and t from those that Fermat said he possessed. result known as Euler’s generalisation jgruenus with ‘The great draw back of Fermat's career that many ommitting a large number of steps. Lat This chapter deals with that part of the theory arising out of the Euler extended Fermat’s theorem, which concerns con; In the process he introduced an important number-theoretic function defined below. inition : (Euler’s Phi-function ) = For n> 1, let 6 (n) denote the number of positive integers not exeeding 7 that are relatively prime For example, 6 (25) = 20, since the positive integers $ 25 that are relatively prime to 25 are 1,2,3,4, 6,7, 8,95 11, 12, 13, 14, 16,17, 18, 19, 21,22, 23,24 But 6 (30) = 8 since there are eight positive integers = 30 and relatively prime to 30. There are 1,7, 11, 13, 17, 19,23, 29. sae wehave $(1)=1,6(2)=1,6@)=2@)= pot mang Land ( 1)a1 : > 1, we can define @ (n) to be the number of 2, 6 (5)=4, 9 (6) = 2, (7) = integers less than 7 and relatively prime tt : ee ; . be function § i called the Euler pi-funetion or te indicator or tatient. Evaluating ¢ function of } Positive 6 na integers, we experience that — nis prime, then every positive integer les: then § (n)=n—1, s than 7 and relatively prime to it, Bie= INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY [fn is composite, then 7 has a divisor d such that | 1. Let p be a prime factor of (ar,m).Then play, and p|. ce plar, therefore p]a or pli. If ply;,then lx and p|m, so (r,m)#1,a contradiction. Sing (am), again a contradiction. so, pla, plm implies p =1; Thus ie., the integers AT, Ary. 015 Agim) ATE relatively prime to m. Thus, (ar,,7) ar, can be congruent modulo m: ie. ‘To show that no two of the integers ar, #ar,, where Isic j Sem) = Suppose a7; = ar, (mod m). Since (a,m)=1, therefore "= r,(modm). But r, and r, are least residues modulo 7, so f= 1. Thus, if 14 J, then 47, #27) (modm). modulo m are distinct and are g(m) in number. Thuis, the least residues of A; -A?s.--aim in = proye Euler’s theorem. clatively prime to 12are 1,5, 7 and 5,11 modulo 12 are a arrangement So they are a permutation of the least residues 77 the technique used fo residues modulo 12 that are r 15, 35.7, and 3 The following example demonstrates 2. and q=35. The least ee Hence the least residues of 35. 1, 35 least residues 1, 5, 7 and 11. Therefore, (35.1) (35.5) (35.7) G5.1D) = 4e..354 (1,5.7.11) =1.5.7.11(mod12) ie But (1.5.7.11,12) = 1, 35¢ = 1(mod12); 4.» 35K 0 em ~ 10,8 : (Euler's Theorem) ; Let m be a positive 1,5.7.11 (mod 12) (mod 12). integer and a any integer with (a,7) Then a%” =1(modm) Prot: Let p .sidues modulo m that are relati iTincoFacm be the least re 10 4 the integers ar,ar, re congruent modulo m t Bs ‘nsequently. Aap) A | —_—e ivelyu prime t6 m. Then, by Lemma oO Tofowafgn in some order.INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA AND. NUMBER THEO, | ‘y¢my) (mod m) , F5solgqy (tod m1) Since each r, is relatively prime to m, therefore Cpt --5Foony 380 a%™ =] (mod m) For example : Let m=24 and a be any integer relatively prime to 24. There are eight Positive integers <24 ang telatively prime to 24, namely, 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 and 23; so 9(24)=8. Thus, by Euler’s theorem a’ =1(mod24) . In particular, let a=77, Since 77 = 7.11, therefore (77, 24) = 1, so, 77" = =1(mod24) We can confirm this using fundamental properties of congruence : 77 =5 (mod24) Therefore, TT =5* (mod 24) Since 5’ =1 (mod 24), 77° =5* = (57)! = =1(mod 24). Corollary ~ 10.3 : (Fermat’s Little Theorem) Let p be a prime and a any integer such that p Ya. (mod p) Proof : By Euler’s theorem, a” = 1(mod p). But @(p)= p~1, so a"! =1(mod p) Theorem — 10.9 : Let m be a positive integer and a any integer with (a,m)=1. Then a"! is an inverse of a modulo m. Theorem — 10.10 : Let m be a positive integer and a any integer with (a,m)=1, then the solution of the linear congruence ax = b(modm) is given by x=a%"!'4 (modm). Theorem — 10.11 : Let m,,m,,...m, be any positive integers and a any integer such that (a,m,)=1 for 1si 1. Let ay, dy.» Gyq, be the positive integers less than » that are relatively prime to 7. Because ged (a, n) = 1, it follows from the Lemma-2 that aq, ad, ..... a,,,, are congruent, not necessarily in orde of appearance t0 dy, 3, «+» Ayn ek ai, _ iy, 4 é (1ASSICAL MILESTONES (f b, (mod n) b, (mod n) then 24, aa, Age = Pan (1042) 1 by, By ses Dy BFE IMEBETS 4 1» it'some order. On taking the product of these 6(”") Me whet nces we get et (aay) (ay) (Biya) = By bao Dy (moe) £4 doy, (od) 4 al (aay yo) = (442-44 )lrnodn) since gel (a, n) = 1 for each i, we have by Lemma-1, ged (a, dy. yyy ”)=1- Therefore, dividing both sides of foregoing congruence by the eommon factor dy.» a» « taveat®’= 1 (mod n). ssample — 10.25 + Verify Euler’s theorem for a= -5, m=9. 2» yy) WE: solution : Here (a, n) = 1. ‘The positive integers less than n= 9 relatively prime to n are 1, 2,4, 5, 7, 8. These are ny yy Bay 5, we have aa, =~5, aa, =— 10, aa, =~ 20, aa, -25, aa, =~ 35, aa, =~ 40. 5 =4 (mod 9), aa, =—10 8 (mod 9), aa, =~ 20 7 (mod 9), (mod 9), aa, =~ 35 = | (mod 9), aq, =~ 4 = 5(mod 9), Multiplying above congruences together, we have (5) (-10) -(-20) (25): (35) (40) =4.8.7.2.1 . 5 (mod 9) > (1.2.4.5.7.8)(S)*= (1.2.4. 5.7.8) (mod 9) = (-S)*= 1 (mod 9) > 5 =1(mod9) (60) = 9) = a) = 1 (mod m) with a=—5, m= 9. Proof of Theorem 10.10 : By Euler’s theorem, aM” =1(mod m) = a. "1 = 1(mod m) : This shows that q+ is an inverse of a modulo amy : e le - 10.26 : Find the remainder when 7!™ is divided by 15. Solution We ion: We have, $(15)=8. By Euler’s theorem, (mod 15) a7 T =I (mod 15) = (7)".7! = rong \(modi5) Solution : wd + Find the remainder when 7917 is divided by 24 ave $(24)=8. Therefore, 79° =1(mod24) Now. 917% ™ T9'* = (798) 17? = (mod 24). zea INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA AND. NUMBER THES Example — 10.28 : Using Euler’s theorem, find the ones digit in the decimal value of 7500 Solution ; We have $(10)=4 and 17= 7 (mod10). So, by Euler’s theorem, 7* =1(mod10). Now 17% 4166 "66.9 = 9(mod 10) So, the one’s digit is 9. Example — 10.29 : Using Euler’s theorem, find the ones digit in the decimal value of 7'%0, Solution : We have #(16)=8. By Euler’s thereom, 7° =1 (mod16) Now, 7! =(7°)'* (7?) =1"8.2 =1 (mod16). So, the desired ones digit is 1. Example — 10.30: Solve the following linear congruence : (a) 7x=8 (mod10) (b) 35x =47 (mod 24) Solution : (a) Wehave $(10)=4. Here a=7, m=10,b=8 and (a,m)=(7,10)=1 By Theorem 10.10, x =a"! ie, y=7'8 =3.8(mod10) =4(mod!0) [7° =3(mod10)] (b) 35x =47 (mod 24) > I 1x=-I(mod 24). Since (11, 24) = 1, by Theorem 10.10, x= 11% (1) =117(-1) (mod 24) ['-9(24) = 8] | =(1PY 1.) \(-11) (mod 24) =13 (mod24) Example — 10.31 : If mand n are relatively prime, then (mn) = 6(m)6(n) . | Using the above fact, comput (105). Solution : 6(105) = (3.5.7) = (3)4(5)0(7) = 2.4.6 = 48 dxample - 10.32 : Compute 37 9d) aa olution : >) (4) = (1) +4(2)+ (3) + 6(4) + $(6) + (12) am =1+1+2+2+24+4=12 ‘i _ «x:- @ £ clAssiCAL MILESTONES: (RE! = Verify that 14+9+9 +....+9" =0 (mod35) qe 1033? 23 fe nt Pr oot S <1t94S tt sat So, _95-=9 -1=.0 (mod35), by Euler's theorem. ut (35) = 1. So, $= 0 (mod35).. a ERCISE - 4 SECTION-A BE CHOOSE THE CORRECT OPTION IN THE FOLLOWING (MCQ) gE iL 6Ql)=— (a) 10 @® 2 © 8 (D) 9 2 19% —— (mod 7’) (A) -1 (®) 0 ©2 (D) 1 3, = —— (mod 5*) (a) 0 (B) -1 © (D) 2 4 44s —_. (mod 15) 4 (A) 0 (B) 1 (© -1 (D) 2 —— (mod 340) (A) 10 (B) 12 © 14 (D) 16 pees 2(mod.x), thenx=___- , “BM,17) (@) (3, 10,17] (© 3.9171 (D) B, 12,17] m= —__ (mod 15) 1 ee ® -1 oO! ©) 2 in all positive integer a, where (a, 1105) = 1, qi = —— (mod 1105) dg (B) -1 ©1 (D) 2 9 13 2.4.6.3 = ——— (mod 9) ( 10, Og (B) ~1 ©1 (D) 2b ; ....(p— 1 = ——— (mod p), where p is odd prime A) ( yr? py ava oO cee () (1? aaN f10.22 INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY — 11 (mod 17), then (A) x= 4 (mod 17)(B)x= 5 (mod 17) (C) x= 3 (mod 17) (D) x= 2 (mod 7 12, 7%! = ——— (mod 17) } (A) 10 (6) 11 © 12 (D) 13 13. 5'°! = ——(mod7) (A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4 14, If26x= 12 (mod 17), then (A) x (mod 17) (B)x = 7 (mod 17) (C) x= 2 (mod 17) (D) x= 1 (mod 17) 15. 28-1 — (A) 7-30-150 (B) 7-31-151 (C) 7-31. 153 (D) 7-31-159 16. 6 (15)=——. (A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D) 10 7, 7! = ——_ (mod 15) (A) 1 Bee (C) 3 (D) -1 8. 79176 = —___ (mod 24) (A) -1 (B) 1 (©) 2 (D) 3 9. By Wilson’ theorem, the remainder, when 2 (28 !) is divided by 31 is 7 (A) 20 (B) 30 (C) 40 (D) 10 0. 4 (29!) +5 ! is divisible by —. (A) 11 (B) 21 (D) 41 | i SHORT ANSWER - TYPE QUESTIONS —1 BEB Find the remiander, when 15! is divided by 17. Find the remainder when 2(26!) is divided by 29. Write the condition for which x* =—I(mod p), p is an odd prime, has a solution. Give an example to show that a positive integer a is self invertible modulo p, where p is prime. Find the self-invertible least residues modulo 7. Find the self-invertible least residues modulo 19. Solve the congruence x* =1(mod6). Ifa be a solution of the congruence x* =1(modm), then is it true that m—a_ is also a solution? Ifyes, justify. Without using Wilson’s theorem, verify that (p—I If p be odd prime, then show that 2(p~3)SICAL MILESTONES pV oo Ee vent hat ( 5 } =-I (mod p), for p = 17. "i F show that ( yet Then show that g(x+a)=g(x) for every positive integer a. \ 2 n (mod p)« p) p. Hel 4, fp be any prime, a be any positive integer and x be an arbitrary integer > 0, then show that 0 (7) =o¢modp)o3- a) 15, Compute (i) $(5040) (i) 4(1001). 16. nis an odd integer, show that 6(27) = 4(”)- 17, In is an odd integer, show that (27) =26() . 1) +2 holds for n=12, Where 1 and n+2 are a pair of twin primes. “_ & ‘SHORT ANSWER - TYPE QUESTIONS - Il 18, Show that $(1+2)=$(m 1. Prove or disprove (i) $((a,b)) = (9(a), 6) (ii) 4((4,6)) =[4(),90)] 2. Verify that 14949? +...+97 =0 (mod35). 3. Solve the linear congruence 143x=47 (mod20) : Verify that a® =1(mod18), for a=5,7,11. : ee Binomial theorem, prove that (a+6)? =a” +5"(mod) ‘ ri and q are distinct, primes, show that p* +4" = P+ g(mod pq)- i tify that (12 +15)'7 =127 +15!7(mod17)- 2 2l(mod pq), where p and q are distinct Ifrs al \(mod p) and x? = (mod q) , does it follow that, Primes, Show how that 2 = (mod341) - Find the unlfeetn the units digit of 3! by Fermat’s Little theorem. 1 (mod pq). par md q are distinet primes, prove that P+ 4" >Ey LONG ANSWER- TYPE QUESTIONS 2 i eae INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEOR, y SECTION-D Show that a positive integer » >2 is a prime, if and only if (n~2)!=I(modn). ny Ifp be a prime and 7m be any positve integer, show that a z —1)" (mod p) . Verify the formula in Q. no 2 when n=46, p=5. Find the remainder when 24'“” js divided by 17. = Find the primes p, for which is a square. Let p be a prime. Then prove that (pI)! =~1 (mod p) Solve the congruence 24x=11(mod17). Let x be any integer and p be any prime, Then show that (x+1)? =x +1 (mod p). If p be any odd prime and a be any non-negative integer, then prove that (a+1)’ +(a+2)’ +...+ (a+ p-I)’ =-a (mod p) eee fe) ANSWER TO SECTION—A eB) 2 (D) 1 £4. (@) il 4. @) 1 Ste) elope Oe (A)! 13, 11, 17] Zee (Cyl 8 ©! oC 10. (A) (—1)"")? I. (A) x= 4(mod17) 12, (A) 10 135g (@)a 14. (B)x= 7(mod17) 15, (B) 7-31-151 16. (C) 8 17, (A) 1 18. (B) | 19. (B) 30 20, (C) 31