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PHYSICS
Chapter 10: Mechanical Properties of Fluids
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
10

Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Fluids
Fluids can be defined as any substance which is capable of flowing.
They don’t have any shape of their own.
For example: water which does not have its own shape but it takes the shape of the container
in which it is poured.
But when we pour water in a tumbler it takes the shape of the tumbler

Both liquids and gases can be categorised as fluids as they are capable of flowing.
Volume of solids, liquids and gas depends on the stress or pressure acting on it.
In this chapter we will study if we apply force on the fluid how does it affects the internal
properties of fluids.
Fluids offer very little resistance to shear stress.
We will also study some characteristic properties of fluids.
Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
For Example:
Consider a very sharp needle which has a small surface area and consider a pencil whose back is
very blunt and has more surface area than the needle. If we poke needle in our palm it will hurt
as needle gets pierced inside our skin. Whereas if we poke the blunt side of the pencil into our
hand it won’t pain so much.
This is because area of contact between the palm and the needle is very small therefore the
pressure is large. Whereas the area of contact between the pencil and the palm is more
therefore the pressure is less.

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Two factors which determine the magnitude of the pressure are:-

Force – greater the force greater is the pressure and vice-versa.
Coverage area – greater the area less is the pressure and vice-versa.
Example:
Consider a stuntman lying on the bed of nails which means there are large numbers of nails on
any rectangular slab. All the nails are identical and equal in height.
We can see that the man is not feeling any pain and he is lying comfortably on the bed. This is
because there isa large number of nails and all the nails are closely spaced with each other.
All the small, pointed nails make large surface area therefore the weight of the body is
compensated by the entire area of all the nails.
The surface area increases therefore pressure is reduced.
But even if one nail is greater than the others then it will hurt. Because then the surface area
will be less as a result pressure will be more.

Stuntman lying on bed of nails.

Pressure in Fluids:
Normal force exerted by fluid per unit area.
This means force is acting perpendicular to the surface of contact.
Consider a body submerged in the water, force is exerted by the water perpendicular to the
surface of the body.
If there is no force applied perpendicularly but in the parallel direction then there will be
motion along the horizontal direction.
Since fluid is at rest and body is submerged in the fluid. Therefore there cannot be motion along
the horizontal direction.
Therefore we always say the force is applied perpendicularly.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. Because the force here is not a vector quantity but it is the
component of force normal to the area.
Dimensional Formula [ML-1T-2]
I Unit: N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).
Atmosphere unit (atm) is defined as pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level. It is a
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common unit of pressure.

1atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa

Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law states that if the pressure is applied to uniform fluids that are confined, the fluids
will then transmit the same pressure in all directions at the same rate.
Pascal’s law holds good only for uniform fluids.
For example:
Consider a vessel filled with water which is uniform throughout as there is only one type of fluid
which is water.
Consider a vessel which has oil and water then it is not uniform. As it have two different fluids.

Fluid should be confined meaning fluid is present within region in space. It is not allowed to
spread.
For example, 1:
A balloon filled with water and when we press it hard against the wall.
We will see the shape of the balloon changes. This is because if we apply force on balloon,
pressure is exerted on the water.
Water is uniform fluid, and it is confined with in this balloon and is not allowed to spread.
On applying pressure, it is transmitted in all other directions.
Variation of pressure with depth
Consider a cylindrical object inside a fluid; consider 2 different positions for this object.
Fluid is at rest therefore the force along the horizontal direction is 0.
Forces along the vertical direction:
Consider two positions 1 and 2.
Force at position 1 is perpendicular to cross sectional area A, F1 = P1
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Similarly, F2 = P2

This net force will be balanced by the weight of the cylinder(m).

Therefore, under equilibrium condition
Fnet = mg = weight of the cylinder = weight of the fluid displaced.
= ρ Vg where ρ = density = volume of the fluid
= ρhAg where V = hA (h = height and A = area)
Therefore (P2 - P1) A = ρhAg
P2 - P1 = ρhg, Therefore the difference in the pressure is dependent on height of the cylinder.
Consider the top of the cylinder exposed to air therefore P1 = Pa (where Pa = P1 is equal to
atmospheric pressure.)
Then P2 = Pa + ρhg
The pressure P, at depth below the surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is greater than
atmospheric pressure by an amount ρhg.
The pressure is independent of the cross sectional or base area or the shape of the container.

Cylinder is inside the fluid.

Hydrostatic Paradox
Hydrostatic Paradox means: - hydro = water, static =at rest
Paradox means that something taking place surprisingly.
Consider 3 vessels of very different shapes (like thin rectangular shape, triangular and some
filter shape) and we have a source from which water enters into these 3 vessels.
Water enters through the horizontal base which is the base of these 3 vessels we observe that
the level of water in all the 3 vessels is same irrespective of their different shapes.
This is because pressure at some point at the base of these 3 vessels is same.
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The water will rise in all these 3 vessels till the pressure at the top is same as the pressure at the
bottom.
As pressure is dependent only on height therefore in all the 3 vessels the height reached by the
water is same irrespective of difference in their shapes.
This experiment is known as Hydrostatic Paradox.

The three vessels A, B and C contain different amounts of liquids, all up to the same height

Fluid is under gravity. The effect of gravity is illustrated through pressure on a vertical cylindrical
column
Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere.
Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases. All these gas molecules together constitute some
weight. By virtue of this weight there is some pressure exerted by the atmosphere on all the
objects.
This pressure is known as atmospheric pressure.
Value of atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1.01*105
1atm = 1.01*105Pa
Gauge Pressure
Pressure difference between the system and the atmosphere.
From relation P = Pa + ρgh where P = pressure at any point, Pa = atmospheric pressure.
We can say that Pressure at any point is always greater than the atmospheric pressure by the
amount ρgh.
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P – Pa = ρgh where
P = pressure of the system, Pa = atmospheric pressure,
(P - Pa) = pressure difference between the system and atmosphere.
hρg = Gauge pressure.
How to measure Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure is measured by Open Tube Manometer.
Open Tube Manometer is a U-shaped tube which is partially filled with mercury (Hg).
One end is open and other end is connected to some device where pressure is to be determined.
This means it is like a system.
The height to which the mercury column will rise depends on the atmospheric pressure.
Similarly depending on the pressure of the system the height of mercury in another tube rises.
The pressure difference between these two heights is the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and system.
This difference in pressure is the gauge pressure.
Consider if the level of mercury column is same in both the U-tubes.
Patm = P, therefore the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the
system is 0.
Gauge Pressure is 0.
Patm = 760torr.

Open tube manometer

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Closed end manometer

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure above the zero value of pressure.
It is the actual pressure which a substance has.
It is measured against the vacuum.
Absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute zero pressure.
It is sum of atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure.
P = Pa + hρg where P = pressure at any point, Pa = atmospheric pressure and hρg = gauge
pressure.
Therefore P = Pa + Gauge Pressure. Where P = absolute pressure.
It is measured with the help of barometer.
Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure
Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure states that the pressure exerted anywhere in a
confined incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions
throughout the fluid.
The above law means that if we consider a fluid which is restricted within a specific region in
space and if the volume of the fluid doesn’t change with the pressure, then the amount of
pressure exerted will be same as the amount of pressure transmitted.
Consider a circular vessel which have 4 openings and along these 4 openings 4 pistons are
attached.
When piston A is moved downwards pressure is exerted on the liquid in the downward
direction, this pressure gets transmitted equally along all the directions. As a result, all the other
3 pistons move equal distance outwards.

A circular vessel fitted with movable piston at all the four ends and when piston A is moved
downward a pressure is exerted downward. Equal amount of pressure is exerted along all the
directions as a result they will move equal distances outward.
Applications: Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure

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Hydraulic lift:
Hydraulic lift is a lift which makes use of a fluid.
For example: Hydraulic lifts that are used in car service stations to lift the cars.
Principle:
Inside a hydraulic lift there are 2 platforms, one has a smaller area and the other one has a
larger area.
It is a tube-like structure which is filled with uniform fluid.
There are 2 pistons (P1 and P2) which are attached at both the ends of the tube.
Cross-sectional area of piston P1 is A1 and of piston P2 is A2.
If we apply force F1 on P1, pressure gets exerted and according to Pascal’s law the pressure gets
transmitted in all the directions and same pressure gets exerted on the other end. As a result the
Piston P2 moves upwards.
Advantage of using hydraulic lift is that by applying small force on the small area we are able to
generate a larger force.
Mathematically: F2 = PA2
where F2 = Resultant Force, A2 = area of cross-section
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹2 = ( 1 ) 𝐴2 where 𝑃 = 1 (Pressure P is due to force F1 on the area A1)
𝐴 1 𝐴 1
𝐴 𝐴
𝐹2 = ( 2) 𝐹1 . This shows that the applied force has increased by 2
𝐴 1 𝐴 1

Because of Pascal’s law the input gets magnified.

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The above figure shows the internal structure of the hydraulic lift.
Hydraulic Brakes
Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascal’s law.
According to this law whenever pressure is applied on a fluid it travels uniformly in all the
directions.
Therefore, when we apply force on a small piston, pressure gets created which is transmitted
through the fluid to a larger piston. As a result of this larger force, uniform braking is applied on
all four wheels.
As braking force is generated due to hydraulic pressure, they are known as hydraulic brakes.
Liquids are used instead of gas as liquids are incompressible.
Construction
The fluid in the hydraulic brake is known as brake fluid.
It consists of a master cylinder, four-wheel cylinders and pipes carrying brake fluid from master
cylinder to wheel cylinders.
Master cylinder consists of a piston which is connected to pedal through connecting rod.
The wheel cylinders consist of two pistons between which fluid is filled.
Each wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum. This drum is mounted on the inner side of
wheel. The drum revolves with the wheel.
Two brake shoes which are mounted inside the drum remain stationary.
Working
When we press the brake pedal, piston in the master cylinder forces the brake fluid through a
linkage.
As a result, pressure increases and gets transmitted to all the pipes and to all the wheel cylinders
according to Pascal’s law.
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Because of this pressure, both the pistons move out and transmit the braking force on all the
wheels.
Advantages:
Equal braking effort to all the four wheels.
Less rate of wear due to absence of joints.
By just changing the size of one piston and cylinder, force can be increased or decreased.
Disadvantages:
Leakage of brake fluid spoils the brake shoes.
Even the slightest presence of air pockets can spoil the whole system.

Inside of the cylinder

Types of Fluid flow: Steady Flow

Some streamlines for fluid flow

The flow of a fluid is said to be steady, if at any point, the velocity of each passing fluid particle
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remains constant within that interval of time.

Streamline is the path followed by the fluid particle.
It means that at any particular instant the velocities of all the particles at any point are same. But
the velocity of all the particles won’t be same across all the points in the space.
Steady flow is termed as ‘Streamline flow’ and ‘Laminar flow’.
Consider a case when all the particles of fluid passing point A have the same velocity. This means
that the first particle will have velocity V1 and second will have velocity V1 and so on. All the
particles will have the same velocity V1 at point A.
At point B, all particles will have velocity V2.
Similarly at point C the velocity of all the particles is V3.
We can see that the velocity is changing from point to point but at one particular point it is
same.
No two streamlines can intersect.
If two streamlines intersect each other, the particles won’t know which path to follow and what
velocity to attain. That is why no two streamlines intersect.

The meaning of streamlines:

(a) A typical trajectory of a fluid particle.
(b) A region of streamline flow.

Equation of Continuity

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According to the equation of continuity Av = constant. Where A = cross-sectional area and v =

velocity with which the fluid flows.
It means that if any liquid is flowing in streamline flow in a pipe of non-uniform cross-section
area, then rate of flow of liquid across any cross-section remains constant.
Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying thickness.
Let the cross-sectional area at one end (I) = A1 and cross-sectional area of other end (II) = A2.
The velocity and density of the fluid at one end (I) = v1, ρ1 respectively, velocity and density of
fluid at other end (II) = v2, ρ2
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t, across left cross-sectional is Area (I) =
A1 x v1 x ∆t
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t across right cross-sectional Area (II) =
A2 x v2 x ∆t
Fluid inside is incompressible (volume of fluid does not change by applying pressure) that is
density remains same ρ1 = ρ2. (Equation 1)
Along(I) mass = ρ1 A1 v1 ∆t and along second point (II) mass = ρ2A2 v2∆t
By using equation (1). We can conclude that A1 v1 = A2 v2. This is the equation of continuity.
From Equation of continuity, we can say that Av = constant.
This equation is also termed as “Conservation of mass of incompressible fluids”.

Conclusion:
Volume flux/Flow rate remains constant throughout the pipe. This means rate of flow of fluid of
liquid is more if cross-sectional area is more, then the velocity will be less, and vice-versa.
But the Av will remain constant.
So, the volume which is covered by the fluid at any cross-sectional area is constant throughout
the pipe even if pipe has different cross-sectional areas.
The fluid is accelerated while passing from the wider cross-sectional area towards the narrower

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area. This means if area is more the velocity is less and vice-versa.
Turbulent Flow:
A fluid flow is said to be turbulent if the velocity of the particles vary at any point erratically.
This means fluid particles are moving here and there, they are not moving in organized manner.
They all will have different velocities.
Eddies are generated by this flow. Eddies are same as ripples.
All the particles are moving here and there randomly.

Bernoulli’s Principle
𝜌𝑣 2
For a streamline fluid flow, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume ( )
2
and the potential energy per unit volume (ρgh) remain constant.
𝜌𝑣 2
Mathematically: 𝑃 + + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = constant
2
where P = pressure,
1 1 2
𝐸. 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣 1
=2 = 2𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 (𝑉 ) 2
𝐸. 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑚
= = ( ) 𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑉
Derive: Bernoulli’s equation
Assumptions:
Fluid flow through a pipe of varying width.
Pipe is located at changing heights.
Fluid is incompressible.
Flow is laminar.
No energy is lost due to friction: applicable only to non-viscous fluids.
Mathematically:
Consider the fluid initially lying between B and D. In an infinitesimal time interval Δt, this fluid
would have moved.
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The flow of an ideal fluid in a pipe of varying cross section. The fluid in a section of length v1Δt
moves to the section of length v2Δt in time Δt.
Bernoulli’s equation: Special Cases

Torricelli’s law
Torricelli law states that the speed of flow of fluid from an orifice is equal to the speed that it
would attain if falling freely for a distance equal to the height of the free surface of the liquid
above the orifice.
Consider any vessel which has an orifice (slit)filled with some fluid.
The fluid will start flowing through the slit and according to Torricelli law the speed with which
the fluid will flow is equal to the speed with which a freely falling body attains such that the
height from which the body falls is equal to the height of the slit from the free surface of the
fluid.
Let the distance between the free surface and the slit = h
Velocity with which the fluid flows is equal to the velocity with which a freely falling body attains
if it is falling from a height h.
Derivation of the Law:

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Torricelli’s law. The speed of efflux, v1,from the side of the container is given bythe application
of Bernoulli’s equation.
Case1: The vessel is not closed it is open to atmosphere that means P = Pa.
Therefore v1=√2gh.This is the speed of a freely falling body.
This is accordance to Torricelli’s law which states that the speed by which the fluid is flowing out
of a small slit of a container is same as the velocity of a freely falling body.
Case2: Tank is not open to atmosphere but P>>Pa.
Therefore 2gh is ignored as it is very very large, hence v1= √2P/ρ.
The velocity with which the fluid will come out of the container is determined by the Pressure at
the free surface of the fluid alone.
Venturimeter
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Venturimeter is a device to measure the flow of incompressible liquid.

It consists of a tube with a broad diameter having a larger cross-sectional area but there is a
small constriction in the middle.
It is attached to U-tube manometer. One end of the manometer is connected to the constriction
and the other end is connected to the broader end of the Venturimeter.
The U-tube is filled with fluid whose density is ρ.
A1 = cross-sectional area at the broader end, v1 = velocity of the fluid.
A2 =cross-sectional area at constriction, v2 = velocity of the fluid.
By the equation of continuity, wherever the area is more velocity is less and vice-versa. As A1 is
more this implies v1 is less and vice-versa.

As there is difference in the pressure the fluid moves,this movement of the fluid is marked by
the level of the fluid increase at one end of the U-tube.

A schematic diagram of Venturimeter

Venturimeter: determining the fluid speed

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Practical Application of Venturimeter:

Spray Gun or perfume bottle- They are based on the principle of Venturimeter.
• Consider a bottle filled with fluid and having a pipe which goes straight till constriction.
There is a narrow end of pipe which has a greater cross sectional area.
• The cross sectional area of constriction which is at middle is less.
• There is pressure difference when we spray as a result some air goes in, velocity of the air
changes depending on the cross sectional area.
• Also because of difference in cross sectional area there is pressure difference, the level of
the fluid rises, and it comes out.

Dynamic Lift
Dynamic lift is the normal force that acts on a body by virtue of its motion through a fluid.
Consider an object which is moving through the fluid, and due to the motion of the object
through the fluid there is a normal force which acts on the body.
This force is known as dynamic lift.
Dynamic lift is most popularly observed in aeroplanes.
Whenever an aeroplane is flying in the air, due to its motion through the fluid here fluid is air in
the atmosphere. Due to its motion through this fluid, there is a normal force which acts on the
body in the vertically upward direction.
This force is known as Dynamic lift.
Examples:
Airplane wings
Spinning ball in air
Dynamic lift on airplane wings:
Consider an aeroplane whose body is streamline. Below the wings of the aeroplane there is air
which exerts an upward force on the wings. As a result aeroplane experiences dynamic lift.

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Magnus Effect
Dynamic lift by virtue of spinning is known as Magnus effect.
Magnus effect is a special name given to dynamic lift by virtue of spinning.
Example: Spinning of a ball.
Case1: When the ball is not spinning.
The ball moves in the air it does not spin, the velocity of the ball above and below the ball is
same.
As a result, there is no pressure difference. (ΔP= 0).
Therefore, there is no dynamic lift.

Case2: When the ball is moving in the air as well as spinning.

When the ball spins it drags the air above it therefore the velocity above the ball is more as
compared to the velocity below the ball.
As a result there is a pressure difference; the pressure is more below the ball.
Because of pressure difference there is an upward force which is the dynamic lift.

Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that resists the force tending to cause the fluid to flow.
It is analogous to friction in solids.
Example:
Consider 2 glasses one filled with water and the other filled with honey.
Water will flow down the glass very rapidly whereas honey won’t. This is because honey is more
viscous than water.
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Therefore in order to make honey flow we need to apply greater amount of force. Because
honey has the property to resist the motion.
Viscosity comes into play when there is relative motion between the layers of the fluid. The
different layers are not moving at the same pace.

Coefficient of Viscosity
Coefficient of viscosity is the measure of degree to which a fluid resists flow under an applied
force.
This means how much resistance does a fluid have to its motion.
Ratio of shearing stress to the strain rate.
It is denoted by ‘η’.
Mathematically
Δt=time, displacement = Δx
Therefore,
𝛥𝑥
shearing stress = where l = length
𝑙
𝛥𝑥
Strain rate =
𝑙𝛥𝑡
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜂 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐹
(𝐴) 𝐹𝑙 𝛥𝑥
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 =𝑣
𝛥𝑥 𝑣𝐴 𝑡
( )
𝑙𝛥𝑡
𝐹𝑙
Therefore 𝜂 =
𝑣𝐴
𝑃𝐼
𝑃𝑎
I. Unit: Poiseiulle
𝑁𝑠𝑚−2
Dimensional Formula: [ML-1T-1]

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(a) A layer of liquid sandwiched between two parallel glass plates in which the lower plate is
fixed and the upper one is moving to the right with velocity v
Velocity distribution for viscous flow in a pipe.

Stokes Law
The force that retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid is directly ∝to the velocity and
the radius of the sphere, and the viscosity of the fluid.
Mathematically: F =6πηrv where
Let retarding force F∝v where v =velocity of the sphere
F ∝ r where r=radius of the sphere
F∝η where η=coefficient of viscosity
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6π=constant
Stokes law is applicable only to laminar flow of liquids. It is not applicable to turbulent law.
Example: Falling raindrops
Consider a single rain drop, when raindrop is falling it is passing through air.
The air has some viscosity; there will be some force which will try to stop the motion of the rain
drop.
Initially the rain drop accelerates but after some time it falls with constant velocity.
As the velocity increases the retarding force also increases.
There will be viscous force Fv and bind force Fb acting in the upward direction. There will also be
Gravitational force acting downwards.
After some time Fg = Fr (Fv + Fb)
Net Force is 0. If force is 0 as a result acceleration also becomes 0.

Terminal Velocity
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity of a body moving through a viscous fluid.
It is attained when force of resistance of the medium is equal and opposite to the force of
gravity.
As the velocity is increasing the retarding force will also increase and a stage will come when the
force of gravity becomes equal to resistance force.
After that point velocity won’t increase and this velocity is known as terminal velocity.
It is denoted by ‘vt’. Wheret = terminal.
Mathematically:
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Terminal velocity is attained when Force of resistance = force due to gravitational attraction.
6πηrv =mg
6πηrv = densityxVg (Because density=m/V), density=ρ – σ where ρ and σ are the densities of the
sphere and the viscous medium resp.
6πηrv = (ρ – σ)x4/3πr3g where Volume of the sphere(V) =4/3πr3
By simplifying
= (ρ – σ)gx4/3r2x1/(6η)
vt =2r2(ρ – σ)g/9 η .This is the terminal velocity. Where(v=vt)

Reynolds Number
Reynolds number is a dimensionless number, whose value gives an idea whether the flow would
be turbulent or laminar.
Types of flow are classified as 2 types: laminar flow and turbulent flow.
Reynolds number helps us to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
It is denoted by Re. where ‘e’ shows Reynolds.
Expression: Re=ρvd/ η;
where ρ = density of the fluid,
v=velocity of the fluid,
d=diameter of the pipe through which the fluid flows
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η=viscosity of the fluid.

Liquid Surfaces
Certain properties of free surfaces:
Whenever liquids are poured in any container they take the shape of that container in which
they are poured and they acquire a free surface.
Consider a case if we pour water inside the glass it takes the shape of the glass with a free
surface at the top.
Top surface of the glass is a free surface. Water is not in contact with anything else, it is in
contact with the air only.
This is known as free surfaces.
Liquids have free surfaces. As liquids don’t have fixed shape they have only fixed volume.
Free surfaces have additional energy as compared to inner surfaces of the liquid.

Surface Energy
Surface energy is the excess energy exhibited by the liquid molecules on the surface compared
to those inside the liquid.
This means liquid molecules at the surface have greater energy as compared to molecules inside
it.
Suppose there is a tumbler and when we pour water in the tumbler,it takes the shape of the
tumbler.
It acquires free surface.
Case 1: When molecules are inside the liquid:
Suppose there is a molecule inside the water, there will be several other molecules that will
attract that molecule in all the directions.
As a result this attraction will bind all the molecules together.
This results in negative potential energy of the molecule as it binds the molecule.

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To separate this molecule huge amount of energy is required to overcome potential energy.
Some external energy is required to move this molecule and it should be greater than the
potential energy.
Therefore in order to separate this molecule a huge amount of energy is required.
Therefore a large amount of energy is required by the molecules which are inside the liquid.
Case2: When the molecules are at the surface:
When the molecule is at the surface, half of it will be inside and half of it is exposed to the
atmosphere.
For the lower half of the molecule it will be attracted by the other molecules inside the liquid.
But the upper half is free. The negative potential energy is only because of lower half.
But the magnitude is half as compared to the potential energy of the molecule which is fully
inside the liquid.
So the molecule has some excess energy, because of this additional energy which the molecules
have at the surface different phenomenon happen like surface energy, surface tension.
Liquids always tend to have least surface are when left to itself.
As more surface area will require more energy as a result liquids tend to have least surface area.

Surface energy for two fluids in contact

Whenever there are two fluids, in contact, surface energy depends on materials of the surfaces
in contact.
Surface energy decreases if the molecules of the two fluids attract.
Surface energy increases if molecules of the two fluids repel.
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Surface Tension
Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface which arises due to the fact that surface
molecules have extra energy.
Surface energy is the extra energy which the molecules at the surface have.
Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface because the molecules have extra energy.
Surface energy is defined as surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface.
Denoted by ’S’.
Mathematically:
Consider a case in which liquid is enclosed in a movable bar.
Slide the bar slightly and it moves some distance (‘d’).
There will be increase in the area, (dl) where l=length of the bar.
Liquids have two surfaces one on the bar and other above the bar. Therefore area=2(dl)
Work done for this change = F x displacement.
Surface tension(S)=Surface Energy/area
Or Surface Energy=S x area
=Sx2dl
Therefore S x 2dl =F x d
S = F/2d
Surface tension is the surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface.
It can be also defined as Force per unit length on the liquid surface.
Important: -At any interface (it is a line which separates two different medium) the surface
tension always acts in equal and opposite direction and it is always perpendicular to the line at
the interface.

Schematic picture of molecules in a liquid, at the surface and balance of forces

(a) Molecule inside a liquid. Forces on a molecule due to others are shown. Direction of arrows
indicates attraction of repulsion. (b) Same, for a molecule at a surface. (c) Balance of attractive
(A) and repulsive (R) forces.
Surface tension and Surface energy: practical applications

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Consider a molecule which is present completely inside the liquid and if it is strongly attracted
by the neighbouring molecules then the surface energy is less.
Consider a molecule which is present partially inside the liquid the force of attraction by the
neighbouring molecules is lesser as a result surface energy is more.
Consider a molecule whose very little part is inside the water so very small force of attraction by
the neighbouring molecules as a result more surface energy.
Conclusion: A fluid will stick to a solid surface if the surface energy between fluid and solid is
smaller than the sum of energies between solid-air and fluid-air.
This means Ssf( solid fluid) < Sfa(fluid air) + Ssa(Solid air)

Stretching a film (a) A film in equilibrium;(b) The film stretched an extra distance.
How detergents work
Washing alone with the water can remove some of the dirt but it does not remove the grease
stains. This is because water does not wet greasy dirt.
We need detergent which mixes water with dirt to remove it from the clothes.
Detergent molecules look like hairpin shape. When we add detergents to the water one end
stick to water and the other end sticks to the dirt.
As a result dirt is getting attracted to the detergent molecules and they get detached from the
clothes and they are suspended in the water.
Detergent molecules get attracted to water and when water is removed the dirt also gets
removed from the clothes.

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Detergent action in terms of what detergent molecules do.

In image (1) Soap molecules with head attracted to water
In image (2) greasy dirt
In image (3) water is added but dirt does not get removed
In image (4) when detergent is added, other end of the molecules get attracted to the boundary
where water meets dirt.
In image (5) Dirt gets surrounded by inert end and dirt from the clothes can be removed by
moving water.
In image (6) dirt is held suspended, surrounded by soap molecule,
Angle of Contact
Angle of contact is the angle at which a liquid interface meets a solid surface.
It is denoted by θ.
It is different at interfaces of different pairs of liquids and solids.
For example: - Droplet of water on louts leaf. The droplet of water(Liquid) is in contact with the
solid surface which is leaf.
This liquid surface makes some angle with the solid surface. This angle is known as angle of
contact.

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Water form a spherical shape on lotus leaf

Water spilt on the table.

Significance of Angle of Contact

Angle of contact determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a solid or it will form
droplets on it.
If the Angle of contact is obtuse: then droplet will be formed.
If the Angle of contact is acute: then the water will spread.
Case1: When droplet is formed
Consider we have a solid surface, droplet of water which is liquid and air.
The solid liquid interface denoted by Ssl, solid air interface denoted by Ssa and liquid air interface
denoted by Sla.
The angle which Ssl makes with Sla. It is greater than the 900.
Therefore droplet is formed.

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Case 2: When water just spreads

The angle which liquid forms with solid surface is less than 900.

Drops and Bubbles

Why water and bubbles are drops
• Whenever liquid is left to itself it tends to acquire the least possible surface area so that it has
least surface energy so it has most stability.
• Therefore for more stability they acquire the shape of sphere, as sphere has least possible
area.

Spherical Shape
Distinction between Drop, Cavity and Bubble
Drop: Drop is a spherical structure filled with water.
There is only one interface in the drop.
The interface separates water and air.
Example: Water droplet.

Water droplets
Cavity: -Cavity is a spherical shape filled with air.

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In the surroundings there is water and in middle there is cavity filled with air.
There is only one interface which separates air and water.
Example: - bubble inside the aquarium.

Bubble: - In a bubble there are two interfaces. One is air water and another is water and air.
Inside a bubble there is air and there is air outside.
But it consists of thin film of water.

Capillary Rise
In Latin the word capilla means hair.
Due to the pressure difference across a curved liquid-air interface the water rises up in a narrow
tube in spite of gravity.
Consider a vertical capillary tube of circular cross section (radius a) inserted into an open vessel
of water.
The contact angle between water and glass is acute. Thus the surface of water in the capillary is
concave. As a result there is a pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface. This
is given by

Thus the pressure of the water inside thetube, just at the meniscus (air-water interface)is less
than the atmospheric pressure.

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Consider the two points A and B. They must be at the same pressure,

Therefore the capillary rise is due to surface tension. It is larger, for a smaller radius.

Capillary rise, (a) Schematic picture of a narrow tube immersed water. (b) Enlarged picture near
interface.
Top Formulae

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Important Questions
Multiple Choice questions-
1. Plants get water through the roots because of
(a) Capillarity
(b) Viscosity
(c) Gravity
(d) Elasticity
2. Water rises up to a height h1 in a capillary tube of radius r. the mass of the water
lifted in the capillary tube is M. if the radius of the capillary tube is doubled, the mass
of water that will rise in the capillary tube will be
(a) M
(b) 2M
(c) M/2
(d) 4M
3. A number of small drops of mercury coalesce adiabatically to form a single drop.
The temperature of drop
(a) Increases
(b) Is infinite
(c) Remains unchanged
(d) May decrease or increase depending upon size
4. When a soap bubble is charged
(a) It contracts
(b) It expands
(c) It does not undergo any change in size
(d) None of these
5. A liquid is kept in a glass vessel. If the liquid solid adhesive force between the
liquid and the vessel is very weak as compared to the cohesive force in the liquid,
then the shape of the liquid surface near the solid should be
(a) Concave
(b) Convex
(c) Horizontal
(d) Almost vertical
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6. A capillary tube is placed vertically in a liquid. If the cohesive force is less than the
adhesive force, then
(a) The meniscus will be convex upwards
(b) The liquid will wet the solid
(c) The angle of contact will be obtuse
(d) The liquid will drip in the capillary tube
7. When there are no external forces, the shape of a liquid drop is determined by
(a) Surface tension of the liquid
(b) Density of liquid
(c) Viscosity of liquid
(d) Temperature of air only
8. Water can rise up to a height of 12 cm in a capillary tube. If the tube is lowered to
keep only 9 cm above the water level then the water at the upper end of the
capillary will
(a) Overflow
(b) From a convex surface
(c) From a flat surface
(d) From a concave surface
9. Rain drops are spherical in shape because of
(a) Surface tension
(b) Capillary
(c) Downward motion
(d) Acceleration due to gravity
10. When the angle of contact between a solid and a liquid is 90°, then
(a) Cohesive force > Adhesive force
(b) Cohesive force < Adhesive force
(c) Cohesive force = Adhesive force
(d) Cohesive force >> Adhesive force
Very Short:
1. State the law of floatation?
2. The blood pressure of humans is greater at the feet than at the brain?
3. Define surface tension?
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4. Define surface tension?

5. Oil is sprinkled on sea waves to calm them. Why?
6. Oil is sprinkled on sea waves to calm them. Why?
7. The diameter of ball A is half that of ball B. What will be their ratio of their
terminal velocities in water?
8. Define viscosity?
9. Give two areas where Bernoulli’s theorem is applied?
10.What is conserved in Bernoulli’s theorem?
Short Questions:
1. A glass bulb is balanced by an iron weight in an extremely sensitive beam balance
covered by a bell jar. What shall happen when the bell jar is evacuated?
2. It is easier to swim in seawater than in river water. Why?
3. Does Archimedes’ Principle hold in a vessel in free fall or in a satellite moving in a
circular orbit?
4. A block of wood floats in a pan of water in an elevator. When the elevator starts
from rest and accelerates downward, does the 1 block floats higher above the
water surface? What happens when the elevator accelerates upward?
5. The thrust on a human being due to atmospheric pressure is about 15 tons. How
human being can withstand such an enormous thrust while it is impossible for
him to carry a load of even one ton?
6. Why are sleepers used below the rails? Explain.
7. The passengers are advised to remove the ink from their f pens while going up in
an airplane. Explain why?
8. Why a sinking ship often turns over as it becomes immersed in water?
9. Explain why a balloon filled with helium does not rise in the air indefinitely but
halts after a certain height?
10.A light ball can remain suspended in a vertical jet of water flow?
11.In the case of an emergency, a vacuum brake is used to stop the train. How does
this brake work?
12.Why dust generally settles down in a closed room?
13.How will the rise of a liquid be affected if the top of the capillary tube is closed?
14.What are buoyancy and the center of buoyancy?
15.Under what conditions:

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(a) Centre of buoyancy coincides with the center of gravity?

(b) The center of buoyancy does not coincide with the center of gravity?

Long Questions:
1. A copper cube of mass 0.50 kg is weighed in water (ρ = 103 kg m-3). The mass
comes out to be 0.40 kg. Is the cube hollow or solid? Given density of copper =
8.96 × 103 kg m-3.
2. A piece of pure gold (ρ = 9.3 g cm-3) is suspected to be hollow. It weighs 38.250 g
in air and 33.865 in water. Calculate the volume of the hollow portion in gold, if
any.
3. A glass plate of length 20 cm, breadth 4 cm, and thickness 0.4 cm weights 40 g in
air. If it is held vertically with the long side horizontal and the plate half breadth
immersed in water, what will be its apparent weight, the surface tension of water
= 70 dyne cm-1.
4. What is the work done in blowing a soap bubble of diameter 0.07 m?
5. If 3.6960 × 103 J of work is done to blow it further, find the new radius. Surface
tension of soap solution is 0.04 Nm1.
Assertion Reason Questions:
1. Directions:
(a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct
explanation of the assertion.
(b) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.
(c) If assertion is true but reason is false.
(d) If the assertion and reason both are false.
Assertion: It is easier to spray water in which some soap is dissolved.
Reason: Soap is easier to spread.
2. Directions:
(a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct
explanation of the assertion.
(b) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.
(c) If assertion is true but reason is false.
(d) If the assertion and reason both are false.
Assertion: The angle of contact of a liquid decrease with increase in temperature.
Reason: With increase in temperature, the surface tension of liquid increase.
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✓ Answer Key:
Multiple Choice Answers-
1. Answer: (a) Capillarity
2. Answer: (b) 2M
3. Answer: (d) May decrease or increase depending upon size
4. Answer: (b) It expands
5. Answer: (b) Convex
6. Answer: (b) The liquid will wet the solid
7. Answer: (a) Surface tension of the liquid
8. Answer: (c) From a flat surface
9. Answer: (a) Surface tension
10.Answer: (c) Cohesive force = Adhesive force
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: Law of floatation states that a body will float in a liquid, if weight of the
liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body is at least equal to or greater
than the weight of the body.
2. Answer: The height of the blood column in the human body is more at the feet
than at the brain as since pressure is directly dependent on height of the column,
so pressure is more at feet than at the brain.
3. Answer: It is measured as the force acting on a unit length of a line imagined to
be drawn tangentially anywhere on the free surface of the liquid at rest.
4. Answer: Archimedes’s Principle will not hold in a vessel in free – fall as in this
case, acceleration due to gravity is zero and hence buoyant force will not exist.
5. Answer: Since the surface tension of sea-water without oil is greater than the oily
water, therefore the water without oil pulls the oily water against the direction of
breeze, and sea waves calm down.
6. Answer: Since the cohesive forces between the oil molecules are less than the
adhesive force between the oil molecules and the drop of oil spreads out and
reverse holds for drop of water.
7. Answer: The terminal velocity is directly proportional to the square of radius of
the ball, therefore the ratio of terminal velocities will be 1:4.
8. Answer: Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which an internal frictional
force comes into play when the fluid is in motion and opposes the relative motion
of its different layers.
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9. Answer: Bernoulli’s theorem is applied in atomizer and in lift of an aero plane

wing.
10.Answer: According to Bernoulli’s theorem, for an incompressible non – Viscous
liquid (fluid) undergoing steady flow the total energy of liquid at all points is
constant.
Short Questions Answers:
1. Answer: The upthrust on the bulb is larger than the upthrust on the iron weight.
When the bell jar has evacuated the upthrust on both the bulb and the iron
weight become zero. Clearly, the bulb is affected more than the iron weight. Thus
the pan containing the bulb shall go down.
2. Answer: Due to the presence of salt, the density of seawater is more than that of
river water. Hence seawater offers more upthrust as compared to river water.
Therefore a lesser portion of our body is submerged in, seawater as compared to
river water. Hence it is easier to swim in sea-water than in river water.
3. Answer: A vessel in free fall or in a satellite moving in a circular orbit is in the
state of weightlessness. It means the value of ‘g’ is zero. Thus the weight of the
vessel and upthrust will be zero. Hence Archimedes’ Principle does not hold good.
4. Answer: When the elevator accelerates downward, the weight of the block of
wood decreases. Hence it will float higher above the water’s surface.
5. Answer: There is a large number of pores and openings on the skin of a body.
Through these openings, air goes within the system and there is free
communication between the inside and the outside. The presence of; the air
inside the body counterbalances the pressure outside.
6. Answer: When sleepers are placed below the rails, the area of the cross- p section
F
is increased. We know that P = , so when the train runs on the rails, the
A
pressure exerted on the ground due to the weight of the train is small because of
a large area of cross-section of the sleeper. Hence the ground will not yield under
the weight of the train.
7. Answer: With the increase in height, the atmospheric pressure decreases. The ink
in the pen is filled at the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the earth. So as
the plane rises up, the pressure decreases \ and the ink will flow out of the pen
from higher pressure to the low ‘pressure region. This will spoil the clothes of
passengers.
8. Answer: When the ship is floating, the metacenter of the ship is above the center
of gravity. While sinking the ship takes in water and as a result, the center of
gravity is raised above the metacenter. The ship turns over due to the couple
formed by the weight and the buoyant force.

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9. Answer: The balloon initially rises in the air because the weight of the displaced
air i.e> upthrust is greater than the weight of the helium and the balloon. Since
the density of air decreases with height, therefore, the balloon halts at a
particular height where the density of air is such that the weight of air displaced
is just equal to the weight of helium gas and the balloon. Hence the net force
acting on the balloon is zero and the balloon stops rising.
10.Answer: The region where the ball and the vertical jet of water are in contact is a
region of low pressure because of higher velocity. The pressure on the other side
of the ball is larger. Due, to the pressure difference, the ball remains suspended.
11.Answer: Steam at high pressure is made to enter the cylinder of the vacuum
brake. Due to high velocity, pressure decreases in accordance with Bernoulli’s
principle. Due to this decrease in pressure, the piston gets lifted. Hence the brake
gets lifted.
12.Answer: Dust particles may be regarded as tiny spheres. They acquire terminal
velocity after having fallen through some distance in the air. Since the terminal
velocity varies directly as the square of the radius therefore the terminal velocity
of dust particles is very small. So they settle down gradually.
13.Answer: The air trapped between the meniscus of the liquid and the closed end
of the tube will be compressed. The compressed air shall oppose the rise of liquid
in the tube.
14.Answer: 1. The upward thrust acting on the body immersed in a liquid is called
buoyancy or buoyant force.
2. The center of buoyancy is the center of gravity of the displaced liquid by the
body when immersed in a liquid.
15.Answer: (a) For a solid body of uniform density, the center of gravity coincides
with the center of buoyancy.
(b) For a solid body having different densities over different parts, its center of
gravity does not coincide with the center of buoyancy.
Long Questions Answers:
1. Answer: Let V be the volume of the cube, then according to Archimedes’
principle,
Loss of weight in water = weight of water displaced …. (i)
Here, mass in air, ma = 0.5 kg
mass in water, mw = 0.4 kg …. (ii)
ρ of water = 103 kg m3.
∴ From (i) and (ii), we get
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which is less than the density of copper (8.96 × 103 kg m-3). So the cube must be
hollow.
2. Answer: Density of pure gold, ρ = 9.3 g cm3,
mass of gold piece, M = 3 8.250 g
𝑀 38.250
∴ volume of the gold piece, V = =
𝑃 9.3
= 4.113 cm3
Also mass of gold piece in water
m’ = 33.865 g
∴ apparent loss in mass of the gold piece in water = (M – m’)
= (38.250 – 33.865)g
= 4.3.85 g
ρwater = 1 g Cm-3
𝑚 4.385
∴ volume of displaced water = = 𝑐𝑚−3
𝜌 1

= 4.385 cm-3
∴ volume of the hollow portion in the gold piece
= 4.385 – 4.113
= 0.272 cm-3.
3. Answer: Here, l = 20 m, b = 4 cm , t = 0.4 cm, T = 70 dyne cm-1
Following three forces are acting on the plate:
1. Weight of the plate, W = 40 grand actings vertically downward.
2. Force due to surface tension acting vertically downward.
If F be the force due to surface tension, then

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(iii) Upthrust, U = Vρg

∴ Net weight = W + F – U
= 40 + 2.9143 – 16
= 26.9143 gf
4. Answer: Here, initial radius of soap bubble, r1 = 0
Final radius of soap bubble, r2 = 0.035 m (∵ D2 = 0.07m)
Increase in surface area of soap bubble

surface tension of soap solution = T = 0.04 Nm-1

∴ work done to blow soap bubble = increase in area × T
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= 0.0308 × 0.04
= 1.232 × 10-3
5. Answer: Let r be the new radius =?

Assertion Rason Answer:

1. (c) If assertion is true but reason is false.
Explanation:
When a liquid is sprayed, the surface area of the liquid increases. Therefore, work
has to be done in spraying the liquid, which is directly proportional to the surface
tension.
Because on adding soap, surface tension of water decreases, the spraying of
water becomes easy.
2. (c) If assertion is true but reason is false.
Explanation:
With increase in temperature surface tension of the liquid decreases and angle of
contact also decreases.
Case Study Questions-
1. Surface Tension
The property due to which the free surface of liquid tends to have the minimum surface area
and behaves like a stretched membrane is called surface tension. It is a force per unit length
acting in the plane of interface between the liquid and the bounding surface i.e., S = F/L, where
F = force acting on either side of an imaginary line on the surface and L = length of the
imaginary line. Surface tension decreases with rise in temperature. Highly soluble impurities
increase surface tension and sparingly soluble impurities decrease surface tension.

i. The excess pressure inside a soap bubble is three times than excess pressure inside a
second soap bubble, then the ratio of their surface area is

a. 9 : 1
b. 1 : 3
c. 1 : 9
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d. 3 : 1
ii. Which of the following statements is not true about surface tension?

a. A small liquid drop takes spherical shape due to surface tension.

b. Surface tension is a vector quantity.

c. Surface tension of liquid is a molecular phenomenon.

d. Surface tension of liquid depends on length but not on the area.

iii. Which of the following statement is not true about angle of contact?
a. The value of angle of contact for pure water and glass is zero.

b. Angle of contact increases with increase in temperature of liquid.

c. If the angle of contact of a liquid and a solid surface is less than 90°, then the liquid
spreads on the surface of solid.

d. Angle of contact depend upon the inclination of the solid surface to the liquid surface.
iv. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. Viscosity is a vector quantity.

b. Surface tension is a vector quantity.

c. Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity.

d. Angle of contact is a vector quantity

v. A liquid does not wet the solid surface if the angle of contact is
a. 0°

b. equal to 45°

c. equal to 90°

d. greater than 90°

2. A system is said to be isolated if no exchange or transfer of heat occurs between the

system and its surroundings. When different parts of an isolated system are at
different temperature a quantity of heat transfers from the part at higher
temperature to the part at lower temperature. The heat lost by the part at higher
temperature is equal to the heat gained by the part at lower temperature.
Calorimetry means measurement of heat. When a body at higher temperature is
brought in contact with another body at lower temperature, the heat lost by the hot
body is equal to the heat gained by the colder body, provided no heat is allowed to
escape to the surroundings. A device in which heat measurement can be done is
called a calorimeter. It consists of a metallic vessel and stirrer of the same material,
like copper or aluminium. The vessel is kept inside a wooden jacket, which contains
heat insulating material. Matter normally exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas.
A transition from one of these states to another is called a change of state. Two
common changes of states are solid to liquid and liquid to gas (and, vice versa).
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These changes can occur when the exchange of heat takes place between the
substance and its surroundings. The change of state from solid to liquid is called
melting and from liquid to solid is called fusion. It is observed that the temperature
remains constant until the entire amount of the solid substance melts. That is, both
the solid and the liquid states of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium during
the change of states from solid to liquid. The temperature at which the solid and the
liquid states of the substance is in thermal equilibrium with each other is called its
melting point. The change of state from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called
vaporisation. It is observed that the temperature remains constant until the entire
amount of the liquid is converted into vapour. That is, both the liquid and vapour
states of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium, during the change of state
from liquid to vapour. The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of
the substance coexist is called its boiling point. The change from solid state to
vapour state without passing through the liquid state is called sublimation, and the
substance is said to sublime. Dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, so also iodine. During
sublimation both the solid and vapour states of a substance coexist in thermal
equilibrium.
i. Device used for measurement of heat is
a. Calorimeter
b. Thermometer
c. Both a and b
d. No one of these
ii. The change of state from solid to liquid is called
a. Melting
b. Vaporization
c. Sublimation
d. None of these
iii. Define melting point and boiling point
iv. What is sublimation?
v. Define fusion process

Case Study Answer-

1. Answer
i. (c) 1 : 9
ii. (b) Surface tension is a vector quantity.
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iii. (d) Angle of contact depend upon the inclination of the solid surface to the liquid surface.
iv. (c) Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity.

v. (d) greater than 90°

2. Answer
i. (a) Calorimeter
ii. (a) Melting
iii. The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting process and temperature
at which conversion of solid into liquid happens is called as melting point.
The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance
coexist is called its boiling point.
iv. The change from solid state directly into vapour state without passing through
the liquid state is called sublimation, and the substance is said to sublime.
The change of state from liquid state to solid state is called as fusion process

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Don’t miss out—join today and take the first step toward academic excellence!

Join the Teachers and Students

Group by Clicking the Link Below
JOIN OUR
WHATSAPP
GROUPS
FOR FREE EDUCATIONAL
RESOURCES
JOIN SCHOOL OF EDUCATORS WHATSAPP GROUPS
FOR FREE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
We are thrilled to introduce the School of Educators WhatsApp Group, a
platform designed exclusively for educators to enhance your teaching & Learning
experience and learning outcomes. Here are some of the key benefits you can
expect from joining our group:

BENEFITS OF SOE WHATSAPP GROUPS

Abundance of Content: Members gain access to an extensive repository of

educational materials tailored to their class level. This includes various formats such
as PDFs, Word files, PowerPoint presentations, lesson plans, worksheets, practical
tips, viva questions, reference books, smart content, curriculum details, syllabus,
marking schemes, exam patterns, and blueprints. This rich assortment of resources
enhances teaching and learning experiences.

Immediate Doubt Resolution: The group facilitates quick clarification of doubts.

Members can seek assistance by sending messages, and experts promptly respond
to queries. This real-time interaction fosters a supportive learning environment
where educators and students can exchange knowledge and address concerns
effectively.

Access to Previous Years' Question Papers and Topper Answers: The group
provides access to previous years' question papers (PYQ) and exemplary answer
scripts of toppers. This resource is invaluable for exam preparation, allowing
individuals to familiarize themselves with the exam format, gain insights into scoring
techniques, and enhance their performance in assessments.
 Free and Unlimited Resources: Members enjoy the benefit of accessing an array of
educational resources without any cost restrictions. Whether its study materials,
teaching aids, or assessment tools, the group offers an abundance of resources
tailored to individual needs. This accessibility ensures that educators and students
have ample support in their academic endeavors without financial constraints.

Instant Access to Educational Content: SOE WhatsApp groups are a platform where
teachers can access a wide range of educational content instantly. This includes study
materials, notes, sample papers, reference materials, and relevant links shared by
group members and moderators.

Timely Updates and Reminders: SOE WhatsApp groups serve as a source of timely
updates and reminders about important dates, exam schedules, syllabus changes, and
academic events. Teachers can stay informed and well-prepared for upcoming
assessments and activities.

Interactive Learning Environment: Teachers can engage in discussions, ask questions,

and seek clarifications within the group, creating an interactive learning environment.
This fosters collaboration, peer learning, and knowledge sharing among group
members, enhancing understanding and retention of concepts.

Access to Expert Guidance: SOE WhatsApp groups are moderated by subject matter
experts, teachers, or experienced educators can benefit from their guidance,
expertise, and insights on various academic topics, exam strategies, and study
techniques.

Join the School of Educators WhatsApp Group today and unlock a world of resources,
support, and collaboration to take your teaching to new heights. To join, simply click
on the group links provided below or send a message to +91-95208-77777 expressing
your interest.

Together, let's empower ourselves & Our Students and

inspire the next generation of learners.

Best Regards,
Team
School of Educators
 Join School of Educators WhatsApp Groups

You will get Pre- Board Papers PDF, Word file, PPT, Lesson Plan, Worksheet, practical
tips and Viva questions, reference books, smart content, curriculum, syllabus,
marking scheme, toppers answer scripts, revised exam pattern, revised syllabus,
Blue Print etc. here . Join Your Subject / Class WhatsApp Group.

Kindergarten to Class XII (For Teachers Only)

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6

Class 7 Class 8 Class 9

Class 10 Class 11 (Science) Class 11 (Humanities)

Class 11 (Commerce) Class 12 (Science) Class 12 (Humanities)

Class 12 (Commerce) Kindergarten

Subject Wise Secondary and Senior Secondary Groups
(IX & X For Teachers Only)
Secondary Groups (IX & X)

SST Mathematics Science

English Hindi-A IT Code-402

Hindi-B Artificial Intelligence

Senior Secondary Groups (XI & XII For Teachers Only)

Physics Chemistry English

Mathematics Biology Accountancy

Economics BST History

 Geography Sociology Hindi Elective

Hindi Core Home Science Sanskrit

Psychology Political Science Painting

Vocal Music Comp. Science IP

Physical Education APP. Mathematics Legal Studies

Entrepreneurship French IT

Artificial Intelligence

Other Important Groups (For Teachers & Principal’s)

Principal’s Group Teachers Jobs IIT/NEET

 Join School of Educators WhatsApp Groups

You will get Pre- Board Papers PDF, Word file, PPT, Lesson Plan, Worksheet, practical
tips and Viva questions, reference books, smart content, curriculum, syllabus,
marking scheme, toppers answer scripts, revised exam pattern, revised syllabus,
Blue Print etc. here . Join Your Subject / Class WhatsApp Group.

Kindergarten to Class XII (For Students Only)

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6

Class 7 Class 8 Class 9

Class 10 Class 11 (Science) Class 11 (Humanities)

Class 11 (Commerce) Class 12 (Science) Class 12 (Humanities)

Class 12 (Commerce) Artificial Intelligence

(VI TO VIII)
Subject Wise Secondary and Senior Secondary Groups
(IX & X For Students Only)
Secondary Groups (IX & X)

SST Mathematics Science

English Hindi IT Code

Artificial Intelligence

Senior Secondary Groups (XI & XII For Students Only)

Physics Chemistry English

Mathematics Biology Accountancy

Economics BST History

 Geography Sociology Hindi Elective

Hindi Core Home Science Sanskrit

Psychology Political Science Painting

Music Comp. Science IP

Physical Education APP. Mathematics Legal Studies

Entrepreneurship French IT

AI IIT/NEET CUET
Groups Rules & Regulations:
To maximize the benefits of these WhatsApp groups, follow these guidelines:

1. Share your valuable resources with the group.

2. Help your fellow educators by answering their queries.
3. Watch and engage with shared videos in the group.
4. Distribute WhatsApp group resources among your students.
5. Encourage your colleagues to join these groups.

Additional notes:
1. Avoid posting messages between 9 PM and 7 AM.
2. After sharing resources with students, consider deleting outdated data if necessary.
3. It's a NO Nuisance groups, single nuisance and you will be removed.
No introductions.
No greetings or wish messages.
No personal chats or messages.
No spam. Or voice calls
Share and seek learning resources only.

Please only share and request learning resources. For assistance,

contact the helpline via WhatsApp: +91-95208-77777.
 Join Premium WhatsApp Groups
Ultimate Educational Resources!!

Join our premium groups and just Rs. 1000 and gain access to all our exclusive
materials for the entire academic year. Whether you're a student in Class IX, X, XI, or
XII, or a teacher for these grades, Artham Resources provides the ultimate tools to
enhance learning. Pay now to delve into a world of premium educational content!

Click here for more details

Class 9 Class 10 Class 11

Class 12

📣 Don't Miss Out! Elevate your academic journey with top-notch study materials and secure
your path to top scores! Revolutionize your study routine and reach your academic goals with
our comprehensive resources. Join now and set yourself up for success! 📚🌟

Best Wishes,

Team
School of Educators & Artham Resources
 SKILL MODULES BEING OFFERED IN
MIDDLE SCHOOL

Artificial Intelligence Beauty & Wellness Design Thinking & Financial Literacy
Innovation

Handicrafts Information Technology Marketing/Commercial Mass Media - Being Media

Application Literate

Data Science (Class VIII Augmented Reality /

Travel & Tourism Coding
only) Virtual Reality

Digital Citizenship Life Cycle of Medicine & Things you should know What to do when Doctor
Vaccine about keeping Medicines is not around
at home

Humanity & Covid-19 Blue Pottery Pottery Block Printing

 Food Food Preservation Baking Herbal Heritage

Khadi Mask Making Mass Media Making of a Graphic

Novel

Kashmiri Embroidery Satellites

Rockets
Embroidery

Application of Photography
Satellites
SKILL SUBJECTS AT SECONDARY LEVEL (CLASSES IX – X)

Retail Information Technology Automotive

Security

Introduction To Financial Introduction To Tourism Beauty & Wellness Agriculture

Markets

Food Production Front Office Operations Banking & Insurance Marketing & Sales

Health Care Apparel Multi Media Multi Skill Foundation

Course

Artificial Intelligence
Physical Activity Trainer Electronics & Hardware
Data Science
(NEW)

Foundation Skills For Sciences Design Thinking & Innovation (NEW)

(Pharmaceutical & Biotechnology)(NEW)
 SKILL SUBJECTS AT SR. SEC. LEVEL
(CLASSES XI – XII)

Retail InformationTechnology Web Application Automotive

Financial Markets Management Tourism Beauty & Wellness Agriculture

Food Production Front Office Operations Banking Marketing

Health Care Insurance Horticulture Typography & Comp.

Application

Geospatial Technology Electrical Technology Electronic Technology Multi-Media

 Taxation Cost Accounting Office Procedures & Shorthand (English)
Practices

Shorthand (Hindi) Air-Conditioning & Medical Diagnostics Textile Design

Refrigeration

Salesmanship Business Food Nutrition &

Design
Administration Dietetics

Mass Media Studies Library & Information Fashion Studies Applied Mathematics
Science

Yoga Early Childhood Care & Artificial Intelligence Data Science

Education

Physical Activity Land Transportation Electronics & Design Thinking &

Trainer(new) Associate (NEW) Hardware (NEW) Innovation (NEW)
 Join School of Educators Signal Groups

You will get Pre- Board Papers PDF, Word file, PPT, Lesson Plan, Worksheet, practical
tips and Viva questions, reference books, smart content, curriculum, syllabus,
marking scheme, toppers answer scripts, revised exam pattern, revised syllabus,
Blue Print etc. here . Join Your Subject / Class signal Group.

Kindergarten to Class XII

Class 2 Class 3
Class 1

Class 5 Class 6
Class 4

Class 7 Class 8 Class 9

Class 10 Class 11 (Science) Class 11 (Humanities)

Class 11 (Commerce) Class 12 (Science) Class 12 (Humanities)

Class 12 (Commerce) Kindergarten Artifical intelligence

 Subject Wise Secondary and Senior Secondary
Groups IX & X

Secondary Groups (IX & X)

SST Mathematics Science

Hindi-B
English Hindi-A

IT Artifical intelligence
IT Code-402

Senior Secondary Groups XI & XII

Physics Chemistry English

Biology Accountancy
Mathematics

BST History
Economics
 Geography Sociology Hindi Elective

Hindi Core Home Science Sanskrit

Psychology Political Science Painting

IP
Vocal Music Comp. Science

Physical Education APP. Mathematics Legal Studies

IIT/NEET
Entrepreneurship French

Artifical intelligence CUET

 Join School of Educators CBSE Telegram Groups

Kindergarten

All classes Class 1 Class 2

Class 3 Class 4 Class 5

Class 6 Class 7 Class 8

Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 (Sci)

Class 11 (Com) Class 11 (Hum) Class 12 (Sci)

Class 12 (Com) Class 12 (Hum) JEE/NEET

CUET NDA, OLYMPIAD, NTSE Principal Professional Group

Teachers Professional Group Project File Group

Join School of Educators ICSE Telegram Groups

Kindergarten Class 1 Class 2

Class 3 Class 4 Class 5

Class 6 Class 7 Class 8

Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 (Sci)

Class 11 (Com) Class 11 (Hum) Class 12 (Sci)

Class 12 (Com) Class 12 (Hum)

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Tele s a m p le
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