CUS3701/201/2022

Tutorial letter 201/2022

CURRICULUM STUDIES

CUS3701

Year module

Department: Curriculum and Instructional Studies

IMPORTANT INFORMATION:

This tutorial letter contains feedback on Assignments 02 and 03

Dear Student

This tutorial letter contains feedback on Assignments 02 and Assignment 03.

The assignments we received from students were generally of a very high standard. It was
clear that you went to a lot of trouble in completing the assignments. Thank you for that.

FEEDBACK ON ASSIGNMENT 02

All the questions were compulsory. We trust that you enjoyed completing this assignment.

QUESTION 1

If a curriculum developer wants to prepare learners for instance for the 21st century, what
should be the knowledge and skills to be included, in particular for the diverse South African
context? These skills are listed under 1.2.5 in your textbook. Please provide an
EXAMPLE after each of these competencies in your own words. Marks were given for OWN
examples only. [10]

MEMORANDUM

Skills to consider that would prepare learners more holistically and might assist teachers in the
implementation of the curriculum, include the following (these examples are mine, you
should give your own examples, such as activities/projects. Abilities are not examples;
it merely defines the topic).

1. Sense-making: determine deeper meaning, eg. relate concepts to everyday experiences

and reality OR learners should do a task, where from they are expected to draw on their
prior knowledge to acquire new knowledge and establish a deeper meaning of the
content.
2. Social Intelligence: ability to connect to others in a deep and direct way, to sense and
stimulate reactions and desired interactions eg. working in groups on tasks or do role
play OR it is essential that the curriculum develops and encourages the learner’s social
skills/communication and collaboration with other peers. This is a very important
intelligence that will be used throughout their lives in various scenarios and social
settings.
3. Novel and adaptive thinking: proficiency at thinking and coming up with solutions and
responses beyond that which is rote or rule-based, eg. Practical scientific tasks that can
be done by using own experiences to prove a point OR using creative skills to come to
solutions to problems.
4. Cross-cultural competency, eg. doing a task where they do research on a culture other
than their own to ensure that uses/traditions within the culture are understood OR do a
community project that embraces diversity of learners/individuals from diverse
backgrounds, cultures, races, gender, ages, poverty etc.
5. Computational thinking: ability to translate vast amounts of data into abstract concepts
and to understand data-based reasoning, eg. using a questionnaire to accumulate data
on food preferences and then plot it on a graph in food groups OR learners need to think
using their problem-solving skills, by interpreting data using relevant steps in order to
solve a problem rationally.
6. New media literacy: ability to critically assess and develop content that uses new media
forms, and to leverage these media for persuasive communication, eg. using e-mails to
exchange ideas on tasks to be done in a group/online learning OR to use a computer
and be able to interpret and make use of data given across various technological
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platforms to their advantage.

7. Transdisciplinary: literacy in and ability to understand concepts across multiple
disciplines, eg. to be able to write a report/essay on research done in several subjects
by applying the basic language rules of writing essay – introduction, body, conclusion
OR to be able to understand and interpret information in all the different ways of
understanding and interpreting information. E.g audio, linguistic, kinesthetic.
8. Design mind-set: ability to represent and develop tasks and work processes for desired
outcomes, eg. designing a new recipe to bake a bread/make use of mind maps OR to be
able to think critically, strategically and logically in order to design and implement ideas
or constructing physical objects correctly.
9. Cognitive load management: ability to discriminate and filter information for importance,
and to understand how to maximize cognitive functioning using a variety of tools and
techniques, eg. creating a study plan for some subject/time management skills OR to
arrange information to solve a problem in order of importance and relevance to the task
at hand.
10. Virtual collaboration: ability to work productively, drive engagement, and demonstrate
presence as a member of a virtual team, eg. work on a life-orientation task with learners
from other schools using, social media such as Facebook and Skype OR to collaborate
with individuals via a technological/virtual platform, using effective communication and
collaboration skills as well as developing technological literacy in the process.

QUESTION 2

It is of utmost importance to give clear instructions regarding what is expected in

assessment. Learners will not be able to complete a task successfully if they do not
understand the question. Identify ten factors of effective questioning. [10]

MEMORANDUM

DON’T JUST COPY FROM THE TEXTBOOK!!

Contextualised action words

Learners should understand what is expected of them. So, when teachers set a task, it should
be in writing, and it should be clear how the task will be assessed. The best way of doing this
is to include the main assessment criteria and indicators in the instructions for the task. More
detailed performance indicators can go into the marking criteria/memorandum/rubric.
The teacher must fit the action word in the task to the context. For instance, to list known items
requires recalling facts (knowledge), but to list a sequence of events requires the learner to
choose, collect, and conduct a basic classification of information, and is therefore rated as
application.

Clear and accessible language

Most South African learners are assessed in a language that is not their mother tongue. When
learners’ home language is not English, it is very important to phrase assessment tasks clearly
and in language that is easy to understand. Writing questions in complicated English is unfair
and discriminates against second-language speakers. Learners might well know the answer,
but if they do not understand the question, they are not afforded the chance to demonstrate
their knowledge.
Here are some tips for writing simply and accessibly:
• Keep sentences short and use vocabulary and terminology at the level of the learners.
Compare the following two questions:
– For a vehicle moving in a straight line, which physical quantities could be determined by
finding the gradient (slope) of its velocity-versus-time graph at a specific point on the
graph?
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– A car moves along a straight road. Plot the velocity-versus-time graph for the motion.
Which quantity do we get from the slope of the graph at a specified time?
• Use active rather than passive voice. For example, “add sugar to the cup of tea” is better
than “sugar must be added to the cup of tea”.
• Avoid words with many syllables. For example, “use the formula” is better than “utilise
the formula”.
• When using pronouns, it must be clear what they refer to. For example, who are “they”
and “them” in the following sentence? “When teachers explain things, they often forget
that they should ask them diagnostic questions first.”
• Encourage learners to answer in the ways that they feel most comfortable. For example,
let learners use words in languages other than English (code-switching) if that is how
they can best express an idea, or allow several different ways of answering, such as
giving a definition by using words or a labelled diagram.

Comprehensive instructions
It is of utmost importance to give clear instructions regarding what is required/expected in a
task. Learners will not be able to complete a task successfully if they do not understand the
question or the instructions.
Keep the following in mind when writing instructions:
• Use clear language according to the level/grade of the learner.
• Use action words to describe what activities are part of the task.
• Link instructions to the set outcomes and the assessment criteria in order to make sure
that what is expected is what is assessed.
• Re-read tasks after setting them to make sure that no steps are left out. (ANY 10
RELEVANT FACTS) (10)

QUESTION 3

Your task is to write an essay in response to the following question:

As interpreter and developer of the curriculum, it’s insufficient for the educator to give a
narrow definition to the concept “curriculum” There are different definitions and aspects
of “curriculum”.

Discuss this statement in an essay of 3-4 pages.

In your answer, describe the different ways of understanding curriculum and how these
different understandings relate in some ways to each other, referring to the intended and
enacted curriculum. Remember that “curriculum, both as prescription and in practice, is not
neutral, but carries values and is a political issue. On the one hand the curriculum is seen as
an intention, plan or prescription, an idea of what one would like to happen in schools. On the
other hand, it is seen as the existing state of affairs in schools, what does in fact happen. To
illustrate your points, define a curriculum by referring to the different aspects to be considered.
[20]

MEMORANDUM

DON’T COPY THE TEXTBOOK!

Definitions become very difficult, especially when it comes to abstract concepts, because
people often have different understandings of the same words. At a general level, an
explanation of what “curriculum” is can be distinguished in terms of what is included and/or
excluded in the description. The older, narrower definition states that when we want to study a
curriculum, we must look at the curriculum plan, i.e. the document or the written intention of
what, how and why something should be taught. This then actually defines “curriculum” as a
“course of study” or “study programme”, whereas a broad definition is a more inclusive concept
comprising all the opportunities for learning and viewed in a historical perspective in its socio-
political context. Narrow definitions are likely to foster a conception of curriculum change as a
limited and largely technical exercise. On the other hand, broader definitions of curriculum,
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which acknowledge both intended and unintended learning, and which view curriculum as a
social construct, imply a stronger sense of the complexity of the curriculum and/or processes of
change. This means that a particular society’s culture will produce a particular kind of
curriculum, which in turn will also contribute to shaping that particular society and its culture.
This mutual influence is on-going, and one should therefore not think of the curriculum and the
social structure as entirely separate entities. If we would look at the South African situation, we
can accept that the following social structures have had a powerful impact on the South African
curriculum:

The changing economic relations in the transition from an agrarian to an industrial

economy
The shifting power relations both within and between power groups with regard to the
economic changes
The shifts in ruling group ideology necessitated by and contributing to the changes

Refer to authors like: Eisner (1985), Fraser (1993), Grundy (1987), Goodson (1984 and 1989)
and Goodman (1998) from your textbook in chapter one.

This debate about the interpretation of “curriculum” comes a long way. The following
definitions might be useful:

Official, explicit curriculum: This is the prescribed curriculum, which is the official, formal
curriculum and it is also described as the “blueprint” for teaching. It is also described as the
curriculum or plan or the intentions of for instance the Department of Education. This means
that a single plan can be used for different learners, although the contexts may differ vastly.

Curriculum in practice: This curriculum is the actual practiced or lived curriculum. In other
words, it refers to how the curriculum is experienced by both the learners and the educators. It
is also referred to as the non-official, implicit curriculum as implemented by an educator. It
can therefore refer to that which is actually taught and learnt. Educator A’s lesson, for
instance, demonstrates that that which is taught, can be very different from that which was
planned. Curriculum in practice refers to the phenomenon where, apart from educator
misunderstandings, resource constraints, etcetera interferes with the educator’s ability to
implement a curriculum plan effectively.

Covert curriculum (as an aspect of the curriculum): The term “covert” is intended to convey
the idea of teaching that is implicit (not spelt out) but deliberate on the part of the educator or
the school. This is especially important in the early years of schooling where aspects such as
“consideration for others”, “order and obedience”, teamwork and co-operation” are focal points.
The “play” in the early schooling is a deliberate curriculum strategy to develop important
attitudes and skills such as fine motor skills, spatial differentiation, and various pre-numeracy
skills.

Hidden curriculum (as an aspect of the curriculum): The term “hidden” refers to learning
which is hidden from the educators as well as the learners. This is another form of implicit
learning which the educators didn’t intend or are probably not even aware of. The kinds of
environment that schools and classrooms present, indirectly allow us to learn many things
about the world, or to have different perspectives of the world.

Assessed curriculum. This is the knowledge and skills that are measured to determine
learner achievement or what objectives or learning outcomes have been attained. Assessment
is an important element of a curriculum because it establishes how learners will be measured
on performance.

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QUESTION 4

The meaning attached to the concept “curriculum” will influence the development of a
curriculum in a specific context and time frame. Analyse how the approaches to curriculum
development presented by Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire were used in the development,
interpretation and implementation of Curriculum 2005, both its revisions and the amended
NCS, referred to as the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) in South Africa.

Assessment criteria

We will be looking for the following in your answer:

• Did you refer to the transformation of education and training?
• Have you comprehensively distinguished between the three different approaches to
curriculum planning?
• Have you related the three different approaches to curriculum development in SA?
• Did you refer to the universal principles in approaches to curriculum?
• Did you discuss the impact of these approaches in terms of curriculum interpretation?
• Is your essay clear and coherent, and does it include an introduction, a conclusion,
paragraphs that contain one main idea and a logical flow of ideas from one paragraph
to the next?
[20]
THIS IS AN EXAMPLE!

South Africa embarked on a radical transformation of education and training between 1989 and
1994, and subsequently on reviews of the curriculum. One of the most challenging aspects of
the initial transformation has been the adoption of an OBE approach that underpins the
introduction of C2005. C2005 has tried to capture aspects of all three of the approaches
discussed above, but just as there were tensions between the three different approaches of
Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire, so there are tensions between different aspects of policy. Tyler
used the narrow definition of curriculum, while Stenhouse argued for a broader definition and
Freire just assumed a broader definition. But that was only their starting point. The main focus
of their debate was on what should go into a curriculum and how it should be approached. For
this reason, these different approaches become useful tools for sharpening our understanding
and interpretation of C2005, both its revisions and the amended NCS, referred to as the
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS).

Approaches to curriculum planning according to Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire: a

summary

Ralph Tyler Lawrence Stenhouse Paolo Freire

Sees curriculum as a Sees curriculum as a process Thinks about the purpose of a

product (objectives/ with objectives not set at the curriculum – it must serve to
instrumental approach). start, but changing in the liberate learners to make links
Has a linear focus on the teaching process. and understand language,
end product; cannot branch Focus on descriptiveness experiences and their daily
off in the middle. Knowledge must be struggle.
speculative.

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Objectives, content, Guidelines and professional Intellectual, social and political

methods and sequence development are important. liberation – how learners feel
questions. Learners should know what about knowledge and whether
to do with content. experiences can be used in
Understanding and criteria everyday life.
are central to the process.

Educational purposes, Carry out research while The way in which we teach may
experiences etc. are teaching, evaluate while change learners – it is always
important. researching, and change the political (empowers or
process of reaching goals. domesticates the learners).
Negotiate understanding with
learners.

Do research to find the best Test, adapt and evaluate the Learners should be ape to
content to include in process to see if it’s reflect on the value of learning.
curriculum/evaluate enlightening.
content. Learners should “change” in
the learning process.

The following universal principles in approaches to curriculum, but also to teaching and
learning, are to be found in the views of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire:

• experiential learning
• clarity of focus
• expanding opportunities
• defining outcomes, aims or objectives
• importance of knowledge, skills and values
• evidence of achievement
• individual learning
• what and whether we learn is more important than when we learned it

Tyler wanted structure in the teaching and learning situation and argued that there should be
clarity of focus in what you want to teach, how you want to teach and how you want to
assess. Therefore, the first step in effective teaching is to define objectives (outcomes),
keeping in mind that these objectives should be context-bound. The teacher should ask four
basic questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to achieve? (By “purpose” Tyler was
referring to behavioural objectives (developed by gathering information from three
sources: the subject matter, the learners and the society.)
2. What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to achieve these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being achieved?

Tyler argued that individual learning will ensure that each learner achieves the set objectives
(outcomes). We can interpret this to mean that educational experiences should be derived from

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objectives, based on the results of an analysis of the situation (learner, subject, society), and
that objectives should have been filtered through a philosophical/psychological screen before
being finalised. It is important to develop citizens who are ape to solve problems and can
engage in democratic processes. The principles mentioned above have their roots in the
competency-based education movement and mastery learning. They are based upon the
premise that we can help learners to create definite and reliable evidence of achievement. This
model focuses on the need to create favourable learning conditions as regards time, teaching
strategies and learning success.

A more detailed look at competency-based learning reveals that Stenhouse’s ideas of a

teaching-learning process prepare learners for success in fulfilling various life roles. It is
important to test, adapt and evaluate the process to see whether it is an enlightening one, and
in that manner expand opportunities for application. Stenhouse stressed the importance of
doing research while teaching and of following the route of “design down, deliver up” – a
developmental process where the teacher can change the teaching-learning environment
according to context and learners’ needs. The learner should change in the teaching-learning
process to internalise information and form opinions of his or her own.

Mastery learning promotes the idea that all learners can achieve the desired teaching
outcomes if given favourable learning conditions such as flexibility, sufficient time and
alternative ways of learning. Freire focused on these aspects; he wanted teachers and
curriculum developers to make sure that educational experiences can be used in real life.
Experiential learning was of utmost importance: learners should be ape to reflect on the value
of learning. What is also considered here is the perception of what the ideal learner in a
particular field should look like, be like, act like and think like. Freire felt it was important to
identify specific knowledge in order to attain a skill which could be applied in praxis as the
connection between reflection and action.

The impact of these approaches in terms of curriculum interpretation

If we translate the approaches described above into teaching and learning principles,
methodology, the use of learning materials and assessment, then teaching implies providing
the learner with learning experiences and guiding, supporting and mediating the learning
content by facilitating understanding.

Learning implies the development of not only the learner’s knowledge, but also his or her
understanding of concepts, skills, activities and values. All these should then be based on
interaction between teacher, learner, context and content. Learning is relevant to the real-life
situations and experiences of the learner, therefore cross-curricular integration of knowledge
and skills might prepare learners for reality and the world of work.

Teaching strategies in short imply that teaching involves critical thinking and reasoning,
reflection and action. Learners must take responsibility for their learning by being actively
involved in the teaching-learning process. This also means that the teacher should use a
variety of approaches and learning material in the learning process to accommodate different
learning styles.

Assessment is viewed as an integral part of teaching and learning, is continuous and based on
a wide variety of techniques apart from testing. Feedback in assessment is valued as part of
learning.

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QUESTION 5

Define (2) and deliberate how and in which instances you would use the following
teaching strategies in a teaching-learning environment. Discuss these strategies by
referring to advantages (2), disadvantages (2) and your own practical examples (2) to
further elaborate on your answer.

5.1 Teaching critical thinking

5.2 Cognitively guided instruction
5.3 Scaffolding
5.4 Simulation
5.5 Problem-solving

(5 x 8 = 40)
MEMORANDUM

5.1 TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING

The answer to the question “Why do we teach thinking skills?” lies in understanding that we
want to give learners the ability to solve problems and make decisions that are more intelligent,
to make them open-minded, and to allow them to develop self-confidence when reasoning. It
also means that learners will become dedicated to searching for reliable information and keen
to test hypotheses (Facione, 2009). Learners have to be able to question their own
understanding and compare their version of the truth with that of the teacher and their fellow
learners.

5.1.1 ADVANTAGES

The learner takes responsibility for his/her own learning. It will help with an advanced
understanding of what the learner knows about the topic.

5.1.2 DISADVANTAGES

It might not be possible in large groups. Assessment tasks might be difficult for teachers.

5.1.3 EXAMPLES

Assessment that involves problem solving skills. Ask the class open-ended questions to
enable learners to think more deeply.

5.2 COGNITIVELY GUIDED INSTRUCTION

Cognitively guided instruction is a strategy for using both listening and language as part of the
learning process. The strategy uses learners' prior knowledge and builds on that through
discussion and dialogue. By listening to learners' thinking about the subject and topic, the
educator can direct or guide their thinking and thereby emphasize knowledge acquisition.

5.2.1 ADVANTAGES

This strategy helps to develop learners' insight into the problem. It allows learners to recognize
different approaches towards solving problems and the value of sharing experiences and
different perspectives.
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5.2.2 DISADVANTAGES

Quiet learners can "hide" by not taking part. We cannot use this strategy when learners are not
well prepared or do not have adequate prior knowledge. It can also be a real problem when a
few learners dominate the cognitively guided instruction, while the majority of the learners are
excluded and do not gain from it.

5.2.3 EXAMPLES

Class discussion and dialogue. Use direct modelling to solve a Mathematical problem.

5.3 SCAFFOLDING

Scaffolding is the process of creating a framework around prior experience to assist learners to
build new knowledge.

5.3.1 ADVANTAGES

The educator can gradually guide the learners and build confidence and motivation.
Scaffolding uses teacher guidance and peer support and encourage interaction and
collaboration.

5.3.2 DISADVANTAGES

In the case of the over simplification of tasks, learners will not reach the educational objectives.
The differing opinions of learners could require teacher intervention. Language and socio-
economic problems, attitudes and low levels of motivation might be problematic.

5.3.3 EXAMPLES

Questioning, collective enquiry into a topic and dialogue. Use different learner support
materials.

5.4 SIMULATION

Simulation is the controlled re-enactment or imitation of situations using technology and

includes real-life enactment by learners. Learners practice problem-solving skills.

5.4.1 ADVANTAGES

The method helps learners to experience real-life situations without the possibility of serious
repercussions. Learners can experiment and find solutions in a safe manner – true to life. The
educator can get learners emotionally involved in a situation in an interactive and enjoyable
way.

5.4.2 DISADVANTAGES

The method takes a lot of time, and learners can get over emotional and involved in imaginary
situations.

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5.4.3 EXAMPLES

Computer-aided simulation and role-play. Activities involving real reaction to problems.

5.5 PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving allows learners to build skills such as self-management and teaches them to
approach problems in a balanced way.

5.5.1 ADVANTAGES

The educator actively involves learners by challenging them to make judgments, applying the
knowledge they were taught and to think about their own learning processes.

5.5.2 DISADVANTAGES

Learners' fear of failure may restrict participation. This method requires time consuming and in-
depth preparation from the educator.

5.5.3 EXAMPLES

Context-based teaching, case studies and word sums.

TOTAL [100]

--- End of assignment 02---

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 ASSIGNMENT 03

This assignment was optional and doesn’t contribute towards your year mark. It serves
as exam preparation only.

QUESTION 1

The way we interpret the world around us is determined partly by our beliefs, values and
norms, but mostly by contextual influences. The educator’s interpretation and implementation
of a curriculum is also influenced by the context. Choices regarding planning and designing a
learning programme, the inclusion of particular instructional strategies and the practical
application is embedded in knowledge and the understanding of the educational situation.
Influences ranging from the political, social and economic culture to the norms and knowledge
structures of educators affect teaching and learning.

Taking the above into consideration, critically discuss the following:

1.1 A socio-constructivist (Vygotsky) view of the impact of context on curriculum

implementation (7) Do you agree with his view? (1) Motivate your answer. (2)
(10)

1.2 The influence of changes in the South African context on curriculum by referring briefly to
the most important economic, social and political forces (20)

[30]

MEMORANDUM

1.1 Lev Vygotsky, an educationist who argued for a socio-constructionist perspective in

education, was a young man during the Russian Revolution (1917–1918), a time of great
change in his culture and society. He believed that the lifelong process of development is
dependent on social interaction, and that social learning actually leads to cognitive
development (Vygotsky, 1978). Traditionally, schools have not promoted environments in
which learners play an active role in their own education as well as that of their peers.
Vygotsky’s theory, however, requires teachers and learners to play non-traditional roles as they
collaborate with each other, because both are influenced by the contexts in which they live,
teach, and learn. Instead of teachers dictating meaning to learners for future recitation, they
should collaborate with learners in order to create meaning in ways that learners can make
their own (Hausfather, 1996). Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for both learners and
teachers. This means that a teacher cannot ignore context when planning and during the
process of developing learning programmes.
According to Vygotsky’s theory, the physical classroom should provide clustered desks or
tables and workspaces for peer learning, collaboration, and small-group learning. Like the
environment, the learning material should be structured to promote and encourage learner
interaction and collaboration. Thus, the classroom becomes a community of learning.

Because Vygotsky asserts that cognitive change occurs within the zone of proximal
development, instruction should be designed to reach a developmental level that is just above
the learner’s current developmental level. Vygotsky (1978) argues that the overall development
of the child and a new stage of the development process should be kept in mind when learning
is planned.

Appropriation is necessary for cognitive development within the zone of proximal development.
Individuals participating in peer collaboration or guided teaching must share the same focus in
order to access the zone of proximal development. “Furthermore, it is essential that the
“partners” in this educational environment be on different developmental levels, and that the
higher-level partner be aware of the lower partner’s level. If this does not occur, or if one
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partner dominates, the interaction is less successful. This is why joint attention and a common
understanding of the problem-solving process are needed to create a cognitive, social, and
emotional interchange between the “partners” in the educational environment (Driscoll, 1994;
Hausfather, 1996). This requires the teacher to have a good understanding of contextual
influences in terms of planning, instructional design, and assessment in the teaching-learning
environment. (7)

OWN RESPONSE
Yes or no. (1) Possible own motivation: Mental processes can be shaped and transformed by
social settings and language abilities. Culture and context in which learner finds himself can
provide all the tools of intellectual adaptation needed for both what and how to think. (2)

(ANY RELEVANT FACTS - DON’T JUST COPY THE TEXTBOOK) (10)

1.2 The influence of changes in the South African context on the curriculum by
referring specifically to the most important economic, social and political forces.
(20)

MEMORANDUM

The key economic forces that drive the South African education system

One of the forces that drives our new education system is globalisation. Since South Africa’s
first democratic elections in 1994, we have re-entered the world economy, which means that
the economy of the country has to grow at a rate that is comparable to the growth rates of
countries in the rest of the world. But has this happened? There are also global expectations in
terms of skills and ways of thinking, capacity to drive the economy, and performance of
education systems and in international tests, such as the Trends in International Mathematics
and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS).

According to the United Nations Development Programme Report (2015: 209), South Africa is
currently rated 116 out of 188 countries on the United Nations Human Development Index with
an HDI value of 0.666 for 2014, thus falling in the medium human development category. This
suggests that our country is not producing people capable of competing with their counterparts
in other parts of the world in terms of producing high-quality goods cost-effectively. Does this
have something to do with how we plan, teach, and assess? Does the education system focus
on providing the learner with the right skills and attitudes to enter the job market?

The economist, Nobel Prize winner, and Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago,
James J. Heckman, argues strongly that the economic strength of any nation depends on the
skills of its people. According to Heckman (2000; 2007), the emphasis in education should be
on human capital development and the enhancement of life skills, with a special emphasis on
the economics of early childhood. The context in which the development of human capital
takes place should be considered and should be coupled with the enhancement of non-
cognitive skills such as self-discipline and persistence, which affect educational attainment.
Ndhlovu, Bertram, Mthiyane and Avery (1999: 54) confirm that we need to develop “economic
capital; money and physical resources as well as ‘human’ capital; people with knowledge, skills
and [positive] attitudes”. They further stress that we need to develop and assess
entrepreneurial abilities to enable people to start their own businesses, thus providing
employment for themselves and others (Ndhlovu et al., 1999: 54).

In an effort to develop human capital in South Africa, trade unions such as the National Union
of Metalworkers of South Africa (NUMSA) and the Congress of South African Trade Unions
(COSATU), and educational initiatives of their time such as the National Education Policy
Initiative, organised business initiatives such as the Private Sector Education Council and the
National Training Board. The ANC and other stakeholders began to debate and explore the
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unification of education and training in South Africa. There was growing consensus regarding
the need to transform education and training and to address the difficult issues facing
development. All the parties agreed that the following needs had to be addressed:

• Change perceptions that mental work has more value than manual work.
• Change perceptions that academic education has a higher value than technical-vocational
education.
• Close the gap between what schools deliver and what success in the workplace requires.
• Achieve equity in providing quality education, learning resources, and access to education.
• Improve national productivity in order to be internationally competitive.

COSATU has been exploring international trends in training since the 1980s. Its discussions
helped the ANC to formulate a proposal for a National Qualifications Framework (NQF). This
was to be a single national framework that would bring together all education and training
under one authority. In June 1995, a draft NQF bill was published, and in October 1995 an act
was passed to establish the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) to govern, manage,
and recognise all educational and training qualifications in South Africa. In 1996, the SAQA
Board was appointed and the NQF, one of the first formal structures of its kind in the world,
became a reality. The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Act 67 of 2008 repealed the
South African Qualifications Authority Act of 1995. The NQF Act (67 of 2008) provides for the
National Qualifications Framework, the Minister of Higher Education and Training, the South
African Qualifications Authority (SAQA), Quality Councils, transitional arrangements and
matters connected therewith. The NQF Act was amended in 2010.

Influences from South Africa’s social context

The South African education system encourages learners to develop tolerance and
understanding for people who are different from themselves. The social aim is to break free
from any form of prejudice or stereotyping, and to reflect a global move towards a world in
which the spiritual aspects of our existence are valued, rather than simply our rational thinking
abilities. This might explain why many South African policies emphasise holism and educating
the whole person.

Influences from South Africa’s political context

As history shows, those in power tend to give education a “flavour and form” that reflects their
interests.

Over the past 23 years, political changes in South Africa have been focused on removing the
legacies of the apartheid regime, in particular the aspects of segregation and inequality.

Democracy has also found its way into school structures, and governance is now in the hands
of the school community: the parents, teachers, and learners. This signals a move away from
the highly centralised, tightly controlled bureaucratic system of the past to a more open,
flexible, democratic and participatory system. Schools are central to building a new culture of
tolerance in South Africa. One way in which this can be achieved is by building more
democratic and participatory structures. Another way might be through teaching learners the
skills and attitudes that will enable them to participate critically, promote tolerance of
differences, eliminate prejudices, and foster respect.

South Africa’s past teaching practices were aimed at learning with the intent to promote and
achieve a particular result, while Outcomes-Based Education perceived attainment in terms of
whether specific outcomes had been achieved. The current national curricula are organised
around topics and have a content-driven character. In future, traditional modes might be
combined with objective-driven or content-based education. All of these will be determined by
the acceptance of particular approaches in the educational environment, and the roles that
teachers and learners should play in the teaching-learning environment. (ANY RELEVANT
FACTS) (20)

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QUESTION 2

While teachers may rely on a textbook, they should also develop lessons that use other media,
for example playing and discussing the influences on a piece of classical music that was
written during the French Revolution. Alternatively, learners could be asked to use the internet
or visit a library to research a particular topic or theme.

When using any learning and teaching support material (textbooks are only one type of
material), it is advisable to evaluate the materials before buying them to see if they are suitable.

Discuss the following:

2.1 The reasons for using exemplary lesson materials. (10)

2.2 What should the teacher keep in mind when choosing lesson materials that can lead to
effective implementation of the curriculum? (10)

MEMORANDUM (pages 91 – 92)

2.1 Reasons for using exemplary lesson materials may include

• offering an indication of what can be expected during lessons
• stimulating internal dialogue and reflection on questions such as: “How does the material
relate to my personal opinions and my own teaching practice? Can the material be used
for preparing and teaching lessons and if so, how? What reactions and learning
outcomes from learners can be expected?”
• presenting specific guidelines for use in practice
• preventing early watering-down of the intended new approach to content and pedagogy
and, at the same time, stimulating local adaptation and ownership of the new approach
• providing a basis for the exchange of experiences, feedback, discussion and reflection
• stimulating teachers to (re)design their own materials and / or to make a more selective,
creative and conscious use of existing textbooks and materials

2.2 The teacher should keep the following in mind when choosing lesson materials that can
lead to effective implementation of the curriculum:
• the material has a modular and flexible design and structure
• the material raises questions about essential yet vulnerable aspects of lesson
preparation, subject-matter content, the role of the teacher and the nature of
assessments and tests
• the material displays a balance between providing concrete suggestions and procedural
specifications on the one hand (including some justification for choices made), while
avoiding exhaustive regulations on the other. This will stimulate active adaptation.

At the same time, concrete and specified guidelines are necessary – especially in the early
stages of implementation – in order to actively support teachers in gaining experience, which
will combat feelings of insecurity and avoid premature modifications in planning and
instructional design.

An important lesson is that no matter how carefully they are designed and tested, using
exemplary lesson materials alone has its limitations. Such materials have proven more
effective if applied in combination with more comprehensive professional development
schemes for teachers. These development schemes contain activities that will stimulate
collaboration with and coaching by experts and colleagues, for example the exchange of
experiences, collegial feedback and reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action, focused on
the user’s experiences with the material. In such “blended scenarios” virtual teacher networks
may also play a role. Multimedia cases with visualisations of the envisaged teaching practice
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also have an added value.

When developing lesson material, teachers should acknowledge the iterative cycle of analysis,
design, development, and evaluation in working with the curriculum. The following aspects of
material design should be kept in mind:
• The first step is to determine the functions and features of the materials to be developed.
This is done on the basis of a thorough analysis of literature, context and the needs of
the target group.
• Testing the effectiveness of the lesson material might include observations of lesson
preparation and implementation, as well as interviews, in order to gain insight into
teachers’ and learners’ experiences.
• The teacher draws on the experience of subject / phase experts who have developed
teaching material of high quality in terms of relevance, consistency, practicality and
effectiveness. Doing this contributes to the professional development of teachers, and
extends their knowledge of material design.

Teachers should assess the expected practicality and effectiveness of teaching materials;
however, this can only be done when teachers and learners have used the new materials in
the learning situation.

ANY 20 RELEVANT FACTS

[20]

QUESTION 3

Distinguish between what the impact of Decolonilisation and Africanisation would be on

curriculum development on the one hand and curriculum enactment on the other. Discuss your
views in a few paragraphs. [10]

MEMORANDUM

Africanisation is the process of defining or interpreting African identity and culture – a learning
process and a way of life for Africans (Louw, 2010:42). It entails aspects such as African
character, making something African in nature, bringing under African influence, adapting to
African necessities, or simply becoming African. Decolonisation, on the other hand, implies
taking responsibility for independent thought, and understanding the condition that make us
who we are (Gordon, 2015 in Cross & Ndofirepi, 2017). Decolonisation as a universal aspiration
may or may not coincide with identifying as African or South African, in both the general and
inclusive sense; and the exclusionary, parochial and indigenous sense (Nyamnjoh, 2016).
“Decoloniality” (and all its technical terminology) is one particular perspective among many and
is not the obviously right one to adopt. MORE INFORMATION IS AVAILABLE IN THE
TEXTBOOK.

QUESTION 4

Read section 4.3 in your textbook. If a curriculum developer wants to prepare learners
holistically for a diverse school context and embed African values such as Ubuntu, what values
should be taught at schools particular for the diverse South African context? With this in
consideration, discuss in your OWN words which interpersonal, intrapersonal and
environmental values should be taught at school. [10]

MEMORANDUM
THIS WAS AN OPEN QESTION. MARKS WERE GIVEN FOR INSIGHT AND OWN
EXAMPLES

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THIS IS FROM THE TEXTBOOK

Embedding African values and Ubuntu in the curriculum
African values such as Ubuntu have not been fully incorporated in modern education systems
and teacher education. Ubuntu is a philosophy that promotes the common good of society and
includes humanness as an essential element of human growth (Venter, 2004).

Humanity is a quality we owe to each other. We create each other and need to sustain this
otherness creation. And if we belong to each other, we participate in our creations: we are
because you are, and since you are, definitely I am. The ‘I am’ is not a rigid subject, but a
dynamic self-constitution dependent on this otherness creation of relation and distance.

Ubuntu as a philosophy is being embraced internationally as a way of life, however it has not
filtered through to the education systems of the world and that of South Africa in particular. The
infusion of an African perspective into teaching and learning would also assist in decolonising
education. Decolonization focuses on the integration of the indigenous knowledge as a social
construct that is inextricably intertwined with societal norms and values. Such norms and
values should be transmitted from generation to generation to ensure them becoming
embedded in the society Letseka, 2013).

Necessitating greater focus on inter-cultural collaborations, the question is then what do we

have to consider in the schooling of our children, the management of classrooms and in
curriculum implementation to adhere to these most valuable principles of life? In essence it
means that teachers and learners need to adopt the value of “I am because you are”. This
means that humanity is not embedded in my person solely as an individual; my humanity is co-
substantively bestowed upon the other and me. This will for instance enhance respect for the
teacher and peers and ensure more effective collaboration in the classroom.

In this regard, the following model of Ubuntu (see Fig. 4.1) embodies the fundamental values
and categorises these values as interpersonal values, intrapersonal values and environmental
values (Maphalala, 2017). These categories could be regarded as pillars on which Ubuntu is
founded. These pillars signify regard for others, the self and the environment.

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Figure 1: Components of Ubuntu (Maphalala, 2017)

Interpersonal values
Interpersonal values are based on the understanding that no man is an island in the
community. This notion finds expression in the Zulu proverb which says “Umuntu ngumuntu
ngabantu”, which literary means “a person is a person through others”. This means that human
beings being-with-others should include the ability to interact with others, work with them and
be sensitive to their feelings (Letseka, 2013). Interpersonal values are characterised as respect
(for self and others), hospitality, generosity, inclusivity, coexistence, compassion, cooperation,
friendliness, forgiveness and equity. These values should be inculcated in the classroom to
foster a climate more conducive to effective teaching and learning.

Intrapersonal values
Intrapersonal values refer to the individual’s innate ability to reflect on their inner world and
monitor their own actions, thoughts and feelings, strengths, frailties and weaknesses. A
person’s core characteristics include intrapersonal values such as affective awareness,
honesty, content, humility, positive self-concept, graciousness, gratitude, self-confidence, self-
reliance, ethical awareness, introspection, affective awareness, ethical awareness and self-
regulation. Learners should be equipped with the skills to enable them to discriminate between
right and wrong and should be given the space to reflect on their actions and how these
actions contribute to maintaining discipline in the classroom

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Environmental values
Ubuntu encourages care for the environment and the wellbeing of all who live in it. Many
centuries ago the indigenous African people cared about nature because of their appreciation
and understanding of it as a source of food, shelter, clothing and medicine. Mucina (2013, 27)
confirms this, saying “all Ubuntu life is connected by the cycle of reciprocal relationships; no
relationship is greater than the other”. He continues by saying, “I value my relationship with my
family in the same manner I value the trees, waters, rocks and other animals. Each relationship
I have sustains my life in a balance that is beyond my creation”. Environmental values are
characterised by the ability to coexist with the natural environment. Ubuntu shares natural
resources on the principle of equity among and between generations. Ubuntu therefore
extends to the environment to reciprocate with Mother Nature for providing for the basic needs
of humanity. Environmental values refer to the moral and ethical responsibility of human beings
to the environment. As human beings we have control of our environment and therefore we
have a moral and ethical obligation to preserve, conserve and maintain it in pristine condition
for future generations to continue enjoy its benefits. The environmental values include three
key aspects: conservation, sustainability, and preservation and aesthetic value.

Classroom practise and the implementation of the curriculum should be underpinned by the
values mentioned above – whether it is the planning for teaching, the engagement of learners
in activities in class, intended learning or assessment practices. In classroom practice this
means that the teacher should plan lessons with interpersonal, intrapersonal and
environmental values in mind. The engagement of learners in the classroom should be that of
a social entity built on Ubuntu principles. We have to understand human development within
the context of the system of relationships that form the person’s environment.

QUESTION 5

This is an open question. Suggested length: four to five pages (that is 1200–1400 words).

The implementation of the curriculum needs to be a phase-long process for planning,

managing and organising classroom practice. This means that what is planned must guide and
inform what is done in the classroom, all teaching, learning and assessment.

As teachers, what do we have to take into consideration when we plan for teaching and
learning to take place and who should be involved in curriculum planning?

Your focus should be on one phase in the school.

In your case study you should include, as a minimum, the following:

5.1 Stages of planning for curriculum interpretation and implementation (process) (5)
5.2 Who should be involved? (5)
5.3 Which documents do you need? (5)

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5.4 Example of a lesson plan for ONE SUBJECT IN ONE GRADE IN THE PHASE (product),
including an activity. (10)
5.5 Your own SWOT analysis of any school. (5)
[30]

THE ANSWER BELOW IS MERELY AN EXAMPLE.

Steps or stages of planning for curriculum interpretation and implementation

1. Strategic school planning

2. Phase planning
3. Grade planning
4. Lesson plan

Strategic school planning

The entire school development planning can form part of this section but is not compulsory.

All stakeholders must consider all the activities and interests of the school and then decide on
the goals for a specific period. The purpose is to make sure the school is ready for the learners
and that teaching and learning suit the needs of the community, school and classroom.

Whole school development includes the following: vision, mission, budget, staff and curriculum.
Planning concerning how teaching and learning should take place should be linked to the
whole school development plan. The curriculum forms the core of the school, and its
implementation must support the school's vision and mission.

The school management team and professional staff must do a SWOT analysis to determine
the needs they should focus on in a particular phase. Other stakeholders, such as the learners,
parents and community should also give their input in the process of selection. The broader
context helps teachers to make selections based on identified needs and ensure that they do
not ignore conceptual progression.

Phase planning: A learning programme or curriculum is developed for three grades. The
implementation of the curriculum must be a phase-long process of planning, managing and
organizing classroom practice. The planning must serve as a guide for the teaching, learning
and assessment that take place in the classroom. For example, in the FET phase (grades10 to
12) there are four compulsory subjects (i.e. the home language, the first additional language,
Mathematics/Mathematical Literacy and Life Orientation) and three elective subjects.

Aspects to consider during phase planning include the following:

• the contexts or themes of teaching, learning and assessment

• incorporating the principles of the CAPS document in all teaching, learning and
assessment
• the aims and assessment criteria across the phase
• the sequencing of the aims and assessment criteria
• the core knowledge and concepts needed to attain the learning outcomes and
assessment criteria (should reflect the context)
• how to ensure progression within subjects and from grade to grade

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• the time allocation and weighting awarded to learning in the subject for each phase

All teachers in a phase should work together to create a clear plan of how they will guide
learners. Individual planning is not advisable, because all teachers must ensure that learners
achieve the national learning outcomes by the end of the phase (grades 3, 6, 9 and 12).
Teachers must be involved in different levels of planning. The teacher must refer to the
teacher's guide and CAPS document. The CAPS document and the characteristics of the
learner are the organizing principle.

Planning per year and grade: The work schedule for each grade is based on CAPS.
Teachers will have to consider the realities of the school and the learner context when
planning.

Lesson planning: Individual teachers have to plan lessons for each grade based on
curriculum topics and have to ensure that they plan for particular learners in their classes. Each
lesson must also include learning aims and an outcome. (15)

EXAMPLE OF ANY LESSON PLAN: Please make sure that your lesson plan makes sense
and that you link the objectives and assessment. (10)

SWOT ANALYSES OF ANY SCHOOL

• strengths (internal)
• weaknesses (internal)
• opportunities (external)
• threats (external) (5)
[30]

TOTAL MARKS: 100

Best wishes for your preparation for the examination!

Prof EC du Plessis
E-Mail: [email protected]
Telephone number: 0828093903 (office hours only)

Mrs T Aphane
E-mail address: [email protected]
Telephone number: 082 898 7633 (office hours only)

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