INSTRUMENTATION

ENGINEERING

ANALOG
ELECTRONICS

Comprehensive Theory
with Solved Examples and Practice Questions

www.madeeasypublications.org
 MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Corporate Office: 44-A/4, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metro
Station), New Delhi-110016 | Ph. : 9021300500
Email : [email protected] | Web : www.madeeasypublications.org

First Edition : 2015

Analog Electronics Second Edition : 2016

EDITIONS
Third Edition : 2017
Copyright © by MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Fourth Edition : 2018
All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be Fifth Edition : 2019
reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, Sixth Edition : 2020
or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, Seventh Edition : 2021
mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise), Eighth Edition : 2022
Ninth Edition : 2023
without the prior written permission of the above mentioned
publisher of this book. Tenth Edition : 2024

MADE EASY Publications Pvt. Ltd. has taken due care

in collecting the data and providing the solutions, before
publishing this book. Inspite of this, if any inaccuracy or
printing error occurs then MADE EASY Publications Pvt.
Ltd. owes no responsibility. We will be grateful if you could
point out any such error. Your suggestions will be appreciated.
 Analog Electronics
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2

Diode Circuits...................................................4-77 Bipolar Junction Transistors-Characteristics

1.1 Introduction................................................................................. 4
and Biasing......................................................78-97
2.1 Introduction...............................................................................78
1.2 Diode Circuits : DC Analysis and Models............................ 4
2.2 Transistors Current Components........................................80
1.3 Diode Logic Gates....................................................................10
2.3 Early Effect...................................................................................84
1.4 Diode Equivalent Circuits......................................................12 2.4 BJT Configuration.....................................................................85
1.5 DC Power Supply......................................................................15 2.5 The Common Base Configuration......................................86
1.6 Rectifier........................................................................................16 2.6 The Common-Emitter Configuration................................89
1.7 Half-wave Rectifier...................................................................16 2.7 The Common-Collector Configuration.............................91

1.8 Centre-Tapped Full-wave Rectifier.....................................25 Objective Brain Teasers............................................................92

Conventional Brain Teasers.....................................................95
1.9 Bridge Rectifier..........................................................................32
1.10 Comparison of Rectifier Circuits with Resistive Load....... 35
CHAPTER 3
1.11 Filter...............................................................................................35
1.12 Inductor Filter............................................................................36 Transistor Biasing and
1.13 Capacitor Filter..........................................................................37 Thermal Stabilization.......................................98-131
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................98
1.14 LC Filter (L-Section Filter).......................................................40
3.2 The Operating Point................................................................98
1.15 CLC Filter (P-Section Filter)...................................................43
3.3 Instability in Collector Current.......................................... 100
1.16 Voltage Regulators...................................................................44
3.4 BJT Biasing............................................................................... 103
1.17 Zener Diode Shunt Regulator..............................................45 3.5 Fixed Bias Circuit.................................................................... 104
1.18 Op-amp Controlled Series Regulator................................47 3.6 Collector to Base Bias Circuit............................................. 105
1.19 Transistorized Series Regulator...........................................48 3.7 Self-Bias, Emitter Bias, or Voltage-Divider Bias............ 106

1.20 Fixed Voltage IC Regulators..................................................51 3.8 Bias Compensation............................................................... 110

3.9 Thermal Runaway.................................................................. 112
1.21 Wave Shaping............................................................................52
3.10 BJT Biasing in Integrated Circuits (ICs)........................... 116
1.22 Clipper..........................................................................................52
3.11 Constant Current Source (Basic Current Mirror)......... 117
1.23 Linear Wave Shaping...............................................................59
3.12 Widlar Current Source.......................................................... 119
1.24 Clamper........................................................................................65
3.13 Current Repeaters................................................................. 121
1.25 Voltage Multiplier.....................................................................69 3.14 Wilson Current Source......................................................... 123
Objective Brain Teasers............................................................71 Objective Brain Teasers......................................................... 124
Conventional Brain Teasers.....................................................75 Conventional Brain Teasers.................................................. 127

iii
 Analog Electronics

CHAPTER 4 6.6 High Frequency Response of Common-Base.............. 213

6.7 High Frequency Response of Emitter............................. 216
BJT as an Amplifier...................................132-172
Objective Brain Teasers......................................................... 219
4.1 Introduction............................................................................ 132
Conventional Brain Teasers.................................................. 222
4.2 Graphical Analysis of BJT Amplifier................................. 133
4.3 Transistor Hybrid Model...................................................... 134
CHAPTER 7
4.4 Analysis of Transistor Amplifier
Circuit Using h-Parameters................................................ 136
Differential Amplifiers.......................................226-238
4.5 Small Signal Hybrid-P Equivalent Circuit of BJT........ 141
7.1 Introduction............................................................................ 226
4.6 Hybrid-P-Equivalent Circuit,
7.2 The Differential Amplifier................................................... 226
by Considering Early Effect................................................ 143
7.3 Basic BJT Differential Amplifier......................................... 227
4.7 Basic Transistor Amplifier Configurations..................... 144
7.4 FET Differential Amplifiers.................................................. 232
4.8 Common-Emitter Amplifiers............................................. 145
7.5 Constant Current-Bias.......................................................... 233
4.9 Common-Collector (Emitter-Follower) Amplifier...... 153
7.6 Level Translator...................................................................... 236
4.10 Common-Base Amplifier..................................................... 158
Objective Brain Teasers......................................................... 237
4.11 Multistage Amplifiers........................................................... 160

Objective Brain Teasers......................................................... 164

Conventional Brain Teasers.................................................. 167

CHAPTER 8

Feedback Amplifiers................................ 239-259

CHAPTER 5 8.1 Introduction............................................................................ 239
8.2 Basic Feedback Concepts................................................... 239
Basic FET Amplifiers.................................173-194
8.3 General Block Diagram of Feedback Amplifier........... 243
5.1 Introduction............................................................................ 173
8.4 Four Basic Feedback Topologies...................................... 246
5.2 The Common-Source Amplifier........................................ 173
8.5 Series-Shunt Configuration............................................... 246
5.3 Common-Drain (Source Follower) Amplifier............... 179
8.6 Shunt-Series Configuration............................................... 249
5.4 The Common-Gate Configuration.................................. 183
8.7 Series-Series Configuration............................................... 250
Objective Brain Teasers......................................................... 189
8.8 Shunt-Shunt Configuration............................................... 251
Conventional Brain Teasers.................................................. 192
8.9 Summary of Results.............................................................. 252

Objective Brain Teasers......................................................... 255

CHAPTER 6
Conventional Brain Teasers.................................................. 258
Frequency Response ........................................ 195-225
6.1 Introduction............................................................................ 195 CHAPTER 9
6.2 Amplifier Frequency Response......................................... 195
Operational Amplifier.............................. 260-302
6.3 Miller’s Theorem..................................................................... 202
9.1 Introduction........................................................................... 260
6.4 Frequency Response : BJT.................................................. 204
9.2 Block Diagram Representation of A Typical Op-Amp....260
6.5 High Frequency Response of Common-Emitter
and Common-Source Circuits........................................... 209 9.3 Schematic Symbol............................................................... 261

iv
 Analog Electronics

9.4 Operational Amplifier Characteristics.......................... 261 10.8 Comparator............................................................................ 323

9.5 DC Characteristics................................................................ 262 10.9 Zero-Crossing Detector..................................................... 324
9.6 AC Characteristics................................................................ 264 10.10 Sample-And-Hold Circuits................................................ 326
9.7 Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp.................................... 267 10.11 Basic Inverting Schmitt Trigger....................................... 327
9.8 Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve............................................ 267 10.12 Schmitt Trigger Oscillator................................................. 329
9.9 Inverting Amplifier.............................................................. 268 10.13 Monostable Multivibrator................................................. 331
9.10 Summing Amplifier............................................................. 273 10.14 The 555 Circuit...................................................................... 332
9.11 Non-inverting Amplifier.................................................... 275 Objective Brain Teasers......................................................... 339
9.12 Voltage Follower.................................................................. 277
9.13 Current-to-Voltage Converter......................................... 278 CHAPTER 11
9.14 Voltage-to-Current Converter......................................... 279
Active Filters and VCO................................342-369
9.15 Differential Amplifier.......................................................... 279
11.1 introduction............................................................................ 342
9.16 Integrator and Differentiator........................................... 282
11.2 Classification of Active Filters............................................ 342
9.17 Instrumentation Amplifier................................................ 284
11.3 Butterworth Filter.................................................................. 344
9.18 Log Amplifier......................................................................... 286
11.4 Band Pass Filters..................................................................... 348
9.19 Antilog or Exponential Amplifier................................... 288
11.5 Band Stop Filter...................................................................... 351
9.20 Analog Multiplier IC’s (Modulator)................................. 289
11.6 All Pass Filter............................................................................ 353
9.21 Analog Divider IC’s (De-Modulator).............................. 289
11.7 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters..................................................... 357
9.22 Precision Diode..................................................................... 290
11.8 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators......................................... 365
9.23 Half-Wave Rectifier.............................................................. 291
11.9 Mathematical Model of VCOs............................................ 366
9.24 Full-Wave Rectifier............................................................... 292

Objective Brain Teasers....................................................... 293

CHAPTER 12
Conventional Brain Teasers................................................ 298

Sources and Effects of Noise and

CHAPTER 10 Interference in Electronic Circuits.......... 370-394
12.1 Noise.......................................................................................... 370
Signal Generators and
12.2 Statistical Characteristics of Noise................................... 370
Waveform Shaping Circuits.................... 303-341
12.3 Representation of Noise in Circuits................................. 379
10.1 Introduction........................................................................... 303
10.2 Oscillators............................................................................... 303 12.4 Noise in Single-Stage Amplifiers...................................... 386

10.3 The Phase-Shift Oscillator................................................. 306 12.5 Noise in Differential Pairs.................................................... 390

10.4 Wien Bridge Oscillator........................................................ 312 12.6 Noise-Power Trade-Off........................................................ 392

10.5 LC Oscillators......................................................................... 315 12.7 Noise Bandwidth................................................................... 393

10.6 Crystal Oscillators................................................................ 320 12.8 Problem of Input Noise Integration................................ 394
10.7 Comparison between LC Oscillators
and Crystal Oscillators........................................................ 322
nnnn