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12086 – CHEMISTRY PART II ISBN 81-7450-648-9 (Part I)

Textbook for Class XII 81-7450-716-7 (Part II)

First Edition
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April 2007 Chaitra 1929
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FOREWORD

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 recommends that children’s

life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks
a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our
system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi
and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement
this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance
of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures
will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of
education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as
the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and
sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we
perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed
body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calender so that the required number of teaching days
are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation
will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at
school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus
designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring
and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child
psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for
contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring
hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group
in science and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for
this book, Professor B. L. Khandelwal for guiding the work of this committee.

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Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful
to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions
and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their
resources, material and personnel. As an organisation committed to systemic
reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT
welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further
revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training

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RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOK

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on

students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the
content load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative
mindset. In this background, the NCERT has undertaken the exercise to
rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed
by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same
class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions
from teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-
learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the

changes given above.

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PREFACE

Chemistry has made a profound impact on the society. It is intimately linked

to the well-being of human kind. The rate of advancements in chemistry is so
high that curriculum developers continuously look for strategies to cope with
these advancements. Also, the students have to be inspired to be the future
leaders who would make fundamental contributions. The present textbook is
a sincere effort in this direction.
The textbook, presented in two parts, comprises of sixteen Units. Although
the titles of various Units indicate a sort of compartmentalisation into physical,
inorganic and organic chemistry, readers will find that these sub-disciplines
have been intermingled, at least to a certain extent, to have a unified approach
to the subject. First nine Units covering physical and inorganic chemistry
portions are included in Part I while organic chemistry portion comprising of
seven Units is included in Part II of the book. The approach of presentation
of the subject matter discourages students from rote memorisation. The subject
has in fact, been organised around the laws and principles of chemistry. As
students master these laws and principles, they will soon get to the point
where they can predict much of what will come.
Efforts have been directed towards making the subject stimulating and exciting
by references to the historical developments and its usefulness to our lives,
wherever appropriate. The text is well illustrated with examples from
surrounding environment to facilitate grasping of the qualitative and
quantitative aspects of the concept easily. Physical data are given in SI units
throughout the book to make comparison of various properties easier. IUPAC
system of nomenclature has been followed along with the common names.
Structural formulae of chemical compounds showing functional/coordinating
groups in different colours are drawn using electronic system. Each Unit has
a good number of examples, as illustrations, with their solutions and some
intext questions, the answers of some of which are given at the end of the Unit.
The end of Unit exercises are designed to apply important principles and
provoke thinking process to solve them. Answers of some of these exercises
are given at the end of the book.
A variety of materials, e.g., biographical sketches of some scientists, additional
information related to a particular topic, etc., is given in boxes with a deep
yellow coloured bar. This boxed material with a 'deep yellow bar' is to bring
additional life to the topic. However, it is non-evaluative. The structures of
some of the more complex compounds incorporated in the book are for
understanding their chemistry. As their reproduction would lead to
memorisation, it is also a non-evaluative portion of the text.

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The information part has been significantly reduced and, wherever possible,
it has been substantiated with facts. However, it is necessary for students to
be aware of commercially important chemicals, their processes of manufacture
and sources of raw materials. This leads to descriptive material in the book.
Attempts have been made to make descriptions of such compounds interesting
by considering their structures and reactivity. Thermodynamics, kinetics and
electrochemical aspects have been applied to a few chemical reactions which
should be beneficial to students for understanding why a particular reaction
happened and why a particular property is exhibited by the product. There
is currently great awareness of environmental and energy issues which are
directly related to chemistry. Such issues have been highlighted and dealt
with at appropriate places in the book.
A team of experts constituted by the NCERT has developed the manuscript of
the book. It gives me great pleasure to acknowledge the valuable contribution
of all the members of this team. I also acknowledge the valuable and relentless
contribution of the editors in bringing the book to the present shape. I also
acknowledge with thanks the dedicated efforts and valuable contribution of
Professor Brahm Parkash, who not only coordinated the entire programme
but also actively involved in writing and editing of this book. Thanks are also
due to the participating teachers and subject experts of the review workshop
for their contribution, which has helped us to make the book learner friendly.
Also, I thank the technical and administrative staff of the NCERT for their
support in the entire process.
The team of this textbook development programme hopes that the book
stimulates its readers and makes them feel the excitement and fascination for
this subject. Efforts have been made to bring out this book error-free.
Nevertheless, it is recognised that in a book of this complexity, there could
inevitably be occasional errors. It will always be a pleasure to hear about
them from readers to take necessary steps to rectify them.

B.L. KHANDELWAL

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 Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHAIRMAN, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

J.V. Narlikar, Professor Emeritus, Chairman, Advisory Committee, Inter
University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Ganeshkhind,
Pune University Campus, Pune

CHIEF ADVISOR
B.L. Khandelwal, Professor, Director, Disha Institute of Management and
Technology, Raipur, Chhattisgarh. Formerly Chairman, Department of
Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi

MEMBERS
A.S. Brar, Professor, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology,
New Delhi
A.Q. Contractor, Professor, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of
Technology, Powai, Mumbai
Alka Mehrotra, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Anjni Koul, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Brahm Parkash, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
I.P. Agarwal, Professor, DESM, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT,
Bhopal, M.P.
K.K. Arora, Reader, Department of Chemistry, Zakir Hussain College, University
of Delhi, New Delhi
K.N. Upadhayaya, Head (Retired), Department of Chemistry, Ramjas College,
Delhi University, Delhi
Kavita Sharma, Lecturer, DEE, NCERT, New Delhi
M.P. Mahajan, Professor, Department of Chemistry, Guru Nanak Dev
University, Amritsar, Punjab
M.L. Agarwal, Principal (Retired), Kendriya Vidyalaya, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Puran Chand, Professor, Joint Director (Retired), CIET, NCERT, New Delhi
R.A. Verma, Vice Principal, Shaheed Basant Kumar Biswas Sarvodaya
Vidyalaya, Civil Lines, New Delhi
R.K. Verma, Professor, Department of Chemistry, Magadh University, Bihar
R.K. Prashar, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
R.S. Sindhu, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S.K. Gupta, Reader, School of Studies in Chemistry, Jiwaji University,
Gwalior, M.P.

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S.K. Dogra, Professor, Dr B.R. Ambedkar Centre for Biomedical Research,
University of Delhi, Delhi
Sarabjeet Sachdeva, PGT, (Chemistry), St. Columbas School, New Delhi
S. Badhwar, Lecturer, The Daly College, Indore, M.P.
V.N. Pathak, Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Rajasthan,
Jaipur, Rajasthan
Vijay Sarda, Reader, Department of Chemistry, Zakir Hussain College,
University of Delhi, New Delhi
V.K. Verma, Professor, (Retired), Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, U.P.
V.P. Gupta, Professor, DESM, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Bhopal,
M.P.

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Brahm Parkash, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) gratefully

acknowledges the valuable contributions of the individuals and organisations
involved in the development of Chemistry textbook for Class XII. The
acknowledgements are also due to the following practicing teachers and subject
experts for reviewing the draft manuscript and giving useful suggestions for its
improvement in a workshop: Dr D.S. Rawat, Department of Chemistry, University
of Delhi, Delhi; Dr Mahendra Nath, Reader, Chemistry Department, University
of Delhi, Delhi; Dr Sulekh Chandra, Reader, Zakir Hussain College, New Delhi;
Ms Ameeta K., PGT (Chemistry), Vidyalaya No. 3, Patiala Cantt (Pb.);
Dr G.T. Bhandge, Professor and Head, DESM, Regional Institute of Education,
Mysore; Dr Neeti Misra, Senior Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Acharya
Narendra Dev College, New Delhi; Dr S.P.S. Mehta, Department of Chemistry,
Kumaun University, Nainital (UA); Dr N.V.S. Naidu, Assistant Professor
(Chemistry), SVU College of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, S.V. University,
Tirupati (A.P.); Dr A.C. Handa, Hindu College, Delhi University, Delhi;
Dr A.K. Vashishtha, G.B.S.S.S. Jafrabad, Delhi; Dr Charanjit Kaur, Head,
Department of Chemistry, Sri Sathya Sai College for Women, Bhopal, P.O.
Habibganj; Ms Alka Sharma, PGT (Chemistry), S.L.S. DAV Public School, Mausam
Vihar, Delhi; Dr H.H. Tripathy, Reader (Retired), Regional Institute of Education,
Bhubaneswar; Shri C.B. Singh, PGT (Chemistry), Kendriya Vidyalaya No. 2, Delhi
Cantt, Delhi; and Dr Sunita Hooda, Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi
University, New Delhi.
The Council also thanks Professor B.L. Khandelwal, Professor Brahm Parkash,
Dr K.K. Arora, Dr Vijay Sarda and Professor R.S. Sindhu, members of the
Textbook Development Committee for editing the manuscript and bringing it to
the present shape.
The Council also acknowledges the contributions of Shri Vijay Singh,
Narender Verma and Vijay Kaushal DTP Operators and Dr K.T. Chitralekha,
Copy Editor in shaping this book. The efforts of the Publication Department,
NCERT are also duly acknowledged.

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 CONTENTS OF
CHEMISTRY PART I

UNIT 1 SOLUTIONS 1

UNIT 2 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 31

UNIT 3 CHEMICAL KINETICS 61

UNIT 4 THE d-AND f-BLOCK ELEMENTS 89

UNIT 5 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS 118

APPENDICES 141

ANSWERS TO SOME QUESTIONS IN EXERCISES 154

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOK v
PREFACE vii

Unit 6 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 159

6.1 Classification 160
6.2 Nomenclature 161
6.3 Nature of C–X Bond 163
6.4 Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes 164
6.5 Preparation of Haloarenes 166
6.6 Physical Properties 167
6.7 Chemical Reactions 169
6.8 Polyhalogen Compounds 187

Unit 7 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 193

7.1 Classification 194
7.2 Nomenclature 195
7.3 Structures of Functional Groups 198
7.4 Alcohols and Phenols 199
7.5 Some Commercially Important Alcohols 214
7.6 Ethers 215

Unit 8 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 227

8.1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group 228
8.2 Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones 231
8.3 Physical Properties 235
8.4 Chemical Reactions 236
8.5 Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones 243
8.6 Nomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group 244
8.7 Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids 245
8.8 Physical Properties 249
8.9 Chemical Reactions 249
8.10 Uses of Carboxylic Acids 254

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Unit 9 Amines 259
9.1 Structure of Amines 259
9.2 Classification 260
9.3 Nomenclature 260
9.4 Preparation of Amines 262
9.5 Physical Properties 265
9.6 Chemical Reactions 266
9.7 Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts 274
9.8 Physical Properties 275
9.9 Chemical Reactions 275
9.10 Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of 276
Aromatic Compounds

Unit 10 Biomolecules 281

10.1 Carbohydrates 281
10.2 Proteins 290
10.3 Enzymes 295
10.4 Vitamins 295
10.5 Nucleic Acids 297
10.6 Hormones 300

Answers to Some Questions in Exercises 303

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 Unit

Objectives
6
Haloalkanes and
After studying this Unit, you will be
able to
· name haloalkanes and haloarenes
Haloar enes
Haloarenes
according to the IUPAC system of
nomenclature from their given
structures; Halogenated compounds persist in the environment due to their
· describe the reactions involved in resistance to breakdown by soil bacteria.
the preparation of haloalkanes and
haloarenes and understand
various reactions that they The replacement of hydrogen atom(s) in an aliphatic
undergo; or aromatic hydrocarbon by halogen atom(s) results
· correlate the structures of in the formation of alkyl halide (haloalkane) and aryl
haloalkanes and haloarenes with halide (haloarene), respectively. Haloalkanes contain
various types of reactions; halogen atom(s) attached to the sp3 hybridised carbon
· use stereochemistry as a tool for atom of an alkyl group whereas haloarenes contain
understanding the reaction
halogen atom(s) attached to sp2 hybridised carbon
mechanism;
atom(s) of an aryl group. Many halogen containing
· appreciate the applications of
organo-metallic compounds;
organic compounds occur in nature and some of
these are clinically useful. These classes of compounds
· highlight the environmental effects
of polyhalogen compounds. find wide applications in industry as well as in day-
to-day life. They are used as solvents for relatively
non-polar compounds and as starting materials for
the synthesis of wide range of organic compounds.
Chlorine containing antibiotic, chloramphenicol,
produced by microorganisms is very effective for the
treatment of typhoid fever. Our body produces iodine
containing hormone, thyroxine, the deficiency of which
causes a disease called goiter. Synthetic halogen
compounds, viz. chloroquine is used for the treatment
of malaria; halothane is used as an anaesthetic
during surgery. Certain fully fluorinated compounds
are being considered as potential blood substitutes
in surgery.
In this Unit, you will study the important methods
of preparation, physical and chemical properties and
uses of organohalogen compounds.

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6.1 Classification Haloalkanes and haloarenes may be classified as follows:

6.1.1 On the These may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-,tetra-, etc.)
Basis of compounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen
Number of atoms in their structures. For example,
Halogen
Atoms

Monohalocompounds may further be classified according to the

hybridisation of the carbon atom to which the halogen is bonded, as
discussed below.
6.1.2 Compounds This class includes
Containing (a) Alkyl halides or haloalkanes (R—X)
sp3 C—X
Bond (X= F, In alkyl halides, the halogen atom is bonded to an alkyl group (R).
Cl, Br, I) They form a homologous series represented by CnH2n+1X. They are
further classified as primary, secondary or tertiary according to the
nature of carbon to which halogen is attached. If halogen is attached to
a primary carbon atom in an alkyl halide, the alkyl halide is called
primary alkyl halide or 1° alkyl halide. Similarly, if halogen is attached
to secondary or tertiary carbon atom, the alkyl halide is called
secondary alkyl halide (2°) and tertiary (3°) alkyl halide, respectively.

(b) Allylic halides

These are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an
sp3-hybridised carbon atom adjacent to carbon-carbon double bond
(C=C) i.e. to an allylic carbon.
Allylic carbon

Allylic carbon
(c) Benzylic halides
These are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to an
sp3-hybridised carbon atom attached to an aromatic ring.
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6.1.3 Compounds This class includes:
Containing
(a) Vinylic halides
sp2 C—X
Bond These are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to
a sp2-hybridised carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond
(C = C).

(b) Aryl halides

These are the compounds in which the halogen atom is directly
bonded to the sp2-hybridised carbon atom of an aromatic ring.

6.2 Nomenclature Having learnt the classification of halogenated compounds, let us now learn
how these are named. The common names of alkyl halides are derived by
naming the alkyl group followed by the name of halide. In the IUPAC system
of nomenclature, alkyl halides are named as halosubstituted hydrocarbons.
For mono halogen substituted derivatives of benzene, common and IUPAC
names are the same. For dihalogen derivatives, the prefixes o-, m-, p- are
used in common system but in IUPAC system, as you have learnt in Class
XI, the numerals 1,2; 1,3 and 1,4 are used.

The dihaloalkanes having the same type of halogen atoms are named
as alkylidene or alkylene dihalides. The dihalo-compounds having both
the halogen atoms are further classified as geminal halides or gem-dihalides
when both the halogen atoms are present on the same carbon atom of the
161 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 chain and vicinal halides or vic-dihalides when halogen atoms are present
on adjacent carbon atoms. In common name system, gem-dihalides are
named as alkylidene halides and vic-dihalides are named as alkylene
dihalides. In IUPAC system, they are named as dihaloalkanes.

Some common examples of halocompounds are mentioned in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Common and IUPAC Names of some Halides

Structure Common name IUPAC name

CH3CH2CH(Cl)CH3 sec-Butyl chloride 2-Chlorobutane

(CH3)3CCH2Br neo-Pentyl bromide 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane

(CH3)3CBr tert-Butyl bromide 2-Bromo-2-methylpropane

CH2 = CHCl Vinyl chloride Chloroethene

CH2 = CHCH2Br Allyl bromide 3-Bromopropene

o-Chlorotoluene 1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene
or
2-Chlorotoluene
Benzyl chloride Chlorophenylmethane

CH2Cl2 Methylene chloride Dichloromethane

CHCl3 Chloroform Trichloromethane

CHBr3 Bromoform Tribromomethane

CCl 4 Carbon tetrachloride Tetrachloromethane

CH3CH2CH2F n-Propyl fluoride 1-Fluoropropane

Example 6.1 Draw the structures of all the eight structural isomers that have the
molecular formula C5H11Br. Name each isomer according to IUPAC system
and classify them as primary, secondary or tertiary bromide.

Solution CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2Br 1-Bromopentane (1 )

o

o
CH3CH2CH2CH(Br)CH3 2-Bromopentane(2 )
o
CH3CH2CH(Br)CH2CH3 3-Bromopentane (2 )
o
(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Br 1-Bromo-3-methylbutane (1 )

Chemistry 162

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 o
(CH3)2CHCHBrCH3 2-Bromo-3-methylbutane(2 )
o
(CH3)2CBrCH2CH3 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane (3 )
o
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2Br 1-Bromo-2-methylbutane(1 )
o
(CH3)3CCH2Br 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane (1 )

Write IUPAC names of the following: Example 6.2

(i) 4-Bromopent-2-ene (ii) 3-Bromo-2-methylbut-1-ene Solution

(iii) 4-Bromo-3-methylpent-2-ene (iv) 1-Bromo-2-methylbut-2-ene
(v) 1-Bromobut-2-ene (vi) 3-Bromo-2-methylpropene

Intext Question
6.1 Write structures of the following compounds:
(i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane
(ii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane
(iii) 4-tert. Butyl-3-iodoheptane
(iv) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene
(v) 1-Bromo-4-sec. butyl-2-methylbenzene.

6.3 Nature of Halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, therefore,
carbon-halogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears
C-X Bond a partial positive charge whereas the halogen atom bears a partial
negative charge.

As we go down the group in the periodic table, the size of halogen

atom increases. Fluorine atom is the smallest and iodine atom is the
largest. Consequently the carbon-halogen bond length also increases
from C—F to C—I. Some typical bond lengths, bond enthalpies and
dipole moments are given in Table 6.2.
Alkyl halides are best prepared from alcohols, which are easily accessible.

163 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 Table 6.2: Carbon-Halogen (C—X) Bond Lengths, Bond
Enthalpies and Dipole Moments
Bond Bond length/pm C-X Bond enthalpies/ kJmol-1 Dipole moment/Debye
CH3–F 139 452 1.847
CH3– Cl 178 351 1.860
CH3–Br 193 293 1.830
CH3–I 214 234 1.636

6 . 4 Methods of The hydroxyl group of an alcohol is replaced by halogen on reaction with

Preparation concentrated halogen acids, phosphorus halides or thionyl chloride.
Thionyl chloride is preferred because in this reaction alkyl halide is formed
of Haloalkanes along with gases SO2 and HCl. The two gaseous products are escapable,
hence, the reaction gives pure alkyl halides. The reactions of primary and
6.4.1 From Alcohols
secondary alcohols with HCl require the presence of a catalyst, ZnCl2.
With tertiary alcohols, the reaction is conducted by simply shaking the
alcohol with concentrated HCl at room temperature. Constant boiling
with HBr (48%) is used for preparing alkyl bromide. Good yields of
R—I may be obtained by heating alcohols with sodium or potassium
iodide in 95% orthophosphoric acid. The order of reactivity of alcohols
with a given haloacid is 3°>2°>1°. Phosphorus tribromide and triiodide
are usually generated in situ (produced in the reaction mixture) by the
reaction of red phosphorus with bromine and iodine respectively.

The preparation of alkyl chloride is carried out either by passing

dry hydrogen chloride gas through a solution of alcohol or by heating
a mixture of alcohol and concentrated aqueous halogen acid.
The above methods are not applicable for the preparation of aryl
halides because the carbon-oxygen bond in phenols has a partial double
bond character and is difficult to break being stronger than a single
bond.
6.4.2 From (I) From alkanes by free radical halogenation
Hydrocarbons Free radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives a complex
mixture of isomeric mono- and polyhaloalkanes, which is difficult to

Chemistry 164

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 separate as pure compounds. Consequently, the yield of any single
compound is low.

(II) From alkenes

(i) Addition of hydrogen halides: An alkene is converted to
corresponding alkyl halide by reaction with hydrogen chloride,
hydrogen bromide or hydrogen iodide.

Propene yields two products, however only one predominates as

per Markovnikov’s rule. (Unit 13, Class XI)

(ii) Addition of halogens: In the laboratory, addition of bromine in

CCl4 to an alkene resulting in discharge of reddish brown colour
of bromine constitutes an important method for the detection of
double bond in a molecule. The addition results in the synthesis
of vic-dibromides, which are colourless (Unit 9, Class XI).

Identify all the possible monochloro structural isomers expected to be Example 6.3
formed on free radical monochlorination of (CH3)2CHCH2CH3.
In the given molecule, there are four different types of hydrogen atoms. Solution
Replacement of these hydrogen atoms will give the following
(CH3)2CHCH2CH2Cl (CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3
(CH3)2C(Cl)CH2CH3 CH3CH(CH2Cl)CH2CH3

6.4.3 Halogen Alkyl iodides are often prepared by the reaction of alkyl chlorides/
Exchange bromides with NaI in dry acetone. This reaction is known as Finkelstein
reaction.

NaCl or NaBr thus formed is precipitated in dry acetone. It facilitates

the forward reaction according to Le Chatelier’s Principle.
The synthesis of alkyl fluorides is best accomplished by heating an
alkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as

165 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 AgF, Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3. The reaction is termed as Swarts reaction.

6.5 Preparation of (i) From hydrocarbons by electrophilic substitution

Haloarenes Aryl chlorides and bromides can be easily prepared by electrophilic
substitution of arenes with chlorine and bromine respectively in the
presence of Lewis acid catalysts like iron or iron(III) chloride.

The ortho and para isomers can be easily separated due to large
difference in their melting points. Reactions with iodine are reversible
in nature and require the presence of an oxidising agent (HNO3,
HIO4) to oxidise the HI formed during iodination. Fluoro compounds
are not prepared by this method due to high reactivity of fluorine.
(ii) From amines by Sandmeyer’s reaction
When a primary aromatic amine, dissolved or suspended in cold
aqueous mineral acid, is treated with sodium nitrite, a diazonium
salt is formed. Mixing the solution of freshly prepared diazonium
salt with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide results in the
replacement of the diazonium group by –Cl or –Br.

Replacement of the diazonium group by iodine does not require the

presence of cuprous halide and is done simply by shaking the diazonium
salt with potassium iodide.

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 Example 6.4 Write the products of the following reactions:

Solution

Intext Questions
6.2 Why is sulphuric acid not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI?
6.3 Write structures of different dihalogen derivatives of propane.
6.4 Among the isomeric alkanes of molecular formula C5H12, identify the one that
on photochemical chlorination yields
(i) A single monochloride.
(ii) Three isomeric monochlorides.
(iii) Four isomeric monochlorides.
6.5 Draw the structures of major monohalo products in each of the following
reactions:

6.6 Physical Alkyl halides are colourless when pure. However, bromides and iodides
develop colour when exposed to light. Many volatile halogen compounds
Properties
have sweet smell.

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 Melting and boiling points
Methyl chloride, methyl bromide, ethyl chloride and some
chlorofluoromethanes are gases at room temperature. Higher members
are liquids or solids. As we have already learnt, molecules of organic
halogen compounds are generally polar. Due to greater polarity as well
as higher molecular mass as compared to the parent hydrocarbon, the
intermolecular forces of attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals)
are stronger in the halogen derivatives. That is why the boiling points
of chlorides, bromides and iodides are considerably higher than those
of the hydrocarbons of comparable molecular mass.
The attractions get stronger as the molecules get bigger in size and
have more electrons. The pattern of variation of boiling points of different
halides is depicted in Fig. 6.1. For the same alkyl group, the boiling
points of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI> RBr> RCl> RF. This
is because with the increase in size and mass of halogen atom, the
magnitude of van der Waal forces increases.

Fig. 6.1: Comparison of boiling points of some alkyl halides

The boiling points of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase

in branching. For example, 2-bromo-2-methylpropane has the lowest
boiling point among the three isomers.

Boiling points of isomeric dihalobenzenes are very nearly the same.

However, the para-isomers are high melting as compared to their ortho-
and meta-isomers. It is due to symmetry of para-isomers that fits in
crystal lattice better as compared to ortho- and meta-isomers.

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 Density
Bromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are heavier than
water. The density increases with increase in number of carbon atoms,
halogen atoms and atomic mass of the halogen atoms (Table 6.3).
Table 6.3: Density of Some Haloalkanes
Compound Density (g/mL) Compound Density (g/mL)

n–C3H7Cl 0.89 CH2Cl2 1.336

n–C3H 7Br 1.335 CHCl3 1.489
n-C3H7I 1.747 CCl4 1.595

Solubility
The haloalkanes are very slightly soluble in water. In order to dissolve
haloalkane in water, energy is required to overcome the attractions between
the haloalkane molecules and break the hydrogen bonds between water
molecules. Less energy is released when new attractions are set up between
the haloalkane and the water molecules as these are not as strong as the
original hydrogen bonds in water. As a result, the solubility of haloalkanes
in water is low. However, haloalkanes tend to dissolve in organic solvents
because the new intermolecular attractions between haloalkanes and
solvent molecules have much the same strength as the ones being broken
in the separate haloalkane and solvent molecules.

Intext Question
6.6 Arrange each set of compounds in order of increasing boiling points.
(i) Bromomethane, Bromoform, Chloromethane, Dibromomethane.
(ii) 1-Chloropropane, Isopropyl chloride, 1-Chlorobutane.

6.7 Chemical The reactions of haloalkanes may be divided into the following categories:
Reactions 1. Nucleophilic substitution
2. Elimination reactions
6.7.1 Reactions of
Haloalkanes 3. Reaction with metals.
(1) Nucleophilic substitution reactions
You have learnt in Class XI that nucleophiles are electron rich species.
Therefore, they attack at that part of the substrate molecule which
is electron deficient. The reaction in which a nucleophile replaces

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 already existing nucleophile in a molecule is called nucleophilic
substitution reaction. Haloalkanes are substrate in these reactions.
In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane (the
substrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded
to halogen. A substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom,
called leaving group departs as halide ion. Since the substitution
reaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic
substitution reaction.

It is one of the most useful classes of organic reactions of alkyl

halides in which halogen is bonded to sp3 hybridised carbon. The
products formed by the reaction of haloalkanes with some common
nucleophiles are given in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4: Nucleophilic Substitution of Alkyl Halides (R–X)

Reagent Nucleophile Substitution Class of main

(Nu–) product R–Nu product
NaOH (KOH) HO– ROH Alcohol
H2O H2O ROH Alcohol

NaOR¢ R¢O– ROR¢ Ether

NaI I– R—I Alkyl iodide
NH3 NH3 RNH2 Primary amine
R¢NH2 R¢NH2 RNHR¢ Sec. amine
R¢R¢¢NH R¢R¢¢NH RNR¢R¢¢ Tert. amine
KCN RCN Nitrile
(cyanide)
AgCN Ag-CN: RNC Isonitrile
(isocyanide)
KNO2 O=N—O R—O—N=O Alkyl nitrite
AgNO2 Ag—Ö—N=O R—NO2 Nitroalkane
R¢COOAg R¢COO– R¢COOR Ester
LiAlH4 H RH Hydrocarbon
R¢– M+ R¢– RR¢ Alkane

Groups like cyanides and nitrites possess two nucleophilic centres

and are called ambident nucleophiles. Actually cyanide group is a
hybrid of two contributing structures and therefore can act as a
nucleophile in two different ways [VCºN « :C=NV], i.e., linking through

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 Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product Example 6.5
while AgCN forms isocyanides as the chief product. Explain.
KCN is predominantly ionic and provides cyanide ions in solution. Solution
Although both carbon and nitrogen atoms are in a position to donate
electron pairs, the attack takes place mainly through carbon atom and
not through nitrogen atom since C—C bond is more stable than C—N
bond. However, AgCN is mainly covalent in nature and nitrogen is free
to donate electron pair forming isocyanide as the main product.

carbon atom resulting in alkyl cyanides and through nitrogen atom

leading to isocyanides. Similarly nitrite ion also represents
ii
an ambident
nucleophile with two different points of linkage [–O— N =O]. The linkage
through oxygen results in alkyl nitrites while through nitrogen atom, it
leads to nitroalkanes.
Mechanism: This reaction has been found to proceed by two different
mechanims which are described below:
(a) Substitution nucleophilic bimolecular (SN2)
The reaction between CH3Cl and hydroxide ion to yield methanol and
chloride ion follows a second order kinetics, i.e., the rate depends
upon the concentration of both the reactants.

The solid wedge represents the bond coming out of the paper, dashed line going down the
paper and a straight line representing bond in the plane of the paper.

The above reaction can be represented diagrammatically as shown in

Fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.2: Red ball represents the incoming hydroxide ion and green ball represents
the outgoing halide ion

In the year 1937, It depicts a bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reaction;

Edward Davies Hughes the incoming nucleophile interacts with alkyl halide causing the
and Sir Christopher
carbon-halide bond to break and a new bond is formed between
Ingold proposed a
mechanism for an SN2 carbon and attacking nucleophile. Here it is C-O bond formed between
reaction. C and -OH. These two processes take place simultaneously in a

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 single step and no intermediate is formed. As the reaction progresses
and the bond between the incoming nucleophile and the carbon
atom starts forming, the bond between carbon atom and leaving
group weakens. As this happens, the three carbon-hydrogen bonds
of the substrate start moving away from the attacking nucleophile. In
transition state all the three C-H bonds are in the same plane and the
attacking and leaving nucleophiles are partially attached to the
carbon. As the attacking nucleophile approaches closer to the carbon,
C-H bonds still keep on moving in the same direction till the attacking
nucleophile attaches to carbon and leaving group leaves the carbon.
As a result configuration is inverted, the configuration (See box) of
carbon atom under attack inverts in much the same way as an
umbrella is turned inside out when caught in a strong wind. This
process is called as inversion of configuration. In the transition
state, the carbon atom is simultaneously bonded to incoming
nucleophile and the outgoing leaving group. Such structures are
unstable and cannot be isolated. Thus, in the transition state, carbon
is simultaneously bonded to five atoms.

Configuration
Spacial arrangement of functional groups around carbon is called its configuration.
See the structures (A) and (B) given below carefully.

These are the two structures of the same compound. They differ in spacial arrangement
of functional groups attached to carbon. Structure (A) is mirror image of Structure (B).
We say configuration of carbon in structure (A) is mirror image of the configuration of
carbon in structure (B).

Hughes worked under Since this reaction requires the approach of the nucleophile to the
Ingold and earned a carbon bearing the leaving group, the presence of bulky substituents
D.Sc. degree from the on or near the carbon atom have a dramatic inhibiting effect. Of the
University of London.
simple alkyl halides, methyl halides react most rapidly in SN2 reactions
because there are only three small hydrogen atoms. Tertiary halides
are the least reactive because bulky groups hinder the approaching

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 nucleophiles. Thus the order of reactivity followed is:
Primary halide > Secondary halide > Tertiary halide.

Fig.6.3: Steric effects in SN2 reaction. The relative rate of SN2 reaction is given in parenthesis

(b) Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (SN1)

SN1 reactions are generally carried out in polar protic solvents
(like water, alcohol, acetic acid, etc.). The reaction between tert-
butyl bromide and hydroxide ion yields tert-butyl alcohol and
follows the first order kinetics, i.e., the rate of reaction depends
upon the concentration of only one reactant, which is tert- butyl
bromide.

It occurs in two steps. In step I, the polarised C—Br bond undergoes

slow cleavage to produce a carbocation and a bromide ion. The
carbocation thus formed is then attacked by nucleophile in step II
to complete the substitution reaction.

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 Step I is the slowest and reversible. It involves the C–Br bond breaking for which the
energy is obtained through solvation of halide ion with the proton of protic solvent. Since
the rate of reaction depends upon the slowest step, the rate of reaction depends only on the
concentration of alkyl halide and not on the concentration of hydroxide ion. Further, greater
the stability of carbocation, greater will be its ease of formation from alkyl halide and faster
will be the rate of reaction. In case of alkyl halides, 30 alkyl halides undergo SN1 reaction
0
very fast because of the high stability of 3 carbocations. We can sum up the order of reactivity
of alkyl halides towards S N1 and SN2 reactions as follows:

For the same reasons, allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards the SN1
reaction. The carbocation thus formed gets stabilised through resonance (Unit 8, Class XI) as
shown below:
+ +
H2C C CH2 H2C C CH2
H H

For a given alkyl group, the reactivity of the halide, R-X, follows the same order in both the
mechanisms R–I> R–Br>R–Cl>>R–F.

In the following pairs of halogen compounds, which would undergo Example 6.6
SN2 reaction faster?

It is primary halide and therefore undergoes SN2 Solution

reaction faster.

As iodine is a better leaving group because of its

large size, it will be released at a faster rate in the
presence of incoming nucleophile.

Predict the order of reactivity of the following Example 6.7

compounds in SN1 and SN2 reactions:
(i) The four isomeric bromobutanes
(ii) C6H5CH2Br, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br, C6H5CH(CH3)Br, C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br

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 Solution (i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br < (CH3)2CHCH2Br < CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 < (CH3)3CBr (SN1)
CH3CH2CH2CH2Br > (CH3)2CHCH2Br > CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 > (CH3)3CBr (SN2)
Of the two primary bromides, the carbocation intermediate derived from
(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more stable than derived from CH3CH2CH2CH2Br because
of greater electron donating inductive effect of (CH3)2CH- group. Therefore,
(CH3)2CHCH2Br is more reactive than CH3CH2CH2CH2Br in SN1 reactions.
CH3CH2CH(Br)CH3 is a secondary bromide and (CH3)3CBr is a tertiary
bromide. Hence the above order is followed in SN1. The reactivity in SN2
reactions follows the reverse order as the steric hinderance around the
electrophilic carbon increases in that order.
(ii) C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(CH3)Br > C6H5CH2Br (SN1)
C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(CH3)Br < C6H5CH2Br (SN2)
Of the two secondary bromides, the carbocation intermediate obtained
from C6H5CH(C6H5)Br is more stable than obtained from C6H5CH(CH3)Br
because it is stabilised by two phenyl groups due to resonance. Therefore,
the former bromide is more reactive than the latter in SN1 reactions. A
phenyl group is bulkier than a methyl group. Therefore, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br
is less reactive than C6H5CH(CH3)Br in SN2 reactions.

(c) Stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions

In order to understand the stereochemical aspects of substitution
reactions, we need to learn some basic stereochemical principles
and notations (optical activity, chirality, retention, inversion,
racemisation, etc.).
(i) Optical activity: Plane of plane polarised light produced by
passing ordinary light through Nicol prism is rotated when it
is passed through the solutions of certain compounds. Such
compounds are called optically active compounds. The angle
William Nicol (1768- by which the plane polarised light is rotated is measured by an
1851) developed the first instrument called polarimeter. If the compound rotates the plane
prism that produced of plane polarised light to the right, i.e., clockwise direction, it
plane polarised light.
is called dextrorotatory (Greek for right rotating) or the d-form
and is indicated by placing a positive (+) sign before the degree
of rotation. If the light is rotated towards left (anticlockwise
direction), the compound is said to be laevo-rotatory or the
l-form and a negative (–) sign is placed before the degree of
rotation. Such (+) and (–) isomers of a compound are called
optical isomers and the phenomenon is termed as optical
isomerism.
(ii) Molecular asymmetry, chirality and enantiomers: The
observation of Louis Pasteur (1848) that crystals of certain
compounds exist in the form of mirror images laid the
foundation of modern stereochemistry. He demonstrated that
aqueous solutions of both types of crystals showed optical
rotation, equal in magnitude (for solution of equal concentration)
but opposite in direction. He believed that this difference in
optical activity was associated with the three dimensional
arrangements of atoms in the molecules (configurations) of

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 two types of crystals. Dutch scientist, J. Van’t Hoff and French
scientist, C. Le Bel in the same year (1874), independently
argued that the spatial arrangement of four groups (valencies)
Jacobus Hendricus
Van’t Hoff (1852-1911)
around a central carbon is tetrahedral and if all the substituents
received the first Nobel attached to that carbon are different, the mirror image of the
Prize in Chemistry in molecule is not superimposed (overlapped) on the molecule;
1901 for his work on such a carbon is called asymmetric carbon or stereocentre.
solutions. The resulting molecule would lack symmetry and is referred to
as asymmetric molecule. The asymmetry of the molecule along
with non superimposability of mirror images is responsible for
the optical activity in such organic compounds.
The symmetry and asymmetry are also observed in many day to day
objects: a sphere, a cube, a cone, are all identical to
their mirror images and can be superimposed.
However, many objects are non superimposable on
their mirror images. For example, your left and right
hand look similar but if you put your left hand on
your right hand by moving them in the same plane,
they do not coincide. The objects which are non-
superimposable on their mirror image (like a pair
of hands) are said to be chiral and this property is
known as chirality. Chiral molecules are optically
active, while the objects, which are, superimposable
on their mirror images are called achiral. These
molecules are optically inactive.
The above test of molecular chirality can be
applied to organic molecules by constructing
models and its mirror images or by drawing three
dimensional structures and attempting to
superimpose them in our minds. There are other
aids, however, that can assist us in recognising
Fig 6.4: Some common examples of chiral and chiral molecules. One such aid is the presence of
achiral objects a single asymmetric carbon atom. Let us consider
two simple molecules propan-2-ol (Fig.6.5) and butan-2-ol (Fig.6.6)
and their mirror images.

Fig 6.5: B is mirror image of A; B is rotated by 180o and C is

obtained; C is superimposable on A.

As you can see very clearly, propan-2-ol (A) does not contain an asymmetric
carbon, as all the four groups attached to the tetrahedral carbon are not
different. We rotate the mirror image (B) of the molecule by 180° (structure
C) and try to overlap the structure (C) with the structure (A), these structures
completely overlap. Thus propan-2-ol is an achiral molecule.
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 Fig 6.6: E is mirror image of D; E is rotated by 180o to get F and F is
non superimposable on its mirror image D.

Butan-2-ol has four different groups attached to

the tetrahedral carbon and as expected is chiral. Some common
examples of chiral molecules such as
2-chlorobutane, 2, 3-dihyroxypropanal, (OHC–CHOH–CH2OH),
bromochloro-iodomethane (BrClCHI), 2-bromopropanoic acid
(H3C–CHBr–COOH), etc.
Fig. 6.7: A chiral molecule The stereoisomers related to each other as non-
and its mirror image superimposable mirror images are called enantiomers
(Fig. 6.7). A and B in Fig. 6.5 and D and E in Fig. 6.6 are
enantiomers.
Enantiomers possess identical physical properties namely,
melting point, boiling point, refractive index, etc. They only differ
with respect to the rotation of plane polarised light. If one of the
enantiomer is dextro rotatory, the other will be laevo rotatory.
However, the sign of optical rotation is not necessarily related to
the absolute (actual) configuration of the molecule.

A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions

will have zero optical rotation, as the rotation due to one isomer
will be cancelled by the rotation due to the other isomer. Such
a mixture is known as racemic mixture or racemic
modification. A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl
or (±) before the name, for example (±) butan-2-ol. The process
of conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is known as
racemisation.

Example 6.8 Identify chiral and achiral molecules in each of the following pair of
compounds. (Wedge and Dash representations according to Class XI.

177 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 Solution

(iii) Retention: Retention of configuration is the preservation of the spatial

arrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre during a chemical
reaction or transformation.
In general, if during a reaction, no bond to the stereocentre is broken,
the product will have the same general configuration of groups
around the stereocentre as that of reactant. Such a reaction is said
to proceed with retention of the configuration. Consider as an
example, the reaction that takes place when (–)-2-methylbutan-1-ol
is heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid.

It is important to note that configuration at a symmetric centre in

the reactant and product is same but the sign of optical rotation
has changed in the product. This is so because two different
compounds with same configuration at asymmetric centre may have
different optical rotation. One may be dextrorotatory (plus sign of
optical rotation) while other may be laevorotatory (negative sign of
optical rotation).
(iv) Inversion, retention and racemisation: There are three outcomes
for a reaction at an asymmetric carbon atom, when a bond directly
linked to an asymmetric carbon atom is broken. Consider the
replacement of a group X by Y in the following reaction;

If (A) is the only compound obtained, the process is called retention

of configuration. Note that configuration has been rotated in A.
If (B) is the only compound obtained, the process is called inversion
of configuration. Configuration has been inverted in B.

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 If a 50:50 mixture of A and B is obtained then the process is called
racemisation and the product is optically inactive, as one isomer will
rotate the plane polarised light in the direction opposite to another.
Now let us have a fresh look at SN1 and SN2 mechanisms by
taking examples of optically active alkyl halides.
In case of optically active alkyl halides, the product formed as a
result of SN2 mechanism has the inverted configuration as compared
to the reactant. This is because the nucleophile attaches itself on the
side opposite to the one where the halogen atom is present. When
(–)-2-bromooctane is allowed to react with sodium hydroxide,
(+)-octan-2-ol is formed with the –OH group occupying the position
opposite to what bromide had occupied.

Thus, SN2 reactions of optically active halides are accompanied by

inversion of configuration.
In case of optically active alkyl halides, S N1 reactions are
accompanied by racemisation. Can you think of the reason why it
2
happens? Actually the carbocation formed in the slow step being sp
hybridised is planar (achiral). The attack of the nucleophile may be
accomplished from either side of the plane of carbocation resulting in
a mixture of products, one having the same configuration (the –OH

attaching on the same position as halide ion) and the other having
Location of a and opposite configuration (the –OH attaching on the side opposite to halide
b carbon in a ion). This may be illustrated by hydrolysis of optically active
molecule 2-bromobutane, which results in the formation of (±)-butan-2-ol.
Carbon on which 2. Elimination reactions
halogen atom is When a haloalkane with b-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic
directly attached is solution of potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen
called a-carbon and atom from b-carbon and a halogen atom from the a-carbon atom.
the carbon atom
adjacent to this
carbon is called
b-carbon.

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 As a result, an alkene is formed as a product. Since b-hydrogen
atom is involved in elimination, it is often called b-elimination.

If there is possibility of formation of more than one alkene due to

the availability of more than one b-hydrogen atoms, usually one alkene
is formed as the major product. These form part of a pattern first
observed by Russian chemist, Alexander Zaitsev (also pronounced as
Saytzeff) who in 1875 formulated a rule which can be summarised as
“in dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that
alkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the
doubly bonded carbon atoms.” Thus, 2-bromopentane gives
pent-2-ene as the major product.

Elimination versus substitution

A chemical reaction is the result of competition; it is a race that is won by the fastest
runner. A collection of molecules tend to do, by and large, what is easiest for them. An
alkyl halide with b-hydrogen atoms when reacted with a base or a nucleophile has two
competing routes: substitution (SN1 and SN2) and elimination. Which route will be taken
up depends upon the nature of alkyl halide, strength and size of base/nucleophile and
reaction conditions. Thus, a bulkier nucleophile will prefer to act as a base and abstracts
a proton rather than approach a tetravalent carbon atom (steric reasons) and vice versa.
Similarly, a primary alkyl halide will prefer a SN2 reaction, a secondary halide- SN2 or
elimination depending upon the strength of base/nucleophile and a tertiary halide- SN1 or
elimination depending upon the stability of carbocation or the more substituted alkene.

3. Reaction with metals

Most organic chlorides, bromides and iodides react with certain
metals to give compounds containing carbon-metal bonds. Such
compounds are known as organo-metallic compounds. An
important class of organo-metallic compounds discovered by Victor
Grignard in 1900 is alkyl magnesium halide, RMgX, referred as
Grignard Reagents. These reagents are obtained by the reaction of
haloalkanes with magnesium metal in dry ether.

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 Victor Grignard had a strange start in academic life for a chemist - he
took a maths degree. When he eventually switched to chemistry, it was
not to the mathematical province of physical chemistry but to organic
chemistry. While attempting to find an efficient catalyst for the process
of methylation, he noted that Zn in diethyl ether had been used for this
purpose and wondered whether the Mg/ether combination might be
successful. Grignard reagents were first reported in 1900 and Grignard
used this work for his doctoral thesis in 1901. In 1910, Grignard obtained
a professorship at the University of Nancy and in 1912, he was awarded
the Nobel prize for Chemistry which he shared with Paul Sabatier who
had made advances in nickel catalysed hydrogenation.

In the Grignard reagent, the carbon-magnesium bond is covalent

but highly polar, with carbon pulling electrons from electropositive
magnesium; the magnesium halogen bond is essentially ionic.

Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with any source of
proton to give hydrocarbons. Even water, alcohols, amines are sufficiently
acidic to convert them to corresponding hydrocarbons.

It is therefore necessary to avoid even traces of moisture from a Grignard

reagent. That is why reaction is carried out in dry ether. On the other
hand, this could be considered as one of the methods for converting
halides to hydrocarbons.
Wurtz reaction
Alkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give hydrocarbons
containing double the number of carbon atoms present in the halide.
This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction.

6.7.2 Reactions of
1. Nucleophilic substitution
Haloarenes
Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic
substitution reactions due to the following reasons:
(i) Resonance effect : In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen
atom are in conjugation with p-electrons of the ring and the
following resonating structures are possible.

C—Cl bond acquires a partial double bond character due to

resonance. As a result, the bond cleavage in haloarene is difficult
than haloalkane and therefore, they are less reactive towards
nucleophilic substitution reaction.

181 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 (ii) Difference in hybridisation of carbon atom in C—X bond: In
haloalkane, the carbon atom attached to halogen is sp3
hybridised while in case of haloarene, the carbon atom attached
to halogen is sp2-hybridised.

The sp2 hybridised carbon with a greater s-character is more

electronegative and can hold the electron pair of C—X bond
more tightly than sp3-hybridised carbon in haloalkane with
less s-chararcter. Thus, C—Cl bond length in haloalkane is
177pm while in haloarene is 169 pm. Since it is difficult to
break a shorter bond than a longer bond, therefore, haloarenes
are less reactive than haloalkanes towards nucleophilic
substitution reaction.
(iii) Instability of phenyl cation: In case of haloarenes, the phenyl
cation formed as a result of self-ionisation will not be stabilised
by resonance and therefore, SN1 mechanism is ruled out.
(iv) Because of the possible repulsion, it is less likely for the electron
rich nucleophile to approach electron rich arenes.
Replacement by hydroxyl group
Chlorobenzene can be converted into phenol by heating in aqueous
sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 623K and a pressure
of 300 atmospheres.

The presence of an electron withdrawing group (-NO2) at ortho- and

para-positions increases the reactivity of haloarenes.

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 The effect is pronounced when (-NO2) group is introduced at ortho-
and para- positions. However, no effect on reactivity of haloarenes is
observed by the presence of electron withdrawing group at meta-position.
Mechanism of the reaction is as depicted:

Can you think why does NO2 group show its effect only at ortho- and para- positions
and not at meta- position?
As shown, the presence of nitro group at ortho- and para-positions withdraws the
electron density from the benzene ring and thus facilitates the attack of the nucleophile
on haloarene. The carbanion thus formed is stabilised through resonance. The negative
charge appeared at ortho- and para- positions with respect to the halogen substituent is
stabilised by –NO2 group while in case of meta-nitrobenzene, none of the resonating
structures bear the negative charge on carbon atom bearing the –NO2 group. Therefore,
the presence of nitro group at meta- position does not stabilise the negative charge and
no effect on reactivity is observed by the presence of –NO2 group at meta-position.

183 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 2. Electrophilic substitution reactions
Haloarenes undergo the usual electrophilic reactions of the benzene
ring such as halogenation, nitration, sulphonation and Friedel-Crafts
reactions. Halogen atom besides being slightly deactivating is o, p-
directing; therefore, further substitution occurs at ortho- and para-
positions with respect to the halogen atom. The o, p-directing influence
of halogen atom can be easily understood if we consider the resonating
structures of halobenzene as shown:

Due to resonance, the electron density increases more at ortho- and

para-positions than at meta-positions. Further, the halogen atom
because of its –I effect has some tendency to withdraw electrons from
the benzene ring. As a result, the ring gets somewhat deactivated as
compared to benzene and hence the electrophilic substitution reactions
in haloarenes occur slowly and require more drastic conditions as
compared to those in benzene.
(i) Halogenation

(ii) Nitration

(iii) Sulphonation

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 (iv) Friedel-Crafts reaction

Example 6.9 Although chlorine is an electron withdrawing group, yet it is ortho-,

para- directing in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions. Why?
Solution Chlorine withdraws electrons through inductive effect and releases
electrons through resonance. Through inductive effect, chlorine
destabilises the intermediate carbocation formed during the electrophilic
substitution.

Through resonance, halogen tends to stabilise the carbocation and

the effect is more pronounced at ortho- and para- positions. The
inductive effect is stronger than resonance and causes net electron
withdrawal and thus causes net deactivation. The resonance effect
tends to oppose the inductive effect for the attack at ortho- and para-
positions and hence makes the deactivation less for ortho- and para-
attack. Reactivity is thus controlled by the stronger inductive effect
and orientation is controlled by resonance effect.

185 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 3. Reaction with metals
Wurtz-Fittig reaction
A mixture of an alkyl halide and aryl halide gives an alkylarene when
treated with sodium in dry ether and is called Wurtz-Fittig reaction.

Fittig reaction
Aryl halides also give analogous compounds when treated with sodium
in dry ether, in which two aryl groups are joined together. It is called
Fittig reaction.

Intext Questions
6.7 Which alkyl halide from the following pairs would you expect to react more
rapidly by an SN2 mechanism? Explain your answer.

6.8 In the following pairs of halogen compounds, which compound undergoes faster
SN1 reaction?

1
6.9 Identify A, B, C, D, E, R and R in the following:

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6 . 8 Polyhalogen Carbon compounds containing more than one halogen atom are usually
referred to as polyhalogen compounds. Many of these compounds are
Compounds useful in industry and agriculture. Some polyhalogen compounds are
described in this section.
6.8.1 Dichloro- Dichloromethane is widely used as a solvent as a paint remover, as a
methane propellant in aerosols, and as a process solvent in the manufacture of
(Methylene drugs. It is also used as a metal cleaning and finishing solvent. Methylene
chloride) chloride harms the human central nervous system. Exposure to lower
levels of methylene chloride in air can lead to slightly impaired hearing
and vision. Higher levels of methylene chloride in air cause dizziness,
nausea, tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes. In humans, direct
skin contact with methylene chloride causes intense burning and mild
redness of the skin. Direct contact with the eyes can burn the cornea.
6.8.2 Trichloro- Chemically, chloroform is employed as a solvent for fats, alkaloids,
methane iodine and other substances. The major use of chloroform today is in
(Chloroform) the production of the freon refrigerant R-22. It was once used as a
general anaesthetic in surgery but has been replaced by less toxic,
safer anaesthetics, such as ether. As might be expected from its use as
an anaesthetic, inhaling chloroform vapours depresses the central
nervous system. Breathing about 900 parts of chloroform per million
parts of air (900 parts per million) for a short time can cause dizziness,
fatigue, and headache. Chronic chloroform exposure may cause damage
to the liver (where chloroform is metabolised to phosgene) and to the
kidneys, and some people develop sores when the skin is immersed in
chloroform. Chloroform is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of
light to an extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride, also known as
phosgene. It is therefore stored in closed dark coloured bottles
completely filled so that air is kept out.

6.8.3 Triiodo- It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties are
methane due to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform itself. Due
(Iodoform) to its objectionable smell, it has been replaced by other formulations
containing iodine.

6.8.4 Tetrachlo- It is produced in large quantities for use in the manufacture of

romethane refrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans. It is also used as
(Carbon feedstock in the synthesis of chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals,
tetrachloride) pharmaceutical manufacturing, and general solvent use. Until the mid
1960s, it was also widely used as a cleaning fluid, both in industry,
as a degreasing agent, and in the home, as a spot remover and as fire
extinguisher. There is some evidence that exposure to carbon
tetrachloride causes liver cancer in humans. The most common effects
are dizziness, light headedness, nausea and vomiting, which can cause
permanent damage to nerve cells. In severe cases, these effects can lead
rapidly to stupor, coma, unconsciousness or death. Exposure to CCl4
can make the heart beat irregularly or stop. The chemical may irritate
the eyes on contact. When carbon tetrachloride is released into the air,
it rises to the atmosphere and depletes the ozone layer. Depletion of the
187 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 ozone layer is believed to increase human exposure to ultraviolet rays,
leading to increased skin cancer, eye diseases and disorders, and
possible disruption of the immune system.
6.8.5 Freons The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are collectively
known as freons. They are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-
corrosive and easily liquefiable gases. Freon 12 (CCl2F2) is one of the
most common freons in industrial use. It is manufactured from
tetrachloromethane by Swarts reaction. These are usually produced
for aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning purposes. By
1974, total freon production in the world was about 2 billion pounds
annually. Most freon, even that used in refrigeration, eventually makes
its way into the atmosphere where it diffuses unchanged into the
stratosphere. In stratosphere, freon is able to initiate radical chain
reactions that can upset the natural ozone balance.
6.8.6 p,p’-Dichlo- DDT, the first chlorinated organic insecticides, was originally prepared
rodiphenyl- in 1873, but it was not until 1939 that Paul Muller of Geigy
trichloro- Pharmaceuticals in Switzerland discovered the effectiveness of DDT as
ethane(DDT) an insecticide. Paul Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine
and Physiology in 1948 for this discovery. The use of DDT increased
enormously on a worldwide basis after World War II, primarily because
of its effectiveness against the mosquito that spreads malaria and lice
that carry typhus. However, problems related to extensive use of DDT
began to appear in the late 1940s. Many species of insects developed
resistance to DDT, and it was also discovered to have a high toxicity
towards fish. The chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility
compounded the problem. DDT is not metabolised very rapidly by
animals; instead, it is deposited and stored in the fatty tissues. If
ingestion continues at a steady rate, DDT builds up within the animal
over time. The use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1973,
although it is still in use in some other parts of the world.

Summary
Alkyl/ Aryl halides may be classified as mono, di, or polyhalogen (tri-, tetra-, etc.)
compounds depending on whether they contain one, two or more halogen atoms in
their structures. Since halogen atoms are more electronegative than carbon, the carbon-
halogen bond of alkyl halide is polarised; the carbon atom bears a partial positive
charge, and the halogen atom bears a partial negative charge.
Alkyl halides are prepared by the free radical halogenation of alkanes, addition
of halogen acids to alkenes, replacement of –OH group of alcohols with halogens using

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 phosphorus halides, thionyl chloride or halogen acids. Aryl halides are prepared by
electrophilic substitution to arenes. Fluorides and iodides are best prepared by halogen
exchange method.
The boiling points of organohalogen compounds are comparatively higher than the
corresponding hydrocarbons because of strong dipole-dipole and van der Waals forces
of attraction. These are slightly soluble in water but completely soluble in organic
solvents.
The polarity of carbon-halogen bond of alkyl halides is responsible for their
nucleophilic substitution, elimination and their reaction with metal atoms to form
organometallic compounds. Nucleophilic substitution reactions are categorised into
SN1 and SN2 on the basis of their kinetic properties. Chirality has a profound role in
understanding the reaction mechanisms of SN1 and SN2 reactions. SN2 reactions of
chiral alkyl halides are characterised by the inversion of configuration while SN1 reactions
are characterised by racemisation.
A number of polyhalogen compounds e.g., dichloromethane, chloroform, iodoform,
carbon tetrachloride, freon and DDT have many industrial applications. However,
some of these compounds cannot be easily decomposed and even cause depletion of
ozone layer and are proving environmental hazards.

Exercises
6.1 Name the following halides according to IUPAC system and classify them as
alkyl, allyl, benzyl (primary, secondary, tertiary), vinyl or aryl halides:
(i) (CH3)2CHCH(Cl)CH3 (ii) CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH(C2H5)Cl
(iii) CH3CH2C(CH3)2CH2I (iv) (CH3)3CCH2CH(Br)C6H5
(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH(Br)CH3 (vi) CH3C(C2H5)2CH2Br
(vii) CH3C(Cl)(C2H5)CH2CH3 (viii) CH3CH=C(Cl)CH2CH(CH3)2
(ix) CH3CH=CHC(Br)(CH3)2 (x) p-ClC6H4CH2CH(CH3)2
(xi) m-ClCH2C6H4CH2C(CH3)3 (xii) o-Br-C6H4CH(CH3)CH2CH3
6.2 Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:
(i) CH3CH(Cl)CH(Br)CH3 (ii) CHF2CBrClF (iii) ClCH2CºCCH2Br
(iv) (CCl3)3CCl (v) CH3C(p-ClC6H4)2CH(Br)CH3 (vi) (CH3)3CCH=CClC6H4I-p
6.3 Write the structures of the following organic halogen compounds.
(i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane (ii) p-Bromochlorobenzene
(iii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane (iv) 2-(2-Chlorophenyl)-1-iodooctane
(v) 2-Bromobutane (vi) 4-tert-Butyl-3-iodoheptane
(vii) 1-Bromo-4-sec-butyl-2-methylbenzene (viii) 1,4-Dibromobut-2-ene
6.4 Which one of the following has the highest dipole moment?
(i) CH2Cl 2 (ii) CHCl3 (iii) CCl4
6.5 A hydrocarbon C5H10 does not react with chlorine in dark but gives a single
monochloro compound C5H9Cl in bright sunlight. Identify the hydrocarbon.
6.6 Write the isomers of the compound having formula C4H9Br.
6.7 Write the equations for the preparation of 1-iodobutane from
(i) 1-butanol (ii) 1-chlorobutane (iii) but-1-ene.
6.8 What are ambident nucleophiles? Explain with an example.

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 6.9 Which compound in each of the following pairs will react faster in SN2 reaction
with –OH?
(i) CH3Br or CH3I (ii) (CH3)3CCl or CH3Cl
6.10 Predict all the alkenes that would be formed by dehydrohalogenation of the
following halides with sodium ethoxide in ethanol and identify the major alkene:
(i) 1-Bromo-1-methylcyclohexane (ii) 2-Chloro-2-methylbutane
(iii) 2,2,3-Trimethyl-3-bromopentane.
6.11 How will you bring about the following conversions?
(i) Ethanol to but-1-yne (ii) Ethane to bromoethene (iii) Propene to
1-nitropropane (iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol (v) Propene to propyne
(vi) Ethanol to ethyl fluoride (vii) Bromomethane to propanone (viii) But-1-ene
to but-2-ene (ix) 1-Chlorobutane to n-octane (x) Benzene to biphenyl.
6.12 Explain why
(i) the dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride?
(ii) alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water?
(iii) Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions?
6.13 Give the uses of freon 12, DDT, carbon tetrachloride and iodoform.
6.14 Write the structure of the major organic product in each of the following reactions:

(i) CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaI

(ii) (CH3)3CBr + KOH

(iii) CH3CH(Br)CH2CH3 + NaOH

(iv) CH3CH2Br + KCN

(v) C6H5ONa + C2H5Cl
(vi) CH3CH2CH2OH + SOCl2

(vii) CH3CH2CH = CH2 + HBr

(viii) CH3CH = C(CH3)2 + HBr
6.15 Write the mechanism of the following reaction:
nBuBr + KCN nBuCN
6.16 Arrange the compounds of each set in order of reactivity towards SN2
displacement:
(i) 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 1-Bromopentane, 2-Bromopentane
(ii) 1-Bromo-3-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 2-Bromo-3-methylbutane
(iii) 1-Bromobutane, 1-Bromo-2,2-dimethylpropane, 1-Bromo-2-methylbutane,
1-Bromo-3-methylbutane.
6.17 Out of C6H5CH2Cl and C6H5CHClC6H5, which is more easily hydrolysed by aqueous
KOH.
6.18 p-Dichlorobenzene has higher m.p. than those of o- and m-isomers. Discuss.
6.19 How the following conversions can be carried out?
(i) Propene to propan-1-ol
(ii) Ethanol to but-1-yne
(iii) 1-Bromopropane to 2-bromopropane

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 (iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol
(v) Benzene to 4-bromonitrobenzene
(vi) Benzyl alcohol to 2-phenylethanoic acid
(vii) Ethanol to propanenitrile
(viii) Aniline to chlorobenzene
(ix) 2-Chlorobutane to 3, 4-dimethylhexane
(x) 2-Methyl-1-propene to 2-chloro-2-methylpropane
(xi) Ethyl chloride to propanoic acid
(xii) But-1-ene to n-butyliodide
(xiii) 2-Chloropropane to 1-propanol
(xiv) Isopropyl alcohol to iodoform
(xv) Chlorobenzene to p-nitrophenol
(xvi) 2-Bromopropane to 1-bromopropane
(xvii) Chloroethane to butane
(xviii) Benzene to diphenyl
(xix) tert-Butyl bromide to isobutyl bromide
(xx) Aniline to phenylisocyanide
6.20 The treatment of alkyl chlorides with aqueous KOH leads to the formation of
alcohols but in the presence of alcoholic KOH, alkenes are major products. Explain.
6.21 Primary alkyl halide C4H 9Br (a) reacted with alcoholic KOH to give compound (b).
Compound (b) is reacted with HBr to give (c) which is an isomer of (a). When
(a) is reacted with sodium metal it gives compound (d), C8H 18 which is different
from the compound formed when n-butyl bromide is reacted with sodium.
Give the structural formula of (a) and write the equations for all the reactions.
6.22 What happens when
(i) n-butyl chloride is treated with alcoholic KOH,
(ii) bromobenzene is treated with Mg in the presence of dry ether,
(iii) chlorobenzene is subjected to hydrolysis,
(iv) ethyl chloride is treated with aqueous KOH,
(v) methyl bromide is treated with sodium in the presence of dry ether,
(vi) methyl chloride is treated with KCN?

Answers to Some Intext Questions

6.1

6.2 (i) H2SO4 cannot be used along with KI in the conversion of an alcohol to
an alkyl iodide as it converts KI to corresponding acid, HI which is then
oxidised by it to I2.
6.3 (i) ClCH2CH2CH2Cl (ii) ClCH2CHClCH3 (iii) Cl2CHCH2CH3 (iv) CH3CCl2CH3

191 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

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 6.4 All the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and replacement
of any hydrogen will give the same product.

The equivalent hydrogens are grouped as a, b and

c. The replacement of equivalent hydrogens will
give the same product.

Similarly the equivalent hydrogens are grouped as

a, b, c and d. Thus, four isomeric products are
possible.

6.5

6.6 (i) Chloromethane, Bromomethane, Dibromomethane, Bromoform.

Boiling point increases with increase in molecular mass.
(ii) Isopropylchloride, 1-Chloropropane, 1-Chlorobutane.
Isopropylchloride being branched has lower b.p. than 1-
Chloropropane.
6.7 (i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br Being primary halide, there won’t be any
steric hindrance.
(ii) Secondary halide reacts faster than tertiary

halide.
(iii) The presence of methyl group closer to the
halide group will increase the steric
hindrance and decrease the rate.

6.8 (i) Tertiary halide reacts faster than secondary halide

because of the greater stability of tert-carbocation.

Because of greater stability of secondary carbocation than

(ii)
primary.

6.9

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 Unit

Objectives Alcohols
Alcohols,, Phenols
7
After studying this Unit, you will be
able to
• name alcohols, phenols and
and Ether
therss
ethers according to the IUPAC
system of nomenclature;
Alcohols, phenols and ethers are the basic compounds for the
• discuss the reactions involved in
formation of detergents, antiseptics and fragrances, respectively.
the preparation of alcohols from
alkenes, aldehydes, ketones and
carboxylic acids; You have learnt that substitution of one or more
• discuss the reactions involved in hydrogen atom(s) from a hydrocarbon by another atom
the preparation of phenols from or a group of atoms result in the formation of an entirely
haloarenes, benzene sulphonic new compound having altogether different properties
acids, diazonium salts and and applications. Alcohols and phenols are formed
cumene;
when a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon, aliphatic and
• discuss the reactions for aromatic respectively, is replaced by –OH group. These
preparation of ethers from
classes of compounds find wide applications in industry
(i) alcohols and (ii) alkyl halides
and sodium alkoxides/aryloxides; as well as in day-to-day life. For instance, have you
• correlate physical properties of
ever noticed that ordinary spirit used for polishing
alcohols, phenols and ethers with wooden furniture is chiefly a compound containing
their structures; hydroxyl group, ethanol. The sugar we eat, the cotton
• discuss chemical reactions of the used for fabrics, the paper we use for writing, are all
three classes of compounds on made up of compounds containing –OH groups. Just
the basis of their functional think of life without paper; no note-books, books, news-
groups. papers, currency notes, cheques, certificates, etc. The
magazines carrying beautiful photographs and
interesting stories would disappear from our life. It
would have been really a different world.
An alcohol contains one or more hydroxyl (OH)
group(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s), of an
aliphatic system (CH3OH) while a phenol contains –OH
group(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s) of an
aromatic system (C6H5OH).
The substitution of a hydrogen atom in a
hydrocarbon by an alkoxy or aryloxy group
(R–O/Ar–O) yields another class of compounds known
as ‘ethers’, for example, CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether). You
may also visualise ethers as compounds formed by

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 substituting the hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group of an alcohol or
phenol by an alkyl or aryl group.
In this unit, we shall discuss the chemistry of three classes of
compounds, namely — alcohols, phenols and ethers.

7.1 Classification The classification of compounds makes their study systematic and
hence simpler. Therefore, let us first learn how are alcohols, phenols
and ethers classified?

7.1.1 Alcohols— Alcohols and phenols may be classified as mono–, di–, tri- or
Mono, Di, polyhydric compounds depending on whether they contain one, two,
Tri or three or many hydroxyl groups respectively in their structures as
Polyhydric given below:
alcohols

Monohydric Dihydric Trihydric

Monohydric alcohols may be further classified according to the

hybridisation of the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is
attached.
(i) Compounds containing Csp 3  OH bond: In this class of alcohols,
3
the –OH group is attached to an sp hybridised carbon atom of an
alkyl group. They are further classified as follows:
Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols: In these three types of
alcohols, the –OH group is attached to primary, secondary and
tertiary carbon atom, respectively as depicted below:

Allylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the —OH group is attached to

3
a sp hybridised carbon adjacent to the carbon-carbon double
bond, that is to an allylic carbon. For example

Benzylic alcohols: In these alcohols, the —OH group is attached

3
to a sp —hybridised carbon atom next to an aromatic ring. For
example.

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 Allylic and benzylic alcohols may be primary, secondary or tertiary.
(ii) Compounds containing Csp 2  OH bond: These alcohols contain
—OH group bonded to a carbon-carbon double bond, i.e., to a
vinylic carbon or to an aryl carbon. These alcohols are also known
as vinylic alcohols.
Vinylic alcohol: CH2 = CH – OH

7.1.2 Phenols—
Mono, Di
and
trihydric
phenols
Monohydric
7.1.3 Ethers Ethers are classified as simple or symmetrical, if the alkyl or aryl
groups attached to the oxygen atom are the same, and mixed or
unsymmetrical, if the two groups are different. Diethyl ether,
C2H5OC2H5, is a symmetrical ether whereas C2H5OCH3 and C2H5OC6H5
are unsymmetrical ethers.

Intext Questions
7.1 Classify the following as primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols:
CH3

(i) CH3 C CH2OH (ii) H2C CH CH2OH

CH3
OH
CH CH3

(iii) CH3 CH2 CH2 OH (iv)

CH3
CH CH C OH
CH2 CH CH3 (vi)
(v) CH3
OH

7.2 Identify allylic alcohols in the above examples.

7.2 Nomenclature (a) Alcohols: The common name of an alcohol is derived from the
common name of the alkyl group and adding the word alcohol to it.
For example, CH3OH is methyl alcohol.
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 According to IUPAC system, the name of an alcohol is derived from the
name of the alkane from which the alcohol is derived, by substituting ‘e’
of alkane with the suffix ‘ol’. The position of substituents are indicated
by numerals. For this, the longest carbon chain (parent chain) is
numbered starting at the end nearest to the hydroxyl group. The positions
of the –OH group and other substituents are indicated by using the
numbers of carbon atoms to which these are attached. For naming
polyhydric alcohols, the ‘e’ of alkane is retained and the ending ‘ol’ is
added. The number of –OH groups is indicated by adding the
multiplicative prefix, di, tri, etc., before ‘ol’. The positions of –OH groups
are indicated by appropriate locants, e.g., HO–CH2–CH2–OH is named as
ethane–1, 2-diol. Table 7.1 gives common and IUPAC names of a few
alcohols as examples.
Table 7.1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Alcohols
Compound Common name IUPAC name

CH3 – OH Methyl alcohol Methanol

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH n-Propyl alcohol Propan-1-ol
Isopropyl alcohol Propan-2-ol

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – OH n-Butyl alcohol Butan-1-ol

sec-Butyl alcohol Butan-2-ol

Isobutyl alcohol 2-Methylpropan-1-ol

tert-Butyl alcohol 2-Methylpropan-2-ol

HO–H2C–CH2–OH Ethylene glycol Ethane-1,2-diol

Glycerol Propane -1, 2, 3-triol

Cyclic alcohols are named using the prefix cyclo and considering
the —OH group attached to C–1.
OH
OH CH3

Cyclohexanol 2-Methylcyclopentanol
(b) Phenols: The simplest hydroxy derivative of benzene is phenol.
It is its common name and also an accepted IUPAC name. As structure
of phenol involves a benzene ring, in its substituted compounds the
terms ortho (1,2- disubstituted), meta (1,3-disubstituted) and para
(1,4-disubstituted) are often used in the common names.

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 OH CH3 CH3 CH3
OH

OH
OH
Common name Phenol o-Cresol m-Cresol p-Cresol
IUPAC name Phenol 2-Methylphenol 3-Methylphenol 4-Methylphenol

Dihydroxy derivatives of benzene are known as 1, 2-, 1, 3- and

1, 4-benzenediol.

OH OH OH
OH

OH
OH
Common name Catechol Resorcinol Hydroquinone or quinol
IUPAC name Benzene-1,2-diol Benzene-1,3-diol Benzene-1,4-diol

(c) Ethers: Common names of ethers are derived from the names of alkyl/
aryl groups written as separate words in alphabetical order and adding the
word ‘ether’ at the end. For example, CH3OC2H5 is ethylmethyl ether.

Table 7.2: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Ethers

Compound Common name IUPAC name
CH3OCH3 Dimethyl ether Methoxymethane
C2H5OC2H5 Diethyl ether Ethoxyethane
CH3OCH2CH2CH3 Methyl n-propyl ether 1-Methoxypropane
C6H5OCH3 Methyl phenyl ether Methoxybenzene
(Anisole) (Anisole)
C6H5OCH2CH3 Ethyl phenyl ether Ethoxybenzene
(Phenetole)
C6H5O(CH2)6 – CH3 Heptyl phenyl ether 1-Phenoxyheptane

CH3O CH CH3 Methyl isopropyl ether 2-Methoxypropane

CH3

Phenyl isopentyl ether 3- Methylbutoxybenzene

CH3– O – CH2 – CH2 – OCH3 — 1,2-Dimethoxyethane

— 2-Ethoxy-
-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane

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 If both the alkyl groups are the same, the prefix ‘di’ is added before the alkyl
group. For example, C2H5OC2H5 is diethyl ether.
According to IUPAC system of nomenclature, ethers are regarded as
hydrocarbon derivatives in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by an
–OR or –OAr group, where R and Ar represent alkyl and aryl groups,
respectively. The larger (R) group is chosen as the parent hydrocarbon.
The names of a few ethers are given as examples in Table 7.2.

Example 7.1 Give IUPAC names of the following compounds:

(i) CH3
(i) CH CH CH CH2OH (ii) CH3
(ii) CH O CH2CH3
Cl CH3 CH3 CH3

OH NO2
(iii) H3C CH3 (iv) OC2 H5

Solution (i) 4-Chloro-2,3-dimethylpentan-1-ol (ii) 2-Ethoxypropane

(iii) 2,6-Dimethylphenol (iv) 1-Ethoxy-2-nitrocyclohexane

Intext Question
7.3 Name the following compounds according to IUPAC system.

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv) (v)

7.3 Structures of In alcohols, the oxygen of the –OH group is attached to carbon by a
3
Functional sigma (s ) bond formed by the overlap of a sp hybridised orbital of
3
carbon with a sp hybridised orbital of oxygen. Fig. 7.1 depicts
Groups structural aspects of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane.

Fig. 7.1: Structures of methanol, phenol and methoxymethane

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 The bond angle in alcohols is slightly less than the tetrahedral
angle (109°-28¢). It is due to the repulsion between the unshared
electron pairs of oxygen. In phenols, the –OH group is attached to sp2
hybridised carbon of an aromatic ring. The carbon– oxygen bond
length (136 pm) in phenol is slightly less than that in methanol. This
is due to (i) partial double bond character on account of the conjugation
of unshared electron pair of oxygen with the aromatic ring
2
(Section 7.4.4) and (ii) sp hybridised state of carbon to which oxygen
is attached.
In ethers, the four electron pairs, i.e., the two bond pairs and two
lone pairs of electrons on oxygen are arranged approximately in a
tetrahedral arrangement. The bond angle is slightly greater than the
tetrahedral angle due to the repulsive interaction between the two
bulky (–R) groups. The C–O bond length (141 pm) is almost the same
as in alcohols.

7.4 Alcohols and 7.4.1 Preparation of Alcohols

Phenols Alcohols are prepared by the following methods:
1. From alkenes
(i) By acid catalysed hydration: Alkenes react with water in the
presence of acid as catalyst to form alcohols. In case of
unsymmetrical alkenes, the addition reaction takes place in
accordance with Markovnikov’s rule.

Mechanism
The mechanism of the reaction involves the following three steps:
Step 1: Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by electrophilic
+
attack of H3O .
+ +
H2O + H ® H3O

Step 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation.

Step 3: Deprotonation to form an alcohol.

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Hydroboration - (ii) By hydroboration–oxidation: Diborane (BH3)2 reacts with alkenes
oxidation was first to give trialkyl boranes as addition product. This is oxidised to
reported by H.C.
alcohol by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of aqueous sodium
Brown in 1959. For
his studies on boron hydroxide.
containing organic
compounds, Brown
shared the 1979 Nobel
prize in Chemistry
with G. Wittig.

The addition of borane to the double bond takes place in such

2
a manner that the boron atom gets attached to the sp carbon
carrying greater number of hydrogen atoms. The alcohol so formed
looks as if it has been formed by the addition of water to the
alkene in a way opposite to the Markovnikov’s rule. In this reaction,
alcohol is obtained in excellent yield.
2. From carbonyl compounds
(i) By reduction of aldehydes and ketones: Aldehydes and ketones
are reduced to the corresponding alcohols by addition of
hydrogen in the presence of catalysts (catalytic hydrogenation).
The usual catalyst is a finely divided metal such as platinum,
palladium or nickel. It is also prepared by treating aldehydes
and ketones with sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium
aluminium hydride (LiAlH4). Aldehydes yield primary alcohols
whereas ketones give secondary alcohols.

The numbers in front (ii) By reduction of carboxylic acids and esters: Carboxylic acids
of the reagents along are reduced to primary alcohols in excellent yields by lithium
the arrow indicate
aluminium hydride, a strong reducing agent.
that the second
reagent is added only (i) LiAlH4
when the reaction RCOOH RCH2OH
with first is complete. (ii) H2O
However, LiAlH4 is an expensive reagent, and therefore, used
for preparing special chemicals only. Commercially, acids are
reduced to alcohols by converting them to the esters (Section
7.4.4), followed by their reduction using hydrogen in the
presence of catalyst (catalytic hydrogenation).
R'OH
H+

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 3. From Grignard reagents
Alcohols are produced by the reaction of Grignard reagents (Unit 6,
Class XII) with aldehydes and ketones.
The first step of the reaction is the nucleophilic addition of Grignard
reagent to the carbonyl group to form an adduct. Hydrolysis of the
adduct yields an alcohol.

... (i)

...(ii)

The reaction of The overall reactions using different aldehydes and ketones are as
Grignard reagents follows:
with methanal
produces a primary
alcohol, with other
aldehydes, secondary
alcohols and with
ketones, tertiary
alcohols.

You will notice that the reaction produces a primary alcohol with
methanal, a secondary alcohol with other aldehydes and tertiary alcohol
with ketones.

Give the structures and IUPAC names of the products expected from Example 7.2
the following reactions:
(a) Catalytic reduction of butanal.
(b) Hydration of propene in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid.
(c) Reaction of propanone with methylmagnesium bromide followed
by hydrolysis.

(a) (b) (c) Solution

7.4.2 Preparation Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, was first isolated in the early
of Phenols nineteenth century from coal tar. Nowadays, phenol is commercially
produced synthetically. In the laboratory, phenols are prepared from
benzene derivatives by any of the following methods:

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 1. From haloarenes
Chlorobenzene is fused with NaOH at 623K and 320 atmospheric
pressure. Phenol is obtained by acidification of sodium phenoxide so
produced (Unit 6, Class XII).

2. From benzenesulphonic acid

Benzene is sulphonated with oleum and benzene sulphonic acid so
formed is converted to sodium phenoxide on heating with molten
sodium hydroxide. Acidification of the sodium salt gives phenol.

3. From diazonium salts

A diazonium salt is formed by treating an aromatic primary amine
with nitrous acid (NaNO2 + HCl) at 273-278 K. Diazonium salts are
hydrolysed to phenols by warming with water or by treating with
dilute acids (Unit 9, Class XII).
+ –
NH2 N2 Cl OH

NaNO2 H2O
+ N2 + HCl
+HCl Warm

Aniline Benzene diazonium

chloride
Most of the worldwide
production of phenol is
4. From cumene
from cumene. Phenol is manufactured from the hydrocarbon, cumene. Cumene
(isopropylbenzene) is oxidised in the presence of air to cumene
hydroperoxide. It is converted to phenol and acetone by treating it
with dilute acid. Acetone, a by-product of this reaction, is also
obtained in large quantities by this method.

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 Intext Questions
7.4 Show how are the following alcohols prepared by the reaction of a suitable
Grignard reagent on methanal ?

7.5 Write structures of the products of the following reactions:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

7.4.3 Physical Alcohols and phenols consist of two parts, an alkyl/aryl group and a
Properties hydroxyl group. The properties of alcohols and phenols are chiefly due
to the hydroxyl group. The nature of alkyl and aryl groups simply
modify these properties.
Boiling Points
The boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in the
number of carbon atoms (increase in van der Waals forces). In alcohols,
the boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain
(because of decrease in van der Waals forces with decrease in surface
area).
The –OH group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular
hydrogen bonding as shown below:

It is interesting to note that boiling points of alcohols and phenols

are higher in comparison to other classes of compounds, namely
hydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of comparable
molecular masses. For example, ethanol and propane have comparable
molecular masses but their boiling points differ widely. The boiling
point of methoxymethane is intermediate of the two boiling points.

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 The high boiling points of alcohols are mainly due to the presence
of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in them which is lacking in ethers
and hydrocarbons.
Solubility
Solubility of alcohols and phenols in
water is due to their ability to form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules
as shown. The solubility decreases with
increase in size of alkyl/aryl (hydro-
phobic) groups. Several of the lower
molecular mass alcohols are miscible
with water in all proportions.

Example 7.3 Arrange the following sets of compounds in order of their increasing
boiling points:
(a) Pentan-1-ol, butan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, methanol.
(b) Pentan-1-ol, n-butane, pentanal, ethoxyethane.
Solution (a) Methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, butan-2-ol, butan-1-ol, pentan-1-ol.
(b) n-Butane, ethoxyethane, pentanal and pentan-1-ol.

7.4.4 Chemical Alcohols are versatile compounds. They react both as nucleophiles and
Reactions electrophiles. The bond between O–H is broken when alcohols react as
nucleophiles.

Alcohols as nucleophiles (i)

(ii) The bond between C–O is broken when they react as

electrophiles. Protonated alcohols react in this manner.

Protonated alcohols as electrophiles

Based on the cleavage of O–H and C–O bonds, the reactions

of alcohols and phenols may be divided into two groups:

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(a) Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond
1. Acidity of alcohols and phenols
(i) Reaction with metals: Alcohols and phenols react with active
metals such as sodium, potassium and aluminium to yield
corresponding alkoxides/phenoxides and hydrogen.

In addition to this, phenols react with aqueous sodium

hydroxide to form sodium phenoxides.
OH ONa

+ NaOH + H 2O

Sodium phenoxide

The above reactions show that alcohols and phenols are

acidic in nature. In fact, alcohols and phenols are Brönsted
acids i.e., they can donate a proton to a stronger base (B:).

(ii) Acidity of alcohols: The acidic character of alcohols is due to

the polar nature of O–H bond. An electron-releasing group
(–CH3, –C2H5) increases electron density on oxygen tending to
decrease the polarity of O-H bond. This decreases the acid
strength. For this reason, the acid strength of alcohols decreases
in the following order:

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 Alcohols are, however, weaker acids than water. This can be
illustrated by the reaction of water with an alkoxide.

This reaction shows that water is a better proton donor (i.e.,

stronger acid) than alcohol. Also, in the above reaction, we note
that an alkoxide ion is a better proton acceptor than hydroxide
ion, which suggests that alkoxides are stronger bases (sodium
ethoxide is a stronger base than sodium hydroxide).
Alcohols act as Bronsted bases as well. It is due to the
presence of unshared electron pairs on oxygen, which makes
them proton acceptors.
(iii) Acidity of phenols: The reactions of phenol with metals (e.g.,
sodium, aluminium) and sodium hydroxide indicate its acidic
nature. The hydroxyl group, in phenol is directly attached to
2
the sp hybridised carbon of benzene ring which acts as an
electron withdrawing group. Due to this, the charge distribution
in phenol molecule, as depicted in its resonance structures,
causes the oxygen of –OH group to be positive.

The reaction of phenol with aqueous sodium hydroxide

indicates that phenols are stronger acids than alcohols and water.
Let us examine how a compound in which hydroxyl group
attached to an aromatic ring is more acidic than the one in
which hydroxyl group is attached to an alkyl group.
The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:

2
Due to the higher electronegativity of sp hybridised carbon
of phenol to which –OH is attached, electron density decreases
on oxygen. This increases the polarity of O–H bond and results
in an increase in ionisation of phenols than that of alcohols.
Now let us examine the stabilities of alkoxide and phenoxide
ions. In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen
while in phenoxide ion, the charge is delocalised.
The delocalisation of negative charge (structures I-V) makes

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 phenoxide ion more stable and favours the ionisation of phenol.
Although there is also charge delocalisation in phenol, its
resonance structures have charge separation due to which the
phenol molecule is less stable than phenoxide ion.

In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing

groups such as nitro group, enhances the acidic strength of
phenol. This effect is more pronounced when such a group is
present at ortho and para positions. It is due to the effective
delocalisation of negative charge in phenoxide ion when
substituent is at ortho or para position. On the other hand,
electron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, do
not favour the formation of phenoxide ion resulting in decrease
in acid strength. Cresols, for example, are less acidic than phenol.

The greater the pKa Table 7.3: pKa Values of some Phenols and Ethanol
value, the weaker the
acid. Compound Formula pKa

o-Nitrophenol o–O2N–C6H4–OH 7.2

m-Nitrophenol m–O2N–C6H4–OH 8.3
p-Nitrophenol p-O2N–C6H4–OH 7.1
Phenol C6H5–OH 10.0
o-Cresol o-CH3–C6H4–OH 10.2
m-Cresol m-CH3C6H4–OH 10.1
p-Cresol p-CH3–C6H4–OH 10.2
Ethanol C2H5OH 15.9

From the above data, you will note that phenol is million times
more acidic than ethanol.

Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their acid strength: Example 7.4
Propan-1-ol, 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol,
phenol, 4-methylphenol.
Propan-1-ol, 4-methylphenol, phenol, 3-nitrophenol, 3,5-dinitrophenol, Solution
2,4, 6-trinitrophenol.

2. Esterification
Alcohols and phenols react with carboxylic acids, acid chlorides and
acid anhydrides to form esters.

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 Pyridine
R/Ar OH+R’COCl R/ArOCOR’ + HCl
The reaction with carboxylic acid and acid anhydride is carried
Aspirin possesses
out in the presence of a small amount of concentrated sulphuric
analgesic, anti-
acid. The reaction is reversible, and therefore, water is removed as
inflammatory and
soon as it is formed. The reaction with acid chloride is carried out in
antipyretic properties.
the presence of a base (pyridine) so as to neutralise HCl which is
formed during the reaction. It shifts the equilibrium to the right
hand side. The introduction of acetyl (CH3CO) group in alcohols or
phenols is known as acetylation. Acetylation of salicylic acid
produces aspirin.

(b) Reactions involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen (C–O) bond in

alcohols
The reactions involving cleavage of C–O bond take place only in
alcohols. Phenols show this type of reaction only with zinc.
1. Reaction with hydrogen halides: Alcohols react with hydrogen
halides to form alkyl halides (Refer Unit 6, Class XII).
ROH + HX ® R–X + H2O
The difference in reactivity of three classes of alcohols with HCl
distinguishes them from one another (Lucas test). Alcohols are soluble
in Lucas reagent (conc. HCl and ZnCl2) while their halides are immiscible
and produce turbidity in solution. In case of tertiary alcohols, turbidity
is produced immediately as they form the halides easily. Primary
alcohols do not produce turbidity at room temperature.
2. Reaction with phosphorus trihalides: Alcohols are converted to
alkyl bromides by reaction with phosphorus tribromide (Refer
Unit 6, Class XII).
3. Dehydration: Alcohols undergo dehydration (removal of a molecule
of water) to form alkenes on treating with a protic acid e.g.,
concentrated H2SO4 or H3PO4, or catalysts such as anhydrous zinc
chloride or alumina.

Ethanol undergoes dehydration by heating it with concentrated

H2SO4 at 443 K.

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 Secondary and tertiary alcohols are dehydrated under milder
conditions. For example

Thus, the relative ease of dehydration of alcohols follows the

following order:
Tertiary > Secondary > Primary
The mechanism of dehydration of ethanol involves the following steps:
Tertiary carbocations Mechanism
are more stable and
Step 1: Formation of protonated alcohol.
therefore are easier to
form than secondary
and primary
carbocations; tertiary
alcohols are the easiest
to dehydrate.

Step 2: Formation of carbocation: It is the slowest step and hence, the

rate determining step of the reaction.

Step 3: Formation of ethene by elimination of a proton.

The acid used in step 1 is released in step 3. To drive the equilibrium

to the right, ethene is removed as it is formed.
4. Oxidation: Oxidation of alcohols involves the formation of a carbon-
oxygen double bond with cleavage of an O-H and C-H bonds.

Such a cleavage and formation of bonds occur in oxidation

reactions. These are also known as dehydrogenation reactions as
these involve loss of dihydrogen from an alcohol molecule. Depending
on the oxidising agent used, a primary alcohol is oxidised to an
aldehyde which in turn is oxidised to a carboxylic acid.

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 Strong oxidising agents such as acidified potassium
permanganate are used for getting carboxylic acids from alcohols
directly. CrO3 in anhydrous medium is used as the oxidising agent
for the isolation of aldehydes.
3 CrO
RCH2OH   RCHO
A better reagent for oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes in
good yield is pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC), a complex of
chromium trioxide with pyridine and HCl.
PCC
CH 3  CH  CH  CH 2 OH   CH3  CH  CH  CHO
Secondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones by chromic anhyride
(CrO3).

Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reaction. Under strong

reaction conditions such as strong oxidising agents (KMnO4) and
elevated temperatures, cleavage of various C-C bonds takes place
and a mixture of carboxylic
acids containing lesser number
of carbon atoms is formed.
When the vapours of a
primary or a secondary alcohol
are passed over heated copper
at 573 K, dehydrogenation
takes place and an aldehyde or
a ketone is formed while tertiary
alcohols undergo dehydration.

Biological oxidation of methanol and ethanol in the body produces the corresponding
aldehyde followed by the acid. At times the alcoholics, by mistake, drink ethanol,
mixed with methanol also called denatured alcohol. In the body, methanol is oxidised
first to methanal and then to methanoic acid, which may cause blindness and
death. A methanol poisoned patient is treated by giving intravenous infusions of
diluted ethanol. The enzyme responsible for oxidation of aldehyde (HCHO) to acid
is swamped allowing time for kidneys to excrete methanol.

(c) Reactions of phenols

Following reactions are shown by phenols only.

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 1. Electrophilic aromatic substitution
In phenols, the reactions that take place on the aromatic ring are
electrophilic substitution reactions (Unit 9, Class XI). The –OH group
attached to the benzene ring activates it towards electrophilic
substitution. Also, it directs the incoming group to ortho and para
positions in the ring as these positions become electron rich due to
the resonance effect caused by –OH group. The resonance structures
are shown under acidity of phenols.
Common electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions taking place
in phenol are as follows:
(i) Nitration: With dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K),
phenol yields a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols.

The ortho and para isomers can be separated by steam

distillation. o-Nitrophenol is steam volatile due to intramolecular
hydrogen bonding while p-nitrophenol is less volatile due to
intermolecular hydrogen bonding which causes the association
of molecules.

2, 4, 6 - Trinitrophenol
is a strong acid due to
the presence of three With concentrated nitric acid, phenol is converted to
electron withdrawing
2,4,6-trinitrophenol. The product is commonly known as picric
–NO2 groups which
acid. The yield of the reaction product is poor.
facilitate the release of
hydrogen ion.

Nowadays picric acid is prepared by treating phenol first

with concentrated sulphuric acid which converts it to
phenol-2,4-disulphonic acid, and then with concentrated nitric
acid to get 2,4,6-trinitrophenol. Can you write the equations of
the reactions involved?

211 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

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 (ii) Halogenation: On treating phenol with bromine, different reaction
products are formed under different experimental conditions.
(a) When the reaction is carried out in solvents of low polarity
such as CHCl 3 or CS 2 and at low temperature,
monobromophenols are formed.

The usual halogenation of benzene takes place in the

presence of a Lewis acid, such as FeBr3 (Unit 6, Class XII),
which polarises the halogen molecule. In case of phenol, the
polarisation of bromine molecule takes place even in the
absence of Lewis acid. It is due to the highly activating
effect of –OH group attached to the benzene ring.
(b) When phenol is treated with bromine water,
2,4,6-tribromophenol is formed as white precipitate.

Example 7.5 Write the structures of the major products expected from the following
reactions:
(a) Mononitration of 3-methylphenol
(b) Dinitration of 3-methylphenol
(c) Mononitration of phenyl methanoate.
Solution The combined influence of –OH and –CH3 groups determine the
position of the incoming group.

2. Kolbe’s reaction
Phenoxide ion generated by treating phenol with sodium hydroxide
is even more reactive than phenol towards electrophilic aromatic
substitution. Hence, it undergoes electrophilic substitution with
carbon dioxide, a weak electrophile. Ortho hydroxybenzoic acid is
formed as the main reaction product.
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 3. Reimer-Tiemann reaction
On treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium
hydroxide, a –CHO group is introduced at ortho position of benzene
ring. This reaction is known as Reimer - Tiemann reaction.
The intermediate substituted benzal chloride is hydrolysed in the
presence of alkali to produce salicylaldehyde.

4. Reaction of phenol with zinc dust

Phenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust.

5. Oxidation
Oxidation of phenol with chromic
acid produces a conjugated diketone
known as benzoquinone. In the
presence of air, phenols are slowly
oxidised to dark coloured mixtures
containing quinones.

Intext Questions
7.6 Give structures of the products you would expect when each of the
following alcohol reacts with (a) HCl –ZnCl2 (b) HBr and (c) SOCl2.
(i) Butan-1-ol (ii) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol
7.7 Predict the major product of acid catalysed dehydration of
(i) 1-methylcyclohexanol and (ii) butan-1-ol
7.8 Ortho and para nitrophenols are more acidic than phenol. Draw the
resonance structures of the corresponding phenoxide ions.
7.9 Write the equations involved in the following reactions:
(i) Reimer - Tiemann reaction (ii) Kolbe’s reaction

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7.5 Some Methanol and ethanol are among the two commercially important
alcohols.
Commercially
Important 1. Methanol
Methanol, CH3OH, also known as ‘wood spirit’, was produced by
Alcohols destructive distillation of wood. Today, most of the methanol is
produced by catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide at high
pressure and temperature and in the presence of ZnO – Cr2O3
catalyst.

Methanol is a colourless liquid and boils at 337 K. It is highly

poisonous in nature. Ingestion of even small quantities of methanol
can cause blindness and large quantities causes even death. Methanol
is used as a solvent in paints, varnishes and chiefly for making
formaldehyde.

2. Ethanol
Ethanol, C2H5OH, is obtained commercially by fermentation, the
oldest method is from sugars. The sugar in molasses, sugarcane
or fruits such as grapes is converted to glucose and fructose, (both
of which have the formula C6H12O6), in the presence of an enzyme,
invertase. Glucose and fructose undergo fermentation in the
presence of another enzyme, zymase, which is found in yeast.

In wine making, grapes are the source of sugars and yeast. As

Ingestion of ethanol acts grapes ripen, the quantity of sugar increases and yeast grows on the
on the central nervous outer skin. When grapes are crushed, sugar and the enzyme come in
system. In moderate contact and fermentation starts. Fermentation takes place in
amounts, it affects anaerobic conditions i.e. in absence of air. Carbon dioxide is released
judgment and lowers
during fermentation.
inhibitions. Higher
concentrations cause The action of zymase is inhibited once the percentage of alcohol
nausea and loss of formed exceeds 14 percent. If air gets into fermentation mixture, the
consciousness. Even at oxygen of air oxidises ethanol to ethanoic acid which in turn destroys
higher concentrations, the taste of alcoholic drinks.
it interferes with Ethanol is a colourless liquid with boiling point 351 K. It is used
spontaneous respiration
as a solvent in paint industry and in the preparation of a number of
and can be fatal.
carbon compounds. The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking
by mixing in it some copper sulphate (to give it a colour) and pyridine
(a foul smelling liquid). It is known as denaturation of alcohol.
Nowadays, large quantities of ethanol are obtained by hydration of
ethene (Section 7.4).

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7.6 Ethers
7.6.1 Preparation 1. By dehydration of alcohols
of Ethers Alcohols undergo dehydration in the presence of protic acids
(H2SO4, H3PO4). The formation of the reaction product, alkene or ether
depends on the reaction conditions. For example, ethanol is
dehydrated to ethene in the presence of sulphuric acid at 443 K.
At 413 K, ethoxyethane is the main product.

Diethyl ether has been

used widely as an
inhalation anaesthetic.
But due to its slow
effect and an
unpleasant recovery The formation of ether is a nucleophilic bimolecular reaction (SN2)
period, it has been involving the attack of alcohol molecule on a protonated alcohol, as
replaced, as an indicated below:
anaesthetic, by other
compounds.

Acidic dehydration of alcohols, to give an alkene is also associated

with substitution reaction to give an ether.
The method is suitable for the preparation of ethers having
primary alkyl groups only. The alkyl group should be unhindered
and the temperature be kept low. Otherwise the reaction favours the
formation of alkene. The reaction follows SN1 pathway when the alcohol
is secondary or tertiary about which you will learn in higher classes.
However, the dehydration of secondary and tertiary alcohols to give
corresponding ethers is unsuccessful as elimination competes over
substitution and as a consequence, alkenes are easily formed.
Can you explain why is bimolecular dehydration not appropriate
for the preparation of ethyl methyl ether?
2. Williamson synthesis
It is an important laboratory method for the preparation of
Alexander William
Williamson (1824–1904)
symmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers. In this method, an alkyl
was born in London of halide is allowed to react with sodium alkoxide.
– +
Scottish parents. In R– X + R’–O Na R–O–R’ + Na X
1849, he became
Professor of Chemistry Ethers containing substituted alkyl groups (secondary or tertiary)
at University College, may also be prepared by this method. The reaction involves SN2 attack
London. of an alkoxide ion on primary alkyl halide.

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 O Na + CH3–Br

Better results are obtained if the alkyl halide is primary. In case

of secondary and tertiary alkyl halides, elimination competes over
substitution. If a tertiary alkyl halide is used, an alkene is the only
reaction product and no ether is formed. For example, the reaction of
CH3ONa with (CH3)3C–Br gives exclusively 2-methylpropene.

It is because alkoxides are not only nucleophiles but strong bases

as well. They react with alkyl halides leading to elimination reactions.

Example 7.6 The following is not an appropriate reaction for the preparation of
t-butyl ethyl ether.

(i) What would be the major product of this reaction ?

(ii) Write a suitable reaction for the preparation of t-butylethyl ether.

Solution (i) The major product of the given reaction is 2-methylprop-1-ene.

It is because sodium ethoxide is a strong nucleophile as well as
a strong base. Thus elimination reaction predominates over
substitution.

(ii)

Phenols are also converted to ethers by this method. In this, phenol

is used as the phenoxide moiety.

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7.6.2 Physical The C-O bonds in ethers are polar and thus, ethers have a net dipole
Properties moment. The weak polarity of ethers do not appreciably affect their
boiling points which are comparable to those of the alkanes of
comparable molecular masses but are much lower than the boiling
points of alcohols as shown in the following cases:
Formula CH3(CH2)3CH3 C2H5-O-C2H5 CH3(CH2)3-OH
n-Pentane Ethoxyethane Butan-1-ol
b.p./K 309.1 307.6 390
The large difference in boiling points of alcohols and ethers is due
to the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols.
The miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of
the same molecular mass. Both ethoxyethane and butan-1-ol are
miscible to almost the same extent i.e., 7.5 and 9 g per 100 mL water,
respectively while pentane is essentially immiscible with water. Can
you explain this observation ? This is due to the fact that just like
alcohols, oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen bonds with water
molecule as shown:

7.6.3 Chemical 1. Cleavage of C–O bond in ethers

Reactions Ethers are the least reactive of the functional groups. The cleavage of
C-O bond in ethers takes place under drastic conditions with excess
of hydrogen halides. The reaction of dialkyl ether gives two alkyl
halide molecules.

Alkyl aryl ethers are cleaved at the alkyl-oxygen bond due to the
more stable aryl-oxygen bond. The reaction yields phenol and alkyl
halide.

Ethers with two different alkyl groups are also cleaved in the same
manner.

The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows:

HI > HBr > HCl. The cleavage of ethers takes place with concentrated
HI or HBr at high temperature.

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 Mechanism
The reaction of an ether with concentrated HI starts with protonation of ether molecule.
Step 1:

The reaction takes place with HBr or HI because these reagents are sufficiently acidic.
Step 2:
Iodide is a good nucleophile. It attacks the least substituted carbon of the oxonium
ion formed in step 1 and displaces an alcohol molecule by SN2 mechanism.
Thus, in the cleavage of mixed ethers with two different alkyl groups, the alcohol
and alkyl iodide formed, depend on the nature of alkyl groups. When primary or
secondary alkyl groups are present, it is the lower alkyl group that forms alkyl
iodide (SN2 reaction).

When HI is in excess and the reaction is carried out at high temperature,

ethanol reacts with another molecule of HI and is converted to ethyl iodide.
Step 3:

However, when one of the alkyl group is a tertiary group, the halide
formed is a tertiary halide.
CH3 CH3
CH3 C O CH3 + HI CH3OH +CH3 C I
CH3 CH3
It is because in step 2 of the reaction, the departure of leaving group
+
(HO–CH3) creates a more stable carbocation [(CH3)3C ], and the reaction
follows SN1 mechanism.
In case of anisole, methylphenyl
CH3 CH3
+ slow oxonium ion, is
+
CH3 C O CH3 CH3 C + CH3OH
H
CH3 CH3 formed by protonation of ether. The
bond between O–CH3 is weaker
CH3 CH3
than the bond between O–C6H5
+ fast
CH3 C + I– CH3 C I because the carbon of phenyl
2
group is sp hybridised and there
CH3 CH3 is a partial double bond character.

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 –
Therefore the attack by I ion breaks O–CH3 bond to form CH3I. Phenols
2
do not react further to give halides because the sp hybridised carbon
of phenol cannot undergo nucleophilic substitution reaction needed
for conversion to the halide.

Give the major products that are formed by heating each of the following Example 7.7
ethers with HI.

(i) (ii)

(iii)

(i) (ii) Solution

(iii)

2. Electrophilic substitution
The alkoxy group (-OR) is ortho, para directing and activates the
aromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution in the same way as
in phenol.

(i) Halogenation: Phenylalkyl ethers undergo usual halogenation

in the benzene ring, e.g., anisole undergoes bromination with
bromine in ethanoic acid even in the absence of iron (III) bromide
catalyst. It is due to the activation of benzene ring by the methoxy
group. Para isomer is obtained in 90% yield.

219 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

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 (ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction: Anisole undergoes Friedel-Crafts reaction,
i.e., the alkyl and acyl groups are introduced at ortho and para
positions by reaction with alkyl halide and acyl halide in the
presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride (a Lewis acid) as catalyst.

(iii) Nitration: Anisole reacts with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric

and nitric acids to yield a mixture of ortho and para nitroanisole.

Intext Questions
7.10 Write the reactions of Williamson synthesis of 2-ethoxy-3-methylpentane
starting from ethanol and 3-methylpentan-2-ol.
7.11 Which of the following is an appropriate set of reactants for the
preparation of 1-methoxy-4-nitrobenzene and why?

(i) (ii)

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7.12 Predict the products of the following reactions:
(i) CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − O – CH3 + HBr →

(ii)

(iii)

(iv) ( CH3 )3 C − OC2 H5 

HI
→

Summary
Alcohols and phenols are classified (i) on the basis of the number of hydroxyl
3 2
groups and (ii) according to the hybridisation of the carbon atom, sp or sp to
which the –OH group is attached. Ethers are classified on the basis of groups
attached to the oxygen atom.
Alcohols may be prepared (1) by hydration of alkenes (i) in presence of an
acid and (ii) by hydroboration-oxidation reaction (2) from carbonyl compounds by
(i) catalytic reduction and (ii) the action of Grignard reagents. Phenols may be
prepared by (1) substitution of (i) halogen atom in haloarenes and (ii) sulphonic
acid group in aryl sulphonic acids, by –OH group (2) by hydrolysis of diazonium
salts and (3) industrially from cumene.
Alcohols are higher boiling than other classes of compounds, namely
hydrocarbons, ethers and haloalkanes of comparable molecular masses. The
ability of alcohols, phenols and ethers to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding
with water makes them soluble in it.
Alcohols and phenols are acidic in nature. Electron withdrawing groups in
phenol increase its acidic strength and electron releasing groups decrease it.
Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution with hydrogen halides to yield
alkyl halides. Dehydration of alcohols gives alkenes. On oxidation, primary alcohols
yield aldehydes with mild oxidising agents and carboxylic acids with strong
oxidising agents while secondary alcohols yield ketones. Tertiary alcohols are
resistant to oxidation.
The presence of –OH group in phenols activates the aromatic ring towards
electrophilic substitution and directs the incoming group to ortho and para
positions due to resonance effect. Reimer-Tiemann reaction of phenol yields
salicylaldehyde. In presence of sodium hydroxide, phenol generates phenoxide
ion which is even more reactive than phenol. Thus, in alkaline medium, phenol
undergoes Kolbe’s reaction.
Ethers may be prepared by (i) dehydration of alcohols and (ii) Williamson
synthesis. The boiling points of ethers resemble those of alkanes while their
solubility is comparable to those of alcohols having same molecular mass. The
C–O bond in ethers can be cleaved by hydrogen halides. In electrophilic
substitution, the alkoxy group activates the aromatic ring and directs the incoming
group to ortho and para positions.

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 Exercises
7.1 Write IUPAC names of the following compounds:

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v) (vi) (vii) (viii)

(ix) (x) C6H5–O–C2H5

(xi) C6H5–O–C7H 15(n–) (xii)

7.2 Write structures of the compounds whose IUPAC names are as follows:
(i) 2-Methylbutan-2-ol (ii) 1-Phenylpropan-2-ol
(iii) 3,5-Dimethylhexane –1, 3, 5-triol (iv) 2,3 – Diethylphenol
(v) 1 – Ethoxypropane (vi) 2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane
(vii) Cyclohexylmethanol (viii) 3-Cyclohexylpentan-3-ol
(ix) Cyclopent-3-en-1-ol (x) 4-Chloro-3-ethylbutan-1-ol.
7.3 (i) Draw the structures of all isomeric alcohols of molecular formula C5H12O
and give their IUPAC names.
(ii) Classify the isomers of alcohols in question 11.3 (i) as primary, secondary
and tertiary alcohols.
7.4 Explain why propanol has higher boiling point than that of the hydrocarbon,
butane?
7.5 Alcohols are comparatively more soluble in water than hydrocarbons of
comparable molecular masses. Explain this fact.
7.6 What is meant by hydroboration-oxidation reaction? Illustrate it with an example.
7.7 Give the structures and IUPAC names of monohydric phenols of molecular
formula, C7H8O.
7.8 While separating a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols by steam
distillation, name the isomer which will be steam volatile. Give reason.
7.9 Give the equations of reactions for the preparation of phenol from cumene.
7.10 Write chemical reaction for the preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene.
7.11 Write the mechanism of hydration of ethene to yield ethanol.
7.12 You are given benzene, conc. H2SO4 and NaOH. Write the equations for the
preparation of phenol using these reagents.

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7.13 Show how will you synthesise:

(i) 1-phenylethanol from a suitable alkene.

(ii) cyclohexylmethanol using an alkyl halide by an SN2 reaction.

(iii) pentan-1-ol using a suitable alkyl halide?

7.14 Give two reactions that show the acidic nature of phenol. Compare acidity
of phenol with that of ethanol.
7.15 Explain why is ortho nitrophenol more acidic than ortho methoxyphenol ?
7.16 Explain how does the –OH group attached to a carbon of benzene ring
activate it towards electrophilic substitution?
7.17 Give equations of the following reactions:
(i) Oxidation of propan-1-ol with alkaline KMnO4 solution.
(ii) Bromine in CS2 with phenol.
(iii) Dilute HNO3 with phenol.
(iv) Treating phenol wih chloroform in presence of aqueous NaOH.
7.18 Explain the following with an example.
(i) Kolbe’s reaction.
(ii) Reimer -Tiemann reaction.
(iii) Williamson ether synthesis.
(iv) Unsymmetrical ether.
7.19 Write the mechanism of acid dehydration of ethanol to yield ethene.
7.20 How are the following conversions carried out?
(i) Propene ® Propan-2-ol.
(ii) Benzyl chloride ® Benzyl alcohol.
(iii) Ethyl magnesium chloride ® Propan-1-ol.
(iv) Methyl magnesium bromide ® 2-Methylpropan-2-ol.
7.21 Name the reagents used in the following reactions:
(i) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to carboxylic acid.
(ii) Oxidation of a primary alcohol to aldehyde.
(iii) Bromination of phenol to 2,4,6-tribromophenol.
(iv) Benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid.
(v) Dehydration of propan-2-ol to propene.
(vi) Butan-2-one to butan-2-ol.
7.22 Give reason for the higher boiling point of ethanol in comparison to
methoxymethane.

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 7.23 Give IUPAC names of the following ethers:

7.24 Write the names of reagents and equations for the preparation of the following
ethers by Williamson’s synthesis:
(i) 1-Propoxypropane (ii) Ethoxybenzene
(iii) 2-Methoxy-2-methylpropane (iv) 1-Methoxyethane
7.25 Illustrate with examples the limitations of Williamson synthesis for the
preparation of certain types of ethers.
7.26 How is 1-propoxypropane synthesised from propan-1-ol? Write mechanism
of this reaction.
7.27 Preparation of ethers by acid dehydration of secondary or tertiary alcohols
is not a suitable method. Give reason.
7.28 Write the equation of the reaction of hydrogen iodide with:
(i) 1-propoxypropane (ii) methoxybenzene and (iii) benzyl ethyl ether.
7.29 Explain the fact that in aryl alkyl ethers (i) the alkoxy group activates the
benzene ring towards electrophilic substitution and (ii) it directs the
incoming substituents to ortho and para positions in benzene ring.
7.30 Write the mechanism of the reaction of HI with methoxymethane.
7.31 Write equations of the following reactions:
(i) Friedel-Crafts reaction – alkylation of anisole.
(ii) Nitration of anisole.
(iii) Bromination of anisole in ethanoic acid medium.
(iv) Friedel-Craft’s acetylation of anisole.
7.32 Show how would you synthesise the following alcohols from appropriate
alkenes?
CH3
OH
(i) OH (ii)

OH
(iii) (iv) OH

7.33 When 3-methylbutan-2-ol is treated with HBr, the following reaction takes
place:

Give a mechanism for this reaction.

(Hint : The secondary carbocation formed in step II rearranges to a more
stable tertiary carbocation by a hydride ion shift from 3rd carbon atom.

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 Answers to Some Intext Questions

7.1 Primary alcohols (i), (ii), (iii)

Secondary alcohols (iv) and (v)
Tertiary alcohols (vi)
7.2 Allylic alcohols (ii) and (vi)
7.3 (i) 4-Chloro-3-ethyl-2-(1-methylethyl)-butan-1-ol
(ii) 2, 5-Dimethylhexane-1,3-diol
(iii) 3-Bromocyclohexanol
(iv) Hex-1-en-3-ol
(v) 2-Bromo-3-methylbut-2-en-1-ol

7.4

OH
CH2 C OCH3
7.5 (i) CH3 CH CH3 (ii) O

OH

(iii) CH3 CH2 CH CH2OH

CH3

7.7 (i) 1-Methylcyclohexene

(ii) A Mixture of but-1-ene and but-2-ene. But-2-ene is the major product

formed due to rearrangement to give secondary carbocation.

7.10

HBr
C2H5OH C2H5Br

CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH – ONa + C2H5Br CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH – OC2H5

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

2-Ethoxy-3-methylpentane

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 7.11 (ii)

7.12 (i) CH3 CH2 CH2 OH  CH3 Br (ii)

(iii) (iv)  CH3 3 C  I  C2 H5OH

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 Unit

Objectives Aldehydes
Aldehydes,, Ke tones
8
and Carboxylic
After studying this Unit, you will be
able to
• write the common and IUPAC

A cids
names of aldehydes, ketones and
carboxylic acids;
• write the structures of the
compounds containing functional
groups namely carbonyl and
Carbonyl compounds are of utmost importance to organic
carboxyl groups;
chemistry. They are constituents of fabrics, flavourings, plastics
• describe the important methods and drugs.
of preparation and reactions of
these classes of compounds;
In the previous Unit, you have studied organic
• correlate physical properties and compounds with functional groups containing carbon-
chemical reactions of aldehydes, oxygen single bond. In this Unit, we will study about the
ketones and carboxylic acids, organic compounds containing carbon-oxygen double
with their structures;
bond (>C=O) called carbonyl group, which is one of the
• explain the mechanism of a few most important functional groups in organic chemistry.
selected reactions of aldehydes
and ketones;
In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is bonded to a
carbon and hydrogen while in the ketones, it is bonded
• understand various factors
to two carbon atoms. The carbonyl compounds in which
affecting the acidity of carboxylic
acids and their reactions;
carbon of carbonyl group is bonded to carbon or
hydrogen and oxygen of hydroxyl moiety (-OH) are
• describe the uses of aldehydes,
known as carboxylic acids, while in compounds where
ketones and carboxylic acids.
carbon is attached to carbon or hydrogen and nitrogen
of -NH2 moiety or to halogens are called amides and
acyl halides respectively. Esters and anhydrides are
derivatives of carboxylic acids. The general formulas of
these classes of compounds are given below:

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 Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are widespread in plants
and animal kingdom. They play an important role in biochemical
processes of life. They add fragrance and flavour to nature, for example,
vanillin (from vanilla beans), salicylaldehyde (from meadow sweet) and
cinnamaldehyde (from cinnamon) have very pleasant fragrances.

They are used in many food products and pharmaceuticals to add

flavours. Some of these families are manufactured for use as solvents
(i.e., acetone) and for preparing materials like adhesives, paints, resins,
perfumes, plastics, fabrics, etc.

8.1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group

8.1.1 I. Aldehydes and ketones
Nomenclature Aldehydes and ketones are the simplest and most important carbonyl
compounds.
There are two systems of nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones.
(a) Common names
Aldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names
instead of IUPAC names. The common names of most aldehydes are
derived from the common names of the corresponding carboxylic
acids [Section 8.6.1] by replacing the ending –ic of acid with aldehyde.
At the same time, the names reflect the Latin or Greek term for the
original source of the acid or aldehyde. The location of the substituent
in the carbon chain is indicated by Greek letters a, b, g, d, etc. The
a-carbon being the one directly linked to the aldehyde group, b-
carbon the next, and so on. For example

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 The common names of ketones are derived by naming two alkyl
or aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group. The locations of
substituents are indicated by Greek letters, a a¢, b b¢ and so on
beginning with the carbon atoms next to the carbonyl group,
indicated as aa¢. Some ketones have historical common names,
the simplest dimethyl ketone is called acetone. Alkyl phenyl
ketones are usually named by adding the name of acyl group as
prefix to the word phenone. For example

(b) IUPAC names

The IUPAC names of open chain aliphatic aldehydes and ketones
are derived from the names of the corresponding alkanes by
replacing the ending –e with –al and –one respectively. In case of
aldehydes the longest carbon chain is numbered starting from the
carbon of the aldehyde group while in case of ketones the
numbering begins from the end nearer to the carbonyl group. The
substituents are prefixed in alphabetical order along with numerals
indicating their positions in the carbon chain. The same applies to
cyclic ketones, where the carbonyl carbon is numbered one. When
the aldehyde group is attached to a ring, the suffix carbaldehyde
is added after the full name of the cycloalkane. The numbering of
the ring carbon atoms start from the carbon atom attached to the
aldehyde group. The name of the simplest aromatic aldehyde
carrying the aldehyde group on a benzene ring is
benzenecarbaldehyde. However, the common name benzaldehyde
is also accepted by IUPAC. Other aromatic aldehydes are hence
named as substituted benzaldehydes.

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 The common and IUPAC names of some aldehydes and ketones are
given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Common and IUPAC Names of Some Aldehydes and Ketones

Structure Common name IUPAC name

Aldehydes
HCHO Formaldehyde Methanal
CH3CHO Acetaldehyde Ethanal
(CH3)2CHCHO Isobutyraldehyde 2-Methylpropanal

g-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde 3-Methylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde

CH3CH(OCH3)CHO a-Methoxypropionaldehyde 2-Methoxypropanal

CH3CH2CH2CH2CHO Valeraldehyde Pentanal
CH2=CHCHO Acrolein Prop-2-enal

Phthaldehyde Benzene-1,2-dicarbaldehyde

3-Bromobenzenecarbaldehyde
or
m-Bromobenzaldehyde 3-Bromobenzaldehyde

Ketones
CH3COCH2CH2CH3 Methyl n-propyl ketone Pentan-2-one
(CH3)2CHCOCH(CH3)2 Diisopropyl ketone 2,4-Dimethylpentan-3-one

a-Methylcyclohexanone 2-Methylcyclohexanone

(CH3)2C=CHCOCH3 Mesityl oxide 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one

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 2
8.1.2 Structure of The carbonyl carbon atom is sp -hybridised and forms three sigma (s)
the bonds. The fourth valence electron of carbon remains in its p-orbital
Carbonyl and forms a p-bond with oxygen by overlap with p-orbital of an oxygen.
Group In addition, the oxygen atom also has two non bonding electron pairs.
Thus, the carbonyl carbon and the three atoms attached to it lie in the
same plane and the p-electron cloud is above and below this plane. The
bond angles are approximately 120° as expected of a trigonal coplanar
structure (Figure 8.1).

Fig.8.1 Orbital diagram for the formation of carbonyl group

The carbon-oxygen double bond is polarised due to higher

electronegativity of oxygen relative to carbon. Hence, the carbonyl
carbon is an electrophilic (Lewis acid), and carbonyl
oxygen, a nucleophilic (Lewis base) centre. Carbonyl
compounds have substantial dipole moments and are
polar than ethers. The high polarity of the carbonyl group
is explained on the basis of resonance involving a neutral
(A) and a dipolar (B) structures as shown.

Intext Questions
8.1 Write the structures of the following compounds.
(i) a-Methoxypropionaldehyde (ii) 3-Hydroxybutanal
(iii) 2-Hydroxycyclopentane carbaldehyde (iv) 4-Oxopentanal
(v) Di-sec. butyl ketone (vi) 4-Fluoroacetophenone

8.2 Preparation of Aldehydes Some important methods for the preparation of aldehydes
and Ketones and ketones are as follows:

8.2.1 Preparation 1. By oxidation of alcohols

of Aldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary
Aldehydes and secondary alcohols, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII).
and
Ketones 2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols
This method is suitable for volatile alcohols and is of industrial
application. In this method alcohol vapours are passed over heavy
metal catalysts (Ag or Cu). Primary and secondary alcohols give
aldehydes and ketones, respectively (Unit 7, Class XII).
3. From hydrocarbons
(i) By ozonolysis of alkenes: As we know, ozonolysis of alkenes
followed by reaction with zinc dust and water gives aldehydes,
231 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

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 ketones or a mixture of both depending on the substitution
pattern of the alkene (Unit 9, Class XI).
(ii) By hydration of alkynes: Addition of water to ethyne in the
presence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives acetaldehyde. All other
alkynes give ketones in this reaction (Unit 9, Class XI).

8.2.2 Preparation 1. From acyl chloride (acid chloride)

of Acyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium
Aldehydes on barium sulphate. This reaction is called Rosenmund reduction.

2. From nitriles and esters

Nitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride
in the presence of hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give
corresponding aldehyde.

This reaction is called Stephen reaction.

Alternatively, nitriles are selectively reduced by
diisobutylaluminium hydride, (DIBAL-H) to imines followed by
hydrolysis to aldehydes:

Similarly, esters are also reduced to aldehydes with DIBAL-H.

3. From hydrocarbons
Aromatic aldehydes (benzaldehyde and its derivatives) are prepared
from aromatic hydrocarbons by the following methods:
(i) By oxidation of methylbenzene
Strong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to
benzoic acids. However, it is possible to stop the oxidation at
the aldehyde stage with suitable reagents that convert the methyl
group to an intermediate that is difficult to oxidise further. The
following methods are used for this purpose.
(a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2): Chromyl chloride oxidises
methyl group to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis
gives corresponding benzaldehyde.

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 This reaction is called Etard reaction.
(b) Use of chromic oxide (CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene
is converted to benzylidene diacetate on treating with chromic
oxide in acetic anhydride. The benzylidene diacetate can be
hydrolysed to corresponding benzaldehyde with aqueous acid.

(ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis

Side chain chlorination of toluene gives benzal chloride, which
on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde. This is a commercial method
of manufacture of benzaldehyde.

(iii) By Gatterman – Koch reaction

When benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon monoxide
and hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium
chloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted
benzaldehyde.

This reaction is known as Gatterman-Koch reaction.

8.2.3 Preparation 1. From acyl chlorides

of Ketones Treatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium, prepared by the
reaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent, gives ketones.

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 2. From nitriles
Treating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields
a ketone.

3. From benzene or substituted benzenes

When benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid chloride in
the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, it affords the
corresponding ketone. This reaction is known as Friedel-Crafts
acylation reaction.

Example 8.1 Give names of the reagents to bring about the following
transformations:
(i) Hexan-1-ol to hexanal (ii) Cyclohexanol to cyclohexanone
(iii) p-Fluorotoluene to (iv) Ethanenitrile to ethanal
p-fluorobenzaldehyde
(v) Allyl alcohol to propenal (vi) But-2-ene to ethanal

Solution (i) C5H5NH+CrO3Cl-(PCC) (ii) Anhydrous CrO3

(iii) CrO3 in the presence (iv) (Diisobutyl)aluminium
of acetic anhydride/ hydride (DIBAL-H)
1. CrO2Cl2 2. HOH
(v) PCC (vi) O3/H2O-Zn dust

Intext Question
8.2 Write the structures of products of the following reactions;

(C6H5CH2)2 Cd + 2 CH3 COCl

(i) (ii)

CH3
2+
Hg , H2SO4 1.CrO2Cl2
(iii) H3C C C H (iv)
2.H3 O+

NO2

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8.3 Physical The physical properties of aldehydes and ketones are described as
follows.
Properties
Methanal is a gas at room temperature. Ethanal is a volatile liquid.
Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature.
The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than
hydrocarbons and ethers of comparable molecular masses. It is due to
weak molecular association in aldehydes and ketones arising out of the
dipole-dipole interactions. Also, their boiling points are lower than those
of alcohols of similar molecular masses due to absence of intermolecular
hydrogen bonding. The following compounds of molecular masses 58
and 60 are ranked in order of increasing boiling points.

b.p.(K) Molecular Mass

n-Butane 273 58
Methoxyethane 281 60
Propanal 322 58
Acetone 329 58
Propan-1-ol 370 60

The lower members of aldehydes and ketones such as methanal,

ethanal and propanone are miscible with water in all proportions,
because they form hydrogen bond with water.

However, the solubility of aldehydes and ketones decreases rapidly

on increasing the length of alkyl chain. All aldehydes and ketones are
fairly soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, methanol,
chloroform, etc. The lower aldehydes have sharp pungent odours. As
the size of the molecule increases, the odour becomes less pungent
and more fragrant. In fact, many naturally occurring aldehydes and
ketones are used in the blending of perfumes and flavouring agents.

Arrange the following compounds in the increasing order of their Example 8.2
boiling points:
CH3CH2CH2CHO, CH3CH2CH2CH2OH, H5C2-O-C2H5, CH3CH2CH2CH3

The molecular masses of these compounds are in the range of 72 to Solution

74. Since only butan-1-ol molecules are associated due to extensive
intermolecular hydrogen bonding, therefore, the boiling point of
butan-1-ol would be the highest. Butanal is more polar than
ethoxyethane. Therefore, the intermolecular dipole-dipole attraction
is stronger in the former. n-Pentane molecules have only weak van
der Waals forces. Hence increasing order of boiling points of the
given compounds is as follows:
CH3CH2CH2CH3 < H5C2-O-C2H5 < CH3CH2CH2CHO < CH3CH2CH2CH2OH

235 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

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 Intext Question
8.3 Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of
their boiling points.
CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH, CH3OCH3, CH3CH2CH3

8.4 Chemical Since aldehydes and ketones both possess the carbonyl functional
group, they undergo similar chemical reactions.
Reactions
1. Nucleophilic addition reactions
Contrary to electrophilic addition reactions observed in alkenes, the
aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions.
(i) Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions
A nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon atom of the polar
carbonyl group from a direction approximately perpendicular
2
to the plane of sp hybridised orbitals of carbonyl carbon (Fig.
2 3
8.2). The hybridisation of carbon changes from sp to sp in
this process, and a tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate is
produced. This intermediate captures a proton from the
reaction medium to give
the electrically neutral
product. The net result is
– +
addition of Nu and H
across the carbon oxygen
double bond as shown in
Fig. 8.2.

Fig.8.2: Nucleophilic attack on carbonyl carbon

(ii) Reactivity
Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in
nucleophilic addition reactions due to steric and electronic
reasons. Sterically, the presence of two relatively large
substituents in ketones hinders the approach of nucleophile to
carbonyl carbon than in aldehydes having only one such
substituent. Electronically, aldehydes are more reactive than
ketones because two alkyl groups reduce the electrophilicity of
the carbonyl carbon more effectively than in former.

Example 8.3 Would you expect benzaldehyde to be more reactive or less reactive in
nucleophilic addition reactions than propanal? Explain your answer.
Solution The carbon atom of the carbonyl group of benzaldehyde is less
electrophilic than carbon atom of the carbonyl group present in
propanal. The polarity of the carbonyl
group is reduced in benzaldehyde due
to resonance as shown below and
hence it is less reactive than propanal.

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(iii) Some important examples of nucleophilic addition and
nucleophilic addition-elimination reactions:
(a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN): Aldehydes
and ketones react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
to yield cyanohydrins. This reaction occurs very
slowly with pure HCN. Therefore, it is catalysed
-
by a base and the generated cyanide ion (CN )
being a stronger nucleophile readily adds to
carbonyl compounds to yield corresponding
cyanohydrin.
Cyanohydrins are useful synthetic
intermediates.
(b) Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite: Sodium
hydrogensulphite adds to aldehydes and
ketones to form the addition products.
The position of
the equilibrium
lies largely to
the right hand
side for most
aldehydes and to
the left for most
ketones due to steric reasons. The hydrogensulphite addition
compound is water soluble and can be converted back to the
original carbonyl compound by treating it with dilute mineral
acid or alkali. Therefore, these are useful for separation and
purification of aldehydes.
(c) Addition of Grignard reagents: (refer Unit 7, Class XII).
(d) Addition of alcohols: Aldehydes react with one equivalent of
monohydric alcohol in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride
to yield alkoxyalcohol intermediate, known as hemiacetals,
which further react with one more molecule of alcohol to
give a gem-dialkoxy
compound known as
acetal as shown in the
reaction.
Ketones react with
ethylene glycol under
similar conditions to form
cyclic products known as
ethylene glycol ketals.
Dry hydrogen chloride
protonates the oxygen of
the carbonyl compounds
and therefore, increases
the electrophilicity of the
carbonyl carbon facilitating

237 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

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 the nucleophilic attack of ethylene glycol. Acetals and ketals
are hydrolysed with aqueous mineral acids to yield
corresponding aldehydes and ketones respectively.
(e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives: Nucleophiles, such
as ammonia and its derivatives H2N-Z add to the carbonyl
group of aldehydes and ketones. The reaction is reversible
and catalysed by acid.
The equilibrium
favours the product
formation due to rapid
dehydration of the
intermediate to form
>C=N-Z.
Z = Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH2, C6H5NH, NHCONH2, etc.

Table 8.2: Some N-Substituted Derivatives of Aldehydes and Ketones (>C=N-Z)

Z Reagent name Carbonyl derivative Product name

-H Ammonia Imine

-R Amine Substituted imine

(Schiff’s base)

—OH Hydroxylamine Oxime

—NH2 Hydrazine Hydrazone

Phenylhydrazine Phenylhydrazone

2,4-Dinitrophenyl- 2,4 Dinitrophenyl-

hydrazine hydrazone

Semicarbazide Semicarbazone

* 2,4-DNP-derivatives are yellow, orange or red solids, useful for characterisation of aldehydes and ketones.

2. Reduction
(i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to
primary and secondary alcohols respectively by sodium
borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) as
well as by catalytic hydrogenation (Unit 7, Class XII).
(ii) Reduction to hydrocarbons: The carbonyl group of aldehydes
and ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc-
amalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid [Clemmensen

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 reduction] or with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium
or potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene
glycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction).

3. Oxidation
Aldehydes differ from ketones in their oxidation reactions. Aldehydes
Bernhard Tollens
are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with common
(1841-1918) was a
oxidising agents like nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium
Professor of Chemistry
dichromate, etc. Even mild oxidising agents, mainly Tollens’ reagent
at the University of
and Fehlings’ reagent also oxidise aldehydes.
Gottingen, Germany.

Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, i.e.,

strong oxidising agents and at elevated temperatures. Their oxidation
involves carbon-carbon bond cleavage to afford a mixture of carboxylic
acids having lesser number of carbon atoms than the parent ketone.

The mild oxidising agents given below are used to distinguish

aldehydes from ketones:
(i) Tollens’ test: On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared
ammoniacal silver nitrate solution (Tollens’ reagent), a bright
silver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal.
The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion.
The reaction occurs in alkaline medium.

(ii) Fehling’s test: Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions,

Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B. Fehling solution A is
aqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline
sodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt). These two solutions
are mixed in equal amounts before test. On heating an aldehyde
with Fehling’s reagent, a reddish brown precipitate is obtained.
Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion.
Aromatic aldehydes do not respond to this test.

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 (iii) Oxidation of methyl ketones by haloform reaction:
Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group
linked to the carbonyl carbon atom (methyl ketones)
are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of
corresponding carboxylic
acids having one carbon
atom less than that of
carbonyl compound. The
methyl group is
converted to haloform.
This oxidation does not
affect a carbon-carbon
double bond, if present
in the molecule.
Iodoform reaction with sodium hypoiodite is also used for detection
of CH3CO group or CH3CH(OH) group which produces CH3CO group
on oxidation.

Example 8.4 An organic compound (A) with molecular formula C8H8O forms an
orange-red precipitate with 2,4-DNP reagent and gives yellow
precipitate on heating with iodine in the presence of sodium
hydroxide. It neither reduces Tollens’ or Fehlings’ reagent, nor does
it decolourise bromine water or Baeyer’s reagent. On drastic oxidation
with chromic acid, it gives a carboxylic acid (B) having molecular
formula C7H6O2. Identify the compounds (A) and (B) and explain the
reactions involved.
Solution (A) forms 2,4-DNP derivative. Therefore, it is an aldehyde or a ketone.
Since it does not reduce Tollens’ or Fehling reagent, (A) must be a ketone.
(A) responds to iodoform test. Therefore, it should be a methyl ketone.
The molecular formula of (A) indicates high degree of unsaturation, yet
it does not decolourise bromine water or Baeyer’s reagent. This indicates
the presence of unsaturation due to an aromatic ring.
Compound (B), being an oxidation product of a ketone should be a
carboxylic acid. The molecular formula of (B) indicates that it should
be benzoic acid and compound (A) should, therefore, be a
monosubstituted aromatic methyl ketone. The molecular formula of
(A) indicates that it should be phenyl methyl ketone (acetophenone).
Reactions are as follows:

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4. Reactions due to a-hydrogen
Acidity of a-hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones: The aldehydes
and ketones undergo a number of reactions due to the acidic nature
of a-hydrogen.
The acidity of a-hydrogen atoms of carbonyl compounds is due
to the strong electron withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group and
resonance stabilisation of the conjugate base.

(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one

a-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the presence of dilute alkali
as catalyst to form b-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or b-hydroxy
ketones (ketol), respectively. This is known as Aldol reaction.

The name aldol is derived from the names of the two

functional groups, aldehyde and alcohol, present in the products.
The aldol and ketol readily lose water to give a,b-unsaturated
carbonyl compounds which are aldol condensation products
and the reaction is called Aldol condensation. Though ketones
give ketols (compounds containing a keto and alcohol groups),
the general name aldol condensation still applies to the reactions
of ketones due to their similarity with aldehydes.

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 (ii) Cross aldol condensation: When aldol condensation is carried
out between two different aldehydes and / or ketones, it is called
cross aldol condensation. If both of them contain a-hydrogen
atoms, it gives a mixture of four products. This is illustrated
below by aldol reaction of a mixture of ethanal and propanal.

Ketones can also be used as one component in the cross aldol

reactions.

5. Other reactions
(i) Cannizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an
a-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction
(disproportionation) reaction on heating with concentrated alkali.
In this reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to
alcohol while another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt.

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 (ii) Electrophilic substitution reaction: Aromatic aldehydes and ketones
undergo electrophilic substitution at the ring in which the carbonyl
group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group.

Intext Questions
8.4 Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their reactivity in
nucleophilic addition reactions.
(i) Ethanal, Propanal, Propanone, Butanone.
(ii) Benzaldehyde, p-Tolualdehyde, p-Nitrobenzaldehyde, Acetophenone.
Hint: Consider steric effect and electronic effect.
8.5 Predict the products of the following reactions:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

8 . 5 Uses of In chemical industry aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents,

Aldehydes starting materials and reagents for the synthesis of other products.
Formaldehyde is well known as formalin (40%) solution used to preserve
and Ketones biological specimens and to prepare bakelite (a phenol-formaldehyde
resin), urea-formaldehyde glues and other polymeric products.
Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a starting material in the manufacture
of acetic acid, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, polymers and drugs.
Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery and in dye industries. Acetone and
ethyl methyl ketone are common industrial solvents. Many aldehydes
and ketones, e.g., butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone, camphor, etc.
are well known for their odours and flavours.

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 Carboxylic Acids
Carbon compounds containing a carboxyl functional group, –COOH are
called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group, consists of a carbonyl group
attached to a hydroxyl group, hence its name carboxyl. Carboxylic acids
may be aliphatic (RCOOH) or aromatic (ArCOOH) depending on the group,
alkyl or aryl, attached to carboxylic carbon. Large number of carboxylic
acids are found in nature. Some higher members of aliphatic carboxylic
acids (C12 – C18) known as fatty acids, occur in natural fats as esters of
glycerol. Carboxylic acids serve as starting material for several other
important organic compounds such as anhydrides, esters, acid chlorides,
amides, etc.

8 . 6 Nomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group

8.6.1 Since carboxylic acids are amongst the earliest organic compounds to
Nomenclature be isolated from nature, a large number of them are known by their
common names. The common names end with the suffix –ic acid and
have been derived from Latin or Greek names of their natural sources.
For example, formic acid (HCOOH) was first obtained from red ants
(Latin: formica means ant), acetic acid (CH3COOH) from vinegar (Latin:
acetum, means vinegar), butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH) from rancid
butter (Latin: butyrum, means butter).
In the IUPAC system, aliphatic carboxylic acids are named by
replacing the ending –e in the name of the corresponding alkane with –
oic acid. In numbering the carbon chain, the carboxylic carbon is
numbered one. For naming compounds containing more than one
carboxyl group, the alkyl chain leaving carboxyl groups is numbered
and the number of carboxyl groups is indicated by adding the
multiplicative prefix, dicarboxylic acid, tricarboxylic acid, etc. to the name
of parent alkyl chain. The position of –COOH groups are indicated by the
arabic numeral before the multiplicative prefix. Some of the carboxylic
acids along with their common and IUPAC names are listed in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Names and Structures of Some Carboxylic Acids

Structure Common name IUPAC name

HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid
CH3COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid
CH3CH2COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid
CH3CH2CH2COOH Butyric acid Butanoic acid
(CH3)2CHCOOH Isobutyric acid 2-Methylpropanoic acid
HOOC-COOH Oxalic acid Ethanedioic acid
HOOC -CH2-COOH Malonic acid Propanedioic acid
HOOC -(CH2)2-COOH Succinic acid Butanedioic acid
HOOC -(CH2)3-COOH Glutaric acid Pentanedioic acid
HOOC -(CH2)4-COOH Adipic acid Hexanedioic acid
HOOC -CH2-CH(COOH)-CH2-COOH Tricarballylic acid Propane-1, 2, 3-
or carballylic acid tricarboxylic acid

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 Benzoic acid Benzenecarboxylic acid
(Benzoic acid)

Phenylacetic acid 2-Phenylethanoic acid

Phthalic acid Benzene-1, 2-dicarboxylic

acid

8.6.2 Structure In carboxylic acids, the bonds to the carboxyl carbon lie in one plane
of Carboxyl and are separated by about 120°. The carboxylic carbon is less
Group electrophilic than carbonyl carbon because of the possible resonance
structure shown below:

Intext Question
8.6 Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:
(i) Ph CH2CH2COOH (ii) (CH3)2C=CHCOOH

CH3

(iii) COOH (iv)

8.7 Methods of Some important methods of preparation of carboxylic acids are as follows.
Preparation 1. From primary alcohols and aldehydes
of Carboxylic Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common
Acids oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in
neutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
and chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media (Jones reagent).

Jones reagent

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 Carboxylic acids are also prepared from aldehydes by the use of
mild oxidising agents (Section 8.4).
2. From alkylbenzenes
Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of
alkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium
permanganate. The entire side chain is oxidised to the carboxyl group
irrespective of length of the side chain. Primary and secondary alkyl
groups are oxidised in this manner while tertiary group is not affected.
Suitably substituted alkenes are also oxidised to carboxylic acids
with these oxidising reagents.

3. From nitriles and amides

Nitriles are hydrolysed to amides and then to acids in the presence of

+
H or OH as catalyst. Mild reaction conditions are used to stop the
reaction at the amide stage.

4. From Grignard reagents

Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form salts of
carboxylic acids which in turn give corresponding carboxylic acids
after acidification with mineral acid.

As we know, the Grignard reagents and nitriles can be prepared

from alkyl halides (refer Unit 6, Class XII). The above methods

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 (3 and 4) are useful for converting alkyl halides into corresponding
carboxylic acids having one carbon atom more than that present in
alkyl halides (ascending the series).
5. From acyl halides and anhydrides
Acid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give carboxylic acids or more
readily hydrolysed with aqueous base to give carboxylate ions which on
acidification provide corresponding carboxylic acids. Anhydrides on the
other hand are hydrolysed to corresponding acid(s) with water.

6. From esters
Acidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic
hydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give
corresponding carboxylic acids.

Write chemical reactions to affect the following transformations: Example 8.5

(i) Butan-1-ol to butanoic acid
(ii) Benzyl alcohol to phenylethanoic acid
(iii) 3-Nitrobromobenzene to 3-nitrobenzoic acid
(iv) 4-Methylacetophenone to benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid
(v) Cyclohexene to hexane-1,6-dioic acid
(vi) Butanal to butanoic acid.

247 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

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 Solution (i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

Intext Question
8.7 Show how each of the following compounds can be
converted to benzoic acid.
(i) Ethylbenzene (ii) Acetophenone
(iii) Bromobenzene (iv) Phenylethene (Styrene)

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8.8 Physical Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon atoms are colourless
liquids at room temperature with unpleasant odours. The higher
Properties acids are wax like solids and are practically odourless due
to their low volatility. Carboxylic acids are higher boiling
liquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols of
comparable molecular masses. This is due to more extensive
association of carboxylic acid molecules through
intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The hydrogen bonds are
not broken completely even in the vapour phase. In fact,
In vapour state or in most carboxylic acids exist as dimer in the vapour phase
aprotic solvent or in the aprotic solvents.
Simple aliphatic carboxylic acids having upto four
carbon atoms are miscible in water due to the formation
of hydrogen bonds with water. The solubility decreases
with increasing number of carbon atoms. Higher
carboxylic acids are practically insoluble in water due to
the increased hydrophobic interaction of hydrocarbon
part. Benzoic acid, the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid
Hydrogen bonding of is nearly insoluble in cold water. Carboxylic acids are
RCOOH with H2O also soluble in less polar organic solvents like benzene,
ether, alcohol, chloroform, etc.

8.9 Chemical Reactions The reaction of carboxylic acids are classified as follows:

8.9.1 Reactions Acidity

Involving Reactions with metals and alkalies
Cleavage of
The carboxylic acids like alcohols evolve hydrogen with electropositive
O–H Bond
metals and form salts with alkalies similar to phenols. However, unlike
phenols they react with weaker bases such as carbonates and
hydrogencarbonates to evolve carbon dioxide. This reaction is used to
detect the presence of carboxyl group in an organic compound.

Carboxylic acids dissociate in water to give resonance stabilised

carboxylate anions and hydronium ion.

249 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

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 For the above reaction:

where Keq, is equilibrium constant and Ka is the acid dissociation

constant.
For convenience, the strength of an acid is generally indicated by
its pKa value rather than its Ka value.
pKa = – log Ka
The pKa of hydrochloric acid is –7.0, where as pKa of trifluoroacetic
acid (the strongest carboxylic acid), benzoic acid and acetic acid are
0.23, 4.19 and 4.76, respectively.
Smaller the pKa, the stronger the acid ( the better it is as a proton
donor). Strong acids have pKa values < 1, the acids with pKa values
between 1 and 5 are considered to be moderately strong acids, weak
acids have pKa values between 5 and 15, and extremely weak acids
have pKa values >15.
Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids, but they are stronger
acids than alcohols and many simple phenols (pKa is ~16 for ethanol
and 10 for phenol). In fact, carboxylic acids are amongst the most acidic
organic compounds you have studied so far. You already know why
phenols are more acidic than alcohols. The higher acidity of carboxylic
acids as compared to phenols can be understood similarly. The conjugate
base of carboxylic acid, a carboxylate ion, is stabilised by two equivalent
resonance structures in which the negative charge is at the more
electronegative oxygen atom. The conjugate base of phenol, a phenoxide
ion, has non-equivalent resonance structures in which the negative charge
is at the less electronegative carbon atom. Therefore, resonance in
phenoxide ion is not as important as it is in carboxylate ion. Further, the
negative charge is delocalised over two electronegative oxygen atoms in
carboxylate ion whereas it is less effectively delocalised over one oxygen
atom and less electronegative carbon atoms in phenoxide ion (Unit 7,
Class XII). Thus, the carboxylate ion is more stabilised than phenoxide
ion, so carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols.
Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:
Substituents may affect the stability of the conjugate base and thus,
also affect the acidity of the carboxylic acids. Electron withdrawing
groups increase the acidity of carboxylic acids by stabilising the
conjugate base through delocalisation of the negative charge by
inductive and/or resonance effects. Conversely, electron donating groups
decrease the acidity by destabilising the conjugate base.

Electron withdrawing group (EWG) Electron donating group (EDG)

stabilises the carboxylate anion destabilises the carboxylate
and strengthens the acid anion and weakens the acid

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 The effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is
Ph < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3
Thus, the following acids are arranged in order of increasing acidity
(based on pKa values):
CF3COOH > CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > NO2CH2COOH > NC-CH2COOH >

FCH2COOH > ClCH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > HCOOH > ClCH2CH2COOH >
(continue)

C6H5COOH > C6H5CH2COOH > CH3COOH > CH3CH2COOH

(continue )
Direct attachment of groups such as phenyl or vinyl to the carboxylic
acid, increases the acidity of corresponding carboxylic acid, contrary to
the decrease expected due to resonance effect shown below:

2
This is because of greater electronegativity of sp hybridised carbon
to which carboxyl carbon is attached. The presence of electron
withdrawing group on the phenyl of aromatic carboxylic acid increases
their acidity while electron donating groups decrease their acidity.
COOH COOH COOH

OCH 3 NO2
4-Methoxy Benzoic acid 4-Nitrobenzoic
benzoic acid acid
(pKa = 4.46) (pKa = 4.19) (pKa = 3.41)

8.9.2 Reactions 1. Formation of anhydride

Involving Carboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with
Cleavage of P2O5 give corresponding anhydride.
C–OH Bond

2. Esterification
Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence
of a mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst.

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 Mechanism of esterification of carboxylic acids: The esterification of carboxylic
acids with alcohols is a kind of nucleophilic acyl substitution. Protonation of the
carbonyl oxygen activates the carbonyl group towards nucleophilic addition of the
alcohol. Proton transfer in the tetrahedral intermediate converts the hydroxyl group
+
into – OH2 group, which, being a better leaving group, is eliminated as neutral water
molecule. The protonated ester so formed finally loses a proton to give the ester.

3. Reactions with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2

The hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids, behaves like that of alcohols
and is easily replaced by chlorine atom on treating with PCl5, PCl3 or
SOCl2. Thionyl chloride (SOCl2) is preferred because the other two
products are gaseous and escape the reaction mixture making the
purification of the products easier.

4. Reaction with ammonia

Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which
on further heating at high temperature give amides. For example:

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8.9.3 Reactions 1. Reduction
Involving Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium
–COOH aluminium hydride or better with diborane. Diborane does not easily
Group reduce functional groups such as ester, nitro, halo, etc. Sodium
borohydride does not reduce the carboxyl group.

2. Decarboxylation
Carboxylic acids lose carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons when their
sodium salts are heated with sodalime (NaOH and CaO in the ratio of
3 : 1). The reaction is known as decarboxylation.

Alkali metal salts of carboxylic acids also undergo decarboxylation

on electrolysis of their aqueous solutions and form hydrocarbons having
twice the number of carbon atoms present in the alkyl group of the acid.
The reaction is known as Kolbe electrolysis (Unit 9, Class XI).
8.9.4 Substitution 1. Halogenation
Reactions in the Carboxylic acids having an a-hydrogen are halogenated at the
Hydrocarbon Part a-position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of
small amount of red phosphorus to give a-halocarboxylic acids. The
reaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction.

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 2. Ring substitution
Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions
in which the carboxyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing
group. They however, do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction
(because the carboxyl group is deactivating and the catalyst
aluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl group).

Intext Question
8.8 Which acid of each pair shown here would you expect to be stronger?
(i) CH3CO2H or CH2FCO2H (ii) CH2FCO2H or CH2ClCO2H
(iii) CH2FCH2CH2CO2H or CH3CHFCH2CO2H

(iv)

8.10 Uses of Methanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating
Carboxylic industries. Ethanoic acid is used as solvent and as vinegar in food industry.
Hexanedioic acid is used in the manufacture of nylon-6, 6. Esters of benzoic
Acids acid are used in perfumery. Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative.
Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents.

Summary
Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are some of the important classes of
organic compounds containing carbonyl group. These are highly polar molecules.
Therefore, they boil at higher temperatures than the hydrocarbons and weakly
polar compounds such as ethers of comparable molecular masses. The lower
members are more soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water.
The higher members, because of large size of hydrophobic chain of carbon atoms,
are insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents. Aldehydes are
prepared by dehydrogenation or controlled oxidation of primary alcohols and
controlled or selective reduction of acyl halides. Aromatic aldehydes may also be
prepared by oxidation of (i) methylbenzene with chromyl chloride or CrO3 in the
presence of acetic anhydride, (ii) formylation of arenes with carbon monoxide and
hydrochloric acid in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, and (iii) cuprous
chloride or by hydrolysis of benzal chloride. Ketones are prepared by oxidation of
secondary alcohols and hydration of alkynes. Ketones are also prepared by reaction
of acyl chloride with dialkylcadmium. A good method for the preparation of aromatic
ketones is the Friedel-Crafts acylation of aromatic hydrocarbons with acyl chlorides
or anhydrides. Both aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by ozonolysis of alkenes.
Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions onto the carbonyl
group with a number of nucleophiles such as, HCN, NaHSO3, alcohols (or diols),

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 ammonia derivatives, and Grignard reagents. The a-hydrogens in aldehydes and
ketones are acidic. Therefore, aldehydes and ketones having at least one a-hydrogen,
undergo Aldol condensation in the presence of a base to give a-hydroxyaldehydes
(aldol) and a-hydroxyketones(ketol), respectively. Aldehydes having no a-hydrogen
undergo Cannizzaro reaction in the presence of concentrated alkali. Aldehydes
and ketones are reduced to alcohols with NaBH4, LiAlH4, or by catalytic hydrogenation.
The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to a methylene group
by Clemmensen reduction or Wolff-Kishner reduction. Aldehydes are easily
oxidised to carboxylic acids by mild oxidising reagents such as Tollens’ reagent and
Fehling’s reagent. These oxidation reactions are used to distinguish aldehydes from
ketones. Carboxylic acids are prepared by the oxidation of primary alcohols, aldehydes
and alkenes by hydrolysis of nitriles, and by treatment of Grignard reagents with
carbon dioxide. Aromatic carboxylic acids are also prepared by side-chain oxidation
of alkylbenzenes. Carboxylic acids are considerably more acidic than alcohols and
most of simple phenols. Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols with LiAlH4,
or better with diborane in ether solution and also undergo a-halogenation with Cl2
and Br2 in the presence of red phosphorus (Hell-Volhard Zelinsky reaction).
Methanal, ethanal, propanone, benzaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid and benzoic
acid are highly useful compounds in industry.

Exercises
8.1 What is meant by the following terms ? Give an example of the reaction in
each case.
(i) Cyanohydrin (ii) Acetal (iii) Semicarbazone
(iv) Aldol (v) Hemiacetal (vi) Oxime
(vii) Ketal (vii) Imine (ix) 2,4-DNP-derivative
(x) Schiff’s base
8.2 Name the following compounds according to IUPAC system of nomenclature:
(i) CH3CH(CH3)CH2CH2CHO (ii) CH3CH2COCH(C2H5)CH2CH2Cl
(iii) CH3CH=CHCHO (iv) CH3COCH2COCH3
(v) CH3CH(CH3)CH2C(CH3)2COCH3 (vi) (CH3)3CCH2COOH
(vii) OHCC6H4CHO-p
8.3 Draw the structures of the following compounds.
(i) 3-Methylbutanal (ii) p-Nitropropiophenone
(iii) p-Methylbenzaldehyde (iv) 4-Methylpent-3-en-2-one
(v) 4-Chloropentan-2-one (vi) 3-Bromo-4-phenylpentanoic acid
(vii) p,p’-Dihydroxybenzophenone (viii) Hex-2-en-4-ynoic acid
8.4 Write the IUPAC names of the following ketones and aldehydes. Wherever
possible, give also common names.
(i) CH3CO(CH2)4CH3 (ii) CH3CH2CHBrCH2CH(CH3)CHO
(iii) CH3(CH2)5CHO (iv) Ph-CH=CH-CHO
CHO
(v) (vi) PhCOPh

8.5 Draw structures of the following derivatives.

(i) The 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone of benzaldehyde
(ii) Cyclopropanone oxime
(iii) Acetaldehydedimethylacetal
(iv) The semicarbazone of cyclobutanone
(v) The ethylene ketal of hexan-3-one
(vi) The methyl hemiacetal of formaldehyde

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 8.6 Predict the products formed when cyclohexanecarbaldehyde reacts with
following reagents.
+
(i) PhMgBr and then H3O (ii) Tollens’ reagent
(iii) Semicarbazide and weak acid (iv) Excess ethanol and acid
(v) Zinc amalgam and dilute hydrochloric acid
8.7 Which of the following compounds would undergo aldol condensation, which
the Cannizzaro reaction and which neither? Write the structures of the expected
products of aldol condensation and Cannizzaro reaction.
(i) Methanal (ii) 2-Methylpentanal (iii) Benzaldehyde
(iv) Benzophenone (v) Cyclohexanone (vi) 1-Phenylpropanone
(vii) Phenylacetaldehyde (viii) Butan-1-ol (ix) 2,2-Dimethylbutanal
8.8 How will you convert ethanal into the following compounds?
(i) Butane-1,3-diol (ii) But-2-enal (iii) But-2-enoic acid
8.9 Write structural formulas and names of four possible aldol condensation
products from propanal and butanal. In each case, indicate which aldehyde
acts as nucleophile and which as electrophile.
8.10 An organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4-DNP derivative,
reduces Tollens’ reagent and undergoes Cannizzaro reaction. On vigorous oxidation,
it gives 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid. Identify the compound.
8.11 An organic compound (A) (molecular formula C8H 16O 2) was hydrolysed with
dilute sulphuric acid to give a carboxylic acid (B) and an alcohol (C). Oxidation
of (C) with chromic acid produced (B). (C) on dehydration gives but-1-ene.
Write equations for the reactions involved.
8.12 Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of their property as indicated:
(i) Acetaldehyde, Acetone, Di-tert-butyl ketone, Methyl tert-butyl ketone
(reactivity towards HCN)
(ii) CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH, CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH, (CH3)2CHCOOH,
CH3CH2CH2COOH (acid strength)
(iii) Benzoic acid, 4-Nitrobenzoic acid, 3,4-Dinitrobenzoic acid,
4-Methoxybenzoic acid (acid strength)
8.13 Give simple chemical tests to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds.
(i) Propanal and Propanone (ii) Acetophenone and Benzophenone
(iii) Phenol and Benzoic acid (iv) Benzoic acid and Ethyl benzoate
(v) Pentan-2-one and Pentan-3-one (vi) Benzaldehyde and Acetophenone
(vii) Ethanal and Propanal
8.14 How will you prepare the following compounds from benzene? You may use
any inorganic reagent and any organic reagent having not more than one
carbon atom
(i) Methyl benzoate (ii) m-Nitrobenzoic acid
(iii) p-Nitrobenzoic acid (iv) Phenylacetic acid
(v) p-Nitrobenzaldehyde.
8.15 How will you bring about the following conversions in not more than two steps?
(i) Propanone to Propene (ii) Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde
(iii) Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal (iv) Benzene to m-Nitroacetophenone
(v) Benzaldehyde to Benzophenone (vi) Bromobenzene to 1-Phenylethanol
(vii) Benzaldehyde to 3-Phenylpropan-1-ol
(viii) Benazaldehyde to a-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid
(ix) Benzoic acid to m- Nitrobenzyl alcohol
8.16 Describe the following:
(i) Acetylation (ii) Cannizzaro reaction
(iii) Cross aldol condensation (iv) Decarboxylation

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8.17 Complete each synthesis by giving missing starting material, reagent or products

8.18 Give plausible explanation for each of the following:

(i) Cyclohexanone forms cyanohydrin in good yield but 2,2,6-trimethylcyclo-
hexanone does not.
(ii) There are two –NH2 groups in semicarbazide. However, only one is involved
in the formation of semicarbazones.
(iii) During the preparation of esters from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in
the presence of an acid catalyst, the water or the ester should be removed
as soon as it is formed.
8.19 An organic compound contains 69.77% carbon, 11.63% hydrogen and rest oxygen.
The molecular mass of the compound is 86. It does not reduce Tollens’ reagent
but forms an addition compound with sodium hydrogensulphite and give positive
iodoform test. On vigorous oxidation it gives ethanoic and propanoic acid. Write
the possible structure of the compound.
8.20 Although phenoxide ion has more number of resonating structures than
carboxylate ion, carboxylic acid is a stronger acid than phenol. Why?

Answers to Some Intext Questions

8.1
(i) (iv)

(ii) (v)

(iii)
(vi)

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 8.2 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

8.3 CH3CH2CH3 < CH3OCH3 < CH3CHO < CH3CH2OH

8.4 (i) Butanone < Propanone < Propanal < Ethanal
(ii) Acetophenone < p-Tolualdehyde , Benzaldehyde < p-Nitrobenzaldehyde.

8.5 (i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

8.6 (i) 3-Phenylpropanoic acid (ii) 3-Methylbut-2-enoic acid

(iii) 2-Methylcyclopentanecarboxylic acid. (iv) 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzoic acid

8.7

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

8.8

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 Unit

Objectives
9
A mines
After studying this Unit, you will be
able to
“The chief commercial use of amines is as intermediates in the
· describe amines as derivatives of
synthesis of medicines and fibres” .
ammonia having a pyramidal
structure;
Amines constitute an important class of organic
· classify amines as primary,
secondary and tertiary;
compounds derived by replacing one or more hydrogen
atoms of ammonia molecule by alkyl/aryl group(s). In
· name amines by common names
and IUPAC system; nature, they occur among proteins, vitamins, alkaloids
and hormones. Synthetic examples include polymers,
· describe some of the important
methods of preparation of amines; dye stuffs and drugs. Two biologically active
· explain the properties of amines;
compounds, namely adrenaline and ephedrine, both
containing secondary amino group, are used to increase
· distinguish between primary,
secondary and tertiary amines; blood pressure. Novocain, a synthetic amino compound,
is used as an anaesthetic in dentistry. Benadryl, a well
· describe the method of prepara-
tion of diazonium salts and their known antihistaminic drug also contains tertiary amino
importance in the synthesis of a group. Quaternary ammonium salts are used as
series of aromatic compounds surfactants. Diazonium salts are intermediates in the
including azo dyes. preparation of a variety of aromatic compounds
including dyes. In this Unit, you will learn about amines
and diazonium salts.
I. AMINES
Amines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia,
obtained by replacement of one, two or all the three
hydrogen atoms by alkyl and/or aryl groups.
For example:

9.1 Structure of Amines Like ammonia, nitrogen atom of amines is trivalent and
carries an unshared pair of electrons. Nitrogen orbitals
in amines are therefore, sp3 hybridised and the geometry
of amines is pyramidal. Each of the three sp3 hybridised
orbitals of nitrogen overlap with orbitals of hydrogen or
carbon depending upon the composition of the amines.
The fourth orbital of nitrogen in all amines contains an
unshared pair of electrons. Due to the presence of
unshared pair of electrons, the angle C–N–E, (where E is

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 C or H) is less than 109.5°; for instance, it is 108o in case of
trimethylamine as shown in Fig. 9.1.

Fig. 9.1 Pyramidal shape of trimethylamine

9.2 Classification Amines are classified as primary (1o), secondary (2o) and tertiary (3o)
depending upon the number of hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl or
aryl groups in ammonia molecule. If one hydrogen atom of ammonia
is replaced by R or Ar , we get RNH2 or ArNH2, a primary amine (1o).
If two hydrogen atoms of ammonia or one hydrogen atom of R-NH2 are
replaced by another alkyl/aryl(R’) group, what would you get? You
get R-NHR’, secondary amine. The second alkyl/aryl group may be
same or different. Replacement of another hydrogen atom by alkyl/aryl
group leads to the formation of tertiary amine. Amines are said to be
‘simple’ when all the alkyl or aryl groups are the same, and ‘mixed’
when they are different.

9.3 Nomenclature In common system, an aliphatic amine is named by prefixing alkyl

group to amine, i.e., alkylamine as one word (e.g., methylamine). In
secondary and tertiary amines, when two or more groups are the same,
the prefix di or tri is appended before the name of alkyl group. In
IUPAC system, primary amines are named as alkanamines. The name
is derived by replacement of ‘e’ of alkane by the word amine. For
example, CH3NH2 is named as methanamine. In case, more than one
amino group is present at different positions in the parent chain, their
positions are specified by giving numbers to the carbon atoms bearing
–NH2 groups and suitable prefix such as di, tri, etc. is attached to the
amine. The letter ‘e’ of the suffix of the hydrocarbon part is retained. For
example, H2N–CH2–CH2–NH2 is named as ethane-1, 2-diamine.
To name secondary and tertiary amines, we use locant N to designate
substituent attached to a nitrogen atom. For example, CH3 NHCH2CH3 is

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 named as N-methylethanamine and (CH3CH2)3N is named as N, N-
diethylethanamine. More examples are given in Table 9.1.
In arylamines, –NH2 group is directly attached to the benzene ring.
C6H5NH2 is the simplest example of arylamine. In common system, it
is known as aniline. It is also an accepted IUPAC name. While naming
arylamines according to IUPAC system, suffix ‘e’ of arene is replaced by
‘amine’. Thus in IUPAC system, C6H5–NH2 is named as benzenamine.
Common and IUPAC names of some alkylamines and arylamines are
given in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1: Nomenclature of Some Alkylamines and Arylamines

Amine Common name IUPAC name

CH3-–CH2–NH2 Ethylamine Ethanamine
CH3–CH2–CH2–NH2 n-Propylamine Propan-1-amine
Isopropylamine Propan-2-amine

Ethylmethylamine N-Methylethanamine

Trimethylamine N,N-Dimethylmethanamine

N,N-Diethylbutylamine N,N-Diethylbutan-1-amine

Allylamine Prop-2-en-1-amine
Hexamethylenediamine Hexane-1,6-diamine

Aniline Aniline or Benzenamine

o-Toluidine 2-Methylaniline

p-Bromoaniline 4-Bromobenzenamine
or
4-Bromoaniline

N,N-Dimethylaniline N,N-Dimethylbenzenamine

261 Amines

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 Intext Questions
9.1 Classify the following amines as primary, secondary or tertiary:

9.2 (i) Write structures of different isomeric amines corresponding to the molecular
formula, C4H11N.
(ii) Write IUPAC names of all the isomers.
(iii) What type of isomerism is exhibited by different pairs of amines?

9 . 4 Preparation Amines are prepared by the following methods:

of Amines 1. Reduction of nitro compounds
Nitro compounds are reduced to amines by passing hydrogen gas
in the presence of finely divided nickel, palladium or platinum and
also by reduction with metals in acidic medium. Nitroalkanes can
also be similarly reduced to the corresponding alkanamines.

Reduction with iron scrap and hydrochloric acid is preferred because

FeCl2 formed gets hydrolysed to release hydrochloric acid during the
reaction. Thus, only a small amount of hydrochloric acid is required
to initiate the reaction.
2. Ammonolysis of alkyl halides
You have read (Unit 6, Class XII) that the carbon - halogen bond in
alkyl or benzyl halides can be easily cleaved by a nucleophile. Hence,
an alkyl or benzyl halide on reaction with an ethanolic solution of
ammonia undergoes nucleophilic substitution reaction in which the
halogen atom is replaced by an amino (–NH2) group. This process of
cleavage of the C–X bond by ammonia molecule is known as
ammonolysis. The reaction is carried out in a sealed tube at 373
K. The primary amine thus obtained behaves as a nucleophile and
can further react with alkyl halide to form secondary and tertiary
amines, and finally quaternary ammonium salt.

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 The free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment
with a strong base:

Ammonolysis has the disadvantage of yielding a mixture of primary,

secondary and tertiary amines and also a quaternary ammonium salt.
However, primary amine is obtained as a major product by taking
large excess of ammonia.
The order of reactivity of halides with amines is RI > RBr >RCl.

Write chemical equations for the following reactions: Example 9.1

(i) Reaction of ethanolic NH3 with C2H5Cl.
(ii) Ammonolysis of benzyl chloride and reaction of amine so formed
with two moles of CH3Cl.
Solution

3. Reduction of nitriles
Nitriles on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) or
catalytic hydrogenation produce primary amines. This reaction is
used for ascent of amine series, i.e., for preparation of amines
containing one carbon atom more than the starting amine.

4. Reduction of amides
The amides on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride yield
amines.

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 5. Gabriel phthalimide synthesis
Gabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of primary amines.
Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic potassium hydroxide forms
potassium salt of phthalimide which on heating with alkyl halide
followed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary
amine. Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this method
because aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with
the anion formed by phthalimide.

6. Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction

Hoffmann developed a method for preparation of primary amines by
treating an amide with bromine in an aqueous or ethanolic solution
of sodium hydroxide. In this degradation reaction, migration of an
alkyl or aryl group takes place from carbonyl carbon of the amide
to the nitrogen atom. The amine so formed contains one carbon less
than that present in the amide.

Example 9.2 Write chemical equations for the following conversions:

(i) CH3–CH2–Cl into CH3–CH2–CH2–NH2
(ii) C6H5–CH2–Cl into C6H5–CH2–CH2–NH2

Solution

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 Write structures and IUPAC names of Example 9.3
(i) the amide which gives propanamine by Hoffmann bromamide
reaction.
(ii) the amine produced by the Hoffmann degradation of benzamide.
Solution
(i) Propanamine contains three carbons. Hence, the amide molecule must
contain four carbon atoms. Structure and IUPAC name of the starting
amide with four carbon atoms are given below:
Butanamide

(ii) Benzamide is an aromatic amide containing seven carbon atoms.

Hence, the amine formed from benzamide is aromatic primary amine
containing six carbon atoms.

Aniline or benzenamine

Intext Question
9.3 How will you convert
(i) Benzene into aniline (ii) Benzene into N, N-dimethylaniline
(iii) Cl–(CH2)4–Cl into hexan-1,6-diamine?

9.5 Physical The lower aliphatic amines are gases with fishy odour. Primary amines
with three or more carbon atoms are liquid and still higher ones are
Properties solid. Aniline and other arylamines are usually colourless but get
coloured on storage due to atmospheric oxidation.
Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water because they can form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules. However, solubility decreases
with increase in molar mass of amines due to increase in size of the
hydrophobic alkyl part. Higher amines are essentially insoluble in water.
Considering the electronegativity of nitrogen of amine and oxygen of
alcohol as 3.0 and 3.5 respectively, you can predict the pattern of
solubility of amines and alcohols in water. Out of butan-1-ol and
butan-1-amine, which will be more soluble in water and why? Amines
are soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether and benzene. You
may remember that alcohols are more polar than amines and form
stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds than amines.
Primary and secondary amines are engaged in intermolecular
association due to hydrogen bonding between nitrogen of one and
hydrogen of another molecule. This intermolecular association is more
in primary amines than in secondary amines as there are two hydrogen
atoms available for hydrogen bond formation in it. Tertiary amines do
not have intermolecular association due to the absence of hydrogen
atom available for hydrogen bond formation. Therefore, the order of
boiling points of isomeric amines is as follows:
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 Primary > Secondary > Tertiary
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines is shown in
Fig. 9.2.

Fig. 9.2 Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in primary amines

Boiling points of amines, alcohols and alkanes of almost the same

molar mass are shown in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Comparison of Boiling Points of Amines, Alcohols and

Alkanes of Similar Molecular Masses

Sl. No. Compound Molar mass b.p./K

1. n-C4H9NH2 73 350.8
2. (C2H5)2NH 73 329.3
3. C2H5N(CH3)2 73 310.5
4. C2H5CH(CH3)2 72 300.8
5. n-C4H9OH 74 390.3

9.6 Chemical Difference in electronegativity between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms and
the presence of unshared pair of electrons over the nitrogen atom makes
Reactions amines reactive. The number of hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen
atom also decides the course of reaction of amines; that is why primary

(–NH2), secondary N H and tertiary amines N differ in many

reactions. Moreover, amines behave as nucleophiles due to the presence
of unshared electron pair. Some of the reactions of amines are described
below:
1. Basic character of amines
Amines, being basic in nature, react with acids to form salts.

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 Amine salts on treatment with a base like NaOH, regenerate the
parent amine.

Amine salts are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents

like ether. This reaction is the basis for the separation of amines from
the non basic organic compounds insoluble in water.
The reaction of amines with mineral acids to form ammonium salts
shows that these are basic in nature. Amines have an unshared pair
of electrons on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis base.
Basic character of amines can be better understood in terms of their Kb
and pKb values as explained below:


   
R  NH3  O H 
K =
R  NH2 H2O 
 
 
R  N H3  O H 
or K [H2O] =
 R  NH2 
 
 
 R  N H 3  O H 
or Kb =
R  NH2 
pKb = –log Kb
Larger the value of Kb or smaller the value of pKb, stronger is the
base. The pKb values of few amines are given in Table 9.3.
pKb value of ammonia is 4.75. Aliphatic amines are stronger bases
than ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl groups leading to high electron
density on the nitrogen atom. Their pKb values lie in the range of 3 to
4.22. On the other hand, aromatic amines are weaker bases than
ammonia due to the electron withdrawing nature of the aryl group.
Table 9.3: pKb Values of Amines in Aqueous Phase

Name of amine pKb

Methanamine 3.38
N-Methylmethanamine 3.27
N,N-Dimethylmethanamine 4.22
Ethanamine 3.29
N-Ethylethanamine 3.00
N,N-Diethylethanamine 3.25
Benzenamine 9.38
Phenylmethanamine 4.70
N-Methylaniline 9.30
N,N-Dimethylaniline 8.92

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 You may find some discrepancies while trying to interpret the Kb
values of amines on the basis of +I or –I effect of the substituents
present in amines. Besides inductive effect, there are other effects like
solvation effect, steric hinderance, etc., which affect the basic strength
of amines. Just ponder over. You may get the answer in the following
paragraphs.
Structure-basicity relationship of amines
Basicity of amines is related to their structure. Basic character of an
amine depends upon the ease of formation of the cation by accepting
a proton from the acid. The more stable the cation is relative to the
amine, more basic is the amine.
(a) Alkanamines versus ammonia
Let us consider the reaction of an alkanamine and ammonia with
a proton to compare their basicity.

Due to the electron releasing nature of alkyl group, it (R) pushes

electrons towards nitrogen and thus makes the unshared electron
pair more available for sharing with the proton of the acid. Moreover,
the substituted ammonium ion formed from the amine gets stabilised
due to dispersal of the positive charge by the +I effect of the alkyl
group. Hence, alkylamines are stronger bases than ammonia.
Thus, the basic nature of aliphatic amines should increase with
increase in the number of alkyl groups. This trend is followed in
the gaseous phase. The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous
phase follows the expected order: tertiary amine > secondary amine
> primary amine > NH3. The trend is not regular in the aqueous
state as evident by their pKb values given in Table 9.3. In the
aqueous phase, the substituted ammonium cations get stabilised
not only by electron releasing effect of the alkyl group (+I) but also
by solvation with water molecules. The greater the size of the ion,
lesser will be the solvation and the less stabilised is the ion. The
order of stability of ions are as follows:

Decreasing order of extent of H-bonding in water and order of

stability of ions by solvation.
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 Greater is the stability of the substituted ammonium cation, stronger
should be the corresponding amine as a base. Thus, the order of basicity
of aliphatic amines should be: primary > secondary > tertiary, which
is opposite to the inductive effect based order. Secondly, when the
alkyl group is small, like –CH3 group, there is no steric hindrance to
H-bonding. In case the alkyl group is bigger than CH3 group, there will
be steric hinderance to H-bonding. Therefore, the change of nature of
the alkyl group, e.g., from –CH3 to –C2H5 results in change of the order
of basic strength. Thus, there is a subtle interplay of the inductive
effect, solvation effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which
decides the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state. The
order of basic strength in case of methyl substituted amines and ethyl
substituted amines in aqueous solution is as follows:
(C2H5)2NH > (C2H5)3N > C2H5NH2 > NH3
(CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3
(b) Arylamines versus ammonia
pKb value of aniline is quite high. Why is it so? It is because in
aniline or other arylamines, the -NH2 group is attached directly to
the benzene ring. It results in the unshared electron pair on nitrogen
atom to be in conjugation with the benzene ring and thus making
it less available for protonation. If you write different resonating
structures of aniline, you will find that aniline is a resonance
hybrid of the following five structures.

On the other hand, anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton

can have only two resonating structures (kekule).

We know that greater the number of resonating structures, greater

is the stability. Thus you can infer that aniline (five resonating
structures) is more stable than anilinium ion. Hence, the proton
acceptability or the basic nature of aniline or other aromatic amines
would be less than that of ammonia. In case of substituted aniline, it
is observed that electron releasing groups like –OCH3, –CH3 increase
basic strength whereas electron withdrawing groups like –NO2, –SO3H,
–COOH, –X decrease it.

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 Example 9.4 Arrange the following in decreasing order of their basic strength:
C6H5NH2, C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, NH3

Solution The decreasing order of basic strength of the above amines and ammonia
follows the following order:
(C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > NH3 > C6H5NH2

2. Alkylation
Amines undergo alkylation on reaction with alkyl halides (refer Unit
6, Class XII).
3. Acylation
Aliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines react with
acid chlorides, anhydrides and esters by nucleophilic substitution
reaction. This reaction is known as acylation. You can consider
this reaction as the replacement of hydrogen atom of –NH2 or >N–H
group by the acyl group. The products obtained by acylation reaction
are known as amides. The reaction is carried out in the presence of
a base stronger than the amine, like pyridine, which removes HCl so
formed and shifts the equilibrium to the right hand side.

Amines also react with benzoyl chloride (C6H5COCl). This reaction

is known as benzoylation.
CH3 NH2  C6 H5 COCl  CH 3 NHCOC6 H5  HCl
Methanamine Benzoyl chloride N  Methylbenzamide
What do you think is the product of the reaction of amines with
carboxylic acids ? They form salts with amines at room temperature.

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4. Carbylamine reaction
Aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform
and ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines
which are foul smelling substances. Secondary and tertiary amines
do not show this reaction. This reaction is known as carbylamine
reaction or isocyanide test and is used as a test for primary amines.

5. Reaction with nitrous acid

Three classes of amines react differently with nitrous acid which is
prepared in situ from a mineral acid and sodium nitrite.
(a) Primary aliphatic amines react with nitrous acid to form aliphatic
diazonium salts which being unstable, liberate nitrogen gas
quantitatively and alcohols. Quantitative evolution of nitrogen is
used in estimation of amino acids and proteins.

(b) Aromatic amines react with nitrous acid at low temperatures

(273-278 K) to form diazonium salts, a very important class of
compounds used for synthesis of a variety of aromatic compounds
discussed in Section 9.7.

Secondary and tertiary amines react with nitrous acid in a

different manner.
6. Reaction with arylsulphonyl chloride
Benzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl), which is also known as
Hinsberg’s reagent, reacts with primary and secondary amines to
form sulphonamides.
(a) The reaction of benzenesulphonyl chloride with primary amine
yields N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide.

The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide is strongly

acidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl
group. Hence, it is soluble in alkali.
(b) In the reaction with secondary amine, N,N-diethyl-
benzenesulphonamide is formed.
O O
S Cl + H N C2H5 S N C2H5 + HCl
O C2H5 O C2H5
N,N-Diethylbenzenesulphonamide

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 Since N, N-diethylbenzene sulphonamide does not contain any
hydrogen atom attached to nitrogen atom, it is not acidic and hence
insoluble in alkali.
(c) Tertiary amines do not react with benzenesulphonyl chloride.
This property of amines reacting with benzenesulphonyl chloride
in a different manner is used for the distinction of primary,
secondary and tertiary amines and also for the separation of a
mixture of amines. However, these days benzenesulphonyl
chloride is replaced by p-toluenesulphonyl chloride.
7. Electrophilic substitution
You have read earlier that aniline is a resonance hybrid of five
structures. Where do you find the maximum electron density in
these structures? Ortho- and para-positions to the –NH2 group
become centres of high electron density. Thus –NH2 group is ortho
and para directing and a powerful activating group.
(a) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room
temperature to give a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tribromoaniline.

The main problem encountered during electrophilic substitution

reactions of aromatic amines is that of their very high reactivity.
Substitution tends to occur at ortho- and para-positions. If we
have to prepare monosubstituted aniline derivative, how can
the activating effect of –NH2 group be controlled ? This can be
done by protecting the -NH2 group by acetylation with acetic
anhydride, then carrying out the desired substitution followed
by hydrolysis of the substituted amide to the substituted amine.

The lone pair of electrons on nitrogen of acetanilide interacts

with oxygen atom due to resonance as shown below:

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 Hence, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen is less available for
donation to benzene ring by resonance. Therefore, activating
effect of –NHCOCH3 group is less than that of amino group.
(b) Nitration: Direct nitration of aniline yields tarry oxidation
products in addition to the nitro derivatives. Moreover, in the
strongly acidic medium, aniline is protonated to form the
anilinium ion which is meta directing. That is why besides the
ortho and para derivatives, significant amount of meta derivative
is also formed.

However, by protecting the –NH2 group by acetylation reaction

with acetic anhydride, the nitration reaction can be controlled
and the p-nitro derivative can be obtained as the major product.

(c) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid

to form anilinium hydrogensulphate which on heating with
sulphuric acid at 453-473K produces p-aminobenzene sulphonic
acid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the major product.

Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (alkylation and

acetylation) due to salt formation with aluminium chloride, the
Lewis acid, which is used as a catalyst. Due to this, nitrogen of
aniline acquires positive charge and hence acts as a strong
deactivating group for further reaction.

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 Intext Questions
9.4 Arrange the following in increasing order of their basic strength:
(i) C2H5NH2, C6H5NH2, NH3, C6H5CH2NH2 and (C2H5)2NH
(ii) C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N, C6H5NH2
(iii) CH3NH2, (CH3)2NH, (CH3)3N, C6H5NH2, C6H5CH2NH2.
9.5 Complete the following acid-base reactions and name the products:
(i) CH3CH2CH2NH2 + HCl ® (ii) (C2H5)3N + HCl ®
9.6 Write reactions of the final alkylation product of aniline with excess of methyl
iodide in the presence of sodium carbonate solution.
9.7 Write chemical reaction of aniline with benzoyl chloride and write the name of
the product obtained.
9.8 Write structures of different isomers corresponding to the molecular formula,
C3H9N. Write IUPAC names of the isomers which will liberate nitrogen gas on
treatment with nitrous acid.

II. DIAZONIUM SALTS

 –
The diazonium salts have the general formula R N 2 X where R stands
– – –
for an aryl group and X ion may be Cl Br, HSO 4 , BF4 , etc. They are
named by suffixing diazonium to the name of the parent hydrocarbon
from which they are formed, followed by the name of anion such as

chloride, hydrogensulphate, etc. The N 2 group is called diazonium
 –
group. For example, C 6 H 5 N 2 Cl is named as benzenediazonium
+ –
chloride and C 6 H 5 N 2 HSO 4 is known as benzenediazonium
hydrogensulphate.
Primary aliphatic amines form highly unstable alkyldiazonium salts
(refer to Section 9.6). Primary aromatic amines form arenediazonium
salts which are stable for a short time in solution at low temperatures
(273-278 K). The stability of arenediazonium ion is explained on the
basis of resonance.

9.7 Method of Benzenediazonium chloride is prepared by the reaction of aniline with

nitrous acid at 273-278K. Nitrous acid is produced in the reaction
Preparation mixture by the reaction of sodium nitrite with hydrochloric acid. The
of Diazoniun conversion of primary aromatic amines into diazonium salts is known
Salts as diazotisation. Due to its instability, the diazonium salt is not
generally stored and is used immediately after its preparation.
 –
273  278K
C6 H5 NH2  NaNO 2  2HCl   C6 H 5 N 2 Cl  NaCl  2H 2 O

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9.8 Physical Benzenediazonium chloride is a colourless crystalline solid. It is readily
soluble in water and is stable in cold but reacts with water when
Properties warmed. It decomposes easily in the dry state. Benzenediazonium
fluoroborate is water insoluble and stable at room temperature.

9.9 Chemical The reactions of diazonium salts can be broadly divided into two
categories, namely (A) reactions involving displacement of nitrogen and
Reactions (B) reactions involving retention of diazo group.
A. Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen
Diazonium group being a very good leaving group, is substituted
– – – – –
by other groups such as Cl , Br , I , CN and OH which displace
nitrogen from the aromatic ring. The nitrogen formed escapes from
the reaction mixture as a gas.
– – –
1. Replacement by halide or cyanide ion: The Cl , Br and CN
nucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene ring in the
presence of Cu(I) ion. This reaction is called Sandmeyer reaction.

2 2

2 2

Alternatively, chlorine or bromine can also be introduced in the

benzene ring by treating the diazonium salt solution with corresponding
halogen acid in the presence of copper powder. This is referred as
Gatterman reaction.

The yield in Sandmeyer reaction is found to be better than

Gattermann reaction.
2. Replacement by iodide ion: Iodine is not easily introduced into
the benzene ring directly, but, when the diazonium salt solution
is treated with potassium iodide, iodobenzene is formed.

3. Replacement by fluoride ion: When arenediazonium chloride is

treated with fluoroboric acid, arene diazonium fluoroborate is
precipitated which on heating decomposes to yield aryl fluoride.

4. Replacement by H: Certain mild reducing agents like

hypophosphorous acid (phosphinic acid) or ethanol reduce
diazonium salts to arenes and themselves get oxidised to
phosphorous acid and ethanal, respectively.

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 5. Replacement by hydroxyl group: If the temperature of the
diazonium salt solution is allowed to rise upto 283 K, the salt
gets hydrolysed to phenol.

6. Replacement by –NO2 group: When diazonium fluoroborate is

heated with aqueous sodium nitrite solution in the presence of
copper, the diazonium group is replaced by –NO2 group.

B. Reactions involving retention of diazo group

coupling reactions
The azo products obtained have an extended conjugate system having
both the aromatic rings joined through the –N=N– bond. These compounds
are often coloured and are used as dyes. Benzene diazonium chloride
reacts with phenol in which the phenol molecule at its para position is
coupled with the diazonium salt to form p-hydroxyazobenzene. This
type of reaction is known as coupling reaction. Similarly the reaction of
diazonium salt with aniline yields p-aminoazobenzene. This is an example
of electrophilic substitution reaction.

9 .10 Importance From the above reactions, it is clear that the diazonium salts are very
good intermediates for the introduction of –F, –Cl, –Br, –I, –CN, –OH,
of Diazonium –NO2 groups into the aromatic ring.
Salts in Aryl fluorides and iodides cannot be prepared by direct halogenation.
Synthesis The cyano group cannot be introduced by nucleophilic substitution of
of Aromatic chlorine in chlorobenzene but cyanobenzene can be easily obtained
from diazonium salt.
Compounds
Thus, the replacement of diazo group by other groups is helpful in

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 preparing those substituted aromatic compounds which cannot be
prepared by direct substitution in benzene or substituted benzene.

How will you convert 4-nitrotoluene to 2-bromobenzoic acid ? Example 9.5

Solution

Intext Question
9.9 Convert
(i) 3-Methylaniline into 3-nitrotoluene.
(ii) Aniline into 1,3,5 - tribromobenzene.

Summary
Amines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia obtained by replacement of
hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. Replacement of one hydrogen atom of
ammonia gives rise to structure of the type R-NH2, known as primary amine.
Secondary amines are characterised by the structure R2NH or R-NHR¢¢ and tertiary
amines by R3N, RNR¢¢R¢¢ ¢. Secondary and tertiary amines are known as
¢¢ or R2NR¢.
simple amines if the alkyl or aryl groups are the same and mixed amines if the
groups are different. Like ammonia, all the three types of amines have one unshared
electron pair on nitrogen atom due to which they behave as Lewis bases.
Amines are usually formed from nitro compounds, halides, amides, imides, etc.
They exhibit hydrogen bonding which influence their physical properties. In
alkylamines, a combination of electron releasing, steric and H-bonding factors
influence the stability of the substituted ammonium cations in protic polar solvents
and thus affect the basic nature of amines. Alkyl amines are found to be stronger
bases than ammonia. In aromatic amines, electron releasing and withdrawing groups,
respectively increase and decrease their basic character. Aniline is a weaker base

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 than ammonia. Reactions of amines are governed by availability of the unshared pair
of electrons on nitrogen. Influence of the number of hydrogen atoms at nitrogen atom
on the type of reactions and nature of products is responsible for identification and
distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary amines. p-Toluenesulphonyl chloride
is used for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines. Presence of
amino group in aromatic ring enhances reactivity of the aromatic amines. Reactivity of
aromatic amines can be controlled by acylation process, i.e., by treating with acetyl
chloride or acetic anhydride. Tertiary amines like trimethylamine are used as insect
attractants.
Aryldiazonium salts, usually obtained from arylamines, undergo replacement of
the diazonium group with a variety of nucleophiles to provide advantageous methods
for producing aryl halides, cyanides, phenols and arenes by reductive removal of the
diazo group. Coupling reaction of aryldiazonium salts with phenols or arylamines give
rise to the formation of azo dyes.

Exercises
9.1 Write IUPAC names of the following compounds and classify them into primary,
secondary and tertiary amines.
(i) (CH3)2CHNH2 (ii) CH3(CH2)2NH2 (iii) CH3NHCH(CH3)2
(iv) (CH3)3CNH2 (v) C6H5NHCH3 (vi) (CH3CH2)2NCH3
(vii) m–BrC6H 4NH2
9.2 Give one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds.
(i) Methylamine and dimethylamine (ii) Secondary and tertiary amines
(iii) Ethylamine and aniline (iv) Aniline and benzylamine
(v) Aniline and N-methylaniline.
9.3 Account for the following:
(i) pKb of aniline is more than that of methylamine.
(ii) Ethylamine is soluble in water whereas aniline is not.
(iii) Methylamine in water reacts with ferric chloride to precipitate hydrated
ferric oxide.
(iv) Although amino group is o– and p– directing in aromatic electrophilic
substitution reactions, aniline on nitration gives a substantial amount of
m-nitroaniline.
(v) Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction.
(vi) Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are more stable than those of aliphatic
amines.
(vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is preferred for synthesising primary amines.
9.4 Arrange the following:
(i) In decreasing order of the pKb values:
C2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, (C2H5)2NH and C6H5NH2
(ii) In increasing order of basic strength:
C6H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2
(iii) In increasing order of basic strength:
(a) Aniline, p-nitroaniline and p-toluidine

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 (b) C6H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, C6H5CH2NH2.
(iv) In decreasing order of basic strength in gas phase:
C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N and NH3
(v) In increasing order of boiling point:
C2H5OH, (CH3)2NH, C2H5NH2
(vi) In increasing order of solubility in water:
C6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, C2H5NH2.
9.5 How will you convert:
(i) Ethanoic acid into methanamine
(ii) Hexanenitrile into 1-aminopentane
(iii) Methanol to ethanoic acid
(iv) Ethanamine into methanamine
(v) Ethanoic acid into propanoic acid
(vi) Methanamine into ethanamine
(vii) Nitromethane into dimethylamine
(viii) Propanoic acid into ethanoic acid?
9.6 Describe a method for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.
Also write chemical equations of the reactions involved.
9.7 Write short notes on the following:
(i) Carbylamine reaction (ii) Diazotisation
(iii) Hofmann’s bromamide reaction (iv) Coupling reaction
(v) Ammonolysis (vi) Acetylation
(vii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis.
9.8 Accomplish the following conversions:
(i) Nitrobenzene to benzoic acid
(ii) Benzene to m-bromophenol
(iii) Benzoic acid to aniline
(iv) Aniline to 2,4,6-tribromofluorobenzene
(v) Benzyl chloride to 2-phenylethanamine
(vi) Chlorobenzene to p-chloroaniline
(vii) Aniline to p-bromoaniline
(viii) Benzamide to toluene
(ix) Aniline to benzyl alcohol.
9.9 Give the structures of A, B and C in the following reactions:
OH NaOH  Br
(i) CH3 CH2 I 
 A   B  C
NaCN 2
Partial hydrolysis


CuCN H2 O / H NH3
(ii) C6 H5 N 2 Cl   A   B 

C
LiAlH HNO
(iii) CH3 CH2 Br  A   B  C
KCN 4 2
0C

NaNO  HCl H O / H
(iv) C6 H5 NO2  A   B  C
Fe / HCl 2 2
273 K 

NH NaNO / HCl
(v) CH3 COOH   A 
 B 
C
3 NaOBr
2


HNO C H OH
(vi) C6 H5 NO2  A   B 
Fe / HCl 2
273 K
6 5
C

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 9.10 An aromatic compound ‘A’ on treatment with aqueous ammonia and heating
forms compound ‘B’ which on heating with Br2 and KOH forms a compound ‘C’
of molecular formula C6H7N. Write the structures and IUPAC names of compounds
A, B and C.
9.11 Complete the following reactions:
(i) C6 H5 NH2  CHCl3  alc.KOH 

(ii) C6 H5 N 2 Cl  H 3 PO 2  H2 O 

(iii) C6 H5 NH2  H2 SO 4  conc. 

(iv) C6 H5 N 2Cl  C2 H5OH 

(v) C6 H5 NH2  Br2  aq  

(vi) C6 H5 NH2   CH 3 CO 2 O 
 HBF
(vii) C6 H5 N2 Cl  
i 4
 ii  NaNO2 / Cu, 

9.12 Why cannot aromatic primary amines be prepared by Gabriel phthalimide

synthesis?
9.13 Write the reactions of (i) aromatic and (ii) aliphatic primary amines with nitrous
acid.
9.14 Give plausible explanation for each of the following:
(i) Why are amines less acidic than alcohols of comparable molecular masses?
(ii) Why do primary amines have higher boiling point than tertiary amines?
(iii) Why are aliphatic amines stronger bases than aromatic amines?

Answers to Some Intext Questions

9.4 (i) C6H5NH2 < NH3 < C6H5CH2NH2 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)2NH
(ii) C6H5NH2 < C2H5NH2. < (C2H5)3N < (C2H5)2NH
(iii) C6H5NH2 < C6H5CH2NH2 < (CH3)3N < CH3NH2 < (CH3)2NH

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 Unit

Objectives
10
Biomolecules
After studying this Unit, you will be
able to
• explain the characteristics of “It is the harmonious and synchronous progress of chemical
biomolecules like carbohydrates, reactions in body which leads to life”.
proteins and nucleic acids and
hormones;
• classify carbohydrates, proteins, A living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself.
nucleic acids and vitamins on the The most amazing thing about a living system is that it
basis of their structures; is composed of non-living atoms and molecules. The
• explain the difference between pursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within
DNA and RNA; a living system falls in the domain of biochemistry. Living
• describe the role of biomolecules systems are made up of various complex biomolecules
in biosystem. like carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc.
Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents of
our food. These biomolecules interact with each other
and constitute the molecular logic of life processes. In
addition, some simple molecules like vitamins and
mineral salts also play an important role in the functions
of organisms. Structures and functions of some of these
biomolecules are discussed in this Unit.

10.1 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large
group of naturally occurring organic compounds. Some common
examples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc. Most of
them have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as hydrates
of carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived. For example,
the molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula,
C6(H2O)6. But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be
classified as carbohydrates. For example acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into
this general formula, C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate. Similarly,
rhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition.
A large number of their reactions have shown that they contain specific
functional groups. Chemically, the carbohydrates may be defined as
optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds
which produce such units on hydrolysis. Some of the carbohydrates,
which are sweet in taste, are also called sugars. The most common
sugar, used in our homes is named as sucrose whereas the sugar present

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 in milk is known as lactose. Carbohydrates are also called saccharides
(Greek: sakcharon means sugar).
Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on
hydrolysis. They have been broadly divided into following three groups.
10.1.1 (i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further
Classification of to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a
Carbohydrates monosaccharide. About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in
nature. Some common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
(ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten
monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides. They
are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,
etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide
on hydrolysis. Amongst these the most common are disaccharides.
The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide
may be same or different. For example, one molecule of sucrose on
hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose
whereas maltose gives two molecules of only glucose.
(iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of
monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides.
Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums,
etc. Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also
called non-sugars.
The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non-
reducing sugars. All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s
solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to as reducing sugars. All
monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars.
10.1.2 Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of number of carbon
Monosaccharides atoms and the functional group present in them. If a monosaccharide
contains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains
a keto group, it is known as a ketose. Number of carbon atoms
constituting the monosaccharide is also introduced in the name as is
evident from the examples given in Table 10.1

Table 10.1: Different Types of Monosaccharides

Carbon atoms General term Aldehyde Ketone

3 Triose Aldotriose Ketotriose

4 Tetrose Aldotetrose Ketotetrose
5 Pentose Aldopentose Ketopentose
6 Hexose Aldohexose Ketohexose
7 Heptose Aldoheptose Ketoheptose

10.1.2.1 Glucose Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form. It is
present in sweet fruits and honey. Ripe grapes also contain glucose
in large amounts. It is prepared as follows:
Preparation of 1. From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or
Glucose H2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and fructose are obtained in
equal amounts.
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 +
C12 H22O11 + H2O 
H
→ C6 H12O6 + C6 H12O6

Sucrose Glucose Fructose

2. From starch: Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of
starch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure.
+
(C6 H10 O5 )n + nH 2 O H
393 K; 2-3 atm
→ nC6 H12 O6
Starch or cellulose Glucose

Structure of Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose. It is the

Glucose monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose.
It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. It was
assigned the structure given below on the basis of the following
evidences:
CHO 1. Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6.
(CHOH)4 2. On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all
the six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain.
CH2OH
Glucose

3. Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a

molecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin. These reactions
confirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = O) in glucose.

4. Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid)

on reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water. This
indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group.
CHO COOH
Br2 water (CHOH)4
(CHOH)4
CH2OH CH2OH
Gluconic acid
5. Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose
pentaacetate which confirms the presence of five –OH groups. Since
it exists as a stable compound, five –OH groups should be attached
to different carbon atoms.

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 6. On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both
yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This indicates the presence
of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.
CHO COOH COOH
Oxidation Oxidation
(CHOH)4 (CHOH)4 (CHOH)4
CH2OH COOH CH2OH
Saccharic Gluconic
acid acid
The exact spatial arrangement of different —OH groups was given
by Fischer after studying many other properties. Its configuration is
correctly represented as I. So gluconic acid is represented as II and
saccharic acid as III.
CHO COOH COOH
H OH H OH H OH
HO H HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH
H OH H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH COOH
I II III
Glucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose. ‘D’ before the name
of glucose represents the configuration whereas ‘(+)’ represents
dextrorotatory nature of the molecule. It should be remembered that
‘D’ and ‘L’ have no relation with the optical activity of the compound.
They are also not related to letter ‘d’ and ‘l’ (see Unit 6). The meaning
of D– and L– notations is as follows.
The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any compound indicate the
relative configuration of a particular stereoisomer of a compound with
respect to configuration of some other compound, configuration of
which is known. In the case of carbohydrates, this refers to their
relation with a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde. Glyceraldehyde
contains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric
forms as shown below.

(+) Isomer of glyceraldehyde has ‘D’ configuration. It means that when

its structural formula is written on paper following specific conventions
which you will study in higher classes, the –OH group lies on right hand
side in the structure. All those compounds which can be chemically
correlated to D (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have D-
configuration whereas those which can be correlated to ‘L’ (–) isomer of
glyceraldehyde are said to have L—configuration. In L (–) isomer –OH
group is on left hand side as you can see in the structure. For assigning
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 the configuration of monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon
atom (as shown below) which is compared. As in (+) glucose, —OH on
the lowest asymmetric carbon is on the right side which is comparable
to (+) glyceraldehyde, so (+) glucose is assigned D-configuration. Other
asymmetric carbon atoms of glucose are not considered for this
comparison. Also, the structure of glucose and glyceraldehyde is written
in a way that most oxidised carbon (in this case –CHO)is at the top.

CHO
H OH
HO H
CHO
H OH
H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH

D– (+) – Glyceraldehyde D–(+) – Glucose

Cyclic The structure (I) of glucose explained most of its properties but the
Structure following reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure.
of Glucose 1. Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give Schiff’s
test and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product with
NaHSO3.
2. The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine
indicating the absence of free —CHO group.
3. Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are
named as a and b. The a-form of glucose (m.p. 419 K) is obtained by
crystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while
the b-form (m.p. 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and
saturated aqueous solution at 371 K.
This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure
(I) for glucose. It was proposed that one of the —OH groups may add
to the —CHO group and form a cyclic hemiacetal structure. It was
found that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which —OH at C-5
is involved in ring formation. This explains the absence of —CHO
group and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown below.
These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure.

The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the

configuration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon

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 (the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation). Such isomers, i.e., a-form
and b-form, are called anomers. The six membered cyclic structure
of glucose is called pyranose structure (a– or b–), in analogy with
pyran. Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom
and five carbon atoms in the ring. The cyclic structure of glucose is
more correctly represented by Haworth structure as given below.

10.1.2.2 Fructose Fructose is an important ketohexose. It is obtained along with glucose

by the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose. It is a natural
monosaccharide found in fruits, honey and vegetables. In its pure
form it is used as a sweetner. It is also an important ketohexose.

Fructose also has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and

Structure on the basis of its reactions it was found to contain a
of Fructose ketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and six
carbons in straight chain as in the case of glucose. It
belongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound.
It is appropriately written as D-(–)-fructose. Its open
chain structure is as shown.
It also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained
by the addition of —OH at C5 to the ( ) group. The ring, thus formed
is a five membered ring and is named as furanose with analogy to the
compound furan. Furan is a five membered cyclic compound with one
oxygen and four carbon atoms.

The cyclic structures of two anomers of fructose are represented by

Haworth structures as given.

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10.1.3 You have already read that disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute
Disaccharides acids or enzymes yield two molecules of either the same or different
monosaccharides. The two monosaccharides are joined together by an
oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage
between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called
glycosidic linkage.
In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e.,
aldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars,
e.g., sucrose. On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups
are free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose.
(i) Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on
hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose.

These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic

linkage between C1 of a-D-glucose and C2 of b-D-fructose. Since
the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in
glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non reducing sugar.

Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives

dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose. Since the
laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than dextrorotation of
glucose (+ 52.5°), the mixture is laevorotatory. Thus, hydrolysis of
sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro
(+) to laevo (–) and the product is named as invert sugar.
(ii) Maltose: Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two
a-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4
of another glucose unit (II). The free aldehyde group can be
produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing
properties so it is a reducing sugar.

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 (iii) Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this
disaccharide is found in milk. It is composed of b-D-galactose and
b-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of
glucose. Free aldehyde group may be produced at C-1 of glucose
unit, hence it is also a reducing sugar.

10.1.4
Polysaccharides Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined
together by glycosidic linkages. These are the most commonly
encountered carbohydrates in nature. They mainly act as the food
storage or structural materials.
(i) Starch: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is
the most important dietary source for human beings. High content
of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables. It
is a polymer of a-glucose and consists of two components—
Amylose and Amylopectin. Amylose is water soluble component
which constitutes about 15-20% of starch. Chemically amylose is
a long unbranched chain with 200-1000 a-D-(+)-glucose units
held together by C1– C4 glycosidic linkage.
Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-
85% of starch. It is a branched chain polymer of a-D-glucose
units in which chain is formed by C1–C4 glycosidic linkage whereas
branching occurs by C1–C6 glycosidic linkage.

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 (ii) Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most
abundant organic substance in plant kingdom. It is a predominant
constituent of cell wall of plant cells. Cellulose is a straight chain

polysaccharide composed only of b-D-glucose units which are

joined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and
C4 of the next glucose unit.
(iii) Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen.
It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to
amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present in liver,
muscles and brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the
glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
10.1.5 Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals. They
Importance of form a major portion of our food. Honey has been used for a long time
Carbohydrates as an instant source of energy by ‘Vaids’ in ayurvedic system of
medicine. Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in
plants and glycogen in animals. Cell wall of bacteria and plants is
made up of cellulose. We build furniture, etc. from cellulose in the form
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 of wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre.
They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles,
paper, lacquers and breweries.
Two aldopentoses viz. D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose (Section
10.5.1, Class XII) are present in nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are found
in biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids.

Intext Questions
10.1 Glucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or
benzene (simple six membered ring compounds) are insoluble in
water. Explain.
10.2 What are the expected products of hydrolysis of lactose?
10.3 How do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the
pentaacetate of D-glucose?

10.2 Proteins Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system.
Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat,
etc. They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental
basis of structure and functions of life. They are also required for
growth and maintenance of body. The word protein is derived from
Greek word, “proteios” which means primary or of prime importance.
All proteins are polymers of a-amino acids.

10.2.1 Amino Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional
Acids groups. Depending upon the relative position of amino group with
respect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be
R CH COOH
classified as a, b, g, d and so on. Only a-amino
acids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins. They NH2
may contain other functional groups also. a-amino acid
All a-amino acids have trivial names, which (R = side chain)
usually reflect the property of that compound or
its source. Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos
means sweet) and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros
means cheese.) Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter
symbol, sometimes one letter symbol is also used. Structures of some
commonly occurring amino acids along with their 3-letter and 1-letter
symbols are given in Table 10.2.
COOH
Table 10.2: Natural Amino Acids H2N H
R
Name of the Characteristic feature Three letter One letter
amino acids of side chain, R symbol code

1. Glycine H Gly G
2. Alanine – CH3 Ala A
3. Valine* (H3C)2CH- Val V
4. Leucine* (H3C)2CH-CH2- Leu L

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 5. Isoleucine* H3C-CH2-CH- Ile I
|
CH3
6. Arginine* HN=C-NH-(CH2)3- Arg R
|
NH2
7. L ysine* H2N-(CH2)4- L ys K
8. Glutamic acid HOOC-CH2-CH2- Glu E
9. Aspartic acid HOOC-CH2- Asp D
O
||
10. Glutamine H2N-C-CH2-CH2- Gln Q

O
||
11. Asparagine H2N-C-CH2- Asn N
12. Threonine* H3C-CHOH- Thr T
13. Serine HO-CH2- Ser S
14. Cysteine HS-CH2- Cys C
15. Methionine* H3C-S-CH2-CH2- Met M
16. Phenylalanine* C6H5-CH2- Phe F
17. Tyrosine (p)HO-C6H4-CH2- Tyr Y
–CH2

18. Tryptophan* Trp W

N
H

19. Histidine* His H

20. Proline Pro P

* essential amino acid, a = entire structure

10.2.2 Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon
Classification of the relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in their molecule.
Amino Acids Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more
number of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more
carboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic. The
amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are known as non-
essential amino acids. On the other hand, those which cannot be
synthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known
as essential amino acids (marked with asterisk in Table 10.2).
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 Amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids. These are
water-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than
simple amines or carboxylic acids. This behaviour is due to the presence
of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino
group) groups in the same molecule. In aqueous
solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton
and amino group can accept a proton, giving rise
to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is
neutral but contains both positive and negative
charges.
In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as
they react both with acids and bases.
Except glycine, all other naturally occurring a-amino acids are
optically active, since the a-carbon atom is asymmetric. These exist
both in ‘D’ and ‘L’ forms. Most naturally occurring amino acids have
L-configuration. L-Aminoacids are represented by writing the –NH2 group
on left hand side.

10.2.3 Structure You have already read that proteins are the polymers of a-amino acids
of Proteins and they are connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide
linkage. Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between
–COOH group and –NH2 group. The reaction between two molecules of
similar or different amino acids, proceeds through
the combination of the amino group of one molecule
with the carboxyl group of the other. This results in
the elimination of a water molecule and formation of
a peptide bond –CO–NH–. The product of the reaction
is called a dipeptide because it is made up of two
amino acids. For example, when carboxyl group of
glycine combines with the amino group of alanine
we get a dipeptide, glycylalanine.
If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a
tripeptide. A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide
linkages. Similarly when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective
products are known as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide,
respectively. When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then
the products are called polypeptides. A polypeptide with more than hundred
amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called
a protein. However, the distinction between a polypeptide and a protein is
not very sharp. Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called
proteins if they ordinarily have a well defined conformation of a protein such
as insulin which contains 51 amino acids.
Proteins can be classified into two types on the basis of their
molecular shape.
(a) Fibrous proteins
When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by
hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre– like structure is formed. Such
proteins are generally insoluble in water. Some common examples are
keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc.

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 (b) Globular proteins
This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around
to give a spherical shape. These are usually soluble in water. Insulin
and albumins are the common examples of globular proteins.
Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different
levels, i.e., primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each level
being more complex than the previous one.
(i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have
one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide in a
protein has amino acids linked with each other in a
specific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids
that is said to be the primary structure of that protein.
Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence
of amino acids creates a different protein.
(ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary
structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long
polypeptide chain can exist. They are found to exist in
two different types of structures viz. a-helix and
b-pleated sheet structure. These structures arise due
to the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide

chain due to hydrogen bonding between and

–NH– groups of the peptide bond.
a-Helix is one of the most common ways in which
a polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds
by twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the
Fig. 10.1: a-Helix –NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the
structure of proteins C O of an adjacent turn of the helix as shown in Fig.10.1.
In b-pleated sheet structure all peptide chains are
stretched out to nearly maximum extension and then
laid side by side which are held together by
intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The structure resembles
the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as
b-pleated sheet.
(iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary
structure of proteins represents overall folding of the
polypeptide chains i.e., further folding of the secondary
structure. It gives rise to two major molecular shapes
viz. fibrous and globular. The main forces which
stabilise the 2° and 3° structures of proteins are
hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals
and electrostatic forces of attraction.
Fig. 10.2: b-Pleated sheet structure of (iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the
proteins proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide
chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial
arrangement of these subunits with respect to each
other is known as quaternary structure.

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 A diagrammatic representation of all these four structures is
given in Figure 10.3 where each coloured ball represents an
amino acid.

Fig. 10.3: Diagrammatic representation of protein structure (two sub-units

of two types in quaternary structure)

Fig. 10.4: Primary,

secondary, tertiary
and quaternary
structures of
haemoglobin

10.2.4 Protein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional

Denaturation of structure and biological activity is called a native protein. When a
Proteins protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change
in temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen
bonds are disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled
and protein loses its biological activity. This is called denaturation of

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 protein. During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are
destroyed but primary structure remains intact. The coagulation of
egg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation. Another
example is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of
lactic acid by the bacteria present in milk.

Intext Questions
10.4 The melting points and solubility in water of amino acids are generally
higher than that of the corresponding halo acids. Explain.
10.5 Where does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg?

10.3 Enzymes Life is possible due to the coordination of various chemical reactions in
living organisms. An example is the digestion of food, absorption of
appropriate molecules and ultimately production of energy. This process
involves a sequence of reactions and all these reactions occur in the
body under very mild conditions. This occurs with the help of certain
biocatalysts called enzymes. Almost all the enzymes are globular
proteins. Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a
particular substrate. They are generally named after the compound or
class of compounds upon which they work. For example, the enzyme
that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase.
Maltase
C12 H22 O11   2 C6 H12 O6
Maltose G lucose

Sometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they
are used. For example, the enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of
one substrate with simultaneous reduction of another substrate are
named as oxidoreductase enzymes. The ending of the name of an
enzyme is -ase.
10.3.1 Mechanism Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction.
of Enzyme Similar to the action of chemical catalysts, enzymes are said to reduce
Action the magnitude of activation energy. For example, activation energy for
acid hydrolysis of sucrose is 6.22 kJ mol–1, while the activation energy is
only 2.15 kJ mol–1 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase. Mechanism
for the enzyme action has been discussed.
10.4 Vitamins It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in
small amounts in our diet but their deficiency causes specific diseases.
These compounds are called vitamins. Most of the vitamins cannot be
synthesised in our body but plants can synthesise almost all of them,
so they are considered as essential food factors. However, the bacteria
of the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us. All the
vitamins are generally available in our diet. Different vitamins belong
to various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the
basis of structure. They are generally regarded as organic compounds
required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific
biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth

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 and health of the organism. Vitamins are designated by alphabets
A, B, C, D, etc. Some of them are further named as sub-groups e.g. B1,
B2, B6, B12, etc. Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills
should not be taken without the advice of doctor.
The term “Vitamine” was coined from the word vital + amine since
the earlier identified compounds had amino groups. Later work showed
that most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter ‘e’ was
dropped and the term vitamin is used these days.

10.4.1 Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility
Classification of in water or fat.
Vitamins (i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils
but insoluble in water are kept in this group. These are vitamins A,
D, E and K. They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
(ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble
in water so they are grouped together. Water soluble vitamins must
be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in
urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by
their deficiency are listed in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3: Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their

Deficiency Diseases

Sl. Name of Sources Deficiency diseases

No. Vitamins

1. Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, X e r o p h t h a l m i a

butter and milk (hardening of cornea of
eye)
Night blindness
2. Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appe-
(Thiamine) vegetables and cereals tite, retarded growth)
3. Vitamin B2 Milk, eggwhite, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at
(Riboflavin) kidney corners of mouth and
lips), digestive disorders
and burning sensation
of the skin.
4. Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams

5. Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and Pernicious anaemia

curd (RBC deficient in
haemoglobin)

6. Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)

(Ascorbic acid) green leafy vegetables

7. Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone deformities

fish and egg yolk in children) and osteo-
malacia (soft bones and
joint pain in adults)

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 8. Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of
germ oil, sunflower oil, RBCs and muscular
etc. weakness
9. Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting
time

1 0 .5 Nucleic Acids Every generation of each and every species resembles its ancestors in
many ways. How are these characteristics transmitted from one
generation to the next? It has been observed that nucleus of a living
cell is responsible for this transmission of inherent characters, also
called heredity. The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for
heredity, are called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and
another type of biomolecules called nucleic acids. These are mainly
of two types, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA). Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so
they are also called polynucleotides.

James Dewey Watson

Born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1928, Dr Watson received his Ph.D.
(1950) from Indiana University in Zoology. He is best known for
his discovery of the structure of DNA for which he shared with
Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins the 1962 Nobel prize in
Physiology and Medicine. They proposed that DNA molecule takes
the shape of a double helix, an elegantly simple structure that
resembles a gently twisted ladder. The rails of the ladder are
made of alternating units of phosphate and the sugar deoxyribose;
the rungs are each composed of a pair of purine/ pyrimidine bases. This
research laid the foundation for the emerging field of molecular biology. The
complementary pairing of nucleotide bases explains how identical copies of
parental DNA pass on to two daughter cells. This research launched a revolution
in biology that led to modern recombinant DNA techniques.

10.5.1 Chemical Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric
Composition acid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds (called bases). In
of Nucleic DNA molecules, the sugar moiety is b-D-2-deoxyribose whereas in
Acids RNA molecule, it is b-D-ribose.

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 DNA contains four bases viz. adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C)
and thymine (T). RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are
same as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U).

Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)

10.5.2 Structure A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1¢ position of sugar is

of Nucleic known as nucleoside. In nucleosides, the sugar carbons are numbered
Acids as 1¢, 2¢, 3¢, etc. in order to distinguish these from the bases
(Fig. 10.5a). When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5¢-position
of sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide (Fig. 10.5).

Fig. 10.5: Structure of (a) a nucleoside and (b) a nucleotide

Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between

5¢ and 3¢ carbon atoms of the pentose sugar. The formation of a typical
dinucleotide is shown in Fig. 10.6.

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 Fig. 10.6: Formation of a dinucleotide

A simplified version of nucleic acid chain is as shown below.

Base Base Base

Sugar Phosphate Sugar Phosphate Sugar

n
Information regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the chain
of a nucleic acid is called its primary structure. Nucleic acids
have a secondary structure also. James Watson and Francis Crick
gave a double strand helix structure for DNA (Fig. 10.7). Two
nucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together
by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases. The two strands are
complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are
formed between specific pairs of bases. Adenine forms hydrogen
bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds
with guanine.
In secondary structure of RNA single stranded helics is present
which sometimes foldsback on itself. RNA molecules are of three
types and they perform different functions. They are named as
messenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer
RNA (t-RNA).

Fig. 10.7: Double strand helix structure for DNA

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 Har Gobind Khorana
Har Gobind Khorana, was born in 1922. He obtained his M.Sc.
degree from Punjab University in Lahore. He worked with Professor
Vladimir Prelog, who moulded Khorana’s thought and philosophy
towards science, work and effort. After a brief stay in India in
1949, Khorana went back to England and worked with Professor
G.W. Kenner and Professor A.R.Todd. It was at Cambridge, U.K.
that he got interested in both proteins and nucleic acids. Dr Khorana shared the
Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with Marshall Nirenberg and Robert
Holley for cracking the genetic code.

DNA Fingerprinting
It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These occur at the tips of
the fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be
altered by surgery. A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and
information regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting. It is same for every cell and
cannot be altered by any known treatment. DNA fingerprinting is now used
(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals.
(ii) to determine paternity of an individual.
(iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA’s of parents or
children.
(iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

10.5.3 Biological DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve
Functions of genetic information. DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining
of Nucleic the identity of different species of organisms over millions of years. A
Acids DNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell division and
identical DNA strands are transferred to daughter cells. Another important
function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell. Actually, the
proteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules in the cell but the
message for the synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.
10.6 Hormones Hormones are molecules that act as intercellular messengers. These
are produced by endocrine glands in the body and are poured directly
in the blood stream which transports them to the site of action.
In terms of chemical nature, some of these are steroids, e.g., estrogens
and androgens; some are poly peptides for example insulin and
endorphins and some others are amino acid derivatives such as
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Hormones have several functions in the body. They help to maintain
the balance of biological activities in the body. The role of insulin in keeping
the blood glucose level within the narrow limit is an example of this
function. Insulin is released in response to the rapid rise in blood glucose
level. On the other hand hormone glucagon tends to increase the glucose
level in the blood. The two hormones together regulate the glucose level
in the blood. Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate responses to
external stimuli. Growth hormones and sex hormones play role in growth
and development. Thyroxine produced in the thyroid gland is an iodinated
derivative of amino acid tyrosine. Abnormally low level of thyroxine leads
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 to hypothyroidism which is characterised by lethargyness and obesity.
Increased level of thyroxine causes hyperthyroidism. Low level of iodine
in the diet may lead to hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid
gland. This condition is largely being controlled by adding sodium iodide
to commercial table salt (“Iodised” salt).
Steroid hormones are produced by adrenal cortex and gonads (testes
in males and ovaries in females). Hormones released by the adrenal cortex
play very important role in the functions of the body. For example,
glucocorticoids control the carbohydrate metabolism, modulate
inflammatory reactions, and are involved in reactions to stress. The
mineralocorticoids control the level of excretion of water and salt by the
kidney. If adrenal cortex does not function properly then one of the results
may be Addison’s disease characterised by hypoglycemia, weakness and
increased susceptibility to stress. The disease is fatal unless it is treated by
glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Hormones released by gonads are
responsible for development of secondary sex characters. Testosterone is
the major sex hormone produced in males. It is responsible for development
of secondary male characteristics (deep voice, facial hair, general physical
constitution) and estradiol is the main female sex hormone. It is responsible
for development of secondary female characteristics and participates in
the control of menstrual cycle. Progesterone is responsible for preparing
the uterus for implantation of fertilised egg.

Intext Questions
10.6 Why cannot vitamin C be stored in our body?
10.7 What products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing
thymine is hydrolysed?
10.8 When RNA is hydrolysed, there is no relationship among the quantities of different
bases obtained. What does this fact suggest about the structure of RNA?

Summary
Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or molecules which
provide such units on hydrolysis. They are broadly classified into three groups —
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Glucose, the most important
source of energy for mammals, is obtained by the digestion of starch. Monosaccharides
are held together by glycosidic linkages to form disaccharides or polysaccharides.
Proteins are the polymers of about twenty different a-amino acids which are
linked by peptide bonds. Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids because
they cannot be synthesised by our body, hence must be provided through diet. Proteins
perform various structural and dynamic functions in the organisms. Proteins which
contain only a-amino acids are called simple proteins. The secondary or tertiary
structure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or temperature and they are not
able to perform their functions. This is called denaturation of proteins. Enzymes are
biocatalysts which speed up the reactions in biosystems. They are very specific and
selective in their action and chemically majority of enzymes are proteins.
Vitamins are accessory food factors required in the diet. They are classified as
fat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble (B group and C). Deficiency of vitamins
leads to many diseases.

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 Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides which in turn consist of a base,
a pentose sugar and phosphate moiety. Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer
of characters from parents to offsprings. There are two types of nucleic acids —
DNA and RNA. DNA contains a five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose
whereas RNA contains ribose. Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, guanine and
cytosine. The fourth base is thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA. The structure of
DNA is a double strand whereas RNA is a single strand molecule. DNA is the
chemical basis of heredity and have the coded message for proteins to be synthesised
in the cell. There are three types of RNA — mRNA, rRNA and tRNA which actually
carry out the protein synthesis in the cell.

Exercises
10.1 What are monosaccharides?
10.2 What are reducing sugars?
10.3 Write two main functions of carbohydrates in plants.
10.4 Classify the following into monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose.
10.5 What do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage?
10.6 What is glycogen? How is it different from starch?
10.7 What are the hydrolysis products of
(i) sucrose and (ii) lactose?
10.8 What is the basic structural difference between starch and cellulose?
10.9 What happens when D-glucose is treated with the following reagents?
(i) HI (ii) Bromine water (iii) HNO3
10.10 Enumerate the reactions of D-glucose which cannot be explained by its
open chain structure.
10.11 What are essential and non-essential amino acids? Give two examples of
each type.
10.12 Define the following as related to proteins
(i) Peptide linkage (ii) Primary structure (iii) Denaturation.
10.13 What are the common types of secondary structure of proteins?
10.14 What type of bonding helps in stabilising the a-helix structure of proteins?
10.15 Differentiate between globular and fibrous proteins.
10.16 How do you explain the amphoteric behaviour of amino acids?
10.17 What are enzymes?
10.18 What is the effect of denaturation on the structure of proteins?
10.19 How are vitamins classified? Name the vitamin responsible for the
coagulation of blood.
10.20 Why are vitamin A and vitamin C essential to us? Give their important sources.
10.21 What are nucleic acids? Mention their two important functions.
10.22 What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide?
10.23 The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary. Explain.
10.24 Write the important structural and functional differences between DNA
and RNA.
10.25 What are the different types of RNA found in the cell?

Chemistry 302

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 Answers to Some Questions in Exercises

UNIT 7
7.1 (i) 2,2,4-Trimethylpentan –3-ol (ii) 5-Ethylheptane –2, 4-diol
(iii) Butane –2,3-diol (iv) Propane –1,2,3,-triol
(v) 2- Methylphenol (vi) 4-Methylphenol
(vii) 2,5 – Dimethylphenol (viii) 2,6-Dimethylphenol
(ix) 1-Methoxy-2-methylpropane (x) Ethoxybenzene
(xi) 1-phenoxyheptane (xii) 2 –Ethoxybutane

7.2 (i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v) (vi)

(vii) (viii)

(ix) (x)

7.3 (i) (a) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH, Pentan-1-ol;

(b) ;

(c) (d)

(e) CH3 –CH2–OH–CH2–CH3, Pentan-3-ol (f)

OH

(g) (h)

7.4 Hydrogen bonding in propanol.

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 7.5 Hydrogen bonding between alcohol and water molecules.
7.8 o-Nitrophenol is steam volatile because of intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
7.12 Hint: Carryout sulphonation followed by nucleophilic substitution.

7.13 (i)

(ii)

(iii)
7.14 Reaction with (i) sodium and (ii) sodium hydroxide
7.15 Due to electron withdrawing effect of nitro group and electron releasing effect of methoxy group.
7.20 (i) Hydration of Propene.
(ii) By nucleophilic substitution of –Cl in benzyl chloride using dilute NaOH.
H2 O
(iii) C2H 5 MgBr  HCHO  C 2H 5CH 2OMgBr   C2 H5CH 2OH

(iv)

7.23 (i) 1-Ethoxy-2-methylpropane.

(ii) 2-Chloro-1-methoxyethane.
(iii) 4-Nitroanisole.
(iv) 1-Methoxypropane.
(v) 1-Ethoxy-4,4-dimethylcyclohexane.
(vi) Ethoxybenzene.

UNIT 8
8.2 (i) 4-Methylpentanal (ii) 6-Chloro-4-ethylhexan-3-one
(iii) But-2-enal (iv) Pentane-2,4-dione
(v) 3,3,5-Trimethylhexan-2-one (vi) 3,3-Dimethylbutanoic acid
(vii) Benzene –1,4-dicarbaldehyde

8.3 (i) (ii)

CH3
(iii) (iv) H3C–C–CH=C–CH3
O

(v) (vi)

Chemistry 304

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 (vii) (viii)

8.4 (i) Heptan-2-one (ii) 4-Bromo-2-methylhexanal (iii) Heptanal

(iv) 3-Phenylprop-2-enal (v) Cyclopentanecarbaldehyde (vi) Diphenylmethanone

8.5 (i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v) (vi)

8.6 (i) (ii)

(iii) (iv) (v)

8.7 (ii), (v), (vi), (vii): Aldol condensation. (i), (iii), (ix) Cannizaro reaction. (iv), (viii) Neither.
8.10 2-Ethylbenzaldehyde (draw the structure yourself ).
8.11 (A) CH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH2CH2CH3, butyl butanoate.
(B) CH3CH2CH2 COOH (C) CH3CH2CH2CH2OH. Write equation yourself.
8.12 (i) Di-tert-butyl ketone < Methyl tert-butyl ketone < Acetone < Acetaldehyde
(ii) (CH3)2CHCOOH < CH3CH2CH2COOH < CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH < CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH
(iii) 4-Methoxybenzoic acid < Benzoic acid < 4-Nitrobenzoic acid < 3,4-Dinitrobenzoic acid.

8.17 (i) (ii) (iii)

(iv) (v) (vi)

(vii) (viii) (ix)

(x) (xi)

8.19 The compound is methyl ketone and its structure would be: CH3COCH2CH2CH3

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 UNIT 9
9.1 (i) 1-methylethylamine or propan-2-amine (ii) Propan-1-amine
(iii) N-methyl-2-methylethylamine or N-methylpropan-2-amine (iv) 2-methylpropan-2-amine
(v) N-methylbenzenamine or N-methylaniline (vi) N-Ethyl-N-methylethanamine
(vii) 3-Bromoaniline or 3-Bromobenzenamine
9.4 (i) C6H5NH2 < C6H5NHCH3 < C2H5NH2 < (C2H5)2NH
(ii) C6H5NH2 < C6H5N(CH3)2 < CH3NH2 < (C2H5)2NH
(iii) (a) p-nitroaniline < aniline < p-toluidine
(b) C6H5NH2 < C6H5NHCH3 < C6H5CH2NH2
(iv) (C2H5)3N > (C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > NH3 (v) (CH3)2NH < C2H5NH2 < C2H5OH
(vi) C6H5NH2 < (C2H5)2NH < C2H5NH2

Chemistry 306

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Notes

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 Notes

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