CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

UNIT I BASICS OF C PROGRAMMING

Introduction to programming paradigms – Application of C language -Structure of C program -

C programming: Data Types – Constants – Enumeration Constants - Keywords – Operators:
Precedence and Associativity - Expressions - Input/Output statements, Assignment statements –
Decision making statements - Switch statement - Looping statements – Pre-processor directives -
Compilation process

Introduction to programming paradigms

The programming language “C‟ was developed in the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell
Laboratories. Although C was initially developed for writing system software, today it has
become such a popular language that a variety of software programs are written using this
language. The greatest advantage of using C for programming is that it can be easily used on
different types of computers. Many other programming languages such as C++ and Java are also
based on C which means that you will be able to learn them easily in the future. Today, C is
widely used with the UNIX operating system.

Programming Languages
The purpose of using computers is to solve problems, which are difficult to solve manually. So
the computer user must concentrate on the development of good algorithms for solving
problems. After preparing the algorithms, the programmer or user has to concentrate the
programming language which is understandable by the computer.
Computer programming languages are developed with the primary objectives of facilitating a
large number of people to use computer without the need to know the details of internal structure
of the computer.
Application of C programming Language
The C programming language has been instrumental in the development of a wide array of
software applications due to its efficiency, portability, and close-to-hardware capabilities. Some
notable applications include:
1. Operating Systems: C has been fundamental in creating robust operating systems. For
instance, the UNIX operating system was developed using C, and many modern operating
systems, including various versions of Windows and Linux, have components implemented in C.
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

2. Embedded Systems: Due to its ability to interact directly with hardware, C is extensively
used in embedded systems. This includes programming microcontrollers and developing
firmware for devices like automotive controllers, medical instruments, and consumer electronics.

3. Compilers and Interpreters: C's performance and low-level capabilities make it an ideal
choice for developing compilers and interpreters for various programming languages. Many
prominent compilers, such as Clang and GCC, are implemented in C.

4. Database Systems: Several database engines are developed using C due to its efficiency and
control over system resources. For example, MySQL, a widely used relational database
management system, is written in C.

5. Game Development: C's performance is crucial in game development, where resource-

intensive operations are common. Classic games like Doom and Quake were developed using C,
and many modern game engines continue to utilize C for performance-critical components.

6. Network Programming: C is extensively used in network programming and driver

development. It offers the performance and control needed for efficient network communications
and hardware interactions. For example, the NGINX web server is developed using C.

7. System Utilities and Command-Line Tools: C is a top choice for developing system utilities
and command-line tools due to its efficiency and control over system resources. Many essential
tools in various operating systems are implemented in C.

These applications highlight C's versatility and enduring relevance in software development. Its
balance of low-level hardware access and high-level programming constructs makes it a
powerful tool across various domains.

Structure of C program
A C program contains one or more functions, where a function is defined as a group of
statements that perform a well-defined task. Figure 1.1 shows the structure of a C program. The
statements in a function are written in a logical sequence to perform a specific task. The main()
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

function is the most important function and is a part of every C program. Rather, the execution
of a C program begins with this function.
From the structure given in Fig. 1.1, we can conclude that a C program can have any number of
functions depending on the tasks that have to be performed, and each function can have any
number of statements arranged according to specific meaningful sequence. Note that
programmers can choose any name for functions. It is not mandatory to write Function1,
Function2, etc., with an exception that every program must contain one function that has its
name as main().

Fig 1.1 Structure of C program

Page 2
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

C Programming : Data Types

Data type determines the set of values that a data item can take and the operations that can be
performed on the item. C language provides four basic data types. Table 1.2 lists the data types,
their size, range, and usage for a C programmer.

Basic Data Types in C

Basic data types and their variants

 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Constants
A constant is an entity whose value can‟t be changed during the execution of a program.
Constants are classified as:
1. Literal constants
2. Qualified constants
3. Symbolic constants

Literal constants
Literal constant or just literal denotes a fixed value, which may be an integer, floating point
number, character or a string.

iteral constants are of the

1. Integer Literal constant
2. Floating point Literal constant
3. Character Literal constant
4. String Literal constant
Floating point Literal constant
Floating point Literal constants are values like -23.1, 12.8, 4e8 etc.. It can be written in a
fractional form or in an exponential form.
The rules for writing Floating point Literal constants in a fractional form:
 A fractional floating point Literal constant must have at least one digit.
 It should have a decimal point.
 It can be either positive or negative.
 No special characters and blank spaces are allowed.

The rules for writing Floating point Literal constants in an exponential form:
 A Floating point Literal constants in an exponential form has two parts: the mantissa
part and the exponent part. Both are separated by e or E.
 The mantissa part can be either positive or negative. The default sign is positive.
 The mantissa part should have at least one digit.
 The exponent part should have at least one digit
 The exponent part cannot have a decimal point.
 No special characters and blank spaces are allowed.
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Character Literal constant

A Character Literal constant can have one or at most two characters enclosed within single
quotes. E.g, „A‟ , „a‟ , „ n „.
It is classified into:
 Printable character literal constant
 Non-Printable character literal constant.
Printable character literal constant

All characters except quotation mark, backslash and new line characters enclosed within single

quotes form a Printable character literal constant. Ex: „A‟ , „#‟

Non-Printable character literal constant.

on-Printable character literal constants are represented with the help of escape sequences. An

escape sequence consists of a backward slash (i.e. \) followed by a character and both enclosed

within single quotes.

String Literal constant

A String Literal constant consist of a sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes. Each

string literal constant is implicitly terminated by a null character.

E.g. “ABC”

Qualified constants:
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Qualified constants are created by using const qualifier.

E.g. const char a = „A‟
The usage of const qualifier places a lock on the variable after placing the value in it. So we
can‟t change the value of the variable a

Symbolic constants
Symbolic constants are created with the help of the define preprocessor directive. For ex #define
PI= 3.14 defines PI as a symbolic constant with the value 3.14. Each symbolic constant is
replaced by its actual value during the pre-processing stage.

Keywords
Keyword is a reserved word that has a particular meaning in the programming language. The
meaning of a keyword is predefined. It can‟t be used as an identifier.

Operators: Precedence and Associativity

Operands
An operand specifies an entity on which an operation is to be performed. It can be a
variable name, a constant, a function call.
E.g: a=2+3 Here a, 2 & 3 are operands
Operator
An operator is a symbol that is used to perform specific task or logical manipulations. For e.g,
a=2+3 Here = & + are the operators
Precedence of operators
 The precedence rule is used to determine the order of application of operators in
evaluating sub expressions.
 Each operator in C has a precedence associated with it.
 The operator with the highest precedence is operated first.
Associativity of operators
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

The associativity rule is applied when two or more operators are having same precedence in the
sub expression.
An operator can be left-to-right associative or right-to-left associative.

Category Operators Associativity Precedence

Unary +, -, !, ~, ++, - -, &, size of Right to left Level-1

Multiplicative *, /, % Left to right Level-2

Additive +, - Left to right Level-3

Shift << , >> Left to right Level-4

Relational <, <=, >, >= Left to right Level-5

Rules for evaluation of expression

• First parenthesized sub expressions are evaluated first.
• If parentheses are nested, the evaluation begins with the innermost sub expression.
• The precedence rule is applied to determine the order of application of operators in evaluating
sub expressions.
• The associability rule is applied when two or more operators are having same precedence in the

sub expression.
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Expressions
An expression is a sequence of operators and operands that specifies computation of a value.
For e.g, a=2+3 is an expression with three operands a,2,3 and 2 operators = & +

Simple Expressions & Compound Expressions

An expression that has only one operator is known as a simple expression.
E.g: a+2
An expression that involves more than one operator is called a compound expression.
E.g: b=2+3*5

Classification of Operators
The operators in C are classified on the basis of
1) The number of operands on which an operator operates
2) The role of an operator

Classification based on Number of Operands

Types:
1. Unary Operator: A unary operator operates on only one operand. Some of the unary
operators are,

Operator Meaning
- Minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement
& Address- of operator
Size of Size of operator

2. Binary Operator: A binary operator operates on two operands. Some of the binary
operators are,

Operator Meaning
+ Addition
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

- Subtraction
* Multiplication

/ Division
% Modular
Division
&& Logical AND
3. Ternary Operator
A ternary operator operates on 3 operands. Conditional operator (i.e. ?:) is the ternary operator.

Classification based on role of operands

Based upon their role, operators are classified as,
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Bitwise Operators
5. Assignment Operators
6. Miscellaneous Operators

1. Arithmetic Operators
They are used to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
etc.
A=10 & B=20
Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30
- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10
* Multiplies both operands A * B will give
200
/ The division operator is used to find the quotient. B / A will give 2
% Modulus operator is used to find the remainder B%A will give 0
+,- Unary plus & minus is used to indicate the algebraic +A, -A
sign of a value.

Increment operator
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

The operator ++ adds one to its operand.

 ++a or a++ is equivalent to a=a+1
 Prefix increment (++a) operator will increment the variable BEFORE the
expression is evaluated.
 Postfix increment operator (a++) will increment AFTER the expression
evaluation.
 E.g.
1. c=++a. Assume a=2 so c=3 because the value of a is incremented and then it
is assigned to c.
2. d=b++ Assume b=2 so d=2 because the value of b is assigned to d before it is
incremented.

Decrement operator
The operator – subtracts one from its operand.
 --a or a-- is equivalent to a=a+1
 Prefix decrement(--- -2)operator will decrement the variable BEFORE
the expression is evaluated.
 Postfix decrement operator (a--) will decrement AFTER the expression
evaluation.
 E.g.
1. c=--a. Assume a=2 so c=1 because the value of a is decremented and then
it is assigned to c.
2. d=b-- Assume b=2 so d=2 because the value of b is assigned to d before it
is decremented.

2. Relational Operators
 Relational operators are used to compare two operands. There are 6 relational
operators in C, they are

Operator Meaning of Operator Example

 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

== Equal to 5==3 returns false (0)

> Greater than 5>3 returns true (1)
< Less than 5<3 returns false (0)
!= Not equal to 5!=3 returns true(1)
>= Greater than or equal to 5>=3 returns true (1)
<= Less than or equal to 5<=3 return false (0)

 If the relation is true, it returns value 1 and if the relation is false, it returns value
0.
 An expression that involves a relational operator is called as a condition. For e.g
a<b is a condition.

3. Logical Operators
 Logical operators are used to logically relate the sub-expressions. There are 3
logical operators in C, they are
 If the relation is true it will returns value 1 and is false, it returns value 0.
Operator Meaning of Example
Operator Description
&& Logial AND If c=5 and d=2 then,((c==5) && (d>5)) It returns true when
returns false. both conditions are
true
|| Logical OR If c=5 and d=2 then, ((c==5) || (d>5)) It returns true when
returns true. at-least one of the
condition is true
! Logical NOT If c=5 then, !(c==5) returns false. It reverses the state
of the operand

Truth tables of logical operations

condition 1 condition 2 NOT XX AND YX OR Y

 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

(e.g., X) (e.g., Y) (~X) ( X && Y ) ( X || Y )

False false true false false
False true true false true
true false false false true
true true false true true

4. Bitwise Operators
C language provides 6 operators for bit manipulation. Bitwise operator operates on the
individual bits of the operands. They are used for bit manipulation.
Operators Meaning of operators
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
~
Bitwise compliment
<< Shift left
>> Shift right

Truth tables

p Q p&q p|q p^q

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
E.g.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bit Operation of 12 and 25
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

00001100
& 00011001

00001000 = 8 (In decimal)

Bitwise OR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001

00011101 = 29 (In decimal)

3 << 2 (Shift Left)

0011
1100=12

3 >> 1 (Shift Right)

0011
0001=1

5. Assignment Operators
To assign a value to the variable assignment operator is used.
Operators Example Explanation
Simple assignment operator = sum=10 10 is assigned to variable sum
+= sum+=10 This is same as sum=sum+10
-= sum-=10 sum = sum-10

Compound assignment operators *= sum*=10 sum = sum*10

Or /+ sum/=10 sum = sum/10

Shorthand assignment operators %= sum%=10 sum = sum%10

& sum&=10 sum = sum&10
=
^= sum^=10 sum = sum^10
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

E.g.

var=5 //5 is assigned to var

a=c; //value of c is assigned to a

6. Miscellaneous Operators

Other operators available in C are

a. Function Call Operator(i.e. ( ) )

b. Array subscript Operator(i.e [ ])

c. Member Select Operator

i. Direct member access operator (i.e. . dot operator)

ii. Indirect member access operator (i.e. -> arrow operator)

d. Conditional operator (?:)

e. Comma operator (,)

f. Size of operator

g. Address-of operator (&)

a) Comma operator

It is used to join multiple expressions together.

 E.g.

Int i,j;
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

i=(j=10,j+20);

In the above declaration, right hand side consists of two expressions separated by

comma. The first expression is j=10 and second is j+20. These expressions are evaluated from

left to right. ie first the value 10 is assigned to j and then expression j+20 is evaluated so the final

value of i will be 30.

b) Size of Operator

 The size of operator returns the size of its operand in bytes.

 Example : size of (char) will give us 1.

 Size of(a), where a is integer, will return 2.

c) Conditional Operator

It is the only ternary operator available in C.

 Conditional operator takes three operands and consists of two symbols ? and : .
 Conditional operators are used for decision making in C.
Syntax :
(Condition? true_value:
false_value); For example:
c=(c>0)?10:-10;
If c is greater than 0, value of c will be 10 but, if c is less than 0, value of c will be -10.

d) Address-of Operator
It is used to find the address of a data object.
Syntax

&operand
E.g.

&a will give address of a.

 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Input/Output statements

The I/O functions are classified into two types:

 Formatted Functions

 Unformatted functions

Input and Output functions

Formatted Functions Unformatted Functions

printf() getch()
getche()
getchar()
scanf()
gets()
putch()
putchar()
puts()

Unformatted Functions:

They are used when I/P & O/P is not required in a specific format.

C has 3 types I/O functions.

a) Character I/O

b) String I/O

c) File I/O

a) Character I/O:
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

1. getchar() This function reads a single character data from the standard
input. (E.g. Keyboard)
Syntax :
variable_name=getchar();

eg:
char c;
c=getchar();

2. putchar() This function prints one character on the screen at a

time. Syntax :
putchar(variable name);

eg
char
c=„C‟;
putchar(c);
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;
char ch;
ch = getchar();
putchar(ch);
}
Output:
A
A

3. getch() and getche() :getch accepts only single keyword from the keyboard. The character
get
entered through getch() is not displayed in the screen (monitor).
Syntax
variable_name = getch();

Like getch(), getche() also accepts only single character, but getche() displays the entered
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

character in the screen.

Syntax

variable_name = getche();

4 putch(): putch displays any alphanumeric characters to the standard output device. It displays
only one character at a time.
Syntax

putch(variable_name);

b) String I/O

c) gets() – This function is used for accepting any string through stdin (keyboard) until enter key is pressed.
Syntax
gets(variable_name);

1. puts() – This function prints the string or character

array. Syntax

puts(variable_name);

2. cgets()- This function reads string from the

console. Syntax
cgets(char *st);

It requires character pointer as an argument.

3. cputs()- This function displays string on the console.
Syntax

cputs(char *st);
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Example Program
void main()
{
char ch[30];
clrscr();
printf(“Enter the String : “);
gets(ch);
puts(“\n Entered String : %s”,ch);
puts(ch);
}
Output:
Enter the String : WELCOME
Entered String : WELCOME

Formatted Input & Output Functions

When I/P & O/P is required in a specified format then the standard library functions
scanf( ) & printf( ) are used.
O/P function printf( )
The printf( ) function is used to print data of different data types on the console in a
specified format.
General Form

printf(“Control String”, var1, var2, …);

Control String may contain

1. Ordinary characters
2. Conversion Specifier Field (or) Format
Specifiers They denoted by %, contains conversion codes like %c, %d etc.

Conversion Codes
Data type Conversion Symbol
Char %c
Int %d
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Float %f
Unsigned octal %o
Pointer %p

Width Modifier: It specifies the total number of characters used to display the value.
Precision: It specifies the number of characters used after the decimal point.
E.g: printf(“ Number=%7.2\n”,5.4321);
Width=7
Precesion=2
Output: Number = 5.43(3 spaces added in front of 5)
Flag: It is used to specify one or more print modifications.

Flag Meaning
- Left justify the display
+ Display +Ve or –Ve sign of value
E.g:
Space Display space if there is no sign
0 Pad with leading 0s

printf(“Number=%07.2\n”,5.4321)
Output: Number=0005.43

Size: Size modifiers used in printf are,

Size modifier Converts To

l Long int
h Short int
L Long double

%ld means long int variable

%hd means short int
variable
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

3. Control Codes
They are also known as Escape Sequences.E.g:

Control Code Meaning

\n New line
\t Horizontal Tab
\b Back space

Input Function scanf( )

It is used to get data in a specified format. It can accept data of different data types.
Syntax

scanf(“Control String”, var1address, var2address, …);

Format String or Control String is enclosed in quotation marks. It may contain

1. White Space
2. Ordinary characters
3. Conversion Specifier Field
It is denoted by % followed by conversion code and other optional modifiers E.g: width,
size.
Format Specifiers for scanf( )

Data type Conversion Symbol

char %c
int %d
float %f
string %s
E.g Program:
#include <stdio.h>
void main( )
{
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

int num1, num2, sum;

printf("Enter two integers: ");
scanf("%d %d",&num1,&num2);
sum=num1+num2;
printf("Sum: %d",sum);
}
Output
Enter two integers: 12 11
Sum: 23

Decision making statements

Decision making statements in a programming language help the programmer to transfer the
control from one part to other part of the program.

Flow of control: The order in which the program statements are executed is known as flow of
control. By default, statements in a c program are executed in a sequential order
Branching statements
Branching statements are used to transfer program control from one point to another.
2 types
a) Conditional Branching:- Program control is transferred from one point to another based
on the result of some condition
Ex) if, if-else, switch
b) Unconditional Branching:- program control is transferred from one point to another
without checking any condition
Ex) goto, break, continue, return

a) Conditional Branching : Selection statements

Statements available in c are

 The if statement

 if-else statement
The

 The switch case statement

(i) The if statement

 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

C uses the keyword if to execute a statement or set of statements when the logical condition is

true.

Syntax:
Test
expres
F
if (test expression)
Statement;

Statement

 If test expression evaluates to true, the corresponding statement is executed.

 If the test expression evaluates to false, control goes to next executable statement.
 The statement can be single statement or a block of statements. Block of
statements must be enclosed in curly braces.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf(“enter the
number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n>0)
printf(“the number is positive”);
getch();
}
Output:
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

enter the number:50

the number is positive

(ii) The if-else statement

Syntax:

if (test expression)
Statement T;
else
Statement F;

 If the test expression is true, statementT will be executed.

 If the test expression is false, statementF will be executed.
 StatementT and StatementF can be a single or block of statements.

Example:1 Program to check whether a given number is even or odd.

#include <stdio.h>
void main(){
int n,r;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
r=n%2;
if(r==0)
printf(“The number is
even”); else
printf(“The number is odd”);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter a number:15
The number is
odd
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Example:2 To check whether the two given numbers are equal

void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a and b:” );
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
if(a==b)
printf(“a and b are equal”);
else
printf(“a and b are not equal”);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter a and b: 2 4
a and b are not equal
(iii) Nested if statement
If the body the if statement contains another if statement, then it is known as nested if
statement
Syntax:

if (test expression) if (test expression)

if (test expression) (Or) {
statement;
This nesting can be done up to
Syntax:
a if (test expression)
….
if (test expression1) statement;
{ }
…..
if (test expression2)
{
….
if (test expression 3)
….
if{(test expression n)
}}}
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

This is known as if ladder

iv) Nested if-else statement

Here, the if body or else body of an if-else statement contains another if statement or if else
statement
Syntax:
if (condition)
{
statement 1;
statement 2;
}
else
{
statement 3;
if (condition)
statementnest;
statement 4;
}
Example:
Program for finding greatest of 3 numbers
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
printf(“Enter three numbers\n”); scanf(“%d
%d%d”,&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b)
{
if(a>c)
{
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

printf(“a is greatest”);
}else
{ if(b>c)
{
printf(“b is greatest”);
}
else
{
printf(“C is greatest”);
}
}
}
Output
Enter three numbers 2 4 6
C is greatest

v) Switch statement
 It is a multi way branch statement.
 It provides an easy & organized way to select among multiple operations depending upon
some condition.
Execution
1. Switch expression is evaluated.
2. The result is compared with all the cases.
3. If one of the cases is matched, then all the statements after that matched case gets executed.
4. If no match occurs, then all the statements after the default statement get executed.
 Switch ,case, break and default are keywords
 Break statement is used to exit from the current state

Flowchart
switch(expression)

case: break
statement
constant 0
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

End of switch
Syntax

switch(expression)
{
case value 1:
program statement;
program statement;
……
break;
case value 2:
program statement;
Program statement;
……
break;
…
case value n:
program statement;
program statement;
……
Exampl e1 break;
default:
void main() program statement;
{ program statement;
}
char ch;

printf(“Enter a character\
n”); scanf(“%c”,&ch);
switch(ch)
{
case „A‟:
printf(“you entered an A\
n”);
break;
case „B‟:
printf(“you entered a B\n”);
break;
default:
printf(“Illegal entry”);
break;
}
getch();
CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

}
Output
Enter a
character A
You entered an A

Example2
void main()
{
int n;
printf(“Enter a number\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n); switch(n
%2)
{
case 0:printf(“EVEN\n”);
break
case 1:printf(“ODD\n”);
break;
}
getch();
}

Output:
Enter a
number 5
ODD

b)Unconditional branching statements

i) The goto Statement
This statement does not require any condition. Here program control is transferred to
another part of the program without testing any condition.
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Syntax:

goto label;

 label is the position where the control is to be transferred.

Example:
void main()
{
printf(“www.”);
goto x;
y:
printf(“mail”);
goto z;
x:
printf(“yahoo”);
goto y;
z:
printf(“.com”);
getch();
}
Output : www.yahoomail.com
b) break statement
 A break statement can appear only inside a body of , a switch or a loop
 A break statement terminates the execution of the nearest enclosing loop or
switch.
Syntax
break;
break;

Example:1
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

int c=1;
while(c<=5)
{
if (c==3)
break;
printf(“\t %d”,c);
c++;
}
}

Output : 1 2

Example :2
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
if (i==5)
break;
printf(“ %d”,i);
}
}
Output :1 2 3 4
iii) continue statement
 A continue statement can appear only inside a loop.
 A continue statement terminates the current iteration of the nearest enclosing
loop.
Syntax:

continue;
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Example :1
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int c=1;
while(c<=5)
{
if (c==3)
continue;
printf(“\t %d”,c);
c++;
}
}
Output : 1 2 4 5
Example :2
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
if (i==5)
continue;
printf(“ %d”,i);
}
}
Output :1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
iv) return statement:
A return statement terminates the execution of a function and returns the control to the
calling function.
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Syntax:

return;

(or)

return expression;

Looping statements

Iteration is a process of repeating the same set of statements again and again until the condition

holds true.

Iteration or Looping statements in C are:

1. for

2. while

3. do while Loops are classified as

 Counter controlled loops

 Sentinel controlled loops

Counter controlled loops of iterations is known in advance. They use a control variable called loop

counter.

 Also called as definite repetitions loop.

 E.g: for

Sentinel controlled loops

 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

 The number of iterations is not known in advance. The execution or termination of the

loop depends upon a special value called sentinel value.

 Also called as indefinite repetitions loop.

 E.g: while

1. for loop

It is the most popular looping statement.

For (initialization; condition2;incrementing/updating)

{

Statements;
}

There are three sections in for loop.

a. Initialization section – gives initial value to the loop counter.

b. Condition section – tests the value of loop counter to decide

whether to execute the loop or not.

c. Manipulation section - manipulates the value of loop counter.

Execution of for loop

1. Initialization section is executed only once.

 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

2. Condition is evaluated

a. If it is true, loop body is executed.

b. If it is false, loop is terminated

3. After the execution of the loop main function will be executed.

4. Steps 2 & 3 are repeated until step 2 condition becomes false.

Ex 1: Write a program to print 10 numbers using for loop

void main()

int i;

clrscr();

for(i=1;i<=10;i++)

printf(“%d”,i);

getch();

}
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Output:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ex2: To find the sum of n natural number. 1+2+3…+n

void main()

int n, i, sum=0;

clrscr();

printf(“Enter the value for n”);

scanf(“%d”,&n);

for(i=1;i<=n;i++)

sum=sum+i;

printf(“Sum=%d”, sum);

getch();

Output:

Enter the value for n sum=10

4
CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

2. while statement
 They are also known as Entry controlled loops because here the condition is checked
before the execution of loop body.
Syntax:

while (expression)
{
statements;
}

Execution of while loop

a. Condition in while is evaluated
i. If it is true, body of the loop is executed.
ii. If it is false, loop is terminated
b. After executing the while body, program control returns back to while header.
c. Steps a & b are repeated until condition evaluates to false.
d. Always remember to initialize the loop counter before while and manipulate loop counter
inside the body of while.

Ex 1: Write a program to print 10 numbers using while loop

void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while (num<=10)
{
printf (“%d”,i);
i=i+1;
}
getch();
}
Output:
123456789
10
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Ex2: To find the sum of n natural number. 1+2+3…+n

void main()
{
int n, i=1, sum=0;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter the value for n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
sum=sum+i;
i=i+1;
}
printf(“Sum=%d”, sum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the value for n
4
Sum=10

3. do while statement
 They are also known as Exit controlled loops because here the condition is checked after
the execution of loop body.
Syntax:
do
{
statements;
}
while(expression);
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

Execution of do while loop

a. Body of do-while is executed.
b. After execution of do-while body, do-while condition is evaluated
i. If it is true, loop body is executed again and step b is repeated.
ii. If it is false, loop is terminated

 The body of do-while is executed once, even when the condition is initially false.

Ex1: Write a program to print 10 numbers using do while loop

void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
do
{
printf (“%d”,i);
i=i+1;
} while (num<=10);
getch();
}
Output:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ex2: To find the sum of n natural number. 1+2+3…+n

void main()
{
int n, i=1,
sum=0; clrscr();
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

printf(“Enter the value for n”);

scanf(“%d”,&n);
do
{
sum=sum+i;
i=i+1;
} while(i<=n); printf(“Sum=
%d”, sum); getch();
}
Output:
Enter the value for n
4
Sum=10

Three main ingredients of counter-controlled looping

1. Initialization of loop counter
2. Condition to decide whether to execute loop or not.
3. Expression that manipulates the value of loop.

Nested loops
 If the body of a loop contains another iteration statement, then we say that the loops are
nested.
 Loops within a loop are known as nested loop.

Syntax

while(condition)
{
While(conditio)
{
Statements;
}
Statements;
}

ENUMERATION CONSTANTS
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

In C programming, enumeration constants are integral constants that are defined within an enum (enumeration) data type.
These constants provide meaningful names to a set of related integer values, enhancing code readability and
maintainability.
Defining Enumeration Constants:
To define enumeration constants, use the enum keyword followed by a name for the enumeration and a list of identifiers
enclosed in curly braces:
enum Color {
RED,
GREEN,
BLUE
};
In this example, Color is an enumeration with three constants: RED, GREEN, and BLUE. By default, RED is assigned the
integer value 0, GREEN is 1, and BLUE is 2.
Assigning Specific Values:
You can assign specific integer values to enumeration constants:
enum Fruit {
APPLE = 5,
BANANA = 10,
CHERRY = 15
};
Here, APPLE is assigned the value 5, BANANA is 10, and CHERRY is 15. If subsequent constants are not explicitly
assigned values, they will continue incrementing from the last specified value.
Using Enumeration Constants:
Enumeration constants can be used to declare variables and control program flow:
#include <stdio.h>
enum Direction {
NORTH = 1,
EAST,
SOUTH,
WEST
};

int main() {
enum Direction dir;
dir = SOUTH;
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

if (dir == SOUTH) {
printf("Heading South.\n");
}

return 0;
}
In this program, the Direction enumeration defines four constants with NORTH assigned the value 1. The variable dir is of
type enum Direction and is assigned the value SOUTH. The if statement checks if dir equals SOUTH and prints a
corresponding message.
Key Points:
 Default Values: If not explicitly assigned, enumeration constants start at 0 and increment by 1 for each subsequent
constant.
 Type Compatibility: Enumeration constants are of type int in C. They can be used anywhere an integer is valid.
 Scope: Enumeration constants share the same scope as other identifiers in C. Ensure that their names do not
conflict with other variables or functions.

CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

UNIT IIARRAYS AND STRINGS

oduction to Arrays: Declaration, Initialization – One dimensional array – Example Program: Computin
n, Median and Mode - Two dimensional arrays – Example Program: Matrix Operations (Addition, Sca
rminant and Transpose) - String operations: length, compare, concatenate, copy – Selection sort, linear
ry search

roduction to Arrays
 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT I

An Array is a collection of similar data elements. These data elements have the same data type. The
ments of the array are stored in consecutive memory locations and are referenced by an index (also known as
script). Subscript indicates an ordinal number of the elements counted from the beginning of the
ay.

Definition:

An array is a data structure that is used to store data of the same type. The position
of an element is specified with an integer value known as index or subscript.

E.g.
1 3 5 2
a(integer array)

1.2 3.5 5.4 2.1

b(float array )

[0] [1] [2] [3]

 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
Characteristic
i) All the elements of an array share a common name called as array name

ii) The individual elements of an array are referred based on their position.

iii) The array index in c starts with 0.

In general arrays are classified as:

1. Single dimensional array

2. Multi-dimensional array

Declarations of Arrays

Array has to be declared before using it in C Program. Declaring Array means

specifying three things.

Data_type Data Type of Each Element of the array

Array_name Valid variable name

Size Dimensions of the Array

Arrays are declared using the following syntax:

type name[size]

Here the type can be either int, float, double, char or any other valid data type. The
number within the brackets indicates the size of the array, i.e., the maximum
number of elements that can be stored in the array.

ex: int marks[5]

CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
Initialization of arrays

Elements of the array can also be initialized at the time of declaration as in

the case of every other variable. When an array is initialized, we need to provide a
value for every element in the array. Arrays are initialized by writing,

type array_name[size] = { list of values};

The values are written with curly brackets and every value is separated by a
comma. It is a compiler error to specify more number of values than the number of
elements in the array.

ex: int marks[5] = {90, 92, 78, 82, 58};

One dimensional Array

 It is also known as one dimensional array or linear array or vectors

 It consists of fixed number of elements of same type
 Elements can be accessed by using a single subscript. eg) a[2]=9;
Eg)
1 3 5 2

a
[0] [1] [2] [3] subscripts or indices

Declaration of Single Dimensional Array

Syntax:
datatype arrayname [array size];

E.g. int a[4]; // a is an array of 4 integers

char b[6] //b is an array of 6
characters
CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
Initialization of single dimensional array

Elements of an array can also be initialized.

Rules
a) Elements of an array can be initialized by using an initialization list. An
initialization list is a comma separated list of initializers enclosed within
braces.
Eg) int a[3]={1,3,4};
b) If the number of initializers in the list is less than array size, the leading array
locations gets initialized with the given values. The rest of the array locations
gets initialized to
0 - for int array
0.0 - for float array
\0 - for character array
Eg) int a[2]={1};
1 00
0

char b[5]={‘A’.’r’,’r’};

b ‘A’ ‘r’ ‘r’ ‘\0’ ‘\0’

Usage of single dimensional array

The elements of single dimensional array can be accessed by using a
subscript operator([]) and a subscript.

Reading storing and accessing elements:

An iteration statement (i.e loop) is used for storing and reading elements.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

Ex:1 Program to calculate the average marks of the class

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int m[5],i,sum=0,n;
float avg;
printf(“enter number of students \n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
printf(“enter marks of students \n”); for(i=0;i<n;i+
+)
{
scanf(“%d”,&m[i]);
}

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
sum=sum+m[i];
avg=(float)sum/n;
printf(“average=%f”,avg);
}
Output:

Enter number of students

5
Enter marks of students
55
60
78
85
90
CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
Average=73.6

Example Programs
C Program to Find Mean, Median, and Mode of Given Numbers.
#define SIZE 100
#include"stdio.h"
float mean_function(float[],int);
float median_function(float[],int);
float mode_function(float[],int);
int main()
{
int i,n,choice;
float array[SIZE],mean,median,mode;

No of Elements”);
printf(“Enter
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter Elements\n");
for(i=0;i
scanf("%f",&array[i]);
do
{
printf("\n\tEnter Choice\n\t1.Mean\n\t2.Median\n\t3.Mode\n4.Exit");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice)
{
case 1:
mean=mean_function(array,n);
printf("\n\tMean = %f\n",mean);
break;
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

case 2:
median=median_function(array,n);
printf("\n\tMedian = %f\n",median);
break;
case 3:
mode=mode_function(array,n);
printf("\n\tMode = %f\n",mode);
break;
case 4: break;
default:printf("Wrong Option");
break;
}
}while(choice!=4);
}
float mean_function(float array[],int n)
{
int i;
float sum=0;
for(i=0;i
sum=sum+array[i];
return (sum/n);
}
float median_function(float a[],int n)
{
float temp;
int i,j;
for(i=0;i
for(j=i+1;j
{
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

if(a[i]>a[j])
{
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[i];
a[i]=temp;
}
} if(n
%2==0)
return (a[n/2]+a[n/2-1])/2;
else
return a[n/2];
}
float mode_function(float a[],int n)
{

return (3*median_function(a,n)-2*mean_function(a,n));
}
Output

Enter Elements
2
3
4

Enter Choice
1.Mean
2.Median
3.Mode
4.Exit
CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
1

Mean = 3.000000

Enter Choice
1.Mean
2.Median
3.Mode
4.Exit
2

Median =
3.000000 Enter
Choice 1.Mean
2.Median
3.Mode
4.Exit
3
Mode = 3.000000
Enter Choice
1.Mean
2.Median
3.Mode
4.Exit
4
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

Two dimensional Array

 A 2D array is an array of 1-D arrays and can be visualized as a plane that

has rows and columns.
 The elements can be accessed by using two subscripts, row subscript
(row no), column subscript(column no).
 It is also known as
matrix. E.g,
1 2 3 6 7
9 10 5 0 4
a[3][5] 3 1 2 1 6

Declaration
datatype arrayname [row size][column size]

e.g) int a [2][3]; //a is an integer array of 2 rows and 3

columns number of elements=2*3=6

Initialization

1. By using an initialization list, 2D array can be initialized.

e.g. int a[2][3] = {1,4,6,2}

1 4 6
2 0 0
a

2. The initializers in the list can be braced row wise.

e.g int a[2][3] = {{1,4,6} , {2}};
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

Example Programs

Progarm for addition,transpose and multiplication of array

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,i,k,j,c1,c2,r1,r2;
int m1[10][10],m2[10][10],m3[10][10];
clrscr();
while(1)
{

printf("\n 1. Transpose of Matrix:-\n");

printf("\n 2 . A d d i t i o n o f
matrix:\n”);
printf("\n 3. Multiplication of Matrix:-\n");
printf("\n 4. Exit\n");
printf("\n Enter your choice:-");
scanf("%d",&a);
switch(a)
{
case 1 :
printf("\n Enter the number of row and coloum:-"); scanf("%d
%d",&r1,&c1);
printf("\n Enter the element :-");
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
 {
scanf("%d",&m1[i][j]);
m2[j][i]=m1[i][j];
}
}
/*Displaying transpose of matrix*/ printf("\
n Transpose of Matrix is:-\n");
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
printf("\t%d",m2[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
reak;
case 2:
printf("\n how many row and coloum in Matrix one:-"); scanf("%d
%d",&r1,&c1);
printf("\n How amny row and coloum in Matrix two:-"); scanf("%d
%d",&r2,&c2);
if((r1==r2)&&(c1==c2))
{
printf("\n Addition is possible:-");
printf("\n Input Matrix one:-");
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
scanf("%d",&m1[i][j]);
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

}
printf("\n Input Matrix two:-");
for(i=0;i<r2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
scanf("%d",&m2[i][j]);
}
/* Addition of Matrix*/
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
m3[i][j]=m1[i][j]+ m2[i][j];
}
Printf(“The sum is:”\n);
for(i=0;i<c1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<r1;j++)
printf("%5d",m3[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
}
else

printf("\n Addition is not possible:-");

break;
case 3:
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

printf("\n Enter number of row and coloum in matrix one:-"); scanf("%d

%d",&r1,&c1);
printf("\n Enter number of row and coloum in matrix two:-"); scanf("%d
%d",&r2,&c2);
if(c1==r2)
{
printf("\n Multiplication is possible:-");
printf("\n Input value of Matrix one:-");
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
scanf("%d",&m1[i][j]);
}
Printf(“\n Input value of matrix two:-“);
for(i=0;i<r2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
scanf("%d",&m2[i][j]);
}
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
{
m3[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k<c1;k++)
m3[i][j]=m3[i][j]+m1[i][k]*m2[k][j];
}
/*Displaying final matrix*/
CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
 printf("\n Multiplication of Matrix:-\n");
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
printf("\t%d",m3[i][j]); printf("\
n");
}
}
else
printf("\n Multiplication is not possible");

break;
case 4:

exit(0);
break;
 }
getch();
}
}

String Operations
Definition:
The group of characters, digits, & symbols enclosed within double quotes is
called as Strings. Every string is terminated with the NULL (‘\0’) character.
E.g. “INDIA” is a string. Each character of string occupies 1 byte of
memory. The last character is always ‘\0’.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
Declaration:

String is always declared as character arrays.

Syntax

char stringname[size];

E.g. char a[20];

Initialization:
We can use 2 ways for initializing.
1. By using string constant
E.g. char str[6]= “Hello”;
2. By using initialisation list
E.g. char str[6]={‘H’, ‘e’, ‘l’, ;l’, ;o’, ‘\0’};

Operations or string functions

StringThese functions are defined in string.h header file.

1. strlen() function
It is used to find the length of a string. The terminating character (‘\0’) is not
counted.
Syntax
temp_variable = strlen(string_name);

E.g.
s= “hai”;
strlen(s)-> returns the length of string s i.e. 3.
2. strcpy() function
It copies the source string to the destination string
Syntax
CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
 strcpy(destination,source);

E.g.
s1=“hai”;
s2= “welcome”;
strcpy(s1,s2); -> s2 is copied to s1. i.e. s1=welcome.
3. strcat() function

It concatenates a second string to the end of the first string.

Syntax

strcat(firststring, secondstring);

E.g.
s1=“hai ”;
s2= “welcome”;
strcat(s1,s2); -> s2 is joined with s1. Now s1 is hai welcome.
E.g. Program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
void main ()
{
char str1[20] = "Hello";
char str2[20] = "World";
char str3[20];
int len ;
strcpy(str3, str1);
printf("Copied String= %s\n", str3 );
CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
 strcat( str1, str2);
printf("Concatenated String is= %s\n", str1 );
len = strlen(str1);
printf("Length of string str1 is= %d\n", len );
return 0;
}
Output:
Copied String=Hello
Concatenated String
is=HelloWorld Length of string
str1is

4. strcmp() function
It is used to compare 2 strings.
Syntax
temp_varaible=strcmp(string1,string2)

 If the first string is greater than the second string a positive number
is returned.
 If the first string is less than the second string a negative number
is returned.
 If the first and the second string are equal 0 is returned.

5. strlwr() function
It converts all the uppercase characters in that string to lowercase characters.
Syntax

strlwr(string_name);
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

E.g.
str[10]= “HELLO”;
strlwr(str);
puts(str);
Output: hello

6. strupr() function
It converts all the lowercase characters in that string to uppercase characters.
Syntax

strupr(string_name);

E.g.
str[10]= “HEllo”;
strupr(str);
puts(str);
Output: HELLO

7. strrev() function
It is used to reverse the string.
Syntax

strrev(string_name);

E.g.
str[10]= “HELLO”;
strrev(str);
puts(str);
Output: OLLEH
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

String functions

Functions Descriptions
strlen() Determines the length of a String
strcpy() Copies a String from source to destination
strcmp() Compares two strings
strlwr() Converts uppercase characters to lowercase
strupr() Converts lowercase characters to uppercase
strdup() Duplicates a String
strstr() Determines the first occurrence of a given String in another string
strcat() Appends source string to destination string
strrev() Reverses all characters of a string

Example: String Comparison

void main()
{
char s1[20],s2[20];
int val;
printf(“Enter String 1\n”);
gets(s1);
printf(“Enter String 2\n”);
gets (s2);
val=strcmp(s1,s2);
if (val==0)
printf(“Two Strings are equal”);
else
printf(“Two Strings are not equal”);
getch();
CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II
}
Output:
Enter String 1
Computer
Enter String 2
Programming
Two Strings are not equal

2.8.1 String Arrays

They are used to store multiple strings. 2-D char array is used for string
arrays.
Declaration

char arrayname[rowsize][colsize];
E.g.
char s[2][30];

Here, s can store 2 strings of maximum 30 characters each.

Initialization
2 ways
1. Using string constants
char s[2][20]={“Ram”,
“Sam”};
2. Using initialization list.
char s[2][20]={ {‘R’, ‘a’, ‘m’, ‘\0’},
{‘S’, ‘a’, ‘m’, ‘\0’}};
E.g. Program
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

int i;
char s[3][20];
printf(“Enter Names\n”);
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
scanf(“%s”, s[i]);
printf(“Student Names\n”);
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
printf(“%s”, s[i]);
}

Sorting
Sorting is the process of arranging elements either in ascending or in descending
order.
Sorting Methods
1. Selection Sort
2. Bubble Sort
3. Merge sort
4. Quick sort

1. Selection sort
It finds the smallest element in the list & swaps it with the element present
at the head of the list.
E.g.
25 20 15 10 5
5 20 15 10 25
5 10 15 20 25
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

2. Bubble Sort
In this method, each data item is compared with its neighbour element. If
they are not in order, elements are exchanged.
With each pass, the largest of the list is "bubbled" to the end of the list.
E.g.
Pass 1:
25 20 15 10 5
20 25 15 10 5
20 15 25 10 5
20 15 10 25 5
20 15 10 5 25
25 is the largest element
Repeat same steps until the list is sorted
3. Merge Sort:
 Merge sort is based on Divide and conquer method.
 It takes the list to be sorted and divide it in half to create two
unsorted lists.
 The two unsorted lists are then sorted and merged to get a sorted list.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

4. Quick Sort
 This method also uses the technique of Divide and conqure.
 Pivot element is selected from the list, it partitions the rest of the list into
two parts – a sub-list that contains elements less than the pivot and other
sub-list containing elements greater than the pivot.
 The pivot is inserted between the two sub-lists. The algorithm is recursively
applied to sort the elements.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

Program:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i, j, temp, n, a[10];
printf("Enter the value of N \n");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter the numbers \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
scanf("%d", &a[i]);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
for (j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
{
if (a[i] > a[j])
{
temp = a[i];
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

a[i] = a[j];
a[j] =
temp;
}
}
}
printf("The numbers arranged in ascending order are given below \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d\n", a[i]);
printf("The numbers arranged in descending order are given below \
n"); for(i=n-1;i>=0;i--)
printf("%d\n",a[i]);
}
Output:
Enter the value of
N4
Enter the
numbers 10 2 5 3
The numbers arranged in ascending order are given below
2
3
5
10
The numbers arranged in descending order are given below
10
5
3
2
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

Searching
Searching is an operation in which a given list is searched for a particular
value. If the value is found its position is returned.
Types:
1. Linear Search
2. Binary Search
1. Linear Search
The search is linear. The search starts from the first element & continues in a
sequential fashion till the end of the list is reached. It is slower method.
Program:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{

int a[10],i,n,m,c=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the size of an array: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the elements of the array:
"); for(i=0;i<=n-1;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("Enter the number to be searched: ");
scanf("%d",&m);
for(i=0;i<=n-1;i++)
{
if(a[i]==m)
{
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

printf("Element is in the position %d\n",i+1);

c=1;
break;
}
}
if(c==0)
printf("The number is not in the list");
getch();
}

Output:

Enter the size of an array: 4

Enter the elements of the array: 4 3 5 1
Enter the number to be search :5
Element is in the position 3

2. Binary Search
 If a list is already sorted then we can easily find the element
using binary serach.
 It uses divide and conquer technique.
Steps:

1. The middle element is tested with searching element. If found,

its position is returned.
2. Else, if searching element is less than middle element, search the left
half else search the right half.
3. Repeat step 1 & 2.
Program:
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a[10],i,n,m,c=0,l,u,mid;
printf("Enter the size of an array: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the elements in ascending order: ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("Enter the number to be searched: ");
scanf("%d",&m);
l=0,u=n-1;
while(l<=u)
{
mid=(l+u)/2;
if(m==a[mid])
{
c=1;
break;
}
else if(m<a[mid])
{
u=mid-1;
}
else
l=mid+1;
}
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT II

if(c==0)
printf("The number is not found.");
else
printf("The number is found.");
}
Sample output:
Enter the size of an array: 5
Enter the elements in ascending order: 4 7 8 11 21
Enter the number to be search: 11
The number is found.
Example:

3 5 7 9 11
Search key=7 middle element=7
Searching element=middle element.
Search key=11
Middle element=7
Searching element>middle
So go to right half: 9 11. Repeat steps until 11 is found or list ends.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT 3

UNIT III FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS

Introduction to functions: Function prototype, function definition, function call,
Built-in functions (string functions, math functions) – Recursion – Example
Program: Computation of Sine series, Scientific calculator using built-in functions,
Binary Search using recursive functions – Pointers – Pointer operators – Pointer
arithmetic – Arrays and pointers – Array of pointers – Example Program: Sorting
of names – Parameter passing: Pass by value, Pass by reference – Example
Program: Swapping of two numbers and changing the value of a variable using
pass by reference

Introduction to functions
A function is a subprogram of one or more statements that performs a specific task
when called.
Advantages of Functions:
1. Code reusability
2. Better readability
3. Reduction in code redundancy
4. Easy to debug & test.
Classification of functions:

 Based on who develops the function

 Based on the number of arguments a function accepts
1. Based on who develops the function
There are two types.
1. Library functions
2. User-defined functions
1. Library functions [Built-in functions]
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT III

Library functions are predefined functions. These functions are already developed
by someone and are available to the user for use. Ex. printf( ), scanf( ).
2. User-defined functions
User-defined functions are defined by the user at the time of writing a program.
Ex. sum( ), square( )

Using Functions
A function can be compared to a black box that takes in inputs, processes it, and
then outputs the
result. Terminologies using functions are:
 A function f that uses another function g is known as the calling function,
and g is known as the called function.
 The inputs that a function takes are known as arguments.
 When a called functions returns some result back to the calling function, it
is said to return that result.
 The calling function may or may not pass parameters to the called function.
If the called function accepts arguments, the calling function will pass
parameters, else not.
 Function declaration is a declaration statement that identifies a function’s
name, a list of arguments that it accepts, and the type of data it returns.
 Function definition consists of a function header that identifies the function,
followed by the body of the function containing the executable code for that
function.

Function Prototype

Before using a function, the compiler must know the number of parameters
and the type of parameters that the function expects to receive and the data type of
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT III

value that it will return to the calling program. Placing the function declaration
statement prior to its use enables the compiler to make a check on the arguments
used while calling that function.
Syntax:

return_data_type function_name(data_type variable1, data_type variable2,..);

Here, function_name is a valid name for the function. Naming a function
follows the same rules that are followed while naming variables. A function should
have a meaningful name that must specify the task that the function will perform.
return_data_type specifies the data type of the value that will be returned
to the calling function as a result of the processing performed by the called
function.
(data_type variable1, data_type variable2, ...) is a list of variables of
specified data types.
These variables are passes from the calling function to the called function.
They are also known as arguments or parameters that the called function accepts to
perform its task.

Function definition
When a function is defined, space is allocated for that function in the memory. A
function definition comprises of two parts:
 Function header
 Function body
The syntax of a function definition can be given as:
return_data_type function_name(data_type variable1, data_type variable2,..)
{
.............
statement
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

.............
return(variable);
}
While return_data_type function_name(data_type variable1, data_type
variable2,...) is known as the function header, the rest of the portion comprising of
program statements within the curly brackets { } is the function body which
contains the code to perform the specific task.
Note that the function header is same as the function declaration. The only
difference between the two is that a function header is not followed by a semi-
colon.

Function Call
The function call statement invokes the function. When a function is invoked, the
compiler jumps to the called function to execute the statements that are a part
of
that function. Once the called function is executed, the program control passes
back to the calling function.
Syntax:

function_name(variable1, variable2, ...);

The following points are to be noted while calling a function:
 Function name and the number and the type of arguments in the function call
must be same as that given in the function declaration and the function
header of the function definition.
 Names (and not the types) of variables in function declaration, function call,
and header of function definition may vary.
 Arguments may be passed in the form of expressions to the called function.
In such a case, arguments are first evaluated and converted to the type of
formal parameter and then the body of the function gets executed.

9
0
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

 If the return type of the function is not void, then the value returned by the
called function may be assigned to some variable as given below.
variable_name = function_name(variable1, variable2, ...);

Working of a function
void main()
{
int x,y,z;
int abc(int, int, int) // Function declaration
…..
…..
abc(x,y,z) // Function Call
… Actual arguments

…
}

int abc(int i, int j, int k) // Function definition

{ Formal arguments
…….
….
return (value);
}

Calling function – The function that calls a function is known as a calling

function.
Called function – The function that has been called is known as a called function.

9
1
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT III

Actual arguments – The arguments of the calling function are called as actual
arguments.
Formal arguments – The arguments of called function are called as formal
arguments.

Steps for function Execution:

1. After the execution of the function call statement, the program control is
transferred to the called function.
2. The execution of the calling function is suspended and the called
function starts execution.
3. After the execution of the called function, the program control returns to
the calling function and the calling function resumes its execution.

Built-in functions(string fuctions,math functions)

The standard library functions are built-in functions in C programming to
handle tasks such as mathematical computations, I/O processing, string handling
etc. These functions are defined in the header file.
The printf() is a standard library function to send formatted output to the
screen (display output on the screen). This function is defined in "stdio.h" header
file.
There are other numerous library functions defined under "stdio.h", such
as scanf(), fprintf(), getchar() etc. Once you include "stdio.h" in your program, all
these functions are available for use.
Library of Mathematical functions.
These are defined in math.h header file.
Example:
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT III

1 double cos(double x)- Returns the cosine of a radian angle x

2 double sin(double x)- Returns the sine of a radian angle x.
3 double exp(double x)- Returns the value of e raised to the xth power
double log(double x)
4
Returns the natural logarithm (base-e logarithm) of x.
double sqrt(double x)
5
Returns the square root of x.
double pow(double x, double y)
6
Returns x raised to the power of y.

Library of standard input & output functions

Header file: stdio.h
Example:
1 printf() This function is used to print the character, string, float, integer,
octal and hexa decimal values onto the output screen.

2 scanf() This function is used to read a character, string, and numeric data
from keyboard.
3 getc() It reads character from file
4 gets() It reads line from keyboard

Library of String functions:

Header file: string.h
Example:
Functions Descriptions
strlen() Determines the length of a String
strcpy() Copies a String from source to destination
strcmp() Compares two strings
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

strlwr() Converts uppercase characters to lowercase

strupr() Converts lowercase characters to uppercase

Example: strlen function

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char string1[20];
char string2[20];
strcpy(string1, "Hello");
strcpy(string2, "Hellooo");
printf("Length of string1 : %d\n", strlen( string1 ));
printf("Length of string2 : %d\n", strlen( string2 ));
return 0;
}
Output:
Length of string1 :
5 Length of string2
:7
Example: strcpy function

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char input_str[20];
char *output_str;
strcpy(input_str, "Hello");
printf("input_str: %s\n", input_str);
output_str = strcpy(input_str, "World");
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

printf("input_str: %s\n", input_str);

printf("output_str: %s\n", output_str);
return 0;
}

Output:

input_str: Hello
input_str: World
output_str: World

Example :strcmp function

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main(
)
{
char one[20] = “William Lambton”;
char two[20] = “William Lamberton”;
if(strcmp(one, two) == 0)
printf(“The names are the same.”);
else
printf(“The names are different.”);
}

Output:
The names are different

Example: Strupr() and strlwr()

 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT III

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main( )
{
char str[] = “ String Functions”;
printf(“%s \n”, strupr(str));
printf(“%s \n”, strlwr(str));
return 0;
}
Output:
STRING FUNCTIONS
string functions

Recursion

A function that calls itself is known as a recursive function.

Direct & Indirect Recursion:
Direct Recursion:
A function is directly recursive if it calls itself.
A( )
{
….
….
A( );// call to itself
….
}
Indirect Recursion:
Function calls another function, which in turn calls the original function.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT III

A( )
{
…
…
B( )
;
…
}
B(
)
{
…
…
A( );// function B calls A
…
}
Consider the calculation of 6! ( 6 factorial )
ie 6! = 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
6! = 6 * 5!
6! = 6 * ( 6 - 1 )!
n! = n * ( n - 1 )!

Types of Recursion Direct

Recursion
A function is said to be directly recursive if it explicitly calls itself. Here, the
function Func() calls itself for all positive values of n, so it is said to be a directly
recursive function.
int Func (int n)

{
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

if (n == 0) return n;
else
return (Func (n–1));
}

Indirect Recursion
A function is said to be indirectly recursive if it contains a call to another function
which ultimately calls it. These two functions are indirectly recursive as they both
call each other.
Int Funcl (int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return n; else
return Func2(n);
}
int Func2(int x)

{
return Func1(x–1);

Tail Recursion
A recursive function is said to be tail recursive if no operations are pending to be performed
when the recursive function returns to its caller. When the called function returns, the returned
value is immediately returned from the calling function.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNITIII

int Fact(int n)
{
if (n == 1)
return 1;
else
return (n * Fact(n–1));
}
The above function is a nontail-recursive function, because there is a
pending operation of multiplication to be performed on return from each recursive
call. Whenever there is a pending operation to be performed, the function becomes
non-tail recursive. In such a non-tail recursive function, information about each
pending operation must be stored, so the amount of information directly depends
on the number of calls.
int Fact(n)

{
return Fact1(n, 1);

}
int Fact1(int n, int res)

{ if (n == 1) return res;
else
return Fact1(n–1, n*res);
}
The same factorial function can be written in a tail recursive manner. In the code, Fact1 function
preserves the syntax of Fact(n). Here the recursion occurs in the Fact1 function and not in

Fact function. Fact1 has no pending operation to be

 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

performed on return from recursive calls. The value computed by the recursive call
is simply returned without any modification. So in this case, the amount of
information to be stored on the system stack is constant (only the values of n and
res need to be stored) and is independent of the number of recursive calls.

E.g. Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int fact(int);
int n,f;
printf(“Enter the number \n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
f=fact(n);
printf(“The factorial of a number =%d”,f);
getch();
}
int fact(int n)
{
if(n==1)
return(1);
else
return n*fact(n-1);
}
OUTPUT

Enter the number to find the factorial

 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

5
The factorial of a number=120

Pattern of Recursive Calls:

Based on the number of recursive calls, the recursion is classified in to 3
types. They are,
1. Linear Recursion - Makes only one recursive call.
2. Binary Recursion - Calls itself twice.
3. N-ary recursion - Calls itself n times.

Converting Recursive Functions to Tail Recursive

A non-tail recursive function can be converted into a tail-recursive function
by using an auxiliary parameter as we did in case of the Factorial function. The
auxiliary parameter is used to form the result. When we use such a parameter, the
pending operation is incorporated into the auxiliary parameter so that the recursive
call no longer has a pending operation.
Recursive functions can also be characterized depending on the way in
which the recursion grows in a linear fashion or forming a tree structure as shown
below:
int Fibonacci(int num)
{
if(num ==
) return ;
else
return (Fibonacci(num - 1) + Fibonacci(num – 2));
}
else if (num == 1)
 CS3251 Programming in C UNI

return 1;
Observe the series of function calls. When the function pending operations in turn
calls the function
Fibonacci(7) = Fibonacci(6) + Fibonacci(5)
Fibonacci(6) = Fibonacci(5) + Fibonacci(4)
Fibonacci(5) = Fibonacci(4) + Fibonacci(3)
Fibonacci(4) = Fibonacci(3) + Fibonacci(2)
Fibonacci(3) = Fibonacci(2) + Fibonacci(1)
Fibonacci(2) = Fibonacci(1) + Fibonacci(0)
Now we have, Fibonacci(2) = 1 + 0 = 1
Fibonacci(4) = 2 + 1 = 3
Fibonacci(5) = 3 + 2 = 5
Fibonacci(6) = 3 + 5 = 8
Fibonacci(7) = 5 + 8 = 13

On the contrary, a recursive function is said to be tree recursive (or non-

linearly recursive) if the pending operation makes another recursive call to the
function. For example, the Fibonacci function in which the pending operations
recursively call the Fibonacci function.

Tower of Hanoi
The tower of Hanoi is one of the main applications of recursion. It says, ‘if
you can solve n–1 cases, then you can easily solve the nth case’. The figure (a)
below shows three rings mounted on pole A. The problem is to move all these
rings from pole A to pole C while maintaining the same order. The main issue is
that the smaller disk must always come above the larger disk.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

In our case, A is the source pole, C is the destination pole, and B is the spare
pole. To transfer all the three rings from A to C, we will first shift the upper two
rings (n–1 rings) from the source pole to the spare pole. We move the first two
rings from pole A to B as shown in figure (b) .
Now that n–1 rings have been removed from pole A, the nth ring can be
easily moved from the source pole (A) to the destination pole (C). Figure (c) shows
this step.
The final step is to move the n–1 rings from the spare pole (B) to the
destination pole (C). This is shown in Fig. (d)
To summarize, the solution to our problem of moving n rings from A to C using B
as spare can be given as:
Base case: if n=1
 Move the ring from A to C using B as spare
Recursive case:

 Move n – 1 rings from A to B using C as spare

 Move the one ring left on A to C using B as spare
 Move n – 1 rings from B to C using A as spare

Figure (a)

10
4
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

Figure (b)

Figure (c)

Figure (d)

Example Program

Program for Computation of Sine series

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()

10
5
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

{
int i, n ;
float x, val, sum, t ;
clrscr() ;
printf("Enter the value for x : ") ;
scanf("%f", &x) ;
printf("\nEnter the value for n : ") ;
scanf("%d", &n) ;
val = x ;
x = x * 3.14159 / 180 ;
t=x;
sum = x
;
for(i = 1 ; i < n + 1 ; i++)
{
t = (t * pow((double) (-1), (double) (2 * i - 1)) * x * x) / (2 * i * (2 * i + 1)) ;
sum = sum + t ;
}
printf("\nSine value of %f is : %8.4f", val, sum) ;
getch() ;
}
Output:

Enter the value for x : 30

Enter the value for n : 20
Sine value of 30.000000 is : 0.5000

Scientific calculator using built-in functions

 CS3251 Programming in C UNITIII

Program for binary search using recursive function

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{

int a[10],i,n,m,c,l,u;

printf("Enter the size of an array: ");

scanf("%d",&n);

printf("Enter the elements of the array: " );

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}

printf("Enter the number to be search: ");

scanf("%d",&m);

l=0,u=n-1;
c=binary(a,n,m,l,u);
if(c==0)

10
7
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

printf("Number is not found.");

else
printf("Number is found.");

return 0;
}

int binary(int a[],int n,int m,int l,int u)

{

int mid,c=0;

if(l<=u)
{
mid=(l+u)/2;
if(m==a[mid])
{
c=1;
}
else if(m<a[mid])
{
return binary(a,n,m,l,mid-1);
}
else
return binary(a,n,m,mid+1,u);
}
else
 return c;
}

Output:

Enter the size of an array: 5

Enter the elements of the array: 8 9 10 11 12
Enter the number to be search: 8
Number is found.

Pointers Definition:
A pointer is a variable that stores the address of a variable or a function
Advantages
1. Pointers save memory space
2. Faster execution
3. Memory is accessed efficiently.
Declaration

datatype *pointername;

E.g ) int *p //p is an pointer to an

int float *fp //fp is a pointer to a
float

int a=10; p a
int *p=&a;
2000 10

4000 2000
p is an integer pointer & holds the address of an int variable a.

Pointer to pointer
A pointer that holds the address of another pointer variable is known as a
pointer to pointer.
E.g: int **p;
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

p is a pointer to a pointer to an integer.

int a=12;
int *p=&a; a
int **pptr=&p;
12
p 4000 4000

6000

6000 pptr
8000
So **pptr=12

Operations on pointers

1. Referencing operation: A pointer variable is made to refer to an object.

Reference operator(&) is used for this. Reference operator is also known
as address of (&) operator

Eg) float a=12.5;

float *p;
p=&a;

a 12.5

1000 1000
P
2000

2. Dereferencing a pointer
The object referenced by a pointer can be indirectly accessed by
dereferencing the pointer. Dereferencing operator (*) is used for this .This
operator is also known as indirection operator or value- at-operator

Eg) int b;
int a=12;
a 12 int *p;
23 B. Shanmuga Sundari
1000
 1000 p=&a;
b=*p; \\value pointed by
p(or)value at 1000=12,
p so
b=12
Example program 2000
#include<stdio.h>
void main() Note
{
int a=12; %p is used for addresses; %u
int *p; can also be used.
int **pptr;
p=&a; *p=value at p
=value at (1000)=12
pptr=&p;
printf(“a value=%d”,a); *pptr=value at(pptr)
printf(“value by dereferencing p is %d \n”,*p); =value at(value at (2000))
printf(“value by dereferencing pptr is %d \ ); =value at (1000)=12
n”,**pptr printf(“value of p is %u \n”,p);
printf(“value of pptr is %u\n”,pptr);
}
Output:
a value=12
value by dereferencing p is 12
value by dereferencing pptr is 12
value of p is 1000
value of pptr is 2000

a 12

1000 p 1000

2000 pptr 2000

3000
Pointer arithmetic- Arithmetic operations on pointer variables are also possible.

24
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

E.g.) Addition, Increment, Subtraction, Decrement.

1. Addition
(i) An addition of int type can be added to an expression of pointer type. The
result is pointer type.(or)A pointer and an int can be added.

Eg) if p is a pointer to an object then

p+1 =>points to next object
p+i=>point s to ith object after p

(ii)Addition of 2 pointers is not allowed.

2. Increment
Increment operator can be applied to an operand of pointer type.
3. Decrement

Decrement operator can be applied to an operand of pointer type.

4. Subtraction
i) A pointer and an int can be subtracted.
ii) 2 pointers can also be subtracted.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

S.no Operator Type of Type of Result Example Initial Final Description

operand operand type value value
1 2
1 + Pointer int Pointer Result =
to type to type initial value
T T of ptr +int
operand *
sizeof (T)

Eg. int * int int * p=p+5 p=2000 2010 2000+5*2=

2010
2 ++ Pointer ppointer Post
to type - to type increment
T T Result =
initial value
of pointer

Pre-
increment
Result =
initial value
of pointer +
sizeof (T)
Eg. post float* - float* ftr=p++ ftr=? ftr=2000
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

increment p=2000 p=2004 Value of ptr

= Value of
ptr
+sizeof(T)
3 - Pointer int Pointer Result =
to type to type initial value
T T of ptr - int
operand *
sizeof (T)
E.g. float* int float* p=p-1 p=2000 1996 2000 – 1 *
4 = 2000-
4=1996
4 -- Pointer Pointer Post
to type
to type T decrement
T Result =
initial value
of pointer

Pre-
decrement
Result =
initial value
of pointer –
sizeof(T)
Eg.pre float* - float* ftr=--p ftr=? ftr=1996
decrement p=2000 p=1996 Value of ptr
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

= Value of
ptr –
sizeof(T)

3.11. Pointers and Arrays

In C language, pointers and arrays are so closely related.
i) An array name itself is an address or pointer. It points to the address of first
element (0th element) of an array.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a[3]={10,15,20};
printf(“First element of array is at %u\n”, a);
10 15 20
nd nd
printf(“2 element of array is at %u\n”, a+1); printf(“3
element of array is at %u\n”, a+2);
1000 1002 1004
}
Output
First element of array is at 1000
2nd element of array is at 1002
3nd element of array is at 1004

ii)Any operation that involves array subscripting is done by using pointers in c

language.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

E.g.) E1[E2]=>*(E1+E2)
Example
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a[3]={10,15,20};
printf(“Elements are %d %d %d\n”, a[0],a[1],a[2]);
printf(“Elements are %d %d %d\n”, *(a+0),*(a+1),*(a+2);
}
Output:
Elements are 10 15 20
Elements are 10 15 20

Array of pointers

An array of pointers is a collection of addresses. Pointers in an array must

be the same type.
int a=10,b=20,c=30;
int *b[3]={&a,&b,&c};
a b c

10 20 30

4000 4100 4400

4000 4100 4400

 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

5000 5002 5004

Example:
Now look at another code in which we store the address of three individual arrays
in the array of pointers:
int main()
{
int arr1[]={1,2,3,4,5};
int arr2[]={0,2,4,6,8};
int arr3[]={1,3,5,7,9};
int *parr[3] = {arr1, arr2, arr3};
int i;
for(i = 0;i<3;i++)
printf(«%d», *parr[i]);
return 0;
}
Output

101

Example Program Sorting of

names
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

char *x[20];
int i,n=0;
void reorder(int n,char *x[]);
clrscr();
printf("Enter no. of String : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\n");

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("Enter the Strings %d : ",i+1);
x[i]=(char
*)malloc(20*sizeof(char));
scanf("%s",x[i]);
}
reorder(n,x); printf("\
nreorder list is : \n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{

} printf("%d %s\n",i+1,x[i]); getch();

}
void reorder(int n,char *x[])
{
int i,j;
char t[20];
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++)
if(strcmp(x[i],x[j])>0)
{
strcpy(t,x[j]);
strcpy(x[j],x[i]);
strcpy(x[i],t);
}
return;
}

Output:

Enter no. of string 5

 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

Enter the Strings 1 kailash

Enter the Strings 2 Aswin
Enter the Strings 3 Zulphia
Enter the Strings 4 Babu
Enter the Strings 5 Clinton
Reorder list is
Aswin
Babu
Clinton
kailash
Clinton

Parameter passing
Whenever we call a function then sequence of executable statements gets executed. We
can pass some of the information to the function for processing
called argument. There are two ways in which arguments can be passed from
calling function to called function. They are:
1. Pass by value
2. Pass by reference

1. Pass by value (Call by value)

 In this method the values of actual arguments are copied to formal

arguments.
 Any change made in the formal arguments does not affect the actual
arguments.
 Once control, return backs to the calling function the formal
parameters are destroyed.
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

E.g. Program:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
void swap(int ,int);
a=10;
b=20;
printf("\n Before swapping: a = %d and b = %d",a,b);
swap(a, b);
printf("\n After swapping a=%d and b=%d”,a,b);
getch();
}

void swap(int a1,int b1)

{

int temp;
temp=a1;
a1=b1;

b1=temp;
}
OUTPUT:
Before swapping: a =10 and b =20
After swapping: a =10 and b = 20
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

Main function
a b

10 20

1000 1002
Swap function
a1 b1
10 20

2000 2002
After swap function
a1 b1
20 10

2000 2002

2. Pass by reference ( Call b y reference)

 In this method, the addresses of the actual arguments are passed to
formal argument.
 Thus formal arguments points to the actual arguments.
 So changes made in the arguments are permanent.

Example Program:
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
void swap(int *,int *);
a=10;
b=20;
printf("\n Before swapping: a= %d and b= %d",a,b);
swap(&a,&b);
printf("\n After swapping: a= %d and b= %d",a,b);
getch();
}
void swap(int *a1,int *b1)
{
int t;
t = *a1;
*a1 = *b1;
*b1 = t;
}

OUTPUT:
Before swapping: a = 10 and b = 20
After swapping: a = 20 and b = 10
Main function
a b

35
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

10 20

1000 1002
Swap function
a1 b1
1000 1002

a1, b1 points to a and b.

2000 2002
After swap
function a b
20 10

1000 1002

Example Program: Swapping of two numbers and changing the value ofa variable using pass by reference
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void swap(int *num1, int *num2);
void main() {
int x, y;
printf("\nEnter First number : ");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("\nEnter Second number : ");
scanf("%d", &y);

36

Downloaded from
 CS3251 Programming in C UNIT

printf("\nBefore Swaping x = %d and y = %d", x, y);

swap(&x, &y); // Function Call - Pass By Reference
printf("\nAfter Swaping x = %d and y = %d", x, y);
getch();
}
void swap(int *num1, int *num2) {
int temp;
temp = *num1;
*num1 = *num2;
*num2 = temp;
}

Output:
Enter First number : 12 Enter Second number : 21

Before Swaping x = 12 and y = 21

After Swaping x = 21 and y = 12

UNION

Union is derived data type contains collection of different data type or dissimilar elements. All
definition declaration of union variable and accessing member is similar to structure, but instead
of keyword struct the keyword union is used, the main difference between union and structure is
Each member of structure occupy the memory location, but in the unions members share
memory. Union is used for saving memory and concept is useful when it is not necessary
to use all members of union at a time.

Where union offers a memory treated as variable of one type on one occasion where
(struct), it read number of different variables stored at different place of memory.

Syntax of union:

union student

datatype member1;

datatype member2;

};

Like structure variable, union variable can be declared with definition or separately such
as

union union name

Datatype member1;

}var1;

Example:- union student s;

Union members can also be accessed by the dot operator with union variable and if we
have pointer to union then member can be accessed by using (arrow) operator as with
structure.
Example:- struct student struct

student

int i;

char ch[10];

};struct student s;

Here datatype/member structure occupy 12 byte of location is memory, where as in the

union side it occupy only 10 byte.

Nested of Union

When one union is inside the another union it is called nested of union.

Example:-

union a

int i; int age;

};

union b
 {

char name[10]; union

a aa;

}; union b bb;

There can also be union inside structure or structure in union.

Example:-

void main()

struct a

int i;

char ch[20];

};

struct b

int i;

char d[10];

};

union z

struct a a1; struct

b b1;
}; union z z1; z1.b1.j=20;

z1.a1.i=10; z1.a1.ch[10]= “

i“;

z1.b1.d[0]=”j “;

printf(“ “);

Storage classes
Storage classes of a variable determine:
1. Storage area of the variable
2. Initial value of variable if not initialized
3. Lifetime of the variable
4. Linkage of a function or variable

C language provides 4 storage class specifiers:

1. auto
2. register
3. static
4. extern
Syntax:
Storage class specifier datatype variable name;

1. The auto storage class

 Automatic variables are also called as auto variables, which are defined inside a function.
 Auto variables are stored in main memory.
 Variables has automatic (local) lifetime.
 Auto variables are not implicitly initialized.

It is a default storage class if the variable is declared inside the block.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
auto int a=10;
printf(“a=%d”,a);

{
int b=20; printf(“b=
%d”,b);
}
printf(“Here b is not visible\n”); printf(“a=
%d”,a);
}
Output
a=10
b=20
Here b is not visible
a=10

2. The register storage class

 Register variables can be accessed faster than others
 Variables are stored in CPU.
 Variables have automatic (local) lifetime.
 Register variables are not implicitly initialized.
 Register variables have no linkage.
 Register variables are used for loop counter to improve the performance of a program.
Example:
# include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
register int
a=200; printf(“a=
%d”,a);
}
Output:
a=200
3. The static storage class
 Static variables have static (global) lifetime.
 Static variables are stored in the main memory.
 Static variables can be declared in local scope as well as in the global scope.
 Static variables are implicitly initialized.
 The value of static variables persists between the function calls. Last change made in the
value of static variable remains throughout the program execution.
 Static variables will have internal linkage.
Ex:
# include<stdio.h>
void fun(int);
void main()
{
int i=0;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
fun(i);
}
}
void fun(int i)
{
static int a=10; a+
+;
printf(“%d”,a);
}
Output:
11 12 13 14 15
4. The extern storage class
 Variables that are available to all functions are called external or global variables.
 External variables are stored in main memory.
 External variables have static (global) lifetime.
 External variables have external linkage.
 External variables are implicitly initialized to 0.

Example:
extern int
v=10; void
call1()
void main()
{
call1();
printf(“In main v=%d”,v);
}
void call1()
{
printf(“In call1() v=%d”,v);
}

Output:
In main v=10
In call1( )
v=10
Since v is a external variable it is visible and accessed in all functions.

typedef storage class

The
typedef is used for creating an alias or synonym for a known type.
Syntax:

typedef knowntype synonym name;

 Eg:
typedef char* cp;
cp c; // is same as char * c;
cp and (char *) can be used interchangeably.

Summary of storage classes

S.No Storage Storage Initial Lifetime Linkage

class value

Page 7

1 auto Memory Garbage Automatic NO

2 register CPU register Garbage Automatic NO
3 static Memory 0 Static Internal
4 extern Memory 0 Static External

Storage Classes

Storage class in c language is a specifier which tells the compiler where and how to store variables,
its initial value and scope of the variables in a program. Or attributes of variable is known as
storage class or in compiler point of view a variable identify some physical location within a
computer where its string of bits value can be stored is known as storage class.

The kind of location in the computer, where value can be stored is either in the memory or in
the register. There are various storage class which determined, in which of the two location
value would be stored.

Syntax of declaring storage classes is:-

storageclass datatype variable name;

There are four types of storage classes and all are keywords:-

1) Automatic (auto)
 2) Register (register)

3) Static (static)

4) External (extern)

Examples:-
auto float x; or float x;

extern int x;

register char c;

static int y;

Compiler assume different storage class based on:-

1) Storage class:- tells us about storage place(where variable would be stored).

2) Intial value :-what would be the initial value of the variable.

If initial value not assigned, then what value taken by uninitialized variable.

3) Scope of the variable:-what would be the value of the variable of the program.

4) Life time :- It is the time between the creation and distribution of a variable
or how long would variable exists.

1. Automatic storage class

The keyword used to declare automatic storage class is auto.

Its features:-

Storage-memory location
Default initial value:-unpredictable value or garbage value.
Scope:-local to the block or function in which variable is defined.

Life time:-Till the control remains within function or block in which it is defined. It
terminates when function is released.

The variable without any storage class specifier is called automatic variable.

Example:-

main( )

auto int i; printf(“i=”,i);

2. Register storage class

The keyword used to declare this storage class is register. The

features are:-

Storage:-CPU register.

Default initial value :-garbage value

Scope :-local to the function or block in which it is defined.

Life time :-till controls remains within function or blocks in which it is defined.

Register variable don’t have memory address so we can’t apply address operator on it.
CPU register generally of 16 bits or 2 bytes. So we can apply storage classes only for
integers, characters, pointer type.
Variable stored in register storage class always access faster than,which is always stored
in the memory. But to store all variable in the CPU register is not possible because of
limitation of the register pair.

And when variable is used at many places like loop counter, then it is better to declare it
as register class.

Example:- main(

register int i; for(i=1;i<=12;i++)

printf(“%d”,i);

3 Static storage class

The keyword used to declare static storage class is static. Its

feature are:-

Storage:-memory location

Default initial value:- zero

Scope :- local to the block or function in which it is defined.

Life time:- value of the variable persist or remain between different function call.

Example:-

main( )
 {

reduce( );

reduce( );

reduce ( );

reduce( )

static int x=10;

printf(“%d”,x); x++;

Output:-10,11,12

External storage classes

The keyword used for this class is extern.

Features are:-

Storage:- memory area

Default initial value:-zero

Scope :- global

Life time:-as long as program execution remains it retains.

Declaration does not create variables, only it refer that already been created at
somewhere else. So, memory is not allocated at a time of declaration and the
external variables are declared at outside of all the function.

Example:-

int i,j;

void main( )

printf( “i=

%d”,i );

receive( );

receive ( );

reduce( );

reduce( );

receive( )

i=i+2;

printf(“on increase i=%d”,i);

reduce( )

i=i-1;

printf(“on reduce i=%d”,i);

}
 Output:-i=0,2,4,3,2.

When there is large program i.e divided into several files, then external variable
should be preferred. External variable extend the scope of variable.

Programming in C – UNIT IV

UNIT IV STRUCTURES
Structure - Nested structures – Pointer and Structures – Array of structures – Example
Program using structures and pointers – Self referential structures – Dynamic memory
allocation - Singly linked list - typedef

4.1 Introduction
Using C language we can create new data types. These data types are known as
User Defined data types & can be created by using Structures, Unions &
Enumerations.
Need for Structure
Arrays can store data of same data type. They can’t be used to store data of
different data types. For this Structures are used.
Structures
A structure is a collection of variables of different types under a single name. It
is used for storing different types of data.
3 aspects:
1. Defining a structure type
2. Declaring variables
3. Using & performing operations.
4.1.1 Structure Definition
The structure can be defined with the keyword struct followed by the name of
structure and opening brace with data elements of different type then closing brace
with semicolon.
General Form

struct [structure tag name]

{
 type
membername1; type
membername2;
……
}[variable name];
E.g.

struct book
{
char title[25];
int pages;
float price;
};
 Structure definition does not reserve any space in the memory.
 It is not possible to initialize the structure members during the structure
definition.
 A structure definition must always be terminated with a semicolon.

Rules for Structure members

1. A structure can have data of different types
2. A structure can’t contain an instance of itself.
E.g.
struct box
{
struct box a; // not possible
};
3. A structure can contain members of other complete types.
E.g.
struct name
{
char firstname[20];
char lastname[20];
};
struct person
{
 struct name personname;
float salary;
}
4. A structure can contain a pointer to itself;
4.1.2 Declaration
Variables of structure type can be declared eier at the time of structure definition or after the structure
definition.
General Form

struct structurename variablename[=initialization list];

E.g.
struct book b1,b2;
struct book b3={“CP”,500,385.00};
Accessing Members of Structure

There are two types of operators used for accessing members of a structure.
1. Direct member access operator (dot operator) (.)
2. Indirect member access operator (arrow operator) (->)
Using Dot operator General form:

structure variable name.member variable name

E.g.
Suppose, we want to access title of structure variable then, it can be accessed
as:
b1.title
We can also directly assign values to members.
b1.title= “CP”;
4.2 Structures within a Structure (Nested Structures)
A structure can be nested within another structure. Structure within structure is
known as nested structure i.e.) one structure can be declared inside other.

Example program:
#include<stdio.h>
struct name
{
char fname[20],lastname[20];
};
 Programming in C – UNIT IV

struct student
{
int sno,m1,m2,m3;
int tot;
float avg;
struct name sname;
};
void main()
{
struct student s[10];
float,avg;
int n,i;
printf(“Enter the number of students \n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{

printf(“Enter student details \n”);

scanf(“%d”,&s[i].sno); scanf((“%d%d
%d”,&s[i].m1, &s[i].m2, &s[i].m3); scanf(“%s”,
s[i].sname.fname);
scanf((“%s”,s[i].sname.lastname);
s[i].tot=s[i].m1+s[i].m2+s[i].m3;
s[i].avg=s[i].tot/6.0;
}
printf(“Student Mark lists\n”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf(“%s\t%s\t%f”,s[i].sname.fname, s[i].sname.lastname,s[i].avg);
}
Output:
 Programming in C – UNIT IV

Enter the number of students

2

Enter student details

1 70 58 68 AjithKesav
2 90 86 95 RishikKesav

Student Mark lists

AjithKesav 70.000
RishikKesav 90.000

Accessing members in nested structure

outerstructure variable.innerstructure variable.member name

E.g) s[i].sname.lastname

student

sn

m1

m2

m3

tot
nested structure
avg

name
fname

lastname

4.3 Pointer and Structures

 CS3251 Programming in C – UNIT IV

It is possible to create a pointer to a structure. A Structure containing a member that is

a pointer to the same structure type is called self referential structure. A pointer
variable for the structure can be declared by placing an asterisk(*) in front of the
structure pointer variable.
Syntax:
struct namedstructuretype
*identifiername;

Example:
struct struct_name
{
data_type member_name1;
data_type member_name2;
.....................................
}*ptr;
OR

struct struct_name *ptr;

Dot(.) operator is used to access the data using normal structure variable and arrow
(->) is used to access the data using pointer variable.

1. Illustration of Structures using pointers

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct student
{
int id;
char name[30];
float percentage;
};
 Programming in C – UNIT IV

int main()
{
int i;
struct student record1 = {1, "Raju", 90.5};
struct student *ptr;
ptr = &record1;
printf("Records of Student: \n");
printf(" Id is: %d \n", ptr->id);
printf(" Name is: %s \n", ptr->name);
printf(" Percentage is: %f \n\n", ptr->percentage);
return 0;
}
Output:
Records of Student:
Id is: 1
Name is: Sankar
Percentage is: 90.500000

4.4 Array of Structures

Array of Structures is nothing but a collection of structures. It is an array whose
elements are of structure type. This is also called as Structure Array in C.
Consider the structure type struct student. This structure contains student
information like student name, s.no etc.
struct student
{
char name[20];
int sno, m1, m2, m3;
float average;
};
 Programming in C – UNIT
IV
Using a single structure variable we can store single student details. To store
information about several students, we have to create a separate variable for each
student. It is not feasible. So array of structures are used.
General form

struct structurename arrayname[size];

E.g. Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct employee
{
char
name[15]; int
empid,bsal;
float net,gross;
};
void main()
{
struct employee emp[10];
float hra,da,tax;
int n,i,j;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the number of employees\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter the employee name");
scanf("%s",emp[i].name); printf("\
nEnter the employee id");
 Programming in C – UNIT IV

scanf("%d",&emp[i].empid);
printf("\nEnter the basic salary");
scanf("%d",&emp[i].bsal);
hra=((10*emp[i].bsal)/100);
da=((35*emp[i].bsal)/100);
tax=((15*emp[i].bsal)/100);
emp[i].gross=emp[i].bsal+hra+da;
emp[i].net=emp[i].gross-tax;
}
printf("Employee Name Employee ID Employee Net Salary \n");
for(i=1;i<=n;i++) printf("%s\t\t%d\t\t%f\
n",emp[i].name,emp[i].empid,emp[i].net); getch();
}

Output:
Enter the number of Employees
2
Enter the employee name
Anu
Enter the employee id
01
Enter the basic salary
1000
Enter the employee name
Meena
Enter the employee id 02
Enter the basic salary
2000
Employee Name Employee ID Net Salary
Anu 01 1300.000
Meena 02 2600.000

4.5 Example Program using structures and pointers

1. C program to read and print employee's record using structure
#include <stdio.h>
/*structure declaration*/
struct employee{
char name[30];
int empId;
float salary;
};

int main()
{
/*declare structure variable*/
struct employee emp;

/*read employee details*/ printf("\

nEnter details :\n");
printf("Name ?:"); gets(emp.name);
printf("ID ?:"); scanf("%d",&emp.empId);
printf("Salary ?:"); scanf("%f",&emp.salary);

/*print employee details*/ printf("\

nEntered detail is:"); printf("Name:
%s" ,emp.name);
 printf("Id: %d" ,emp.empId);
printf("Salary: %f\n",emp.salary);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter details :
Name ?:Raju
ID ?:007
Salary ?:76543

Entered detail is:

Name:
Raju Id:
007
Salary: 76543.000000

4.6 Self referential structures

Self referential Structures are those structures that contain a reference to data of its
same type. i.e in addition to other data a self referential structure contains a pointer to
a data that it of the same type as that of the structure. For example: consider the
structure node given as follows:
struct node
{
int val;
struct node *next;
};
Here the structure node will contain two types of data an integer val and next which is
a pointer a node. Self referential structure is the foundation of other data structures.

4.7 Dynamic memory allocation

Dynamic memory allocation refers to the process of manual memory management
(allocation and deallocation).
The functions supports for dynamic memory allocation are,
1. malloc()
2. calloc()
3. realloc()
4. free()

1. malloc() function
malloc() allocates N bytes in memory and return pointer to allocated memory. The
returned pointer contains link/handle to the allocated memory.
void * malloc(number_of_bytes);
 It returns void pointer (generic pointer). Which means we can easily typecast it
to any other pointer types.
 It accepts an integer number_of_bytes, i.e. total bytes to allocate in memory.
Note: malloc() returns NULL pointer on failure.

Example

int N = 10; // Number of bytes to allocate

int *ptr; // Pointer variable to store address
ptr = (int *) malloc(N * sizeof(int)); // Allocate 10 * 4 bytes in memory

Here,
 ptr is a pointer to integer to store address of the allocated memory.
 (int *) is typecast required. As, I mentioned above that malloc() return void *.
Hence, to work with void pointer we must typecast it to suitable type.
 N * sizeof(int) - Since size of int is not fixed on all compilers. Hence, to get
size of integer on current compiler I have used sizeof() operator.
2. calloc() function

calloc() function allocates memory contiguously. It allocates multiple memory blocks

and initializes all blocks with 0 (NULL).
Note: malloc() allocates uninitialized memory blocks.
Syntax

void* calloc(number_of_blocks, number_of_bytes);

Here,
 Similar to malloc() it returns void pointer.
 It accepts two parameters number_of_blocks i.e. total blocks to allocate
and number_of_bytes i.e. bytes to allocate per block.
Therefore, you can say that calloc() will allocate
total (number_of_blocks * number_of_bytes) bytes. Each block initialized with 0
(NULL).
Example:

int *ptr;
ptr = (int *) calloc(N, sizeof(int));
Here, all memory blocks are initialized with 0.

3. realloc() function
When working with h u g e d a t a a n d i f t h e a l l o c a t e d m e m o r y i s n o t
sufficient to store data. In that case, we need to alter/update the size of an existing
allocated memory blocks (which has been created by either malloc() or calloc()).
We use realloc() function to alter/update the size of exiting allocated memory blocks.
The function may resize or move the allocated memory blocks to a new location.
Syntax
void* realloc(ptr, updated_memory_size);
 Similar to all other functions for Dynamic Memory Allocation in C, it returns
void pointer. Which points to the address of existing or newly allocated
memory.
 ptr is a pointer to memory block of previously allocated memory.
 updated_memory_size is new (existing + new) size of the memory block.
Example

// Original memory blocks allocation

int N = 10;
int *ptr;
ptr = (int *) malloc(N * sizeof(int));

// Increase the value of N

N = 50;
// Reallocate memory blocks
ptr = (int *) realloc(ptr, N * sizeof(int));

4. free() function

C programming has a built-in library function free() to clear or release the unused
memory.
The free() function clears the pointer (assigns NULL to the pointer) to clear the
dynamically allocated memory. If pointer contains NULL, then free() does nothing
(because pointer will not be pointing at any memory addresses). If it contains any
address of dynamically allocated memory free(),pointer by assigning NULL.
Syntax
free(ptr);
The function accepts a void pointer ptr. It points to previously allocated memory using
any of Dynamic Memory Allocation functions in C.
Example:
int N=10;
int *ptr;
// Allocate memory using malloc
ptr=(int *) malloc (N* size of (int));
//Free allocated memory
free(ptr);

4.8 Singly Linked List

• A linked list in simple terms is a linear collection of data elements. These data
elements are called nodes.
 • Linked list is a data structure which in turn can be used to implement other data
structures. Thus, it acts as building block to implement data structures like
stacks, queues and their variations.
• A linked list can be perceived as a train or a sequence of nodes in which each
node contain one or more data fields and a pointer to the next node.

START

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X

In the above linked list, every node contains two parts- one integer and the other a
pointer to the next node. The left part of the node which contains data may include a
simple data type, an array or a structure. The right part of the node contains a pointer
to the next node (or address of the next node in sequence). The last node will have no
next node connected to it, so it will store a special value called NULL.
A singly linked list is the simplest type of linked list in which every node contains some
data and a pointer to the next node of the same data type. By saying that the node
contains a pointer to t h e n e x t n o d e w e m e a n t h a t t h e n o d e s t o r e the
address of the next node in sequence.

4.8.1 Traversing a singly linked list

Traversing a linked list means accessing the nodes of the list in order to perform some
operations on them. A Linked list always contains a pointer variable START which
stores the address of the first node of the list. The end of the list is marked by string
NULL or -1 in the NEXT field of the last node. For traversing the singly linked list,
we make use of another pointer variable PTR which points to the node that is correctly
being accessed. The algorithm to traverse a linked list is shown below:

Algorithm for traversing a linked list

Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET PTR = START
Step 2: Repeat Steps 3 and 4 while PTR != NULL
Step 3: Apply Process to PTR->DATA
Step 4: SET PTR = PTR->NEXT
15
[END OF LOOP]
Step 5: EXIT
In this algorithm, we first initialize PTR with the address of start. So now PTR points
to the first node of the linked list.
Then in step 2 while loop is executed which is repeated till PTR processes the last
node, that is, until it encounters NULL.
In step 3, we apply the process to the current node.
In step 4, we move to the next node by making PTR point to the node whose address is
stored in the NEXT field.
The algorithm print the information stored in each node of the linked list is shown
below:

Algorithm in each node of the linked list

Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET PTR = START
Step 2: Repeat Steps 3 and 4 while PTR != NULL
Step 3: Write PTR->DATA
Step 4: SET PTR = PTR->NEXT
[END OF LOOP]
Step 5: EXIT

We will traverse each and every node of the list and while traversing every individual
node, we will increment the counter by 1. Once we reach NULL, that is when all the
nodes of the linked list have been traversed, the final value of the counter will be
displayed. Figure below shows the algorithm to print the number of nodes in a linked
list.

Algorithm to print the number of nodes in the linked list

Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET Count = 0
Step 2: [INITIALIZE] SET PTR = START
Step 3: Repeat Steps 4 and 5 while PTR != NULL
Step 4: SET Count = Count + 1
Step 5: SET PTR = PTR->NEXT 16
[END OF LOOP]
4.8.2 Searching for a value in a Linked list
Searching a linked list means to find a particular element in the linked list. A linked
list consists of two parts – the DATA part and NEXT part, where DATA stores the
relevant information and NEXT stores the address of the next node in the sequence.
Figure below shows the algorithm to search a linked list.

Algorithm to search an unsorted linked list

Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET PTR = START
Step 2: Repeat Steps 3 while PTR != NULL
Step 3: IF VAL = PTR->DATA
SET POS = PTR
Go To Step 5
ELSE
SET PTR = PTR->NEXT
[END OF IF]
[END OF LOOP]
Step 4: SET POS = NULL
Step 5: EXIT

Consider the linked list shown in figure we have val=4, then the flow of the algorithm
can be explained as shown in figure
1 7 3 4 2 6 5 X

1 7 3 4 2 6 5 X

17
 Programming in C – UNIT
IV
Insert a new node at the head of the list is straightforward. The main idea is that we
create a new node, set its next link to refer to the current head, and then set head to
point to the new node.
Algorithm addFirst(String newData):
create a new node v containing newData
v.setNext(head)
head = v
size = size + 1

4.8.3 Insertion at the tail

If we keep a reference to the tail node, then it would be easy to insert an element at the
tail of the list. Assume we keep a tail node in the class of SLinkedList, the idea is to
create a new node, assign its next reference to point to a null object, set the next
reference of the tail to point to this new object, and then assign the tail reference itself
to this new node. Initially both head and tail point to null object.
Algorithm addLast(String newData):
create a new node v containing .new data
v.setNext(null)
if (head == null) { // list is empty
head = v
} else { // list is not empty
tail.setNext(v)
}
tail = v
size = size + 1

4.8.4 Deletion in a Singly Linked List

Deletion at the head
Removal of an element at the head of a singly linked list is relatively easy. However
removing a tail node is not easy.

18
Algorithm removeFirst()
if (head = = null) then
Indicate an error: the list is empty
tmp = head
head = head.getNext()
tmp.setNext(null)
size = size - 1

Example:
include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<stdbool.h>
struct test_struct
{
int val;
struct test_struct *next;
};

19
struct test_struct *head = NULL;
struct test_struct *curr = NULL;
struct test_struct* create_list(int val)
{
printf("\n creating list with headnode as [%d]\n",val);
struct test_struct *ptr = (struct test_struct*)malloc(sizeof(struct test_struct));
if(NULL == ptr)
{
printf("\n Node creation failed \n"); return NULL;
}
ptr->val = val;
ptr->next = NULL;
head = curr = ptr;
return ptr;

20
}
struct test_struct* add_to_list(int val, bool add_to_end)
{
if(NULL == head)
{
return (create_list(val));
}
if(add_to_end)
printf("\n Adding node to end of list with value [%d]\n",val);
else printf("\n Adding node to beginning of list with value [%d]\n",val);
struct test_struct *ptr = (struct test_struct*)malloc(sizeof(struct test_struct));
if(NULL == ptr)
{ printf("\n Node creation failed \n"); return NULL;
}
ptr->val = val;
ptr->next = NULL;
if(add_to_end)
{ curr->next = ptr; curr = ptr;
}
else { ptr->next = head; head = ptr;
}
return ptr;
}
struct test_struct* search_in_list(int val, struct test_struct **prev)
{
struct test_struct *ptr = head;
struct test_struct *tmp = NULL;
bool found = false;
printf("\n Searching the list for value [%d] \n",val);
while(ptr != NULL)
{

21
if(ptr->val == val)
{ found = true; break;
}
else
{
tmp = ptr; ptr = ptr->next;
}
}
if(true == found)
{
if(prev) *prev = tmp;
return ptr;
}
else
{
return NULL; } }
int delete_from_list(int val)
{

22
struct test_struct *prev = NULL;
struct test_struct *del = NULL;
printf("\n Deleting value [%d] from list\n",val);
del = search_in_list(val,&prev);
if(del == NULL) { return -1; }
else
{
if(prev != NULL)
prev->next = del->next;
if(del == curr)
{ curr = prev;
}
else if(del == head)

23
head = del->next;
}}
free(del);
del = NULL; return 0;
}
void print_list(void) {
struct test_struct *ptr = head;
printf("\n -------Printing list Start-------\n");
while(ptr != NULL)
{
printf("\n [%d] \n",ptr->val);
ptr = ptr->next;
}
printf("\n -------Printing list End-------\n"); return;
}
int main(void)
{
int i = 0, ret = 0;
struct test_struct *ptr = NULL;
print_list();
for(i = 5; i<10; i++)
add_to_list(i,true); print_list();
for(i = 4; i>0; i--)
add_to_list(i,false);
print_list();
for(i = 1; i<10; i += 4)
{ ptr = search_in_list(i, NULL);
if(NULL == ptr)
{
printf("\n Search [val = %d] failed, no such element found\n",i);

24
}
else
{
printf("\n Search passed [val = %d]\n",ptr->val); }
print_list(); ret = delete_from_list(i);
if(ret != 0) { printf("\n delete [val = %d] failed, no such element found\n",i);
}
else
{
printf("\n delete [val = %d] passed \n",i); } print_list(); } return 0;
}

4.9 Typedef
The typedef keyword enables the programmer to create a new data type name by using
an existing data type.
By using typedef, no new data is created, rather an alternate name is given to a known
data type.
Syntax: typedef existing_data_type new_data_type;

It is used to create a new data using the existing type.

Syntax: typedef data type name;
Example: typedef int hours: hours hrs;/
* Now, hours can be used as new datatype */

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A data structure that can store related information together is

A. array
B. string
C. structure
D. all of these

25
Answer: all of these

2. A data structure that can store related information of different data types together is
A. array
B. string
C. Structure
D. all of these
Answer: Structure

3. Memory for a structure is allocated at the time of

A. Structure definition
B. Structure variable declaration
C. Structure declaration
D. Function declaration
Answer: Structure variable declaration

4. A Structure member variable is generally accessed using the

A. address operator
B. dot operator
C. comma operator
D. ternary operator
Answer: dot operator

5. A Structure can be placed within another structure and is known as,

A. Self-referential structure
B. Nested Structure
C. Parallel structure
D. Pointer to structure
Answer: Nested Structure

26
6. A union number variable is generally accessed using the
A. address operator
B. dot operator
C. comma operator
D. ternary operator
Answer: dot operator

7. Typedef can be used with which of these data types

A. struct
B. union
C. enum
D. all of these
Answer: all of these

8. The enumerated type is derived from which data type

A. int
B. double
C. float
D. char
Answer:
int

9. Which operator connects the structure name to its member name?

A. –
B. <-
C. Dot operator
D. Both <- and dot operator
Answer: Dot operator

10. Which of the following operation is illegal in structures?

a) Typecasting of structure
b) Pointer to a variable of the same structure

27
c) Dynamic allocation of memory for structure
d) All of the mentioned
Answer: Typecasting of structure

11. Presence of code like “s.t.b = 10” indicates

a) Syntax Error
b) Structure
c) double data type
d) An ordinary variable name
Answer: Structure

12. What is the size of a C structure.?

A) C structure is always 128 bytes.
B) Size of C structure is the total bytes of all elements of structure.
C) Size of C structure is the size of largest element.
D) None of the above
Answer: B

13. A C Structure or User defined data type is also called.?

A) Derived data type
B) Secondary data type
C) Aggregate data type
D) All the above
Answer: All the above

14. What is actually passed if you pass a structure variable to a function.?

A) Copy of structure variable
B) Reference of structure variable
C) Starting address of structure variable
D) Ending address of structure variable
Answer: Copy of structure variable

28
15. What is the output of C program with structure array pointers.? int main()
{
struct car

{
int km;
}*p1[2];
struct car c1={1234};
p1[0]=&c1;
printf("%d ",p1[0]->km);
return 0;
}
A) 0
B) 1
C) c
D) Compiler
error Answer:
1234

29
 CS3251 Programming in C - UNIT V

UNIT V FILE PROCESSING

Files – Types of file processing: Sequential access, Random access – Sequential
access file - Example Program: Finding average of numbers stored in sequential
access file - Random access file -Example Program: Transaction processing using
random access files – Command line arguments

5.1 Introduction

A file is a semi-permanent, named collection of data. A File is usually stored

on magnetic media, such as a hard disk or magnetic tape. Semi-permanent means that
data saved in files stays safe until it is deleted or modified.

Named means that a particular collection of data on a disk has a name, like
mydata.dat and access to the collection is done by using its name.

A file represents a sequence of bytes on the disk where a group of related data
is stored. File is created for permanent storage of data. It is a readymade structure.

5.1.1 Types of Files

1. Text files
2. Binary files
1. Text Files

A text file consists of consecutive characters, which are interpreted by the

library functions used to access them and by format specifiers used in functions.

Text files are the normal .txt files that you can easily create using Notepad or
any simple text editors.

They take minimum effort to maintain, are easily readable, and provide least
security and takes bigger storage space.

2. Binary files
A binary file consists of bytes of data arranged in continuous block. A separate
set of library functions is there to process such data files.

Binary files are mostly the .bin files in your computer. Instead of storing data in
plain text, they store it in the binary form (0's and 1's). They can hold higher amount
of data, are not readable easily and provides a better security than text files.

5.1.2 File Operations

In C, you can perform four major operations on the file, either text or binary:
1. Creating a new file

2. Opening an existing file

3. Closing a file

4. Reading from and writing information to a file

Function description

fopen() - create a new file or open a existing file

fclose() - closes a file

getc() - reads a character from a file

putc() - writes a character to a file

fscanf() - reads a set of data from a file

fprintf() - writes a set of data to a file

getw() - reads a integer from a file

putw() - writes a integer to a file

fseek() - set the position

ftell() - gives current position in the file

rewind() - sets the position to the beginning point

1. Opening a File or Creating a File

Opening a file means creating a new file with specified file name and with accessing
mode.

The fopen() function is used to create a new file or to open an existing file.

Syntax:

*fp = FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);

Here, *fp is the FILE pointer (FILE *fp), which will hold the reference to the
opened(or created) file.

filename is the name of the file to be opened and mode specifies the purpose of
opening the file.

Mode can be of following types:

Mode Description

Mode Purpose

r opens a text file in reading mode

w opens or create a text file in writing mode.

a opens a text file in append mode

r+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode

w+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode

a+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode

rb opens a binary file in reading mode

wb opens or create a binary file in writing mode

ab opens a binary file in append mode

rb+ opens a binary file in both reading and writing mode

wb+ opens a binary file in both reading and writing mode

ab+ opens a binary file in both reading and writing mode

2. Closing a File

A file must be closed after all the operation of the file have been completed. The
fclose() function is used to close an already opened file.

Syntax:

int fclose( FILE *fp);

Here fclose() function closes the file and returns zero on success, or EOF if there is an
error in closing the file. This EOF is a constant defined in the header file stdio.h.

3. Reading and writing to a text file

i. Read a character from a file: fgetc function

The ‘fgetc’ function is used to read a character from a file which is opened in read
mode.
Syntax:

c=fgetc(p1);

where p1 is the file pointer.

ii. Read a data from a file: fscanf function

The fscanf function is used to read data from a file. It is similar to the scanf function
except that fscanf() is used to read data from the disk.

Syntax:

fscanf(fb “format string”, &v1, &v2…&vn);

where fb refers to the file pointer. v1, v2, … vn refers variables whose values are read
from the disk “format string” refers the control string which represents the conversion
specification.

iii. Write a character to a file:fputc function

The function ‘fputc’ is used to write a character variable x to the file opened in write
mode.

Syntax:

fputc(x,fp1);
where fp1 is the file pointer.

iv. Writing data to a file : fprintf()

fprintf() function is used to write data to a file. It is similar to the printf() function
except that fprintf() is used to write data to the disk.

Syntax:

fprintf(fp, “format string”, v1,v2… vn);

where fp refers to the file pointer.

5.2 Types of file processing

There are two main ways a file can be organized:

1. Sequential Access — In this type of file, the data are kept sequentially. To read last
record of the file, it is expected to read all the records before that particular record. It
takes more time for accessing the records.

2. Random Access — In this type of file, the data can be read and modified
randomly. If it is desired to read the last record of a file, directly the same record can
be read. Due to random access of data, it takes less access time as compared to the
sequential file.

Sequential Access File

A Sequential file is characterized by the fact that individual data items are
arranged serially in a sequence, one after another. They can only be processed in serial
order from the beginning. In other words, the records can be accessed in the same
manner in which they have been stored. It is not possible to start reading or writing a
sequential file from anywhere except at the beginning.

Random Access File

The second and better method of arranging records of a file is called direct
access or random access. In this arrangement one can have access to any record which
is situated at the middle of the file without reading or passing through other records in
the file.

5.3 Reading Sequential Access file

Data is stored in files so that the data can be retrieved for processing when needed
Example:

clients.dat file contents

100 Jones 9023.00

200 Frank 234.00

300 Mano 29023.00

400 Bala 2344.00

Program:

// Reading and printing a sequential file

#include <stdio.h>

5
#include <stdlib.h>

int main(void) {

unsigned int account; // account number

char name[30]; // account name

double balance; // account balance

FILE *cfPtr; // cfPtr = clients.dat file pointer

// fopen opens file; exits program if file cannot be opened

if ((cfPtr = fopen("clients.dat", "r")) == NULL)

{ puts("File could not be opened");

exit(0);

printf("%-10s%-13s%s\n", "Account", "Name", "Balance");

fscanf(cfPtr, "%d%29s%lf", &account, name, &balance);

// while not end of file

while (!feof(cfPtr)) {

printf("%-10d%-13s%7.2f\n", account, name, balance);

fscanf(cfPtr, "%d%29s%lf", &account, name, &balance);

} // end while

fclose(cfPtr); // fclose closes the file

} // end main
Output:

Account Name Balance

100 Jones 9023.00

200 Frank 234.00

300 Mano 29023.00

6
400 Bala 2344.00

5.4 Read numbers from file and calculate Average

/* Program to read from the num.dat file and find the average of the numbers */

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#define DATAFILE "prog15.dat"

int main() {

FILE* fp;

int n[50], i = 0;

float sum = 0;

if ((fp = fopen(DATAFILE, "r")) == NULL) {

printf("Unable to open %s...\n", DATAFILE);

exit(0);

puts("Reading numbers from num.dat");

while (!feof(fp)) {

fscanf(fp, "%d ", &n[i]);

printf("%d %d\n", i, n[i]);

sum += n[i];

i++;
}fclose(fp); // if no data is available in the file
if (i == 0)
printf("No data available in %s", DATAFILE);

7
float average = sum / i;

printf("The average is %.3f for %d numbers\n", average, i);

return 0;

Output:

 Random access fileAccess individual records without searching through other

records

 Instant access to records in a file

 Data can be inserted without destroying other data

 Data previously stored can be updated or deleted without overwriting.

 Implemented using fixed length records

 Sequential files do not have fixed length records

0 100 200 300 400 500

8
 } byte offsets

}
}
}
}
}
}
100 100 100 100 100 100
bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes bytes

9
 5.4.1 Functions For Selecting A Record Randomly

The functions used to randomly access a record stored in a file are fseek(), ftell(),
rewind(), fgetpos(), and fsetpos().

1. fseek()

• fseek() is used to reposition a binary stream. The prototype of fseek() can be

given as,

• int fseek( FILE *stream, long offset, int origin);

• fseek() is used to set the file position pointer for the given stream. Offset is an
integer value that gives the number of bytes to move forward or backward in
the file. Offset may be positive or negative, provided it makes sense. For
example, you cannot specify a negative offset if you are starting at the
beginning of the file. The origin value should have one of the following values
(defined in stdio.h):

• SEEK_SET: to perform input or output on offset bytes from start of the file

• SEEK_CUR: to perform input or output on offset bytes from the current

position in the file
• SEEK_END: to performinputor outputon offset bytes from the end of the file
• SEEK_SET, SEEK_CUR and SEEK_END are defined constants with value 0,
1 and 2 respectively.

• On successful operation, fseek() returns zero and in case of failure, it returns a

non-zero value. For example, if you try to perform a seek operation on a file
that is not opened in binary mode then a non-zero value will be returned.

• fseek() can be used to move the file pointer beyond a file, but not before the
beginning.
Example:

Write a program to print the records in reverse order. The file must be opened in binary mode. Use fseek()

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()

{ typedef struct employee

10
 { int emp_code;

char name[20];

int hra;

int da;

int ta;

};

FILE *fp;

struct employee e;

int result, i;

fp = fopen("employee.txt", "rb");

if(fp==NULL)

{ printf("\n Error opening file");

exit(1);
}
for(i=5;i>=0;i--)

{ fseek(fp, i*sizeof(e), SEEK_SET);

fread(&e, sizeof(e), 1, fp);

printf("\n EMPLOYEE CODE : %d", e.emp_code); printf("\

n Name : %s", e.name);

printf("\n HRA, TA and DA : %d %d %d", e.hra, e.ta, e.da);

fclose(fp);

getch();

return 0;

2. rewind()

11
 • rewind() is used to adjust the position of file pointer so that the next I/O
operation will take place at the beginning of the file. It’s prototype can be given
as

• void rewind( FILE *f );

• rewind() is equivalent to calling fseek() with following parameters:

fseek(f,0L,SEEK_SET);

3. fgetpos()

• The fgetpos() is used to determine the current position of the stream. It’s
prototype can be given as
int fgetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos);

• Here, stream is the file whose current file pointer position has to be determined.
pos is used to point to the location where fgetpos() can store the position
information. The pos variable is of type fops_t which is defined in stdio.h and
is basically an object that can hold every possible position in a FILE.

• On success, fgetpos() returns zero and in case of error a non-zero value is

returned. Note that the value of pos obtained through fgetpos() can be used by
the fsetpos() to returns to the same position.

• The fsetpos() is used to move the file position indicator of a stream to the
location indicated by the information obtained in "pos" by making a call to the
fgetpos(). Its prototype is

• int fsetpos( FILE *stream, const fops_t pos);

• Here, stream points to the file whose file pointer indicator has to be re-
positioned. pos points to positioning information as returned by "fgetpos".

• On success, fsetpos() returns a zero and clears the end-of-file indicator. In case
of failure it returns a non-zero value

The program opens a file and reads bytes at several different locations.

#include <stdio.h>

main()

12
 FILE *fp;

fpos_t pos;

char feedback[20];

fp = fopen(“comments.txt”, “rb”);

if(fp == NULL)

printf(“\n Error opening file”);

exit(1);

// Read some data and then check the position.

fread( feedback, sizeof(char), 20, fp);

if( fgetpos(fp, &pos) != 0 )

{
printf(“\n error in fgetpos()”);
exit(1);

fread(feeback, sizeof(char), 20, fp);

printf("\n 20 bytes at byte %ld: %s", pos, feedback);

// Set a new position and read more data

pos = 90;

if( fsetpos(fp, &pos ) != 0 )

printf(“\n Error in fsetpos()");

exit(1);

fread( feedback, sizeof(char), 20, fp);

13
 printf( "\n 20 bytes at byte %ld: %s", pos, feedback);

fclose(fp);

4. ftell()

The ftell function is used to know the current position of file pointer. It is at this
position at which the next I/O will be performed. The syntax of the ftell() defined in
stdio.h can be given as:

long ftell (FILE *stream);

On successful, ftell() function returns the current file position (in bytes) for stream.
However, in case of error, ftell() returns -1.

When using ftell(), error can occur either because of two reasons:

First, using ftell() with a device that cannot store data (for example, keyboard)

Second, when the position is larger than that can be represented in a long integer. This
will usually happen when dealing with very large files
FILE *fp;

char c;

int n;

fp=fopen("abc","w");

if(fp==NULL)
{ printf("\n Error Opening The File");

exit(1);

while((c=getchar())!=EOF)

putc(c,fp);

n = ftell(fp);

fclose(fp);

fp=fopen("abc","r");

14
if(fp==NULL)

{ printf("\n Error Opening The File");

exit(1);

while(ftell(fp)<n)

{ c= fgetc(fp);

printf('%c", c);

fclose(fp);

5.5 Example Program: Transaction processing using random access files

The program maintains a bank’s account information—updating existing accounts,

adding new accounts, deleting accounts and storing a listing of all the current accounts
in a text file for printing.
The program has five options.

Option 1

calls function textFile to store a formatted list of all the accounts (typically called a
report) in a text file called accounts.txt that may be printed later. The function
uses fread and the sequential file access techniques used in the program of Section
below.

After option 1 is chosen, the file accounts.txt contains:

Acct Last Name First Name Balance

29 Brown Nancy -24.54

33 Dunn Stacey 314.33

37 Barker Doug 0.00

88 Smith Dave 258.34

96 Stone Sam 34.98

15
 Option 2

calls the function updateRecord to update an account. The function will update only
a record that already exists, so the function first checks whether the record specified
by the user is empty. The record is read into structure client with fread, then member
acctNum is compared to 0. If it’s 0, the record contains no information, and a message
is printed stating that the record is empty. Then the menu choices are displayed. If the
record contains information, function updateRecord inputs the transaction amount,
calculates the new balance and rewrites the record to the file.

Enter account to update ( 1 - 100 ): 37

37 Barker Doug 0.00

Enter charge ( + ) or payment ( - ):

+87.99 37 Barker Doug 87.99

Option 3

calls the function newRecord to add a new account to the file. If the user enters an
account number for an existing account, newRecord displays an error message
indicating that the record already contains information, and the menu choices are
printed again

Enter new account number ( 1 - 100 ): 22

Enter lastname, firstname, balance

? Johnston Sarah 247.45

Option 4

calls function deleteRecord to delete a record from the file. Deletion is accomplished
by asking the user for the account number and re-initialising the record. If the account
contains no information, deleteRecord displays an error message indicating that the
account does not exist.
Option 5

terminates program execution.

Example Program:

16
// Bank-account program reads a random-access file sequentially, updates data already
written to the file, creates new data to be placed in the file, and deletes data previously
in the file. //

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

// clientData structure definition

struct clientData {

unsigned int acctNum; // account number

char lastName[15]; // account last name

char firstName[10]; // account first name

double balance; // account balance

}; // end structure clientData

// prototypes

unsigned int enterChoice(void);

void textFile(FILE *readptr);
void updateRecord(FILE *fPtr);

void newRecord(FILE *fPtr);

void deleteRecord(FILE *fPtr);

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

FILE *cfPtr; // credit.dat file pointer

unsigned int choice; // user's choice

// fopen opens the file; exits if file cannot be opened

// Do not change the mode "rb+" - it will not work!

if ((cfPtr = fopen("credit.dat", "rb+")) == NULL) {

printf("%s: File could not be opened.\n", argv[0]);

exit(-1);

17
 }

// enable user to specify action

while ((choice = enterChoice()) != 5)

{ switch (choice) {

// create text file from record file

case 1:

textFile(cfPtr); break;

// update record

case 2:

updateRecord(cfPtr); break;

// create record

case 3:

newRecord(cfPtr); break;
// delete existing r e c ord
case 4:

deleteRecord(cfPtr); break;

// display if user does not select valid choice

default:

puts("Incorrect choice"); break;

} // end switch

} // end while

fclose(cfPtr); // fclose closes the file

} // end main

// create formatted text file for printing

void textFile(FILE *readPtr) {

FILE *writePtr; // accounts.txt file pointer

18
 int result; // used to test whether fread read any bytes

// create clientData with default information

struct clientData client = {0, "", "", 0.0};

// fopen opens the file; exits if file cannot be opened

if ((writePtr = fopen("accounts.txt", "w")) == NULL)

{ puts("File could not be opened.");

} // end if

else {

rewind(readPtr); // sets pointer to beginning of file

fprintf(writePtr, "%-6s%-16s%-11s%10s\n", "Acct", "Last Name","First Name",

"Balance");

// copy all records from random-access file into text file

while (!feof(readPtr)) {
result = fread(&client, sizeof(struct clientData),1,readPtr);
// write single record to text file

if (result != 0 && client.acctNum != 0) {

fprintf(writePtr, "%-6d%-16s%-11s%10.2f\n", client.acctNum,

client.lastName, client.firstName, client.balance);

} // end if

} // end while

fclose(writePtr); // fclose closes the file

} // end else

} // end function textFile

// update balance in record

void updateRecord(FILE *fPtr) {

19
 unsigned int account; // account number

double transaction; // transaction amount

// create clientData with no information

struct clientData client = {0, "", "", 0.0};

// obtain number of account to update

printf("%s", "Enter account to update ( 1 - 100 ): ");

scanf("%d", &account);

// move file pointer to correct record in file

fseek(fPtr, (account - 1) * sizeof(struct clientData), SEEK_SET);

// read record from file

fread(&client, sizeof(struct clientData), 1, fPtr);

// display error if account does not exist

if (client.acctNum == 0) {

printf("Account #%d has no information. \n”,account);

} else { // update record

printf("%-6d%-16s%-11s%10.2f\n\n", client.acctNum, client.lastName,

client.firstName, client.balance);

// request transaction amount from user

printf("%s", "Enter charge ( + ) or payment ( - ):

"); scanf("%lf", &transaction);

client.balance += transaction; // update record balance

printf("%-6d%-16s%-11s%10.2f\n", client.acctNum, client.lastName,

client.firstName, client.balance);

// move file pointer to correct record in file

// move back by 1 record length

fseek(fPtr, -sizeof(struct clientData), SEEK_CUR);

20
// write updated record over old record in file

fwrite(&client, sizeof(struct clientData), 1, fPtr);

} // end else

} // end function updateRecord

// delete an existing record

void deleteRecord(FILE *fPtr) {

struct clientData client; // stores record read from file

struct clientData blankClient = {0, "", "", 0}; // blank client

unsigned int accountNum; // account number

// obtain number of account to delete

printf("%s", "Enter account number to delete ( 1 - 100 ): ");

scanf("%d", &accountnum);

// move file pointer to correct record in file

fseek(fPtr, (accountNum - 1) * sizeof(struct clientData), SEEK_SET);

// read record from file

fread(&client, sizeof(struct clientData), 1, fPtr);

// display error if record does not exist

if (client.acctNum == 0) {

printf("Account %d does not exist.\n", accountNum);

} // end if

else { // delete record

// move file pointer to correct record in file

fseek(fPtr, (accountNum - 1) * sizeof(struct clientData), SEEK_SET);

21
 // replace existing record with blank record

fwrite(&blankClient, sizeof(struct clientData), 1, fPtr);

} // end else

} // end function deleteRecord

// create and insert record

void newRecord(FILE *fPtr) {

// create clientData with default information

struct clientData client = {0, "", "", 0.0};

unsigned int accountNum; // account number

// obtain number of account to create

printf("%s", "Enter new account number ( 1 - 100 ): ");

scanf("%d", &accountNum);

// move file pointer to correct record in file

fseek(fPtr, (accountNum - 1) * sizeof(struct clientData), SEEK_SET);

// read record from file

fread(&client, sizeof(struct clientData), 1, fPtr);

// display error if account already exists

if (client.acctNum != 0) {

printf("Account #%d already contains information.\n", client.acctNum);

} // end if

else { // create record user enters last name, first name and balance

printf("%s", "Enter lastname, firstname, balance\n? "); scanf("%14s%9s

%lf", client.lastName, client.firstName, &client.balance); client.acctNum

= accountNum;

22
 // move file pointer to correct record in file

fseek(fPtr, (client.acctNum - 1) * sizeof(struct clientData), SEEK_SET);

// insert record in file

fwrite(&client, sizeof(struct clientData), 1, fPtr);

} // end else

} // end function newRecord

// enable user to input menu choice

unsigned int enterChoice(void) {

unsigned int menuChoice; // variable to store user's choice

// display available options

printf("%s", "\nEnter your choice\n"

"1 - store a formatted text file of accounts called\n"

"2-update an account\n"

"3 - add a new account\n"

"4 - delete an account\n"

"5 - end program\n? ");

scanf("%u", &menuChoice); // receive choice from user

return menuChoice;

} // end function enterChoice

Output

23
 www.EnggTree.co
m

5.6 Command line arguments

Command line argument is a parameter supplied to the program when it is invoked.

Command line argument is an important concept in C programming. It is mostly used
when you need to control your program from outside. Command line arguments are
passed to the main() method.

Syntax:

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

24
Here argc counts the number of arguments on the command line and argv[ ] is a
pointer array which holds pointers of type char which points to the arguments passed
to the program

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

int i;

if( argc >= 2 )

printf("The arguments supplied are:\n");

for(i = 1; i < argc; i++)

{
printf("%s\t", argv[i]);

else

printf("argument list is empty.\n");

return 0;

Remember that argv[0] holds the name of the program and argv[1] points to the first

command line argument and argv[n] gives the last argument. If no argument is

supplied, argc will be 1.

25
Multiple Choice Questions

1. is a collection of data.

A. Buffer

B. Stream

C. File

Answer: File

2. If the mode includes b after the initial letter, what does it indicates?

a) text file
b) big text file
c) binary file
Answer: binary file

3. What is the function of the mode

a) create text file for writing, discard previous contents if any
b) create text file for update, discard previous contents if any
c) create text file for writing, do not discard previous contents if any
d) create text file for update, do not discard previous contents if any
Answer: create text file for update, discard previous contents if any

4. fflush(NULL) flushes all

a) input streams
b) output streams
c) previous contents
d) appended text
Answer: output streams
5. What is the keyword used to declare a C file pointer.?

A) file
B) FILE
C) FILEFP
D) filefp
Answer: FILE

6. What is a C FILE data type.?

A) FILE is like a Structure only
B) FILE is like a Union only
C) FILE is like a user define int data type
D) None of the above
Answer: FILE is like a Structure only

7. Where is a file temporarily stored before read or write operation in C language.?

A) Notepad
B) RAM
C) Hard disk
D) Buffer
Answer: Buffer
8. Which function gives the current position of the file.

A. fseek()
B. fsetpos()
C. ftell()
D. Rewind()
Answer: ftell()

9. Which function is used to perform block output in binary files?

A. fwrite()
B.fprintf()fputc()

B. fputs()

Answer: fwrite()

10. Select the standard stream in C

A. stdin

B. stdout

C. stderr

D. all of these

Answer: all of these

11. From which standard stream does a C program read data?

A. Stdin

B. stdout

C. stderr

D. all of these

Answer: stderr

12. Which acts as an interface between stream and hardware?

A. file pointer

28
 B. buffer

C. stdout

D. stdin

Answer: buffer

13. Which function is used to associate a file with a stream?

A. fread()

29
 B. fopen()

C. floes()

D. fflush()

Answer: fopen()

14. Which function returns the next character from stream, EOF if the end of file is reached, or if
there is an error?

A. fgetc()

B. fgets()

C. fputs()

D. fwrite()

Answer: fgetc()

30
 Programming in C

Unit-I

Introduction to C programming

2 Marks

1. Define identifier.

 Identifiers are symbols used to uniquely identify a program

element in the code. They are also used to refer to types, constants
and parameters.
2. Define keyword.

 Keywords are predefined; reserved words used in programming

that have special meanings to the compiler.
 Keywords are part of the syntax and they cannot be used as an
identifier.
 Ex: auto, break, case, char, do, default

3. What are data types?

 A data type in programming is a classification that specifies which

type of value a variable has and what type of mathematical,
relational or logical operations can be applied to it without causing
an error.
 Ex: String, int, float, Boolean

4. List out any ten data types.

 Int
 Char
 Float
 Double
 Enum, pointer. array, structure, union, void

1
5. What is meant by constants?

 Constants are also like normal variables. But, only difference is

their values cannot be modified by the program once they are
defined.
 Constants refer to fixed values.
 They are also called as literals.

6. Define Variables.
 A variable is a name given to a storage area that our programs can
manipulate.
 Each variable in C has a specific type which determines the size
and layout of the variables memory.

7. How to declare Variables?

 A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that

there exists a variable with the given type and name so that the
compiler can proceed for further compilation without requiring the
complete detail about the variable.
 Syntax: Data type Variable name;

8. What is meant by expressions?

 An expression is any legal combination of symbols that represent

a value. Each expression consists of at least one operand and can
have one or more operators.

9. Define Statements?

 Computer that instructs the computer to take a specific action,

such as display to the screen, or collect input.
 A computer program is made up of a series of statements.

10.What is meant by operators?

 An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific

mathematical or logical functions.
 C language is rich in built-in operators.

2
11.Define Arithmetic operator.

 An arithmetic operator performs mathematical operations such as

addition, subtraction and multiplication on numerical values.
Ex: +, -, *, /, %

12.Define logical operator.

 An expression containing logical operator returns either 0 or 1

depending upon whether expression results true or false.
 Logical operators are commonly used in decision making in C
programming.
 Ex: && ||!

13.Define Assignment operator.

 An assignment operator is used for assigning a value to a variable.

The most common assignment operator is =
 Ex: = =+ -= *= /= %=

14.Define Conditional operator.

 A conditional operator is a ternary operator that is it works on 3

operands.
 Syntax: ConditionalExpression?expression1: expression2

5 Marks

1. Write down the rules for declaring the variables.

 Every variable name should start with alphabets or underscore (_).

 No spaces are allowed in variable declaration.
 Except underscore (_) no other special symbol are allowed in the
middle of the variable declaration (not allowed -> roll-no, allowed ->
roll_no).
 Maximum length of variable is 8 characters depend on compiler and
operation system.
 Every variable name always should exist in the left hand side of
assignment operator (invalid -> 10=a; valid -> a=10;).

3
  No keyword should access variable name (int for <- invalid because
for is keyword).
 Syntax

Data type variable name; int

a;
2. Discuss about the Importance of C.

 It is robust language whose rich setup of built in functions and

operator can be used to write any complex program.
 Program written in C are efficient due to several variety of data
types and powerful operators.
 The C compiler combines the capabilities of an assembly
language with the feature of high level language.
 There are only 32 keywords
 C is portable language
 C language is well suited for structured programming, this
requires user to think of a problems in terms of function or
modules or block.
 C language has its ability to extend itself.

3. Discuss about the Arithmetic operators with example program.

 Arithmetic operators "+" and "-" are used to manipulate

pointers by
adding or
subtracting the
numeric value to
or from the
pointers without
generating any
exception during
overflow of the of
the pointer's
domain

4
4. Explain the concept of Expressions.

 In programming, an expression is any legal combination of

symbols that represents a value.
 C Programming provides its own rules of Expression, whether
it is legal expression or illegal expression. For example, in the
C language x+5 is a legal expression.
 Every expression consists of at least one operand and can have
one or more operators.
 Operands are values and Operators are symbols that represent
particular actions.
 ( refer notes also and add points)

5. Explain the concept of Relational and Logical

operators with example.

 An expression containing logical operator returns either 0 or 1

depending upon whether expression results true or false.
Logical operators are commonly used in decision making in C
programming.

5
 10 Marks

1. Describe any ten commonly used library functions in C.

2. Discuss about the Data types in C.

 The types in C can be classified as follows −

S.N. Types & Description

1 Basic Types

They are arithmetic types and are further classified into: (a)
integer types and (b) floating-point types.
2 Enumerated types

They are again arithmetic types and they are used to define
variables that can only assign certain discrete integer values
throughout the program.
3 The type void

The type specifier void indicates that no value is available.

4 Derived types

They include (a) Pointer types, (b) Array types, (c) Structure
types, (d) Union types and (e) Function types.

 Integer Types

Type Storage Value range

size
char 1 byte -128 to 127 or 0 to 255
unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255
signed char 1 byte -128 to 127
int 2 or 4 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647
unsigned int 2 or 4 bytes 0 to 65,535 or 0 to 4,294,967,295
short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned short 2 bytes 0 to 65,535
long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295

6
  Floating-Point Types

Type Storage size Value range Precision

float 4 byte 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 6 decimal places
double 8 byte 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308 15 decimal places
long double 10 byte 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 19 decimal places

3. Write a C program for Arithmetic operators.

SOURCE CODE
#include <stdio.h> int
main()
{
int first, second, add, subtract, multiply; float
divide;
printf("Enter two integers\n");
scanf("%d%d", &first, &second);
add = first + second;
subtract = first - second;
multiply = first * second;
divide = first / (float)second; //typecasting
printf("Sum = %d\n",add); printf("Difference
= %d\n",subtract); printf("Multiplication =
%d\n",multiply); printf("Division = %.2f\
n",divide);
return 0;
}

OUTPUT

7
 4. Discuss about Constants in C.

 Constants/Literals : A constant is a value or an identifier whose

value cannot be altered in a program. For example: 1, 2.5, "C
programming is easy", etc.
 As mentioned, an identifier also can be defined as a constant.

const double PI = 3.14

 Integer constants: An integer constant is a numeric constant
(associated with number) without any fractional or exponential part.
 There are three types of integer constants in C programming:
decimal constant(base 10)
octal constant(base 8)
hexadecimal constant(base 16)
 For example:
Decimal constants: 0, -9, 22 etc
Octal constants: 021, 077, 033 etc Hexadecimal
constants: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 etc
 Floating-point constants: A floating point constant is a numeric
constant that has either a fractional form or an exponent form.
 Character constants: A character constant is a constant which uses
single quotation around characters. For example: 'a', 'l', 'm', 'F'
 Escape Sequences: Sometimes, it is necessary to use characters
which cannot be typed or has special meaning in C programming. F
 String constants: String constants are the constants which are
enclosed in a pair of double-quote marks.
 Enumeration constants: Keyword enum is used to define
enumeration types.
 For example: enum color {yellow, green, black, white};

8
 Unit-II
Loops and Statements

2 Marks

1. Define Branching

 The C language programs follow a sequential form of execution of

statements.
 Many times it is required to alter the flow of sequence of instructions.
C language provides statements that can alter the flow of a sequence
of instructions.
 These statements are called as control statements.
2. List out the types of branching.
 If Statement
 The If else Statement
 Compound Relational tests
 Nested if Statement
 Switch Statement
3. Define Looping.

 A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of

statements multiple times.

4. List out the types of Looping.

 While loop
 Do...while loop
 For loop
 Nested loops

5. Write down the syntax of if-else statement.

If (condition) Program
statement 1; Else
Program statement 2;

9
 6. Define Switch Statement.

 A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality

against a list of values.
 Each value is called a case, and the variable being switched on
is checked for each switch case.

7. Define goto statement.

 goto statement is highly discouraged in any programming

language because it makes difficult to trace the control flow of a
program, making the program hard to understand and hard to modify.

8. Define comma operator.

 Comma operator represented by ‘,’ ensures the evaluation from

left to right, one by one, of two or more expressions, separated with
commas, and result of entire expression is value of rightmost
expression.
 Example int a = 10, b = 20, c = 30;

9. What is the purpose of continue statement?

 The continue statement in C programming works somewhat

like the break statement.
 Instead of forcing termination, it forces the next iteration of the
loop to take place, skipping any code in between.

10. Write the syntax of While loop?

while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}

10
 5 Marks

1. Explain the syntax of switch statement in C with an example.

 A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a

list of values.
 Each value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is
checked for each switch case.

 Syntax

switch(expression)
{
case constant-expression :
statement(s);
break;

case constant-expression :
statement(s);
break;

default :
statement(s);
}
 The following rules apply to a switch statement
 The expression used in a switch statement must have an integral or
enumerated type.
 The constant-expression for a case must be the same data type as
the variable in the switch
 When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates
 Not every case needs to contain a break
 A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must
appear at the end of the switch

11
2. Explain the loop with its types.

S.N. Loop Type & Description

1 while loop
Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given
condition is true. It tests the condition before executing
the loop body.

2 for loop
Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and
abbreviates the code that manages the loop variable.

3 do...while loop
It is more like a while statement, except that it tests the
condition at the end of the loop body.

4 nested loops
You can use one or more loops inside any other while, for, or
do..while loop.

12
 10 Marks

1. Describe the loop control statements in C with examples.

 The C language programs follow a sequential form of execution of

statements.
 Many times it is required to alter the flow of sequence of instructions.
C language provides statements that can alter the flow of a sequence
of instructions. These statements are called as control statements.
 Branching Statement are of following categories:
1. If Statement
2. The If else Statement
3. Compound Relational tests
4. Nested if Statement
5. Switch Statement
 If Statement : If statement is the simplest form of the control
statement. It is very frequently used in allowing the flow of program
execution and decision making.
The If structure has the following syntax
if(condition)
statement;

 The If else Statement The if else is actually just an extension of the

general format of if statement. If the result of the condition is true,
then program statement 1 is executed else program statement 2 will be
executed.
 The syntax of the If else statement is as follows:
If (condition) Program statement
1; Else
Program statement 2;

 Compound Relational tests: To perform compound relational tests,

C language provides the necessary mechanisms. A compound

13
relational test is simple one or more simple relational tests joined together by either
the the logical OR operators or logical AND.
 The syntax of the Compound Relational tests is as follows:
a> if (condition1 && condition2 && condition3)
b> if (condition1 // condition2 // condition3)

 Nested if Statement: The if statement may itself contain another if

statement is called as nested if statement. The syntax of the Nested if
Statement is as follows
if (condition1) if
(condition2)
statement-1; else
statement-2; else
statement-3;
 Switch Statement: The switch-case statement is a multi-way
decision making statement.
 Unlike the multiple decision statement that can be created using if-
else, the switch statement evaluates the conditional expression and
tests it against the numerous constant values.
 Double and Float are not allowed.
 The syntax of switch statement is as follows :
switch( expression )
{
case constant-expression1: statements1; [case
constant-expression2: statements2;] [case
constant-expression3: statements3;] [default :
statements4;]
}

14
 Unit-

III

2Mark

s
1. Define Functions.

 A function is a group of statements together perform a task.

Every C program has at least one function, which is main ( ), and all
the most trivial programs cab define additional functions.

2. Write the general form of functions.

return _type function_ name( parameter list)

{
body of the function
}

3. List out the parts of function.

 Return type
 Function name
 Parameters
 Function Body

4. Define return type.

 A function may return a value.

 The return_type is the data type of the value the function returns.
Some functions perform the desired operations without returning a
value.
 In this case, the return_type is the keyword void.

15
5. Define Function Prototype.

 computer programming, a function prototype or function

interface is a declaration of a function that specifies the
function's name and type signature (arity, parameter types, and
return type), but omits the function body

6. Define Storage Classes.

 A storage class defines the scope (visibility) and life-time of

variables and/or functions within a C Program. They precede
the type that they modify. We have four different storage
classes in a C program −
 auto
 register
 static
 extern

7. Define Static Variables.

 Static variables have a property of preserving their value even

after they are out of their scope.
 static variables preserve their previous value in their previous
scope and are not initialized again in the new scope

8. What is meant by Local variables?

 Variables that are declared inside a function or block are called

local variables.
 They can be used only by statements that are inside that
function or block of code.
 Local variables are not known to functions outside their own
 local variable declaration
int main(){
int a, b;
int c;
}

16
9. What is meant by global variables?

 Global variables are defined outside a function, usually on top of the

program. Global variables hold their values throughout the lifetime of
your program and they can be accessed inside any of the functions
defined for the program.
 A global variable can be accessed by any function
 global variable declaration
int a, b;
int c;

int main(){

10.Define Recursion.

 Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-similar way. In

programming languages, if a program allows you to call a function
inside the same function, then it is called a recursive call of the
function.
 Syntax:

void recursion()
{
recursion();
}

int main()
{
recursion();
}

17
 5 Marks

1. Give a brief account on Static variables.

 Static variables have a property of preserving their value even

after they are out of their scope.
 Static variables preserve their previous value in their previous
scope and are not initialized again in the new scope.

Syntax:
static data_type var_name = var_value;

 A static int variable remains in memory while the program is

running.
 A normal or auto variable is destroyed when a function call
where the variable was declared is over.

 Example program:
#include<stdio.h> int
fun()
{
static int count = 0;
count++;
return count;
}

int main()
{
printf("%d ", fun());
printf("%d ", fun());
return 0;
}
OUTPUT
12

18
2. Describe Multi-file programs.

 The procedures and global variables of a C program can be split

across multiple files.

 Each of the files can be compiled separately, into a *.o file. Later, all
the *.o files can be linked together (still using gcc) into a running program,
an executable object program.

 Each file can have access to a set of names that are private to that file,
and to other names that are shared across all the files of the complete
program.

 This allows the program to be built and modified in pieces, often

called “modules”, which can be tested separately, and later combined into
the final product.

 The programmer determines which names are local to each file, and
which are shared, and indicates his/her decisions by constructing
declarations appropriately.

 The storage class specifies extern and static play a role in this, as
does the position of each declaration, and whether a declaration is in fact a
“definition”.

19
 10 Marks

1. What is recursion? Write a C program to find the factorial value of

an integer using recursion.

 Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-similar

way. In programming languages, if a program allows you to call a
function inside the same function, then it is called a recursive call of
the function.
 Syntax:
void recursion()
{
recursion();
}
int main()
{
recursion();
}
 C programming language supports recursion, i.e., a function to call
itself. But while using recursion, programmers need to be careful to
define an exit condition from the function; otherwise it will go into
an infinite loop.
 Recursive functions are very useful to solve many mathematical
problems, such as calculating the factorial of a number, generating
Fibonacci series, etc
 Example Program: Number Factorial
#include <stdio.h>
int factorial(unsigned int i)
{ if(i <= 1) {
return 1;
}
return i * factorial(i - 1);
}
int main()
{ int i = 15;
printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", i, factorial(i));
return 0;
}
OUTPUT: Factorial of 15 is 2004310016

20
2. Describe the Functions in C.

 A function is a group of statements that together perform a task.

Every C program has at least one function, which is main(), and all
the most trivial programs can define additional functions.
 A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's
name, return type, and parameters. A function definition provides the
actual body of the function.
 Defining a Function :The general form of a function definition
in C programming language is as follows −
return_type function_name( parameter list )
{
body of the function
}

 Return Type − A function may return a value. The return_type

is the data type of the value the function returns.
 Function Name − This is the actual name of the function. The
function name and the parameter list together constitute the
function signature.
 Parameters − A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function
is invoked, you pass a value to the parameter. This value is
referred to as actual parameter or argument.
 Function Body − The function body contains a collection of
statements that define what the function does.

21
 Unit-IV
2 Marks

1.Define Array.

 Arrays a kind of data structure that can store a fixed-size sequential

collection of elements of the same type.
 An array is used to store a collection of data, but it is often more
useful to think of an array as a collection of variables of the same
type.

2.List out the types of array.

 One Dimensional Arrays

 Two Dimensional Arrays
 Multi-dimensional Arrays
 Dynamic Arrays

3.How to pass arrays to functions

void myFunction(int param[10]) {
.
.
.
}

4.Define multi-dimensional array.

 The simplest form of multidimensional array is the two-

dimensional array.
 A two-dimensional array is, in essence, a list of one-
dimensional arrays. To declare a two-dimensional integer array of size
[x][y]

22
 5.Define Structure.

 Structure is another user defined data type available in C that

allows combining data items of different kinds.
 Structures are used to represent a record

6.Define user defined data types.

 the basic set of data types defined in the C language such as int,
float etc. may be insufficient for your application.
 In circumstances such as these, you can create your own data
types which are based on the standard ones

7. What is meant by union?

 A union is a special data type available in C that allows storing

different data types in the same memory location.
 You can define a union with many members, but only one
member can contain a value at any given time.
 Unions provide an efficient way of using the same memory
location for multiple-purpose.

8. Define bitwise operator.

 To perform bit-level operations in C programming, bitwise

operators are used.

9.Write the syntax for declaring array.

type arrayName [ arraySize ];

EX: double balance[10];

23
 5 Marks

1. Write a note on bitwise operators.

 To perform bit-level operations in C programming, bitwise operators

are used.

Operators Meaning of operators

& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise XOR
~ Bitwise complement
<< Shift left
>> Shift right

 Bitwise AND operator &: The output of bitwise AND is 1 if the

corresponding bits of two operands is 1.
 If either bit of an operand is 0, the result of corresponding bit is
evaluated to 0.
 Bitwise OR operator |: The output of bitwise OR is 1 if at least one
corresponding bit of two operands is 1. In C Programming, bitwise OR
operator is denoted by |.

2. Give a short note on structures within structures.

 Nested structure in C is nothing but structure within structure. One

structure can be declared inside other structure as we declare
structure members inside a structure.
 The structure variables can be a normal structure variable or a
pointer variable to access the data. You can learn below concepts
in this section.
 Structure within structure in C using normal variable
 Structure within structure in C using pointer variable

3. Give short notes on union.

 A union is a special data type available in C that allows storing

different data types in the same memory location.

24
  You can define a union with many members, but only one member
can contain a value at any given time. Unions provide an efficient way
of using the same memory location for multiple-purpose.
 Defining a Union: To define a union, you must use the union
statement in the same way as you did while defining a structure. The
union statement defines a new data type with more than one member
for your program. The format of the union statement is as follows −

union [union tag] { member

definition; member
definition;
...
member definition;
} [one or more union variables];
 Example program
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union Data {
int i;
float f;
char str[20];
};

int main( ) { union

Data data;
printf( "Memory size occupied by data : %d\n", sizeof(data)); return 0;
}
OUTPUT: Memory size occupied by data : 20
10 Marks

1. Give a Brief note on Arrays.

 arrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest

address corresponds to the first element and the highest address to the
last element.

25
 S.N. Concept & Description
Multi-dimensional arrays
1 C supports multidimensional arrays. The simplest form of the multidimensional
array is the two-dimensional array.
Passing arrays to functions
2 You can pass to the function a pointer to an array by specifying the array's name
without an index.
Return array from a function
3
C allows a function to return an array.
Pointer to an array
4 You can generate a pointer to the first element of an array by simply specifying the
array name, without any index.

2. Describe the concept Structures.

 structure is another user defined data type available in C that allows
to combine data items of different kinds.
 Structures are used to represent a record. Suppose you want to keep
track of your books in a library. You might want to track the
following attributes about each book −
 Title
 Author
 Subject
 Book ID
 Defining a Structure: To define a structure, you must use the struct
statement.
struct [structure tag]
{ member definition;
member definition;
...
member definition;
} [one or more structure variables];

26
 Unit-V

2 Marks

1. Define pointers.

 Pointers in C are easy and fun to learn. Some C programming

tasks are performed more easily with pointers, and other tasks,
such as dynamic memory allocation, cannot be performed
without using pointers

2. Write the syntax of pointers.

data_type * pt_name;
* - pointer variable
pt_name - name of the variable which needs a memory location

3. Define File.

 A file represents a sequence of bytes, regardless of it being a

text file or a binary file. C programming language provides
access on high level functions as well as low level (OS level)
calls to handle file on your storage devices.

4. How to use pointers.

 define a pointer variable

 assign the address of a variable to pointer
 access the value at the address available in the pointer variable

5.Define Null pointer

A pointer that is assigned NULL is called a null pointer EX:
int main( )
{
int *ptr =NULL;
Printf("The value of pointer is:", ptr);
return 0;
}

27
 5. Define pointer to pointer

 A pointer to pointer is a form of multiple indirections, or a chain

of pointers.

6. List out the modes of opening file

r, w, a, r+, w+, a+

7. Write the syntax for fclose( ) and fputc ( ) function.

 int fclose( File *fp )

 int fputc ( int c, FILE *fp)

8. Write the operations of file.

 Create
 OPen
 Process
 Delete
 Close

5 Marks

1. Explain the different file types that can be specified by

the fopen( ) function.

 The C library function FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const

char *mode) opens the filename pointed to, by filename using the
given mode.
 Declaration: Following is the declaration for fopen() function.
 FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char
*mode)
 Parameters: filename − This is the C string containing the name of
the file to be opened.
 mode − This is the C string containing a file access mode.

28
 mode Description
"r" Opens a file for reading. The file must exist.
Creates an empty file for writing. If a file with the same name already
"w" exists, its content is erased and the file is considered as a new empty
file.
Appends to a file. Writing operations, append data at the end of
"a"
the file. The file is created if it does not exist.
"r+" Opens a file to update both reading and writing. The file must exist.
"w+" Creates an empty file for both reading and writing.
"a+" Opens a file for reading and appending.

 Return Value: This function returns a FILE pointer. Otherwise,

NULL is returned and the global variable errno is set to indicate the
error.

2. Explain how to pass pointers to functions.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
void getSeconds(unsigned long *par); int
main () {
unsigned long sec;
getSeconds( &sec );
printf("Number of seconds: %ld\n", sec ); return
0;
}
void getSeconds(unsigned long *par) {
*par = time( NULL );
return;
}
OUTPUT: Number of seconds :1294450468

3. Describe the concept creating and closing the files.

 Opening Files
 You can use the fopen( ) function to create a new file or to open
an existing file. This call will initialize an object of the type FILE,
which contains all the information necessary to control the stream

29
 FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const
char * mode );
Mode Description
r Opens an existing text file for reading purpose.
Opens a text file for writing. If it does not exist, then a new file is created. Here
w
your program will start writing content from the beginning of the file.
Opens a text file for writing in appending mode. If it does not exist, then a new file
a is created. Here your program will start appending content in the existing file
content.
r+ Opens a text file for both reading and writing.
Opens a text file for both reading and writing. It first truncates the file to zero
w+
length if it exists, otherwise creates a file if it does not exist.
a+ Opens a text file for both reading and writing. It creates the file if it does not exist.
The reading will start from the beginning but writing can only be appended.

 Closing a File: To close a file, use the fclose( ) function. The

prototype of this function is

int fclose( FILE *fp );

10 Marks

1. Briefly explain pointers with its types.

 Pointers in C are easy and fun to learn. Some C programming tasks

are performed more easily with pointers, and other tasks, such as dynamic
memory allocation, cannot be performed without using pointers.
 So it becomes necessary to learn pointers to become a perfect C
programmer. Let's start learning them in simple and easy steps.
 every variable is a memory location and every memory location has
its address defined which can be accessed using ampersand (&) operator,
which denotes an address in memory.

Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int var1; char
var2[10];

30
 printf("Address of var1 variable: %x\n", &var1 );
printf("Address of var2 variable: %x\n", &var2 );
return 0;
}
OUTPUT
Address of var1 variable: bff5a400 Address
of var2 variable: bff5a3f6

2. Explain File handling functions in C.

 File Handling in C: File Handling in c language is used to open,

read, write, search or close file. It is used for permanent storage.

Advantage of File

 It will contain the data even after program exit. Normally we use
variable or array to store data, but data is lost after program exit. Variables
and arrays are non-permanent storage medium whereas file is permanent
storage medium.

Functions for file handling

No. Function Description

1 fopen() opens new or existing file
2 fprintf() write data into file
3 fscanf() reads data from file
4 fputc() writes a character into file
5 fgetc() reads a character from file
fclose() closes the file
6
fseek() sets the file pointer to given position
7
fputw() writes an integer to file
8
fgetw() reads an integer from file
9 ftell() returns current position
10 rewind() sets the file pointer to the beginning of the file
11

31
 3. Explain Structures and Pointers.

 Structures can be created and accessed using pointers. A pointer

variable of a structure can be created as below:
struct name {
member1;
member2;
.
.
};
int main()
{
struct name *ptr;
}

Accessing structure's member through pointer

A structure's member can be accesssed through pointer in two ways:

 Referencing pointer to another address to access memory

 Using dynamic memory allocation

Referencing pointer to another address to access the memory

Consider an example to access structure's member through pointer.

#include <stdio.h> typedef

struct person
{
int age;
float weight;
};

int main()
{
struct person *personPtr, person1;
personPtr = &person1; // Referencing pointer to memory address of
person1

printf("Enter integer: ");

32
 scanf("%d",&(*personPtr).age);

printf("Enter number: "); scanf("%f",&(*personPtr).weight);

printf("Displaying: "); printf("%d%f",(*personPtr).age,(*personPtr).weight);

return 0;
}