SCOPE AND PRINCIPLES OF FIELD CROP PRODUCTION

SUBTOPICS
 Art and Science of Crop Production
 Crop Plants in Relation to the Environment in the Philippines
 Crop Improvement
 Tillage Practices
 Fertilizer, Green Manuring, Rotation and Multiple Cropping Practices
 Seed and Seeding
 Pest Handling
 Harvest of Field Crops
ART AND SCIENCE OF CROP PRODUCTION
IT IS AN ART BECAUSE?
Creativity – Designing farming systems and solutions tailored to unique
conditions.
Skill – Mastering techniques for planting, cultivating, and harvesting crops.
Adaptability – Responding to changing environmental and market conditions.
Intuition – Making informed decisions based on experience and observation.
Balance – Harmonizing productivity with environmental sustainability.
Innovation – Applying new methods and tools creatively in diverse situations.
Tradition – Honoring and blending time-tested practices with modern science.
Precision – Carefully timing and managing planting, watering, and pest control.
Observation – Monitoring plant health and growth patterns with a keen eye.
Aesthetics – Cultivating landscapes that are both productive and beautiful.

IT INCLUDES SCIENCE BECAUSE?

1. Soil Science - Understanding soil composition, structure, fertility, and nutrient
cycling helps in selecting the right crops and applying proper fertilization
techniques.
2. Plant Physiology - Knowledge of how plants grow, photosynthesize, and
respond to environmental factors (light, water, temperature) guides proper crop
management.
3. Pest and Disease Management - Scientific research on pest lifecycles, disease
pathogens, and biological control methods informs effective pest and disease
control strategies.
4. Genetics and Plant Breeding - Advances in genetics allow for the development
of crop varieties with higher yields, better resistance to pests, and adaptability to
climate change.
5. Agroecology - Understanding ecosystems helps farmers manage crops
sustainably by promoting biodiversity and reducing chemical inputs.
6. Water Management - Irrigation science ensures optimal water use, preventing
waterlogging or drought stress, which maximizes productivity.
7. Climate Science - Knowledge of weather patterns, climate change, and their
impact on crops helps in planning planting dates and choosing resilient crop
varieties.
8. Biotechnology - Techniques like genetic modification and tissue culture enhance
crop production by improving resistance to stresses and increasing nutritional
content.
9. Data and Precision Agriculture - Using data from sensors, satellites, and drones
helps in precise application of water, fertilizers, and pesticides, reducing waste and
environmental impact.
10. Post-Harvest Technology - Science improves post-harvest handling, storage,
and transportation to reduce losses and maintain quality.

CROP PLANTS IN RELATION TO THE ENVIRONMENT IN THE

PHILIPPINES
1. Lowland Areas (Coastal and Plains)
Characteristics:
Flat or gently rolling terrain
High temperatures and humidity
Rich alluvial soils, often suitable for rice and other staple crops
Ideal Crops:
Rice, corn, sugarcane, vegetables, fruits (mangoes, bananas, coconuts)
2. Upland Areas (Hills and Mountainous Regions)
Characteristics:
Elevated terrain with cooler temperatures
Well-drained soils but prone to erosion
Shorter growing seasons due to cooler climates at higher elevations
Ideal Crops:
Coffee, cacao, root crops (sweet potatoes, taro), highland vegetables (lettuce,
carrots, cabbage), strawberries
3. Highland Areas (Above 1,000 meters above sea level)
Characteristics:
Cold climate, especially during the dry season
Fertile soils with good organic matter content
Ideal Crops:
Temperate crops such as potatoes, broccoli, cauliflower, apples, grapes, and
flowers (roses, chrysanthemums)
4. Rainfed Areas
Characteristics:
Dependent on seasonal rainfall
Water availability varies by season (wet and dry)
Ideal Crops:
Rice (rainfed variety), legumes (mung beans, peanuts), sorghum, cassava
5. Irrigated Areas
Characteristics:
Consistent water supply through irrigation systems
Suitable for year-round crop production
Ideal Crops:
Rice, vegetables (tomatoes, eggplants, okra), sugarcane, fruit-bearing trees
(papayas, guavas)
6. Dry and Arid Areas
Characteristics:
Minimal rainfall, often found in certain regions (e.g., Ilocos Region)
Sandy or loamy soils with poor water retention
Ideal Crops:
Drought-tolerant crops such as sorghum, millet, peanuts, cassava, dragon fruit, and
agave
7. Swampy and Wetland Areas
Characteristics:
Flood-prone areas with heavy clay soils
Often found near rivers, lakes, and coastal areas
Ideal Crops:
Rice (especially deep-water or floating varieties), taro, lotus, water spinach
(kangkong)
8. Forested Areas
Characteristics:
High biodiversity, with mixed tree and shrub vegetation
Often unsuitable for annual crops but suitable for agroforestry
Ideal Crops:
Perennial crops (coffee, cacao, rubber, fruit trees), shade-tolerant crops (ginger,
turmeric, yams)
9. Island and Coastal Zones
Characteristics:
Sandy or saline soils, with exposure to salt spray and wind
Vulnerable to typhoons and coastal flooding
Ideal Crops:
Coconuts, mangroves (for coastal protection), seaweed, salt-tolerant crops
(cashew, pandan)
10. Urban Areas
Characteristics:
Limited space and possible soil contamination
Potential for innovative farming techniques like vertical farming, hydroponics, and
rooftop gardens
Ideal Crops:
Leafy greens (lettuce, kale, spinach), herbs (basil, mint, parsley), and container-
grown vegetables (tomatoes, peppers)

Use/Agronomic classification:

1. Grain crops: may be cereals as millets cereals are the cultivated grasses grown
for their edible starchy grains. The larger grain used as staple food is cereals. E.g.
rice, Jowar, wheat, maize, barley, and millets are the small grained cereals which
are of minor importance as food.
2. Pulse/legume crops: seeds of leguminous crops plant used as food which is rich
in protein. E.g. faba bean, lentil, chickpea, pea etc.
3. Oil seeds crops: crop seeds are rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable
oil to meet various requirements. E.g. Groundnut, Rape seed, Sunflower, Sesame,
linseed etc.
4. Forage Crop: It refers to vegetative matter fresh as preserved utilized as food
for animals. Crop cultivated & used for fickler, hay, silage. Ex- sorghum,
elephant grass, guinea grass, berseem & alfalfa etc.
5. Fiber crops: crown for fiber yield. Fiber may be obtained from seed. E.g.
Cotton, steam, jute, Mesta, sun hemp, flax.
6. Roots crops: Roots are the economic produce in root crop. E.g. sweet, potato,
sugar beet, carrot, turnip etc.
7. Tuber crop: crop whose edible portion is not a root but a short thickened
underground stem. E.g. Potato, elephant, yam.
8. Sugar crops: the two important crops are sugarcane and sugar beet cultivated
for production for sugar.
9. Starch crops: grown for the production of starch. E.g. tapioca, potato, sweet
potato.
10. Dreg crop: used for preparation for medicines. E.g. tobacco, mint, pyrethrum.
11. Spices & condiments/spices crops: crop plants as their products are used to
flavor taste and sometime color the fresh preserved food. E.g. ginger, garlic, chili,
cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
12. Vegetables crops: may be leafy as fruity vegetables. E.g. Palak, mentha,
Brinjal, tomato.
13. Green manure crop: grown and incorporated into soil to increase fertility of
soil. E.g. sun hemp.
14. Medicinal & aromatic crops: Medicinal plants includes cinchona, isabgoli,
opium poppy, senna, belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice and aromatic plants such as
lemon grass, citronella grass, palmorsa, Japanese mint, peppermint, rose
geranicem, jasmine, henna etc.

CROP IMPROVEMENT
1. Genetic Improvement
Improving crops through changes in their genetic makeup to enhance desirable
traits.
Examples:
Hybridization: Cross-breeding different varieties to produce hybrids with superior
qualities (e.g., hybrid corn).
Mutation Breeding: Inducing mutations using chemicals or radiation to develop
new varieties with unique traits.
Genetic Engineering: Inserting specific genes into crops to improve pest resistance
or drought tolerance (e.g., Bt cotton).
Genome Editing: Using CRISPR/Cas9 technology to make precise changes in crop
genomes.
2. Agronomic Improvement
Enhancing crop performance by improving farming techniques and management
practices.
Examples:
Use of fertilizers and soil amendments
Improved irrigation and water management systems
Precision agriculture for efficient resource use
Crop rotation and intercropping for better soil health
3. Physiological Improvement
Modifying physiological processes in plants to enhance growth, yield, and
resilience.
Examples:
Developing drought-tolerant varieties with deeper roots
Breeding crops with enhanced photosynthetic efficiency
Improving nutrient uptake and water use efficiency
4. Resistance Improvement
Enhancing a crop’s ability to withstand pests, diseases, and environmental stresses.
Examples:
Breeding disease-resistant varieties (e.g., rust-resistant wheat)
Developing pest-resistant crops through natural selection or genetic engineering
Producing stress-tolerant crops for drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures
5. Quality Improvement
Enhancing the nutritional or industrial quality of crops.
Examples:
Biofortification: Increasing the content of vitamins and minerals in crops (e.g.,
golden rice with increased vitamin A)
Improving oil content in oilseed crops
Developing varieties with better flavor, color, or post-harvest shelf life (e.g., long-
lasting tomatoes)
6. Yield Improvement
Increasing the quantity of crops produced per unit area.
Examples:
High-yielding varieties (e.g., IR8 rice, known as “miracle rice”)
Dwarf varieties in cereals to reduce lodging (e.g., semi-dwarf wheat and rice in the
Green Revolution)
7. Ecological Adaptability Improvement
Enhancing crops to perform well under diverse ecological conditions.
Examples:
Developing salt-tolerant rice for coastal areas
Creating flood-tolerant varieties (e.g., Sub1 rice for flood-prone regions)
Breeding early-maturing varieties for regions with short growing seasons
8. Cultural Improvement
Incorporating traditional knowledge and practices to improve crop management.
Examples:
Using traditional pest control methods (e.g., using neem extracts)
Promoting indigenous varieties with natural resilience to local conditions
9. Mechanical Improvement
Modifying crops to facilitate mechanical planting, harvesting, or processing.
Examples:
Breeding crops with uniform height for mechanical harvesting (e.g., wheat and
maize)
Developing varieties with detachable fruit or pods for easier mechanization (e.g.,
easy-to-thresh rice)
10. Post-Harvest Improvement
Improving crop storage, handling, and processing to reduce losses and enhance
marketability.
Examples:
Breeding crops with better storage characteristics (e.g., onion varieties with longer
shelf life)
Developing crops with resistance to post-harvest pests (e.g., bruchid-resistant
beans)
Improving milling or processing quality (e.g., rice with higher milling recovery)

TILLAGE PRACTICES
1. Primary Tillage
This is the initial, deep tillage that breaks up and loosens soil to prepare it for
planting.
Purpose:
To break up compacted soil
To incorporate organic matter or crop residues
To control weeds
Examples:
Moldboard plowing: Completely inverts the soil.
Chisel plowing: Breaks the soil without complete inversion.
Disc plowing: Cuts and partially inverts soil.
2. Secondary Tillage
Shallower tillage that follows primary tillage to refine the seedbed.
Purpose:
To level the soil surface
To further break down soil clods
To create a fine seedbed for planting
Examples:
Harrowing
Cultivating
Rotavating
3. Conservation Tillage
Minimizes soil disturbance to reduce erosion and retain moisture.
Purpose:
To conserve soil structure and moisture
To reduce erosion
To improve soil organic matter
Types:
No-till: Soil is left undisturbed, and seeds are directly planted.
Strip-till: Only narrow strips where seeds are planted are tilled.
Mulch-till: Involves minimal disturbance of soil with crop residue left on the
surface.
4. Zero Tillage (No-Tillage)
Involves planting crops directly into the soil without any prior tillage.
Purpose:
To prevent soil erosion
To improve soil health and carbon sequestration
Common Crops:
Corn, soybean, wheat (often used in conservation agriculture systems)
5. Minimum Tillage
Reduces the number of tillage operations to save time, energy, and labor.
Purpose:
To minimize soil disturbance
To maintain soil moisture and structure
Tools Used:
Ridge tillers
Reduced cultivation implements
6. Intensive Tillage
Involves multiple tillage operations, often aimed at completely loosening and
pulverizing the soil.
Purpose:
To create a very fine seedbed
To control weeds thoroughly
Drawbacks:
Can lead to soil erosion and degradation over time.
7. Contour Tillage
Tillage performed along the contour lines of a slope to reduce soil erosion.
Purpose:
To reduce water runoff and soil erosion
To improve water infiltration
Common in:
Hilly and sloped regions
8. Rotary Tillage
Uses rotary blades to break up soil and prepare a fine seedbed in one pass.
Purpose:
To quickly prepare seedbeds
To incorporate organic matter
Common Equipment:
Rotavators (rotary tillers)
9. Subsoiling (Deep Tillage)
A deep tillage operation that breaks up hardpan layers below the normal plowing
depth.
Purpose:
To improve root penetration
To enhance drainage
Depth:
Typically 30-60 cm below the surface.
10. Ridge Tillage
Involves forming ridges where crops are planted, leaving the furrows untouched.
Purpose:
To improve drainage
To conserve moisture in the furrows
To control erosion in sloped areas
Common Crops:
Corn, sorghum, and vegetables

FERTILIZER, GREEN MANURING, ROTATION, AND MULTIPLE

CROPPING PRACTICES
1. Fertilizer Use
Definition:
Fertilizers are substances (natural or synthetic) added to soil or plants to supply
essential nutrients for plant growth.
Types of Fertilizers:
Organic Fertilizers: Derived from plant or animal matter (e.g., compost, manure).
Inorganic Fertilizers: Chemically synthesized (e.g., urea, NPK fertilizers).
Benefits:
Provides essential nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) in readily available
forms.
Enhances plant growth and increases yield.
Can improve soil fertility if used properly.
Drawbacks:
Overuse can lead to soil degradation, pollution, and nutrient runoff.
Synthetic fertilizers may reduce soil biodiversity over time.
Best Practices:
Use appropriate fertilizer types based on soil tests.
Apply fertilizers at the right time and in the correct amount (4R Nutrient
Stewardship: Right source, Right rate, Right time, Right place).
2. Green Manuring
Definition:
Green manuring involves growing specific crops (green manure crops) and
plowing them under while still green to improve soil fertility and structure.
Common Green Manure Crops:
Legumes (e.g., mung beans, cowpeas, sesbania)
Non-legumes (e.g., mustard, sunflower)
Benefits:
Adds organic matter: Improves soil structure and moisture retention.
Fixes nitrogen: Leguminous green manure crops fix atmospheric nitrogen in the
soil.
Controls weeds: Smothers weed growth by providing ground cover.
Improves soil health: Enhances soil microbial activity and biodiversity.
Best Practices:
Select green manure crops suited to the climate and soil type.
Incorporate the green manure crop into the soil at the flowering stage for maximum
nutrient content.
3. Crop Rotation
Definition:
Crop rotation is the practice of growing different types of crops in a specific
sequence on the same land.
Example of a Crop Rotation Sequence:
Year 1: Legumes (e.g., soybeans)
Year 2: Cereals (e.g., rice, wheat)
Year 3: Root crops (e.g., potatoes, cassava)
Benefits:
Improves soil fertility: Legumes in rotation fix nitrogen, enriching the soil.
Reduces pest and disease buildup: Alternating crops breaks pest and disease
cycles.
Enhances soil structure: Different root systems improve soil aeration and drainage.
Prevents nutrient depletion: Different crops use different nutrients, preventing
exhaustion of specific nutrients.
Best Practices:
Use deep-rooted crops (e.g., corn) alternately with shallow-rooted crops (e.g.,
wheat).
Rotate crops with different nutrient demands (e.g., legumes and cereals).
Include a fallow period if necessary to allow the soil to rest.
4. Multiple Cropping Practices
Definition:
Multiple cropping involves growing two or more crops on the same field in a year.
It maximizes land use and increases productivity.
Types of Multiple Cropping:
Intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field (e.g.,
maize with beans).
Relay Cropping: Planting a second crop before the first crop is harvested (e.g.,
planting mung beans before rice is fully harvested).
Sequential Cropping: Growing one crop after another in the same field during the
year (e.g., rice followed by corn).
Mixed Cropping: Growing two or more crops without a distinct row arrangement
(e.g., millet and groundnut).

Practice Main Benefit Additional Benefits

Fertilizer Use Rapid nutrient supply for Increases yield and
plant growth improves soil fertility
(with proper use)
Green Manuring Adds organic matter and Improves soil structure,
fixes nitrogen moisture retention, and
microbial activity
Crop Rotation Prevents soil nutrient Reduces pest/disease
depletion buildup, improves soil
structure
Multiple Cropping Maximizes land use and Enhances biodiversity,
productivity reduces pest spread,
increases income

SEED AND SEEDING

Factors to Consider in Seeding:
Seed Rate - The quantity of seed required to plant a unit area (e.g., kg/ha).
Varies by crop type, seed size, and planting method.
Spacing - Proper spacing ensures optimal light, water, and nutrient use.
Depends on crop growth habits (e.g., wide spacing for corn, narrow for rice).
Seeding Depth - Seeds should be planted at a depth where they can access moisture
for germination but not so deep that they can't emerge.
Generally, larger seeds are planted deeper than smaller seeds.
Soil Moisture - Adequate soil moisture is essential for seed germination.
Avoid planting in overly dry or waterlogged soils.
Planting Time- Seeding should be done at the appropriate time for each crop,
depending on weather, temperature, and soil conditions.

PEST HANDLING
Types of Pests in Agriculture
Insects:
Examples: Aphids, caterpillars, weevils, leafhoppers
Cause damage by feeding on leaves, stems, roots, or fruits.
Mites:
Examples: Spider mites, broad mites
Damage crops by sucking sap, leading to yellowing and wilting.
Nematodes:
Examples: Root-knot nematodes, cyst nematodes
Attack plant roots, causing stunted growth and reduced yields.
Rodents:
Examples: Rats, mice
Feed on grains and damage stored produce.
Pathogens:
Fungi, bacteria, viruses that cause diseases in plants (e.g., wilt, blight, rust)

Pest Handling Methods

1. Cultural Methods
Involves modifying farming practices to reduce pest incidence.
Examples:
Crop rotation: Interrupts pest life cycles by changing crops regularly.
Planting time adjustment: Planting early or late to avoid peak pest populations.
Sanitation: Removing crop residues and weeds that can harbor pests.
Trap cropping: Planting a small area of highly attractive crops to lure pests away
from the main crop.
2. Mechanical and Physical Methods
Involves physical barriers or manual removal to manage pests.
Examples:
Handpicking: Removing large pests manually.
Traps: Using light traps, pheromone traps, or sticky traps to catch pests.
Barriers: Using nets, screens, or row covers to protect crops.
Heat or cold treatment: Exposing stored grains to high or low temperatures to kill
pests.
3. Biological Methods
Uses natural enemies of pests to reduce their population.
Examples:
Predators: Introducing or encouraging beneficial insects (e.g., ladybugs, lacewings)
that feed on pests.
Parasitoids: Insects like parasitic wasps that lay their eggs in or on pests,
eventually killing them.
Pathogens: Using fungi, bacteria, or viruses (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis for
caterpillar control) to infect and kill pests.

4. Chemical Methods
Involves the use of pesticides to kill or repel pests.
Types of Pesticides:
Insecticides: Kill insects (e.g., pyrethroids, neonicotinoids).
Fungicides: Control fungal infections (e.g., copper-based fungicides).
Herbicides: Kill weeds (e.g., glyphosate).
Nematicides: Kill nematodes.
Best Practices:
Apply pesticides at the right stage of pest development.
Use the recommended dosage and follow safety guidelines.
Rotate chemicals to prevent pest resistance.
Avoid overuse to protect beneficial insects and reduce environmental impact.
5. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Definition:
IPM is a sustainable approach to pest management that combines multiple methods
(cultural, biological, mechanical, and chemical) to control pests while minimizing
risks to human health and the environment.
Key Steps in IPM:
Monitoring and Identification: Regularly inspect fields to identify pests and their
population levels.
Establish Action Thresholds: Determine the pest level at which control measures
should be applied.
Prevention: Use cultural and mechanical methods to prevent pest outbreaks.
Control: Apply biological or chemical control measures only when necessary.
Evaluation: Assess the effectiveness of pest management strategies and adjust
practices accordingly.

HARVEST OF FIELD CROPS

1. Manual Harvesting
What it is: Harvesting done by hand using tools like sickles or knives.
Best for: Small fields or delicate crops (e.g., tomatoes, fruits, rice).
Pros: Less damage to crops, good for small farms.
Cons: Labor-intensive and slow.
2. Mechanical Harvesting
What it is: Using machines like combine harvesters to harvest crops.
Best for: Large fields (e.g., wheat, corn, cotton).
Pros: Fast and efficient, saves labor.
Cons: Expensive machines, can damage crops if not used carefully.
3. Semi-Mechanical Harvesting
What it is: A mix of machines and manual labor.
Best for: Crops like potatoes, carrots, or rice in small-scale farms.
Pros: Reduces labor, still allows for careful handling.
Cons: Requires some labor, less efficient than full automation.
4. Shaking or Tapping
What it is: Shaking or tapping the plant to make fruits or seeds fall.
Best for: Crops like olives and cocoa.
Pros: Fast, minimal plant damage.
Cons: Not suitable for all crops.
5. Stripping
What it is: Pulling or stripping off leaves, fruits, or seeds.
Best for: Crops like tobacco and tea.
Pros: Efficient for crops harvested all at once.
Cons: Can affect quality if done too early.
6. Cutting or Mowing
What it is: Using machines or tools to cut crops close to the ground.
Best for: Forage crops like hay and sugarcane.
Pros: Good for crops growing low to the ground.
Cons: Requires extra processing to collect the crop.
7. Raking and Windrowing
What it is: After cutting, crops are gathered into rows (windrows) for easy
collection.
Best for: Hay and forage crops.
Pros: Helps with drying and easy collection.
Cons: Takes extra steps to gather the crops.

References:
Martin, Waldren, and Stamp, Principles of Field Crop Production (4th Edition),
(2006), Pearson Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-025967-5
Perplexity.ai
(Dr.Mahmoud El Gohary Ragab Mekkei) Principles of Field Crop Production,
Practical Part