Vectorial Mechanics
4. Work and energy
[email protected]
Dept. of Physics
v.2024-10-08
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References
Xavier Jaén et al.
Fundamental Mechanics
UPC (2023)
Available online here, also in Spanish and Catalan
Chapter 2.4
Chapter 4.7
Samuel J. Ling, Jeff Sanny and William Moebs
University Physics vol. 1
OpenStax, Rice University (2016)
Available online at https://openstax.org
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Note: Sources from the Wikipedia are abbreviated Wkpd.
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Contents
1 Work
2 Kinetic energy
3 Potential energy
4 Mechanical energy
5 Non-conservative forces
6 The energy method
3 / 44
1. Work
1.1. Work in everyday life
The popular conception of work differs from the concept used in
physics. In physics, for a force to produce work a displacement of
the point of application is indispensable.
The basic notion of work is:
{force in the direction of displacement} × {distance}.
Notice that the speed at which the distance is traveled does not
enter into this notion.
1.2. 1D case with a constant force
Consider a constant force acting on a particle moving along a
straight line.
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1. Work
Only the component of the force in the direction of the
displacement does work.
Source: http://slideplayer.com/slide/4106469 by Kallie Harmer
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1. Work
1.3. General case for a force field
Definition: Work
The work done by a force acting on a particle along a given
trajectory C is the path integral (aka curve integral)
Z
⇀ ⇀
W = dr · F
C
In a force field the force on the
particle depends
⇀ ⇀
on its
position, F (r). The work
Source: Wkpd by Matt McIrvin, adapted
depends, in general, of the
path followed between the
initial and final points.
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1. Work
Simple case: Constant force
Z
⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
W =F · dr = F · ∆r
C
which reproduces the formula found before.
For a constant force the details of the path are irrelevant, only
the initial and final positions matter.
Example: Constant weight
⇀
Taking g = −g k̂ (i.e., the z axis points upwards) we have
⇀ ⇀
W = mg · ∆r = −mg∆z
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1. Work
General method of calculation
⇀
1 Express the path in parametric form r(λ).
2 Express the⇀force along the path as a function of the same
⇀
parameter F (r(λ)).
3 Compute
Z λ ⇀
dr ⇀
W = dλ · F (λ)
λ0 dλ
Exercise: Path integral
⇀
A particle of mass m moves in a force field F = (y 2 − x2 ) ı̂ + 3xy ȷ̂
(MKS units). Calculate the work done when the particle moves
from the point (0,0) to (2,4) through the following paths:
(a) The straight line y = 2x (b) The parabola y = x2
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1. Work
1.4. Power
If the parameter λ of the curve is chosen to be the time t, then
Z t ⇀ Z t
dr ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
W = dt ·F = dt v · F
0 dt 0
Definition: Power
Power is defined as the rate dW/dt at which work is done,
Z t
d ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
Ẇ = dt v · F = v · F
dt 0
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1. Work
Exercise: Up the hill
A point-like particle with mass m = 5 kg is pushed up a frictionless
inclined plane forming 30◦ with the level ground at a constant speed
of 15 m/s. Calculate the power developed by the force pushing the
mass.
Example: Static friction does no work.
When a car’s wheel is turning without skidding the point of contact
with the ground is momentarily at rest. Under these conditions, the
friction between the tire and the pavement does no work.
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1. Work
Example: Forces perpendicular to displacement do no work
Centripetal forces are perpendicular to the tangent, i.e., to the
velocity.
The normal force produced by a stationary surface is
perpendicular to the particle displacement, i.e., to its velocity.
The magnetic force on a moving charged particle is perpendicular
to its velocity.
All these forces do no work.
1.5. Units
The dimensions of work are [W ] = F L = L2 T−2 M ≡ E.
The dimensions of power are E T−1 = L2 T−3 M.
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1. Work
In the MKS system the units are,
Work: joule (J), equal to N m, or m2 s−2 kg
Power: watt (W), equal to J/s, or m2 s−3 kg
In the CGS system the units are,
Work: erg, from ergon, Greek for work (1 erg = 10−7 J)
Power: erg/s (1 erg/s = 10−7 W)
Other units
Work: kilowatt-hour (1 kWh = 1000 J/s × 3600 s = 3.6 MJ)
Power: Imperial horsepower (1 HP ≈ 745.7 W)
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Contents
1 Work
2 Kinetic energy
3 Potential energy
4 Mechanical energy
5 Non-conservative forces
6 The energy method
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2. Kinetic energy
2.1. Vis viva
The concept of vis viva, Latin for living force, was coined by
Leibniz. It is a historical term for what is now known as the
kinetic energy (from energeia, Greek for activity).
Work-kinetic energy theorem
If W is the work done by the net force acting on a particle of mass
m, then
W = ∆K
where K, called the kinetic energy of the particle, is defined as
1
K= mv 2
2
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2. Kinetic energy
Proof:
t t ⇀ t ⇀ ⇀
d(v · v)
Z Z Z
⇀ ⇀ ⇀ dv 1
W = dt v · F = m dt v · = m dt =
0 0 0dt 2 dt
Z t
1 dv 2 1
= m dt = m(v 2 − v02 ) = ∆K ♢
2 0 dt 2
The kinetic energy can alternatively be expressed in terms of the
momentum of the particle,
1 1 p 2 p2
K= mv 2 = m =
2 2 m 2m
K dimensions and units are the same as those of work.
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2. Kinetic energy
2.2. The vis viva controversy
Source: Wkpd
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier James Prescott Joule
1646 (Holy Roman Empire - 1716) de Breteuil, Marquise du Châtelet 1818 (England) - 1889
Portrait by Christoph B. Francke 1706 (Paris) - 1749
Portrait by Maurice Q. de La Tour
“Wherever mechanical force is expended, an exact equivalent of
heat is always obtained” — J. Joule
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Contents
1 Work
2 Kinetic energy
3 Potential energy
4 Mechanical energy
5 Non-conservative forces
6 The energy method
17 / 44
3. Potential energy
3.1. Definition of conservative field
⇀ ⇀
A force field F (r) is conservative
when the work done by moving from
an arbitrary point A to another
arbitrary point B
Z
⇀ ⇀
WA→B = dr · F
C
does not depend on the path C
followed, but only on the positions of Source: Wkpd by Matt McIrvin, adapted
A and B.
An equivalent, and mathematically easier to handle, definition is
the following.
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3. Potential energy
Definition: Conservative field
⇀ ⇀
A force field F (r) is conservative precisely when, for any closed
path C, I
⇀ ⇀
dr · F = 0
C
Example: Work by a constant gravitational field
It has been seen that, for a constant force field such as gravity near
ground level,
W1→2 = −mg(z2 − z1 )
(z-axis pointing upwards). Therefore, the work done by gravity
depends only on the initial and final heights, not on the path.
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3. Potential energy
It can be shown, using vector calculus, that the definition of
conservative field is equivalent to the following statement.
Definition: Potential energy
A force field is conservative precisely when there exists a scalar
⇀
function U (r) such that its gradient yields the force,
⇀ ⇀
F = −∇U = − (∂x U, ∂y U, ∂z U )
(Note the use of the abbreviated notation ∂i .) The function U is
called potential energy and it is unique, except for an arbitrary
additive constant.
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3. Potential energy
The last part of the statement means that if U is the potential
energy function then
U ′ = U + cte
is an equivalent potential energy function.
Vector calculus also provides another important result connecting
the potential energy and the work produced by the force field.
Work and potential energy
The work done by a conservative field when a particle moves
between the points 1 and 2 equals the difference between the
potential energy of those two points with reversed sign,
W1→2 = −∆U = U1 − U2
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3. Potential energy
Example: Potential energy in a constant gravitational field
⇀
For the field F = −mg k̂ the potential energy is
U = mgz
because
⇀
−∇U = − (∂x (mgz), ∂y (mgz), ∂z (mgz)) =
⇀
= (0, 0, −mg) = F
as required. Any function of the type U = mgz + cte is also a valid
potential energy. The work is then
W1→2 = −∆U = −mg(z2 − z1 )
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3. Potential energy
3.2. Examples of conservative fields
Recall that there is an arbitrary additive constant in all cases.
Null force
U =0
1D force Z
U (x) = − dx F (x)
Notice that, trivially, all 1D fields F (x) are conservative.
Hooke’s law
1
U (x) = k(x − xeq )2
2
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3. Potential energy
Constant 3D force
⇀ ⇀
U (x, y, z) = −xFx − yFy − zFz = −F · r
Gravity near ground level is an example of such a case.
Central force with spherical symmetry
Z
U (r) = − drF (r)
This potential also exhibits spherical symmetry.
Coulomb and gravity fields are symmetric central potentials
⇀ q1 q2 q1 q2
F = ke r̂ ⇒ U = ke
r2 r
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3. Potential energy
3.3. Test for conservativeness
The definition of conservativeness is useful only to negate it.
How can a force field be tested in practice?
It can be proved, using vector calculus, that a force field is
conservative precisely when
⇀ ⇀ ⇀
∇×F =0
⇀
The operator ∇× is called rotational or curl.
Expressed in components,
∂y Fz − ∂z Fy = 0
∂z Fx − ∂x Fz = 0
∂x Fy − ∂y Fx = 0
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3. Potential energy
In this course this test shall be applied for 2D fields only. The
rotational test then reduces to the simpler statement that follows.
Test for conservativeness in 2D
⇀
A 2D field F (x, y) (with Fz = 0) is conservative precisely when
∂y Fx = ∂x Fy
Exercise: Conservative or not?
Consider the 2D field
Fx = 3x − 4y ∂y Fx = −4
Fy = 4x + 2y ∂x Fy = +4 ̸= ∂y Fx
This field is not conservative.
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3. Potential energy
Exercise
Fx = y 2 − x2
∂y Fx = 2y
Fy = 3xy ∂x Fy = 3y ̸= ∂y Fx
This field is not conservative.
Exercise
Fx = −4x ∂y Fx = 0
Fy = −4y ∂x Fy = 0 = ∂y Fx
This field is conservative.
Its potential energy function is U = 2(x2 + y 2 ).
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Contents
1 Work
2 Kinetic energy
3 Potential energy
4 Mechanical energy
5 Non-conservative forces
6 The energy method
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4. Mechanical energy
4.1. Conservation of mechanical energy
For a particle moving under the sole action of a conservative
force field the following two relations hold simultaneously,
W = ∆K
W = −∆U
Subtracting,
0 = ∆K + ∆U = ∆(K + U )
The quantity defined as
E =K +U
is called the mechanical energy of the particle. The previous
result can therefore be stated in the following terms.
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4. Mechanical energy
Conservation of mechanical energy
For a particle moving in a conservative field
∆E = 0
that is, the mechanical energy is conserved.
To see the application of this concept to a simple harmonic
oscillator (e.g., a spring), watch this animation (+00:33).
The denomination “potential” is in contraposition to “actual”, a
terminology that goes back to Aristotle.
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4. Mechanical energy
Exercise: Roller coaster
An open car initially at rest 35 m above ground goes down on a
frictionless roller coaster. What will its speed be when it gets to
ground level? Consider the car as a particle and neglect air drag.
Sol: Since gravity is a conservative field, the normal to the car does
no work and friction is neglected, the mechanical energy is
conserved. Therefore
1 2
Ein = Eout ⇒ mgzin = mvout
p 2
solving: vout = 2gzin = 26 m/s
Notice that the final speed does not depend on the trajectory. The
time to get down, however, does.
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Contents
1 Work
2 Kinetic energy
3 Potential energy
4 Mechanical energy
5 Non-conservative forces
6 The energy method
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5. Non-conservative forces
5.1. Friction
⇀
The force of friction f is always in opposition to the particle
⇀
displacement dr. Consequently
⇀ ⇀
dWf = dr · f = −dr · f < 0
under all possible motion conditions.
In particular, for any closed path C,
I
⇀ ⇀
dr · f < 0
C
and, therefore, friction is never conservative.
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5. Non-conservative forces
5.2. Mechanical energy and non-conservative forces
When both conservative (‘con’) and non-conservative (‘nocon’)
forces act simultaneously on a particle the following relations hold
W = Wcon + Wnocon = ∆K
Wcon = −∆U
Subtracting,
Wnocon = ∆K + ∆U = ∆E
Variation of mechanical energy with non-conservative forces
The variation of the mechanical energy of a particle is given by the
work done by the non-conservative forces acting on it,
Wnocon = ∆E
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5. Non-conservative forces
Equivalently, in terms of power,
dE dWnocon ⇀ ⇀
= = v · Fnocon
dt dt
In the particular case of friction
dE ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
= v · f = −vf ≤ 0 (= 0 precisely when v = 0)
dt
Friction is said to be a dissipative force because it dissipates
(reduces) the mechanical energy by transforming it into heat.
To see these concepts applied to a damped harmonic oscillator,
watch this animation (+01:00).
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Contents
1 Work
2 Kinetic energy
3 Potential energy
4 Mechanical energy
5 Non-conservative forces
6 The energy method
36 / 44
6. The energy method
6.1. Eq. of motion with one coordinate
The conservation of mechanical energy provides the eq. of
motion when the system is characterized by a single coordinate.
Exercise: Simple pendulum
The particle is tethered with a massless string of length ℓ. Its
Cartesian coordinates are x = ℓ sin θ, y = ℓ cos θ. Hence,
1 1
K = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 ) = mℓ2 θ̇2 U = −mgy = −mgℓ cos θ
2 2
2 1 2 g
E = K + U = mℓ θ̇ − cos θ Differentiating,
2 ℓ
g g
0 = mℓ2 θ̇ θ̈ + sin θ ⇒ 0 = θ̈ + sin θ
ℓ ℓ
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6. The energy method
6.2. Trajectory solution in 1D Advanced
In 1D the mechanical energy E is
1
E= mẋ2 + U (x)
2
This can be seen as the eq. of motion for the unknown x(t). It
can be recast as r
dx 2
= [E − U (x)]
dt m
Its solution is obtained by separating the x and t variables and
integrating,
Z x r Z t r
dx 2 2
p = dt = t
x0 E − U (x) m 0 m
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6. The energy method
6.3. Example: Simple harmonic oscillator Advanced
The potential energy for a spring is, setting the origin at the
equilibrium position,
1
U (x) = kx2
2
The solution of the eq. of motion can therefore be written as
r Z x Z x
2 dx 1 dx
t= p =√ p
m x0 E − kx2 /2 E x0 1 − kx2 /2E
We introduce the change of variable
u2 = kx2 /2E
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6. The energy method
In terms of u the integral is
r Z u
k du
t= √ = [arcsin u]uu0
m u0 1 − u2
Defining the quantities
r
k
ω≡ and φ0 ≡ arcsin u0
m
the solution can be written
ωt = arcsin u − φ0
or, isolating u,
u = sin(ωt + φ0 )
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6. The energy method
Substituting u to get the original variable x back,
r
2E
x(t) = sin(ωt + φ0 ) = A sin(ωt + φ0 )
k
where A, the max amplitude, is given by
r r
2E mẋ20
A= = x20 +
k k
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6. The energy method
6.4. Bound systems and turning points
Consider the potential energy U (y) represented below
Source: S. Mostame et al. (2008), Physical Review Letters
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6. The energy method
Energy conservation
E = K + U = cte
implies that, since K cannot be negative, a particle with an
energy such as E (see figure) cannot escape from the interval
[y0 , y1 ] (or [−y1 , −y0 ]).
Such a system is said to be in a bound state. The particle is
confined to move between the positions y0 and y1 (or −y1 and
−y0 ), called turning points.
For the potential energy depicted below there are both bound
and unbound states, depending on the value of E. In this
example unbound states present one turning point only.
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6. The energy method
Example: The Lennard-Jones potential
Source: jennarocca.com
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