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Coastal Research Library 17

Andrew D. Short
Antonio Henrique da F. Klein Editors

Brazilian
Beach
Systems
Coastal Research Library

Volume 17

Series Editor
Charles W. Finkl
Department of Geosciences
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
The aim of this book series is to disseminate information to the coastal research
community. The Series covers all aspects of coastal research including but not
limited to relevant aspects of geological sciences, biology (incl. ecology and coastal
marine ecosystems), geomorphology (physical geography), climate, littoral
oceanography, coastal hydraulics, environmental (resource) management,
engineering, and remote sensing. Policy, coastal law, and relevant issues such as
conflict resolution and risk management would also be covered by the Series. The
scope of the Series is broad and with a unique cross-disciplinary nature. The Series
would tend to focus on topics that are of current interest and which carry some
import as opposed to traditional titles that are esoteric and non-controversial.
Monographs as well as contributed volumes are welcomed.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8795

Andrew D. Short • Antonio Henrique da F. Klein
Editors

Brazilian Beach Systems

Editors
Andrew D. Short Antonio Henrique da F. Klein
School of Geosciences Departamento de Geociências, Laboratório
University of Sydney de Oceanografia Costeira
Sydney, NSW, Australia Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
Florianópolis, SC, Brazil

ISSN 2211-0577 ISSN 2211-0585 (electronic)

Coastal Research Library
ISBN 978-3-319-30392-5 ISBN 978-3-319-30394-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30394-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016944928

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
To Professors Dieter Carl Ernst Heino Muehe
and João José Bigarella (in Memoriam)
for ongoing leadership in Brazilian beach
research
Foreword

It’s likely that no one on Earth has visited more beaches than Andrew Short. In
Australia alone, he visited 11,670, publishing seven books. Andy studied at the
Coastal Studies Institute at Louisiana State University (LSU) where studies of
applied coastal morphodynamics in the beach environment began. Then in the
1970s to 1980s, he was part of the University of Sydney’s Coastal Studies Unit,
which demonstrated the co-evolution of morphology and hydrodynamics explain-
ing more thoroughly and completely the behavior of the beach and surf zone. In this
way, a series of basic and logical parameters were defined and adapted, to provide
the key elements to a global classification system of sandy beaches. These parame-
ters that define beach systems were well-received internationally due to their sim-
plicity and efficiency in explaining the interaction of sand and waves in beach
behavior. Surprisingly, Andy and his colleagues defined beach stages and their
behavior through years of morphodynamic field observation by the naked eye, a
decade before the application of video monitoring of surf zones complimented their
findings. Equally notable, they applied their findings to improve beach safety, focus-
ing on the risks and dangers of the beach environment.
In reality, Andy has frequented the coast of Brazil since 1975 when he was part
of one of the first morphodynamic studies conducted in Brazil on beach systems of
Sergipe and Pernambuco. I met Andy in a hotel bar in Chile during the Sandy
Beach’94, where we made notes and diagrams on napkins over a few cups of pisco
sour. It cost us a hangover, which was only cured after a dip in the cold waters of the
Valdivia beaches. Sixteen years ago, I had the privilege of showing him the beaches
of my home state from Cassino beach to Chuí, RS. On this trip, we climbed up two
lighthouses, Albardão and Fronteira Aberta, to observe the beach systems: fortu-
nately the latter of the two only collapsed two weeks after our visit.
Antonio Klein began his Brazilian beach excursions in the 1990s during his
undergraduate studies at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG). At this
time, Klein and I were doing beach surveys of the southern coast with a level and
rod; Klein, who was new to the marine environment, would only move seaward
after sounding the sea floor with the rod. Even so, he decided to study Concheiros
do Albardão, a beach unique to the southern littoral of Rio Grande do Sul for its

vii
viii Foreword

deposits of seashell fragments and quartz sand. With this research, he completed his
master’s at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) in Marine
Geology. He continued his work as professor at the Universidade do Vale do Itajaí
(UNIVALI) in the state of Santa Catarina, where he researched the application of
coastal morphodynamics in beach safety, eventually developing an award-winning
project that reduced the number of swimming accidents on the Santa Catarina coast.
Between 1999 and 2004 in Portugal during his PhD, he pioneered some of the first
notable studies on the beaches of Santa Catarina, focusing on embayed beaches
limited by rocky headlands, which constitute the majority of Santa Catarina’s
beaches. In 2010, he moved to Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), and
this book is a result of his first research project at this university.
It is not surprising that the collaboration of these two beach enthusiasts, Andy
and Klein, would result in a book of this scope and importance. This book is an
unprecedented approach to Brazilian beach systems from Amapá to Rio Grande do
Sul. The book begins by locating Brazilian beaches in a global classification model
according to the relative importance of their principal variables: tide range and wave
energy, as well as presenting the evolution of Brazilian beach studies, including
management, erosion, and beach safety. This initial focus is followed by the classi-
fication of the Brazilian coastal provinces by geological inheritance, geomorphol-
ogy, hydrodynamic regime, and climate. They assembled researchers with different
areas of expertise in coastal geology and geomorphology from the seventeen
Brazilian coastal states to improve our present knowledge of Brazilian beach sys-
tems. The book concludes with a summary of all that is known about Brazilian
beach systems and what still needs to be investigated to improve our knowledge of
the system as a whole. It recommends directions for future research and is a valu-
able tool for those responsible for coastal management.
This book is a unique opportunity in that it presents the physical variability of
Brazilian oceanic beaches in a logical and accessible form, particularly for those
passionate about the study of beach systems and their connections to other areas of
knowledge. Students and professionals in areas such as oceanography, geography,
geology, coastal engineering, and coastal management will find this book a valuable
resource in their development and understanding of the mechanisms that govern
beaches, hopefully using this knowledge in real life application to benefit their com-
munities. This work is essential in the library of all those that are fascinated by
oceanic beaches.

Institute of Oceanography Lauro Júlio Calliari

Federal University of Rio Grande (FURG)
Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
November 15, 2015
Preface

This book is a culmination of decades of fieldwork, research, and publications on

the many beaches that line the magnificent coast of Brazil. This research com-
menced tentatively and sporadically in the 1960s and mushroomed in the 1990s,
cumulating in 2000 with the First Brazilian Sandy Beaches Symposium, which con-
tained 67 presentations by Brazilian coastal researchers.
Today coastal and beach research is underway in every one of the 17 coastal
states, as evidenced by the contents of this book. The first editor was introduced to
the Brazilian coast in 1975 and has returned multiple times to visit and work on the
coast from Amapá in the north to Rio Grande do Sul in the south. The second editor
introduced embayed beach morphodynamics and beach hazards and risk to Brazil
and has supervised 18 graduate students, most with coastal-beach topics, many of
whom have gone on to form the basis of the next generation of Brazilian coastal
scientists and managers.
This book is about the beaches of Brazil. These beaches are both a vital and the
major component of the Brazilian coast, and a source of endless fascination and
recreation for the Brazilian people. All Brazilians know about their coast and
beaches and most seem to want to vacation there in the summer months. This com-
bination of people and coast has however resulted in some problems, ranging from
a personal level with beach safety, to a national level with coastal development. In
order to address these problems, one must begin with a good knowledge of the
beaches and how they behave. This book addresses both these problems as well as
documenting our present knowledge of the Brazilian coast and its beautiful, abun-
dant, and wide-ranging beach systems.
This book contains 20 chapters written by 58 authors, who between them know
all that is presently known about the Brazilian coast and in particular its beach sys-
tems. Seventeen of those chapters provide a state-by-state assessment of the beaches
in each state, together with introductory, island beaches, and final a review and
overview chapter.
If you are wondering why an Australian is editing a book on Brazilian beaches,
it has to do with my 40-year association with the Brazilian coast and the assistance
of a wonderful group of Brazilian coastal colleagues who have taken the time to

ix
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x Preface

show me, talk about, and discuss their beautiful coast and its beach systems. I also
have the good fortune to see and visit much of the Brazilian coast, always with my
Brazilian colleagues. I would particularly like to thank the following for taking their
time to show me some of the following coasts:
Amapá – Valdenira Santos; Pará – Nils Asp and Luci Pereira; Ceará – Jader
Onofre Morais; Rio Grande do Notre – Helenice Vital; Natal to Recife – Rodolfo
Angulo; Fernando de Noronha – Lauro Calliari; Recife to Vitoria – Pedro Pereira
and Lauro Calliari; Espírito Santo – Jacqueline Albino; Rio de Janerio – Dieter
Muehe; São Paulo – Michel Mahiques; Paraná – Rodolfo Angulo; Santa Catarina –
Antonio Klein; Rio Grande do Sul – Lauro Calliari, Sergio Dillenburg, and Elírio
Toldo.

Sydney, NSW, Australia Andrew D. Short

Florianópolis, SC, Brazil Antonio Henrique da F. Klein
Acknowledgments

We first and foremost thank our 58 colleagues in Brazil and Spain for their contribu-
tions to this book, as well as the 19 reviewers listed below who assisted the editors
in reviewing all the chapters. Without you all, this book would not exist.
This book could also not have been achieved without the support of CNPq –
Science Without Borders Program which provided funding for a 3 years (2013–
2015) Visiting Professor Grant at UFSC – Graduate Geographer Program and
Graduate Oceanographer Program, project no. 400302/2012-8 (Coastal Hazards
and Headland Sediment Bypassing Assessment in Different Coastal Environments),
part of which resulted in the compilation and editing of this book. This work also
had the financial support of the following programs: Programa de Formação em
Recursos Humanos em Geologia da Petrobras (PFRH-PB 240); Fundo Clima –
Ministério do Meio Ambiente, project MMA-Riscos; and SMC Project (MMA) and
Bolsa de Produtividade em Pesquisa – Nível 2 [Proc. No. 303550/2012-0]).
The following are thanked for reviewing the chapters:
Javier Alcantara-Carrió, Edward J Anthony, Jarbas Bonnetti Filho,
Lauro J Calliari, J Andrew G Cooper, Paolo Ciavola, João M Alveirinho Dias,
Oscar Ferreira, Duncan FitzGerald, Mauricio Gonzales, Federico Isla, Guilherme
Lessa, Dieter Muehe, Pedro Pereira, Klaus Schwarzer, Tim Scott, Karl Stattegger,
Allan Williams, and Colin Woodroffe.
At UFSC, we thank José Mauricio de Camargo and Charline Dalinghaus for
assisting with figures and tables.
At Springer, we especially thank Petra van Steenbergen who set us off on the
path to this book, and Marielle Klijn who guided us through the preparation and
submission and review of the manuscript and Mrs. Rathika Ramkumar who over-
saw the final editing, proofing and production of the book. We also thank Charles
W. Finkl, the Coastal Research Library Series Editor, for this ongoing support and
enthusiasm for the project.

xi
Contents

1 Brazilian Beach Systems: Introduction................................................. 1

Antonio Henrique da F. Klein and Andrew D. Short
2 Brazilian Coastal Processes: Wind, Wave Climate
and Sea Level ........................................................................................... 37
Mauricio González Rodríguez, João Luiz Nicolodi,
Omar Quetzalcóatl Gutiérrez, Verónica Cánovas Losada,
and Antonio Espejo Hermosa
3 Beaches of the Amazon Coast: Amapá and West Pará ........................ 67
Valdenira Ferreira dos Santos, Andrew D. Short,
and Amilcar Carvalho Mendes
4 Coastal Morphodynamic Processes on the Macro-Tidal
Beaches of Pará State Under Tidally-Modulated
Wave Conditions ..................................................................................... 95
Luci Cajueiro Carneiro Pereira, Ana Vila-Concejo,
and Andrew D. Short
5 Maranhão Beach Systems, Including the Human
Impact on São Luís Beaches................................................................... 125
Luci Cajueiro Carneiro Pereira, Wellington Nascimento Trindade,
Iracely Rodrigues da Silva, Ana Vila-Concejo, and Andrew D. Short
6 Piauí Beach Systems ............................................................................... 153
Jorge Eduardo de Abreu Paula, Jáder Onofre de Morais,
Elisabeth Mary de Carvalho Baptista, Maria Luzineide Gomes,
and Lidriana de Souza Pinheiro

xiii
xiv Contents

7 The Beaches of Ceará ............................................................................. 175

Lidriana de Souza Pinheiro, Jáder Onofre de Morais,
and Luis Parente Maia
8 Beaches of Rio Grande do Norte ........................................................... 201
Helenice Vital, Iracema Miranda da Silveira,
Werner Farkatt Tabosa, Zuleide Maria Carvalho Lima,
Francisco Pinheiro Lima-Filho, Flavo Elano Soares de Souza,
Marcelo dos Santos Chaves, Felipe M. Pimenta,
and Moab Praxedes Gomes
9 Sandy Beaches of the State of Paraíba: The Importance
of Geological Heritage ............................................................................ 231
José Maria Landim Dominguez, Silvana Moreira Neves,
and Abílio Carlos da Silva Pinto Bittencourt
10 Tropical Sandy Beaches of Pernambuco State ..................................... 251
Pedro de Souza Pereira, Tereza Cristina Medeiros de Araújo,
and Valdir do Amaral Vaz Manso
11 The Sandy Beaches of the States of Sergipe-Alagoas .......................... 281
José Maria Landim Dominguez,
Abílio Carlos da Silva Pinto Bittencourt,
Adeylan Nascimento Santos, and Lucas do Nascimento
12 Beaches in the State of Bahia: The Importance
of Geologic Setting .................................................................................. 307
José Maria Landim Dominguez,
Abílio Carlos da Silva Pinto Bittencourt,
Lucas do Nascimento, and Adeylan Nascimento Santos
13 The Beaches of Espírito Santo ............................................................... 333
Jacqueline Albino, Nery Contti Neto,
and Tiago Castro Alves Oliveira
14 The Beaches of Rio de Janeiro ............................................................... 363
Dieter Muehe and Flavia Moraes Lins-de-Barros
15 The Beaches of the State of São Paulo .................................................. 397
Michel Michaelovitch de Mahiques, Eduardo Siegle,
Javier Alcántara-Carrió, Filipe Galiforni Silva,
Paulo Henrique Gomes de Oliveira Sousa,
and Cristina Celia Martins
16 The State of Paraná Beaches .................................................................. 419
Rodolfo José Angulo, Carlos Alberto Borzone,
Mauricio Almeida Noernberg, Clécio José Lopes de Quadros,
Maria Cristina de Souza, and Leonardo Cruz da Rosa
Contents xv

17 Santa Catarina Beach Systems .............................................................. 465

Antonio Henrique da F. Klein, Andrew D. Short,
and Jarbas Bonetti
18 Ocean Beaches of Rio Grande do Sul.................................................... 507
Lauro Júlio Calliari and Elírio Ernestino Toldo Jr.
19 Sandy Beaches of Brazilian Oceanic Islands ........................................ 543
Lauro Júlio Calliari, Pedro de Souza Pereira,
Andrew D. Short, Fernando C. Sobral, Arthur A. Machado,
Yuri G. Pinheiro, and Catherine Fitzpatrick
20 Brazilian Beach Systems: Review and Overview ................................. 573
Andrew D. Short and Antonio Henrique da F. Klein

Index ................................................................................................................. 609

Editors and List of Contributors

Editors

Andrew D. Short School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW,

Australia
Antonio Henrique da F. Klein Departamento de Geociências, Laboratório de
Oceanografia Costeira, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC,
Brazil

Contributors

Jacqueline Albino Department of Oceanography and Ecology, Universidade

Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
Javier Alcántara-Carrió Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo
(IOUSP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Rodolfo José Angulo Departamento de Geologia, Laboratório de Estudos
Costeiros – Lecost, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências da Terra,
Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
Tereza Cristina Medeiros de Araújo Geological Oceanography Laboratory,
Department of Oceanography, Center of Geoscience and Technology, Federal
University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
Elisabeth Mary de Carvalho Baptista Núcleo de Estudos sobre a Zona Costeira
do Estado do Piauí – NEZCPI, Universidade Estadual do Piauí – UESPI, Curso de
Licenciatura Plena em Geografia, Teresina, PI, Brazil
Abílio Carlos da Silva Pinto Bittencourt Institute of Geosciences, UFBA, BA,
Brazil

xvii
xviii Editors and List of Contributors

Jarbas Bonetti Departamento de Geociências, Laboratório de Oceanografia

Costeira, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
Carlos Alberto Borzone Laboratório de Ecologia de Praias, Centro de Estudos do
Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências da Terra, Pontal do Paraná,
Paraná, Brazil
Lauro Júlio Calliari Institute of Oceanography, Federal University of Rio Grande,
Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Marcelo dos Santos Chaves Departamento de Geografia, Centro de Ciências
Sociais e Aplicadas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN,
Brazil
Nery Contti Neto Department of Oceanography and Ecology, Universidade
Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
José Maria Landim Dominguez Institute of Geosciences, UFBA, BA, Brazil
Catherine Fitzpatrick Institute of Oceanography, Federal University of Rio
Grande, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Maria Luzineide Gomes Núcleo de Estudos de Geografia Física – NEGEO,
Universidade Estadual do Piauí – UESPI, Curso de Licenciatura Plena em Geografia,
Teresina, PI, Brazil
Moab Praxedes Gomes Departamento de Geologia/Programa de pós-Graduação
em Geodinâmica e Geofísica, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Terra, Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Norte-UFRN Campus Universitário, Natal, RN, Brazil
Mauricio González Rodríguez Instituto de Hidráulica Ambiental de la Universidad
de Cantabria “IHCantabria”, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
Omar Quetzalcóatl Gutiérrez Instituto de Hidráulica Ambiental de la Universidad
de Cantabria “IHCantabria”, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
Antonio Espejo Hermosa Instituto de Hidráulica Ambiental de la Universidad de
Cantabria “IHCantabria”, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
Zuleide Maria Carvalho Lima Departamento de Geografia/Programa de pós-
Graduação em Geografia/UFRN/, Centro de Ciências Sociais e Aplicadas,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
Flavia Moraes Lins-de-Barros Departamento de Geografia/Programa de Pós
Graduação em Geografia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
Verónica Cánovas Losada Instituto de Hidráulica Ambiental de la Universidad de
Cantabria “IHCantabria”, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
Arthur A. Machado Institute of Oceanography, Federal University of Rio Grande,
Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Editors and List of Contributors xix

Michel Michaelovitch de Mahiques Oceanographic Institute of the University of

São Paulo (IOUSP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Luis Parente Maia LABOMAR-Instituto de Ciências do Mar, Universidade
Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
Valdir do Amaral Vaz Manso Marine Geophysical and Geology Laboratory,
Department of Geology, Center of Geoscience and Technology, Federal University
of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
Cristina Celia Martins Fundação de Estudos e Pesquisas Aquáticas, Fundação de
Estudos e Pesquisas Aquáticas, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
Amilcar Carvalho Mendes Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi-MPEG, Campus de
Pesquisa, Coordenação de ciências da Terra e Ecologia, Belém, PA, Brazil
Jáder Onofre de Morais Laboratório de Geologia e Geomorfologia Costeira e
Oceânica-LGCO, Universidade Estadual do Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
Dieter Muehe Graduate Program in Geography, Universidade Federal do Espirito
Santo, Vitória, Brazil
Lucas do Nascimento Prefeitura Municipal de Camaçari, Camaçari, Bahia, Brazil
Wellington Nascimento Trindade Instituto de Estudos Costeiros, Universidade
Federal do Pará, Bragança, Pará, Brazil
Silvana Moreira Neves Department of Geographical Sciences, UFPE Campus
Universitário, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
João Luiz Nicolodi Instituto de Oceanografia (IO), Universidade Federal de Rio
Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Mauricio Almeida Noernberg Centro de Estudos do Mar, Laboratório de
Oceanografia Costeira e Geoprocessamento, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor
de Ciências da Terra, Paraná, Brazil
Tiago Castro Alves Oliveira Environmental Engineering Department,
Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
Jorge Eduardo de Abreu Paula Núcleo de Estudos de Geografia Física – NEGEO,
Universidade Estadual do Piauí – UESPI, Curso de Licenciatura Plena em Geografia,
Teresina, PI, Brazil
Luci Cajueiro Carneiro Pereira Instituto de Estudos Costeiros, Universidade
Federal do Pará, Bragança, Pará, Brazil
Pedro de Souza Pereira Geological Oceanography Laboratory, Center of
Geoscience and Technology, Oceanography Department, Federal University of
Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
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xx Editors and List of Contributors

Felipe M. Pimenta Departamento de Geociências, Centro de Filosofia e Ciências

Humanas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
Francisco Pinheiro Lima-Filho Departamento de Geologia/Programa de pós-
Graduação em Geodinâmica e Geofísica, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Terra,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte-UFRN Campus Universitário, Natal,
RN, Brazil
Lidriana de Souza Pinheiro Instituto de Ciências do Mar-LABOMAR- Federal
University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
Yuri G. Pinheiro Institute of Oceanography, Federal University of Rio Grande,
Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Clécio José Lopes de Quadros Departamento de Geologia, Laboratório de
Estudos Costeiros – Lecost, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências da
Terra, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
Leonardo Cruz da Rosa Departamento de Engenharia de Pesca e Aquicultura,
Laboratório de Ecologia Bentônica, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Centro de
Ciências Agrárias Aplicadas, São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
Adeylan Nascimento Santos School of Engineering and Information Technology,
UNIFACS, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
Valdenira Ferreira dos Santos Instituto de Pesquisas Científicas e Tecnológicas
do Estado do Amapá-IEPA, Núcleo de Pesquisas Aquáticas – NuPAq, Macapá, AP,
Brazil
Eduardo Siegle Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo (IOUSP),
São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Filipe Galiforni Silva Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo
(IOUSP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Iracely Rodrigues da Silva Instituto de Estudos Costeiros, Universidade Federal
do Pará, Bragança, Pará, Brazil
Iracema Miranda da Silveira Museu Câmara Cascudo Universidade Federal do
Rio Grande do Norte- UFRN, Natal, RN, Brazil
Fernando C. Sobral Institute of Oceanography, Federal University of Rio Grande,
Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Paulo Henrique Gomes de Oliveira Sousa Oceanographic Institute of the
University of São Paulo (IOUSP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Flavo Elano Soares de Souza Centro de Tecnologia, Colégio Agrícola de Jundiaí,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, UFRN, Macaiba, RN, Brazil
Maria Cristina de Souza Departamento de Geologia, Laboratório de Estudos
Costeiros – Lecost, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências da Terra,
Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
Editors and List of Contributors xxi

Werner Farkatt Tabosa Departamento de Geologia/Programa de pós-Graduação

em Geodinâmica e Geofísica, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Terra, Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Norte-UFRN Campus Universitário, Natal, RN, Brazil
Elírio Ernestino Toldo Jr. Centro de Estudos de Geologia Costeira e Oceânica,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
Ana Vila-Concejo School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW,
Australia
Helenice Vital Departamento de Geologia/Programa de pós-Graduação em
Geodinâmica e Geofísica, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Terra, Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Norte-UFRN Campus Universitário, Natal, RN, Brazil
Chapter 1
Brazilian Beach Systems: Introduction

Antonio Henrique da F. Klein and Andrew D. Short

Abstract Brazil possesses one of the great national coastlines of the world, extend-
ing for approximately 9000 km between latitudes 4°N and 34°S. The Amazon, the
world largest river dominates the northern 1500 km. South of the Amazon, sandy
beaches increasingly dominate the shore with more than 4000 beaches occupying
much of the coast. This chapter provides an overview of the range of beach systems
that occupy the Brazilian coast. This is followed by a review of previous research on
the Brazilian coast together with management issues facing the coast. It then pro-
vides an updated classification of the entire coast, dividing it into seven coastal
regions based on coastal processes, geology and geomorphology, that include from
the northern Amazon Gulf mud coast; Northern tide-dominated; Northern tide-
modified; Northeast wave-dominated; Eastern wave-dominated, Southeast wave-
dominated; and Southern wave-dominated.

1.1 Introduction

Brazil possesses one of the great national coastlines of the world, extending for
approximately 9000 km between latitudes 4°N and 34°S. The coast is a classic trail-
ing edge coast typified by numerous long meandering rivers, generally low gradient
regressive coastal plains, an abundance of sediment and extensive beach-barrier
systems. The Amazon, the world largest river in terms of discharge and sediment
supply, dominates the northern 1500 km, maintaining a predominately mangrove-­
fringed mud-dominated shore, with scattered sandy beaches. South of the Amazon,
however, sandy beaches increasingly dominate the shore with more than 4000
beaches occupying much of the coast and comprising 2 % of all coastal ecosystems

A.H. da F. Klein (*)

Departamento de Geociências, Laboratório de Oceanografia Costeira,
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina,
Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]
A.D. Short
School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

A.D. Short, A.H. da F. Klein (eds.), Brazilian Beach Systems, Coastal Research
Library 17, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30394-9_1
2 A.H. da F. Klein and A.D. Short

(82,778 ha) (Muehe 2003). The remaining coast is occupied by rocky shore, inlets
and in sheltered locations mangroves, as well as salt-marsh in the south.
This book is about the beach systems that dominate most of the Brazilian coast.
They include one of the world’s longest beach-barrier systems, the 610 km long strip
of sand and dunes that extend from Torres, south along the entire coast of Rio Grande
do Sul, to the border at Chuí. This system includes the 242 km long Hermenegildo-
Cassino beach and 193 km long Tavares-Tramandaí beach, the longest beaches in
South America and some of the longest in the world. There are many other long beaches
associated with extensive river deltas and coastal plains; together with embayed and
small pocket beaches bordered by headlands and inlets; as well as numerous beaches
located in lee of beachrock reefs and in some areas fringing coral reefs.
The entire coast is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and much is exposed to
easterly trade winds and to east through southerly seas and swell, which combined
provide considerable energy to transport sediment and construct a wide range of
beach, barrier, inlet and deltaic forms. Wave energy ranges from low to moderate
along the tide-dominated Amapá and Pará coasts, where considerable wave attenu-
ation takes place across the shallow inshore, to moderate along the Maranhão, Ceará
and northern Rio Grande do Norte coast, to moderate to high energy along the long
southeast-facing east coast. The waves drive predominately northerly longshore
sand transport, which has been calculated to reach 1 Mm3 year−1 in some locations,
together with some local and seasonal reversals in sediment transport. Tides also
vary considerably with the north coast dominated by macro to mega-tides reaching
11 m in the mouth of the Amazon, decreasing to macro and meso north and east of
the mouth. The east coast has meso-tides in the north and along parts of the central
coast grading to micro-tides towards the south, with the lowest tide range (~0.5 m)
along the coast of Rio Grande do Sul. Tidal currents are significant along the north
coast with the flood tides trending to the west reinforcing the easterly wind and
wave driven currents and the strong North Brazil current. The easterly Trade winds
dominate much of the northeast and north coast, while southeast winds dominate
the east coast down to Santa Catarina Island, south of which there is a shift to north-
erly wind dominance. From Rio de Janeiro to the south storm surges up to 1.0 m
high contribute to coastal processes.
The considerable range in wave and tide energy maintains the full range of beach
types and states along the open coast. In the north the beaches are generally tide-­
dominated to tide-modified, while along the east coast they range from tide-­modified
in the northeast to wave-dominated along the central and southern sectors, with tide-
dominated beaches predominating in sheltered bays and estuaries. The beaches span
the tropical to subtropical latitudes and in northeast are modified by coral and beachrock
reefs, which induce the formation of lower energy crenulate beaches in their lee. Also
in the north and east the Barreiras Formation outcrops along sections of coast forming
eroding cliffs, and in the south particularly between Carbo Frio and Cabo de Sta. Marta
numerous bedrock headlands produce many embayed and pocket beach systems.
Brazil’s numerous sandy beaches are synonymous with Brazil. Not just because
they occupy the majority of the coast, but also because of the way Brazilian life and
lifestyle have evolved and adapted to this seemingly endless stretch of tropical and
1 Brazilian Beach Systems: Introduction 3

subtropical sand beaches. Almost 20 % of Brazil’s population lives in coastal counties

(Muehe 2003), and most major cities, except São Paulo and Brasília, are coastal, it total
more than 40 million Brazilian’s live near the coast and its beaches. While the coast has
long been the location of all ports and smaller fishing communities, since the 1970s
there has been a surge towards the coast. This has resulted in a rapid expansion of exist-
ing towns and cities as well as the development of extensive housing and second-house
subdivisions and in favorable locations the growth of tourist centers with highrise
hotels and resorts. All of this is bringing more people to the coast both permanently and
on vacation. The resulting pressure on the beaches and their backing barriers and dunes
is often intense as dunes are leveled for development, tall structures crowd the shore
and overshadow the afternoon beach, and effluent pollutes the beaches.
At the same time these same beaches will be the most susceptible parts of the
coast to the impacts of climate change. They are literally caught between rapidly
increasing human pressure and more subtle but equally intense changing sea level
and climate. As a consequence they are presently and will continue to experience
considerable human and natural impacts.
It is the aim of this book for the first time to both document and assess the nature,
dynamics and state of Brazil’s beach systems on a state-by-state basis. While the
book will primarily focus on the physical characteristics of the beaches and their
morphodynamics, it will also touch on the impact these systems have on beach
users, through the hazards they present, as well as briefly review the nature and level
of development along the coast.
The book is arranged into 20 chapters. This chapter introduces the topic and
reviews the history of beach studies in Brazil, the way the coast is classified, the
range of beach types along the coast, the type of beach hazards and the general
impact of population pressure and development along the coast. The following 19
chapters (Chaps. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20)
begin with an overview of Brazilian coastal processes particularly the wave, tide
and wind regimes (Chap. 2), followed by a state-by-state coverage of the beach
systems, starting in the north at Amapá and extending south to Rio Grande do Sul
including a chapter on Brazil’s ocean island beaches (Chaps. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19). It finishes (Chap. 20) with an overview of
both the nature and status of Brazil’s beaches, as well as addressing areas where
more research is required.

1.2 Brazilian Beaches

This section briefly reviews the range of beach types and states that occur globally
and along the Brazilian coast, and that will be presented in more detail in each of the
chapters. It then looks at some the major issues facing Brazilian beaches including
beach management, erosion and safety; this is followed by a classification of the
Brazilian coast (Sect. 1.3) into seven coastal regions, each of which is then described
(Sect. 1.4).
4 A.H. da F. Klein and A.D. Short

1.2.1 Beach Types and States

Brazilian beach systems can be classified into three types based on relative tide
range (RTR) (Masselink and Short 1993), where

RTR = TR / H b (1.1)

where TR = mean spring tide range (m) and Hb = breaker wave height (m). This
parameter quantifies the relative contribution of waves and tides. When waves are
relatively high and tides low and RTR < 3 beaches are wave-dominated. Between 3
and ~10 they are tide-modified; and when waves are very low and tide relatively
high and RTR is between ~10 and ~50 they become tide-dominated (Fig. 1.1;
Short 2006).
The Brazilian coast has tides ranging from 0.5 to 11 m and low though high
waves. It therefore contains RTR’s ranging from <1 to >50 and the full range of
wave-dominated, tide-modified and tide-dominated beach types. The three beach
types can be further classified into 13 beach states using the dimensionless fall
velocity (Ω) (Gourlay 1968), where

W = H b / Ws T (1.2)

where Ws = sediment fall velocity (m s−1) and T = wave period (s).

Ω quantifies the relative contribution of wave height and period and sediment
grain size (expressed as sediment fall velocity) to beach morphodynamics. Using Ω
wave-dominated beaches can be classified into six beach states (Fig. 1.1). When
waves are relatively low, periods long and sand coarse Ω < 1, the beaches are narrow
and barless and called reflective. When waves are moderate to high (Ω = 2–5) the
beaches become rip-dominated intermediate with usually one or two bars cut by rip
channels and currents. When wave are high and sand is fine Ω > 6 the beaches
become wide and dissipative with often multiple (2–4) shore parallel sand bars.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the six wave-dominated beach states.
Tide-modified beaches go though a similar transition with the addition of a usu-
ally wide low tide bar and consist of three beach states (Fig. 1.1). The lower energy
reflective state (Ω < 1) consists of a reflective high tide beach plus a wide (~100 m+)
low tide terrace. The intermediate state contains a reflective high tide beach and low
tide bar cut by rip channels (Ω = 2–5) on its outer low tide sector; while the higher
energy dissipative state features a very wide (>200 m) low gradient featureless
concave ultradissipative beach when Ω > 6 (Fig. 1.1).
The tide-dominated beaches consist of four states each fronted by wide intertidal
sand and/or mud flats (100’s–1000’s m wide). They range from a low energy high
tide beach fronted by ridged sand flats under higher waves, through to very low
energy sand flats, tidal sand flats and finally tidal mud flats (Fig. 1.1). For a full
description of the beach types and states see Short (1999, 2006).
In addition two other beach states can occur along the coast, these are high tide
reflective sandy beaches fronted by intertidal rocks flats or beachrock reefs, and
1 Brazilian Beach Systems: Introduction 5

high tide beaches fringed by intertidal coral reef flats (Fig. 1.1). Both are common
along parts of the Brazilian coast, particularly where beachrock and coral reefs
fringe the shore.
In total the three beach types and rock/reef flat beaches account for 15 different
beach states ranging from the high energy wave-dominated multi-bar dissipative
with surf zones 300–500 m wide, to barless reflective beaches; to with increasing
tide range the tide-modified beaches with surf; to the very low energy tide-­dominated
beaches fronted by tidal flats. Table 1.1 list the beach types and states, their abbre-
viations and general relationship to RTR, Ω and Hb. Note that the actual relationship

Fig. 1.1 Schematic sketch of wave-dominated (1–6), tide-modified (7–9) and tide-dominated
beaches states (10–13); and beaches fronted by rock or reefs flats (14 and 15) (Source: Short and
Woodroffe 2009)
6 A.H. da F. Klein and A.D. Short

Fig. 1.1 (continued)

1 Brazilian Beach Systems: Introduction 7

Table 1.1 List of the three beach types and 15 beach states and some of their environmental
characteristics
No. Abbreviation Beach state RTR Ω ~Hb (m)
Wave dominated <3 1–6
1 D Dissipative <1 >6 >2
Intermediate <3
2 LBT  Longshore bar & trough <3 ~5 <2
3 RBB  Rhythmic bar & beach <3 ~4 >1.5
4 TBR  Transverse bar & rip <3 ~3 ~1.5
5 LTT  Low tide terrace <3 ~2 ~1
6 R Reflective <3 ~1 <1
Tide-modified 3 ~ 10 1–6
7 R + LTT Reflective + low tide terrace ~1 <1
8 R + LTR Reflective + low tide bar & rips ~3 ~1
9 UD Ultradissipative >5 ~1
Tide-dominated ~10 ~ 50 <1 <<1
10 B# + RSR <0.5 Beach + ridged sand flats <1 <0.5
11 B + SF Beach + sand flats <1 <0.3
12 B + TSF Beach + tidal sand flats <1 <0.2
13 B + TMF Beach + tidal mud flats <1 <0.2
Rocks/reef*
14 R + RF Reflective + rock flats – – –
15 R + CF Reflective + coral reef flats – – –
The RTR, Ω and Hb are all approximate and will vary between wave environments, while 14 and
15 are independent of waves and tides (Short 1999). Also see Fig. 1.1.
#
Beach indicates a very low energy strip of high tide sand
*
Rock and reef fronted beaches form independently of RTR, Ω and Hb

will vary with wave environments and need to be determined locally. The beaches
fronted by rocks flats or coral reefs are independent of waves and tides.
The relationship between the wave-dominated, tide-modified and tide-dominated
beach states and Hb, Ws and RTR is also presented in Fig. 1.2. Figure 1.2a plots the
impact of increasing Ω and RTR on beach type and state while Fig. 1.2b plots the
relation between beach state and Hb, sand size and RTR. It shows how ­wave-­dominated
beaches have the highest waves and lowest RTR with fine to medium sand, with a
coarsening towards the reflective end. Tide-modified beaches have moderate waves,
increasing RTR and medium more poorly sorted sand; while tide-­dominated beaches
have low waves, high RTR and the coarsest material, which is very poorly sorted.
The figures are based on Australian data and made need modification in other
coastal environments.
The forgoing applies to beaches in general and is largely based on Australian
studies. However Brazil, like Australia, has tides ranging from micro to mega, and
waves from low to high, together with beach sand ranging from fine to coarse. One
would therefore expect all the above beach types to be found along the Brazilian
coast, which is in fact the case, as will be presented in the following chapters.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 “Not so bad,” mused the professor. “However, it is clear that we
can not reach our goal without a vastly greater rate of production.”
He knit his brows, pondering silently for a little while.
“Robert,” he broke out suddenly, “we’ve got to take a big gamble!
We will not only follow out your suggestion, but we will double the
present size of our plant.”
Robert gasped. He thought of the professor’s dwindling resources,
wondering if he were suddenly gone mad.
“Why, that would bring the total cost round $60,000!” he cried.
“Quite so,” replied Professor Palmer, calmly; “but a four or five
year program would be far more expensive—to say nothing of its
impracticability. It’s win all or lose all, Robert.”
So the Palmer laboratories were enlarged and arrangements
successfully made for the crushing and partial separating with a
near-by rock plant. The little force of experts was augmented to
thirty, and work began in earnest. The next month resulted in a
production of forty-one ingots of mythonite!
The following month a minor improvement discovered in the
process increased that month’s production to fifty ingots. Even this
production was bettered somewhat during the following months. At
the end of the sixth month after the enlargement of the plant the total
production of mythonite had reached more than three hundred ingots
—all that were required! A month remained in which to prepare for
the great venture into the unknown.

It was with a feeling of overwhelming elation that Robert and the

professor gazed upon the little stack of dull, silver-gray bars in the
dusk of an early July twilight. Winter and spring had come and gone
while they labored. These three hundred tiny ingots were the result.
Not entirely, though; for in addition to a sufficient quantity of platinum
reserved for their own requirements, the Palmer laboratories had
produced and sold enough platinum to defray all expenses incurred.
Little wonder that they felt elated.
Professor Palmer put his arm across Robert’s broad shoulders
with fatherly tenderness.
 “My boy,” he said, softly, “whatever the Sphere accomplishes, it
has at least brought us together. To me, our perfect companionship
has come to mean more than anything else. I did not realize what a
lonely old man I was before you came.”
“Old man!” chided Robert. “Fifty-seven years young.”
“It is well for me that you had the Sphere to occupy you, or some
sweet young vision would have taken you in hand ere now. But
forgive an old codger’s selfishness, Robert.”
“Time enough to think about that, professor,” smiled Robert.
“Careful. Don’t let them make a bachelor out of you. An old
bachelor is a superfluity for which no one really cares. Even an old
maid has her cat.”
“Very well. We’ll each make love to a moon-maiden,” laughed
Robert, and Professor Palmer joined him heartily.
The following day the small ingots were melted and forced into the
big, flattish, circular, platinum-lined and studded mold. Before the
pouring was attempted, the mold was securely fastened down as a
precaution against the lifting power of the mythonite when freed from
the earth’s gravity by the interruption of the platinum beneath it. As
an additional precaution, a disk of platinum was suspended over the
mass, thereby neutralizing the attraction of heavenly bodies.
With great care, the platinum-incased mass of mythonite was
installed in the Sphere. A stout steel rod and universal joint
connected it to the gyrostatic center, and the wiring and other details
of its proper control were quickly completed. The petrol and oxygen
tanks were partly filled, the gyrostats tuned up, and the Sphere at
last was ready for a trial trip.
 5

Henry Simms, much interested, but skeptical to the last, was shown
the interior of the Sphere on the afternoon set for the first trial. He
crawled through the manhole after Robert and the professor, firmly
convinced that he was about to witness a flat failure of the Sphere
for which the professor claimed so much. To do him justice, though,
it should be stated that Henry’s expectations were not without keen
sympathy for the disappointment to which he felt certain the
professor was doomed.
“She looks more like a submarine than a blimp, professor,” was
his first comment as they reached the main compartment.
Indeed, the interior of the Sphere, with its intricate mass of
machinery and its bull’s-eye windows, its riveted partitions and
curved walls, and the incandescent lamps, did suggest a typical
underseas craft.
“She goes up, Henry, not down,” the professor laughed.
“Deal me out, then,” cried Henry. “I am not prepared to go up for
keeps yet!”
“Rest easy,” said Robert. “It will be much easier to drop back, if in
doubt, than to continue upward.”
Robert proceeded to explain the Sphere’s important features for
Henry’s benefit.
“Here is the gage that registers the pull of the disk,” he said,
finally, after having explained the rudiments of the Sphere’s
operation. He indicated a dial attached to the rod which harnessed
the powerful mythonite disk to the core of the Sphere.
He pushed the first of a row of switch buttons on the controller.
Poor Henry’s heart fluttered as a faint scraping sound heralded the
mere opening of one of the three cameralike platinum shutters over
the mythonite disk’s highly magnetic surface. He was already
regretting his consent to accompany them on a trial flight. The
handle on the dial of the lifting gage suddenly raced from zero and
steadied at 605 pounds. The Sphere remained at rest.
All three men were now keyed to the highest pitch of excitement.
This was the first time the completed apparatus had been tested,
and upon its results depended entirely the success of the Sphere
and its remarkable project planned by the professor.
The registered tension on the strong steel arm removed all doubt
from the minds of Robert and Professor Palmer regarding the
success of mythonite as a practical power of propulsion. A feeling of
wild exultation gripped them both.
“Danger from shock of sudden great pull is avoided by gradual
uncovering of the disk’s surface,” resumed Robert as he pushed the
next button, sending the hand on the dial up to 1,420. The third
button swung it to 3,475, accompanied by a slight tremor perceptible
in the floor of the Sphere. Their startled glances through the nearest
porthole satisfied them, however, that the Sphere still rested on terra
firma.
Robert pushed all three of the corresponding row of buttons
directly over the first three, and the hand again registered zero.
“I don’t want to lift the roof off your barn, professor,” exclaimed
Robert. “I’ll start the gyrostats now to neutralize the Sphere’s weight,
and we will get out and push it outside the stable.”
A few minutes later the now thoroughly convinced Henry watched
his companions disappear within the Sphere’s shell while he debated
with himself as to whether he should follow them. A moment later
Professor Palmer appeared at a porthole and beckoned him; but
Henry shook his head vehemently.
The professor unlatched the window and swung it open.
“Hurry in, Henry,” he called. “Voyage is about to commence.”
“Not I, professor! This suits me real well, right out here.”
“Come on, Henry,” the professor urged. “You aren’t afraid?”
“Not afraid—just a little bit careful. I’m just beginning to find out
how nice and solid this ground feels. I’ll watch you do it.”
And no amount of urging would change his mind. He politely but
firmly maintained that he felt much healthier outside.
 “Stubborn chap, that,” the professor commented to Robert. “Can’t
say that I blame him, though.”
“Simply a difference in the values we set on our own carcasses,”
suggested Robert. “Henry just takes his more seriously than we.”
They laughed. Both, somehow, felt relieved afterward. Henry had
furnished a welcome diversion. The former nervous tension was
broken.
“Well, so long, old man,” Robert called out the window, as he
prepared to close it.
“Give my regards to Saint Peter,” shouted Henry.
“Cheerful cuss,” contributed the professor, as the heavy glass
slammed shut.
Robert stopped the gyrostats.
A deep silence reigned within the heavy walls as he examined
carefully the delicate machinery upon which so much depended.
Then he pulled the lever, setting them in motion again. Their steady
purr was a relief from the oppressive silence.
Professor Palmer’s keen eyes followed him as he moved about.
Robert’s excitement of the previous minutes was forgotten as he
expertly, almost lovingly, ran his eyes over every detail of the perfect,
whirring machinery, most of which his father had produced. His
throat contracted strangely as his thoughts dwelt for a moment on
his beloved parent. His mother he could scarcely remember, for she
had died when he was but a baby of three years. But his father had
been his constant companion—his pal. What would he not have
given to have him standing by him at this moment, on the eve of his
triumph, of the realization of his dreams!
Being a shrewd judge of human nature, the professor rightly
guessed his thoughts at that moment. A suspicious moisture in
Robert’s eyes confirmed his guess.
Robert’s next move was to adjust the direction of the disk’s
covered face toward the zenith. The gyrostats were revolving
smoothly. With bated breath, he again pushed the button which
partly bared the disk.
The Sphere gave a slight lurch. This was followed by a sensation
like that felt in an elevator rising suddenly. A faint shout from below.
With one impulse Robert’s and the professor’s glances swept
eagerly through the ports.
There they saw just what they had expected to see; but the
actuality affected them curiously. Oddly enough, they had
subconsciously expected till the last moment that the Sphere would
fail.
The landscape seemed to be dropping from under them. Even the
horizon was receding alarmingly.

Robert’s hand shot out to the control board, closing the disk’s
surface. A slight tremor evidenced the abrupt cessation of the disk’s
pull.
“Six thousand feet,” read Professor Palmer from the altimeter.
Robert joined him. A few minutes later it registered seven
thousand. They were still rising, but not nearly so rapidly as before.
The closing of the disk had checked their speed at once.
“A little more and I’d have boosted her right off the earth,” said
Robert, breathlessly. “I’ll have to use the disk more sparingly on
ordinary sight-seeing excursions hereafter.”
“You had it opened only to first power, too, hadn’t you?”
“Yes; and without the ‘juice’ turned on. Jove! We didn’t realize how
much reserve power of propulsion we had. It’s well that I
experimented first with the minimum. And the current almost
quadruples the magnetism of mythonite! Phew!”
Robert paused and read the altimeter again. Eight thousand. He
gripped the gyrostatic control, and carefully moved it to half speed.
The Sphere seemed to pause a moment, then they could detect
its beginning to settle earthward as the neutralization of gravity was
modified. Six thousand; five thousand; they were dropping steadily at
a rate of nearly a thousand feet a minute.
Robert shoved the lever back to full speed and the Sphere’s
downward momentum was quickly checked. With the disk safely
throttled, the Sphere became as a rubber balloon. They merely
drifted in midair.
Together they peered through the observation well in the floor.
Through this they could plainly see the landscape, some three
thousand feet below, sliding by sluggishly as they drifted with the
light air current. From the side ports they could discern the big
Palmer homestead and the laboratories about a mile and a half to
the west of them. It was an ideal day for observation. The sky was
cloudless, and the air of crystal clearness.
“Well, professor, shall we run back to our stall, or take a little sight-
seeing jaunt?” queried Robert.
“Let’s see some of the country, by all means,” decided the
professor, his face aglow with boyish excitement and anticipation.
“All right; here goes,” Robert sang out as he deflected the disk to
a horizontal position, pointing due north.
The next instant he switched open the first shutter from the disk’s
surface. There was a jerk, and the landscape suddenly began
slipping away to the south with accelerating speed. Another click,
and their speed was further increased. Once more the switch
clicked, releasing the last shutter from over the disk. The Sphere
seemed literally to leap ahead. A muffled roar without indicated the
great speed at which they were rushing through the air.
Town after town flashed by beneath them with astonishing rapidity.
The fact that they were flying at a comparatively low altitude made
their speed seem terrific. Robert wisely decided to seek a safer
height. He elevated the disk several degrees and the Sphere
promptly soared higher. At eight thousand feet he checked its
upward trend.
Far away to the east they could see a solitary big biplane bound in
the same direction as they—probably a fast mail express; but it was
quickly left behind, and lost from view in the afternoon haze.
For twenty minutes they roared northward. Then, to their surprize,
a vast body of water appeared against the horizon ahead.
“Lake Erie!” gasped Robert, after a moment’s reflection. “Two
hundred miles in less than half an hour. Why—that’s about five
hundred miles an hour! And without the aid of electric magnetization
of the disk!”
“Marvelous!” exclaimed the professor, enthusiastically.
Already they were soaring over the expanse of water. On the
horizon the distant Canadian shore was rapidly taking shape.
Beneath them several long, slim lake craft could be discerned,
crawling at what appeared, from so great a height, to be a snail’s
pace. No doubt the Sphere would have presented a much more
curious sight to those below had its luminous gray shell been more
than a faint speck against the brilliant, cloudless sky.
It was at this juncture that Robert’s alert ears detected a subtle
change in the hitherto soft whir of the gyrostats.
“What is it, Robert?” whispered Professor Palmer, as he observed
Robert’s suddenly tense attitude.
“Wait!” anxiously.
Outside, the muffled roar sounded in strange contrast to the still
air within. The bright sunshine streamed across the gray door in
mock cheerfulness. A single captive fly buzzed drowzily against a
windowpane.
These commonplace details registered on Robert’s mind indelibly
in those fleeting seconds as he listened with palpitating heart for he
knew not what.
Taking his cue from Robert, Professor Palmer was listening with
equal intensity to the drone of the machinery upon which their lives
depended. Even he could now detect the change. The drone was
gradually, unmistakably, decreasing in volume. The gyrostats were
stopping!
Unconsciously they gripped each other’s hands an instant as they
realized the seriousness of their plight. Should the gyrostats stop,
the Sphere would plunge to its doom!
Frantically Robert tortured his mind for a possible solution, or a
reason for the unexpected interruption. The altimeter already
indicated that they were falling at a steadily increasing speed. The
formerly tiny ships below were no longer tiny. The water seemed to
be rushing toward them at a terrific rate. Robert remembered
afterward a sudden inane conjecture as to how big a splash they
would make.
It was at this moment his numbed senses returned to him. Cursing
himself silently for a rattle-brained idiot, he spun the wheel madly,
thus adjusting the vertical position of the disk. To his tortured mind it
seemed an eternity before it finally pointed toward the zenith.
 Their downward rush was noticeably checked, but the lift of the
disk was not equal to the weight of the Sphere. They continued to fall
at a dangerous rate. The altimeter registered but two thousand feet!
Fully recovered now from his former temporary inertia, Robert
jammed over the switch which connected the disk to the powerful
storage batteries. This was the reserve that he had not ventured to
utilize before. Thus the lift of the Sphere should have been increased
more than four-fold, and its descent checked at once.
As the switch swung over, the gyrostats stopped completely. In a
flash the explanation of it all occurred to Robert. The batteries were
exhausted!
 6

The world was rudely shaken from its customary lethargy.

Having lapsed into a monotonous, smooth-running order of
events, the public had long since resigned itself to such. Not since
the Great War had newspapers had such an opportunity. Even the
steady development of trans-Atlantic and trans-continental air traffic
had become commonplace.
Of the myriad readers, perhaps none was so keenly interested in
the article which appeared on the front page of every paper in the
United States on the morning of the eighteenth as Henry Simms.
Since the Sphere had disappeared from his astonished gaze the
day before, he had anxiously awaited its return. As hour after hour
passed, his fears for its little crew of two grew proportionately. He
had little faith in the curious invention to which the professor and his
companion had entrusted their lives.
So it was with little spirit that Henry sat down to his breakfast that
morning at the Palmer homestead, where he lived. He picked up the
morning paper listlessly, hoping it might contain some report of the
Sphere. He feared that if it did contain such news, it would be fatal
news. Henry was a pessimist.
The big heading escaped his notice at first because he was
looking for some smaller notice regarding the Sphere and its failure
to return. Then suddenly it caught his eye. Breathlessly he devoured
it.

SENSATION
CAUSED BY FLYING SPHERE
Curious Metal Blimp Seen Floating Above Lake Vessels’ Mast Tops
STRANGE NEW AIR TRIUMPH
Heavier than air machine with no visible means of ascension or
propulsion possesses marvelous speed
 (Special Dispatch to the Morning Chronicle)

ERIE, Pa., July 18.—The freighter, “Mary Ann”, arriving here tonight, reported a
remarkable incident.
About 4 o’clock this afternoon a member of the crew descried a small speck
over the southern horizon. This speck grew in size rapidly until it became apparent
that it was not only approaching the “Mary Ann”, but falling with great velocity from
its former immense height. It looked to be a large grayish globe.
During the ensuing moments, it seemed as if a huge cannon ball were launched
directly at the vessel. Her destruction seemed certain. Consternation seized the
crew and officers, who, by this time, were all aware of the pending disaster.
At a critical moment, however, the big ball was seen to slacken in its downward
rush, until finally it hung suspended in the air directly above the mast tops, drifting
slowly astern.
At this close range several round windows could be seen in the heavily riveted
walls of the sphere. A glimpse of the operator was caught as he busily
maneuvered divers levers.
Although evidently of considerable weight, and without visible means of support
or propulsion, the sphere seemed to float in midair as lightly as a balloon. It
appeared to be nearly thirty feet in diameter.
Suddenly a deep humming was heard. A moment later the sphere rose with
gathering speed until it appeared to have reached a height of about half a mile.
Then it shot abruptly off toward the south at great speed, disappearing rapidly over
the horizon.
While this was of great interest to Henry, it but served to increase
his uneasiness. He could think of no good reason for the failure of
the Sphere to return from its trial trip but a fatal reoccurrence of the
mechanical trouble suggested in the freighter’s report.

It was at this point in Henry’s gloomy reflections that a hearty laugh

outside startled him. The professor!
A moment later Robert and Professor Palmer entered. Both were
in fine spirits.
“Should have been along, Henry,” boomed the professor. “Missed
the time of your young life.”
“Been reading about it,” Henry replied, tapping the paper. “Were
you really trying to drop into the lake, or couldn’t you help it?”
“Fast work, Robert,” laughed the professor, as together they read
over the article; “private trial trip in the afternoon—front page
headlines next morning! Not so bad, eh?”
“Just missed the freighter,” gasped Robert. “We didn’t have a
chance to see her until we had checked our drop and drifted off
astern. Phew!”
“Never mind,” soothed the professor. “Can’t be helped now.
Anyway, they will probably conclude that we were merely playing
with them.”
His mood would not be denied. He seemed more like a boy at that
moment than a dignified professor of fifty-seven.
“You folks seem to have had a dull trip,” remarked Henry,
ironically. “Where were you last night?”
“Must we tell you? Had you accepted our invitation, you’d know,”
retorted the professor. “Man, don’t ask us so many questions. We’re
as hungry as wolves.”
They sat down before the appetizing, crisply fried bacon, and
eggs that Jarvis, the peerless, smiling butler had brought in.
“It was this way, Henry,” resumed the professor, after he had partly
satisfied the inner man: “Robert and I didn’t expect to be gone long,
and unfortunately failed to take any provisions along. Had it not been
for a cake of chocolate in Robert’s pocket, which we shared, we
should have had nothing to eat since we left.”
“But you haven’t told me where you were last night,” persisted
Henry.
“Tell him, Robert.”
“Well, after we ran out of power because the storage batteries had
not been fully charged, and narrowly missed sinking that freighter,
we had just enough current left to suspend the Sphere in midair.
Then we started the engines driving the dynamos, and soon had
sufficient power to start back. But boy! It was a close shave.” Robert
paused reminiscently.
“We started back, but changed our minds and decided to see
some more of the country first. You see, at five hundred or more
miles an hour, it is quite a temptation to look around a bit.”
Henry’s countenance registered a curious combination of
astonishment and disbelief.
 “Fact,” put in Professor Palmer. “Could have done much better
than that, but didn’t want to heat up the Sphere uncomfortably by
excessive air friction.”
Henry looked very much as if he thought he might be the victim of
a little spoofing. Such wild claims, uttered so coolly, confused him
and aroused his natural skepticism.
Robert resumed his narrative, with a touch of pardonable pride.
Behind him Jarvis stood spellbound, mouth half open, drinking in
every word.
“So we flew over to New York, Boston and Baltimore, and looked
them over. Great sport. We became so interested that twilight was
upon us before we had given it a thought.
“It was pretty dark by the time we got back this way. We forgot,
too, that the sun is visible considerably longer from a great height
than it is from the earth’s surface.
“The result was that we could not find our way back here in the
dark, without lights to guide us. So after a fruitless attempt, we gave
up and landed in a large field. There we stayed until dawn, when,
upon ascending again, we discovered that we were only a couple of
miles from here.”
“Moral: Carry a searchlight, and ye shall find,” contributed the
professor.
“And some sandwiches,” added Robert, returning to his
interrupted attack upon the bacon and eggs.
 7

The following weeks were crowded ones for the Palmer household.
The account of the Sphere and the activities at the laboratories were
quickly connected by the sharp newspaper world, and acknowledged
by Professor Palmer.
A deluge of newspaper reporters followed. The first were a
diversion; the rest quickly became a nuisance. Once more did
journalistic imagination run wild. Though both Robert and the
professor refused to commit themselves on the subject, the Palmer-
Margard feud was revived, colored with a wealth of imaginary data
concerning prospective trips to Mars in the Sphere.
The Sphere was photographed and sketched countless times, as
were Professor Palmer and Robert. Even Henry came in for a share
of publicity.
But the professor had long since determined to attempt the trip to
Mars in the Sphere. With this in mind he set about mastering the
intricacies of its apparatus.
The prospect of venturing into the unknown regions beyond the
Earth’s attraction is not one that appeals to the faint-hearted. Even
Professor Palmer frequently had moments of indecision when he all
but decided to drop the project. It would be so easy, reasoned his
weaker self, to drop the matter entirely. The Sphere’s scope on the
Earth was sufficient to make them both a vast fortune, and to bring
them great fame.
Nevertheless, he remained stedfast in his decision in spite of the
advice and warnings of his friends, which were anything but
reassuring. He was willing to be a martyr for the possible
enlightenment of the world.
It was Robert, though, who strengthened the professor’s
determination, for he insisted upon accompanying him on the
unusual journey.
 “I am but an old man, Robert,” Professor Palmer argued, “while
you are a young man in your prime, with a long, promising career
before you. The chances of the Sphere’s reaching Mars safely and
returning, in spite of its remarkable powers, are extremely uncertain.
Who knows what strange phenomena it may encounter in the depths
of space? Suppose its apparatus should fail midway. Think of the
fate that may await us. Even if we reached Mars, and found it
inhabited with intelligent beings, how do we know we should be
permitted to return? Take my advice, my boy, and remain here. You
may lose the Sphere, but you know its principle, and have proved its
practicability. You can command the services of the world’s best
mechanical skill in the rapid construction of another Sphere, and still
others. In addition, I shall leave you my entire estate and
possessions.”
Robert was deeply moved by Professor Palmer’s concern over
him and by his generosity.
“You have been very good to me,” he said. “I appreciate it deeply.
But I am going with you. We will share the dangers together, and
together we will also share the glory of achievement. I believe we are
going to succeed.”
And so, with these two declarations was sealed the pact of
partnership which was to carry them together on the perilous
journey.

When their final intention of attempting to reach Mars was

announced, the journalistic world fairly seethed with excitement.
Every magazine issue contained portraits of Robert and Professor
Palmer, accompanied by cuts of the Sphere and the professor’s
latest maps and photographs of the red planet. Never had any
human undertaking even mildly approached theirs in magnitude.
They were hailed as the heroes of the hour.
It was agreed that the secrets of the Sphere were to be set down
and placed in a safety deposit box with a certain great trust
company, to be opened and read only in case Robert and the
professor failed to return after two years’ time. Thus, the world could
not lose the secret of this remarkable invention.
 Professor Margard, at this point, proved that his opposition to
Professor Palmer’s theories was entirely impersonal. In published
interviews, he highly commended his worthy contemporary’s
courage, as well as that of his companion; but he deplored the
dangerous project in the face of what he considered conclusive
evidence against the possible existence of inhabitants on Mars.
“Misdirected courage; misplaced martrydom,” he termed their
intentions.
“Misdirected fiddlesticks,” snorted Professor Palmer when he read
this. “We’ll show these people a thing or two.”
Two weeks were devoted to final preparations for the remarkable
adventure. A powerful, adjustable searchlight had now been installed
within a socket in the bottom of the Sphere to facilitate night travel
and landings in the future. Petrol tanks were filled to capacity, and a
supply of water taken on, some of which would be used in the
cooling coils of the engines. A liberal quantity of life-giving oxygen
was forced into the high-pressure tanks. Without this to constantly
freshen the air within the Sphere, they could not live, as, after
passing beyond the Earth’s envelope of atmosphere into the void of
space, they would have no means of replenishing their air supply. A
small supply of nitrogen was also added as a precaution against the
total loss of the little ball of atmosphere guarded by the walls of the
Sphere.
While oxygen had to be replenished as their respiration consumed
it, the supply of nitrogen would remain virtually the same except for a
slight seepage through the sealed walls when the protecting
pressure of the Earth’s atmosphere was removed. The atmospheric
pressure within the Sphere would be about fifteen pounds to the
square inch, with the absolute vacuum of space hungrily enveloping
the exterior. An apparatus for absorbing the carbonic acid gas
thrown off by their lungs was also a part of the Sphere’s equipment.
Robert tinkered about the Sphere, constantly inspecting every part
with painstaking care. The resilient rubber window strips, insuring
against the loss of the precious atmosphere, were looked to with
especial care. The heavy glass panes were examined minutely for
possible signs of fracture, or flaws. Such a defect would prove
disastrous if it should give way under the pressure within when they
were in space. They would then be placed in a vacuum in which no
living body can exist. So sudden would such a disaster be that they
would have no opportunity, nor means, of saving themselves. All
windows, however, were equipped with double panes for safety as
well as warmth. They were also fitted outside with guards of heavy
wire net.
The lubricating reservoirs of the gyrostats were filled carefully; the
bearings were cleaned perfectly. Engines were tuned, and, in short,
every bit of mechanism was tested and regulated to a point of
perfection.
On the first day of August everything was in readiness for the start
of the momentous journey.
Provisions, chiefly of the non-perishable and concentrated variety,
had been generously stored in the Sphere’s food chests. There was
a sufficient quantity to last them for months.
Although the world at large understood that the Sphere would
start on its trip about this time, Robert and the professor had decided
to withhold information as to the exact day or hour of their departure.
Neither one desired a public demonstration. In spite of the pleas of
divers reporters who besieged them, they refused to divulge the time
set for their departure.

As the last day of their stay on Earth approached, Robert was torn
by conflicting emotions. At one moment the venture stood forth in all
its glory of achievement and adventure; the next, with appalling
realization of its vastness, its unknown terrors. From time
immemorial, man has instinctively dreaded the unknown, and Robert
was plainly afraid. But, though the possibility of backing out did
naturally occur to him with devilish persistence, he always rejected it
promptly, determinedly. He would not countenance the thought of
deserting the professor.
It had finally been decided to start on the following day, the
second of the month.
Anxious reporters hovered about the place, each eager to make a
“scoop” for his own paper. The more enterprising tried to wheedle
some information out of Henry or the taciturn Jasper.
 “Now, young mon, ye’ll kindly bate it. I’ve no time to bother with
the likes of ye,” the good-natured but sorely bothered Jarvis finally
told them, one after another, as they approached him.
Henry, equally annoyed, decided upon cunning.
“I’m not certain,” he was repeating, confidentially, for the third time
that day, “but I understand that they plan starting on the sly tomorrow
night.”
The young reporter with the brilliant red hair listened with
apparently keen interest. He thanked the secretary politely, and
departed. But a curious smile on his face as he turned away would
not have exactly reassured Henry had he seen it. Evidently the
redhead retained some ideas of his own. His sharp, intelligent
features did not give him the appearance of one easily fooled by
subterfuge.
And indeed he was not. Hugh Taggert had a trait of always trying
to out-think the other fellow—and he usually succeeded. Probably it
was this that had made him the most valuable man on the Morning
Chronicle’s staff of reporters.
That the secretary had tried to mislead him Taggert felt certain.
But as to when the Sphere was scheduled to start, he knew no more
than before. However, Henry’s statement had a significance which
suggested something to his alert mind. The night start did not seem
unlikely, but that a man of the character he keenly judged Henry
Simms to be should readily give his employer’s secret plans away,
did seem unlikely. He determined not only to redouble his vigilance,
but to remain on watch that very night instead of waiting for the next
night.
Henry’s mistake was in mentioning anything about night at all. His
idea, of course, was merely to induce the troublesome reporters to
lose a whole night’s sleep uselessly.
As a matter of fact, it mattered little to Robert and the professor
whether their departure was observed or not. It simply amused them
to evade the persistence of their besiegers if they could.
 8

Despite their determination, and the intense interest in their great

project, it was with many secret misgivings that Robert and
Professor Palmer stood without the improvised hangar on that
memorable night. They were about to embark on the strangest
journey that man had ever attempted.
Henry Simms alone accompanied them to see them off. Till the
last he had tried to persuade them to abandon the dangerous
project, but without avail.
To Robert, the stars had never seemed quite so brilliant, the night
so bewitching. The very air seemed to have a special tang and
sweetness which he had never before noticed. The myriad sounds of
the night possessed a magic power of enchantment over him. He
caught himself wondering inconsequently whether he should ever
again hear the soothing voice of the crickets and other denizens of
the summer twilight; whether such sounds might be heard on Mars if
they reached it.
Quietly they took leave of Henry and filed into the Sphere. The
trap slammed shut, and Robert and the professor were enveloped in
the dead, black silence of the Sphere’s interior. It was at this point
that Robert’s resolution reached its ebb. Had Professor Palmer
turned to him at that moment and again begged him to remain safely
on Earth, he could not have resisted the temptation.
Never had a glow of light seemed so comforting as that which
flooded the Sphere a moment later. The temptation of the previous
minutes fled. In its place Robert felt only an eagerness to be on his
way. Nevertheless, when they had mounted to the main
compartment, he opened one of the windows and leaned out, thirstily
drinking in deep breaths of the keen night air.
Toward the east a silver tinge on the horizon heralded the rising of
the moon. The two tall stacks of the laboratories were silhouetted
sharply against the brightening sky. Their black outlines were
registered indelibly in Robert’s memory for years afterward. It all
seemed like a grotesque dream. Somewhere the shrill scream of a
screech-owl cut into the night, breaking the spell.
Final farewells were passed with Henry below, and the window
slammed to into its soft rubberstripped socket. The air-purifying
devices were put into operation.
With Henry’s aid they had already removed the Sphere from its
stall. Its machinery had been carefully inspected that afternoon. With
a final glance over everything, they prepared to start at once. For the
first time the full electrified lifting power of the disk was to be used.
Storage batteries had been charged to capacity.
“All ready, professor?” called Robert.
“Let her go.”
There was a soft jar, and the Earth began dropping away. The
altimeter registered three thousand feet when Robert opened the
second shutter. Immediately the landscape began receding at a
disconcerting rate. With a moment of involuntary hesitation, Robert
pushed the third button, entirely baring the disk’s surface. An
answering roar from without indicated the terrific speed at which they
were leaving the Earth’s surface.
“Twenty thousand,” read Professor Palmer.
Almost as he finished speaking the instrument registered another
thousand feet. They were rising at virtually the same rate as they
had been traveling parallel to the Earth’s surface during their original
trial trip.
The moon, nearly full, was now in full view because of their height.
It had also risen sufficiently to cast long, grotesque shadows of trees
and other objects on the Earth’s surface. Roads appeared as narrow,
winding ribbons; houses as mere faint blots.
A minute later they had reached a level of 62,000 feet. Doltaire’s
remarkable and recently established airplane record of 46,800 feet
was already eclipsed by more than 15,000 feet! The dusky
landscape began to take on a blurred appearance. As yet Robert
had not turned the current into the disk, fearing excessive air friction.
Time enough for that when they had arisen beyond the belt of
atmosphere which enveloped the Earth some 200 miles deep. This
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