CALN 1508

CRITICAL ACADEMIC LITERACIES

FOR NATURAL AND
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
NQF LEVEL 5

32 CREDITS

ACADEMIC LITERACY AND

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

MIRANDA GOUWS
2025

Faculty of Natural and

Agricultural Sciences
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION .............................................................................. 7
2. MODULE DESCRIPTION .................................................................................... 8
3. GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES .................................................................................. 10
4. HOW LEARNING WILL TAKE PLACE ................................................................. 11
5. BLACKBOARD ..................................................................................................... 12
6. ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING............................................................................ 14
7. POLICIES AND EXPECTATIONS........................................................................ 15
1. Absenteeism .................................................................................................. 15
2. Academic misconduct .................................................................................... 15
3. Plagiarism ...................................................................................................... 15
4. Collusion ........................................................................................................ 18
5. Generative artificial intelligence ..................................................................... 18
8. LESSON SCHEDULE .......................................................................................... 21
Semester 1: 10 February – 30 May ....................................................................... 21
Semester 2: 21 July – 31 October......................................................................... 22
SECTION 1: FIRST SEMESTER ORIENTATION .................................................... 24
Task 1: Welcome to university .............................................................................. 24
Task 2: What is Critical Academic Literacy? (CAL) ............................................... 28
Task 3: Reading and writing at university.............................................................. 37
Task 4: Reflect on your degree ............................................................................. 39
Task 5: Introduction to the CALN .......................................................................... 41
Task 6: The interdisciplinary nature of science ..................................................... 44
Task 7: Multiple Intelligences in Science .............................................................. 47
SECTION 2: CRITICAL LISTENING SKILLS ........................................................... 51
Task 1: Prep work before you attend class ...................................................... 51
Task 2: Active listening and note-taking during a lecture ............................... 52
Task 3: After the lecture ........................................................................................ 56
Task 4: Assessment: Listening skills 20 Marks ..................................................... 57
SECTION 3: CRITICAL READING SKILLS .............................................................. 62
Task 1: The importance of reading in higher education ........................................ 62

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 Task 2: Extensive reading ..................................................................................... 66
Task 3: Intensive reading ...................................................................................... 69
Task 4: Argumentation in academia ...................................................................... 70
Task 5: Recognise and assess claims .................................................................. 72
Task 6: Distinguish between a fact and an opinion ............................................... 76
Task 7: Identifying credible evidence to support your argument ........................... 78
Task 8: Credibility in academic research............................................................... 81
Task 9: Referencing sources ................................................................................ 84
Task 10: Quoting and paraphrasing from a source ............................................... 87
Task 11: Assessment: Blackboard Quiz – 30 Marks ............................................. 93
SECTION 4: CRITICAL WRITING SKILLS .............................................................. 94
Task 1: Formality in tone and style ....................................................................... 94
Task 2: Objective argumentation .......................................................................... 97
Task 3: Logical organisational structure .............................................................. 100
Task 4: Coherence and flow ............................................................................... 106
Task 5: Myths about academic writing ................................................................ 111
SECTION 5: THE WRITING PROCESS ................................................................ 113
Task 1: Instruction analysis - Unpack the question ............................................. 116
Task 2: Plan and brainstorm around the topic..................................................... 118
Task 3: Conduct research on the topic ............................................................... 120
Task 4: Read critically and take notes ................................................................ 122
Task 5: Synthesise information ........................................................................... 127
Task 6: Create an outline .................................................................................... 129
Task 7: Draft the essay ....................................................................................... 133
Task 8: Revise, edit and proofread ..................................................................... 141
SECTION 6: YOUR ESSAY QUESTION ............................................................... 144
Task 1: Unpack the essay question .................................................................... 146
Task 2: Explore your topic................................................................................... 147
SECTION 7: CRITICAL READING FOR A TOPIC ................................................. 149
Task 1: Activating background knowledge .......................................................... 149
Task 2: Contextualisation – South Africa ............................................................ 153
Task 3: Research from journal articles ................................................................ 157
Task 4: Understanding data and trends .............................................................. 164

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 Task 5: Reading and comparing multiple sources .............................................. 169
5.1 Ecosystem services ................................................................................... 175
5.2 Human health and well-being .................................................................... 182
5.3 Conservation.............................................................................................. 188
5.4 Urbanization............................................................................................... 196
5.5 Biodiversity loss ......................................................................................... 202
Task 7: Assessment: Group argumentation – 30 Marks ..................................... 209
SECTION 8: WRITE YOUR ESSAY....................................................................... 216
Task 1: Review your topic ................................................................................... 216
Task 2: Brainstorm ideas .................................................................................... 216
Task 3: Create body paragraphs for each question. ........................................... 218
Body paragraph 1: The value and availability of ecosystem services in South
Africa ............................................................................................................... 220
Body paragraph 2: Ecosystem services benefits for humans .......................... 221
Body paragraph 3: Loss of ecosystem services .............................................. 223
Task 4: Write the introduction paragraph ............................................................ 224
4.1 Background information ............................................................................. 224
4.2 Formulate a thesis statement..................................................................... 225
4.3 Write the roadmap ..................................................................................... 227
Task 5: Write the conclusion ............................................................................... 228
5.1 Restate the thesis in a new way ................................................................ 228
5.2 A summary of the main ideas .................................................................... 229
5.3 The way forward ........................................................................................ 230
Task 6: Complete your reference list .................................................................. 230
Task 7: Revision and Editing............................................................................... 232
Task 8: Assessment: Essay – 30 Marks ............................................................. 233
SECTION 9: SECOND SEMESTER ORIENTATION ............................................. 237
Task 1: Think and reflect ..................................................................................... 237
Task 2: Review the key academic literacy skills .................................................. 238
Task 3: Set SMART goals for the second semester ........................................... 240
Task 4: Learning outcomes ................................................................................. 242
Task 5: From theory to practice .......................................................................... 243
SECTION 10: CRITICAL READING FOR A TOPIC ............................................... 246
Task 1: Activating background knowledge .......................................................... 246
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 Task 2: Vocabulary building – sentence creation ................................................ 253
Task 3: Listening and note-taking ....................................................................... 254
Task 4: Vocabulary development and analysis ................................................... 256
Task 5: Indigenous trees and plants in the Free State ........................................ 260
5.1 Acacia Karroo ............................................................................................ 262
5.2 Olea Europaea........................................................................................... 264
5.3 Themeda Triandra ..................................................................................... 266
5.4 Crinum Bulbispermum ............................................................................... 268
Task 6: Descriptive language in science ............................................................. 271
6.1 Identify the plant ........................................................................................ 272
6.2 Describe a plant ......................................................................................... 274
Task 7: Habitat description.................................................................................. 275
7.1 Geographical features ............................................................................... 275
7.2 The availability of water ............................................................................. 276
7.2 Describe a habitat ...................................................................................... 277
Task 8: Assessment: Plant description – 30 marks ............................................. 281
SECTION 11: FIELD OBSERVATION ................................................................... 284
Task 1: Activating background knowledge on the topic ...................................... 284
Task 2: Data collection methods ......................................................................... 298
2.1 Mapping Tree Diversity .............................................................................. 299
2.2 Mapping Searsia lancia Trees ................................................................... 302
2.3 Mapping Waterwise Plants ........................................................................ 304
Task 3: Conducting field work observations ........................................................ 307
Task 4: Assessment: Field observation – 30 marks ............................................ 316
4.1 Physical Location [4 marks] ....................................................................... 316
4.2 Habitat description [5 marks] ..................................................................... 316
4.3 Human activity [5 marks] ........................................................................... 317
4.4 The tree [5 marks]...................................................................................... 317
4.5 The shrub/bush: [5 marks] ......................................................................... 317
4.6 Wildlife species [5 marks] ..................................................................... 318
4.7 Field observation template ................................................................... 318
Task 5: Share your research findings ................................................................. 320
5.1 Reflect on your data collection ................................................................... 320

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 5.2 Class species inventory survey.................................................................. 322
5.3 Campus species inventory survey ............................................................. 326
SECTION 12: SCIENTIFIC WRITING .................................................................... 328
Task 1: Scientific text types................................................................................. 328
Task 2: Research articles in Journals ................................................................. 329
Task 3: Research article: Ecological restoration ................................................. 330
Task 4: Critical reading reflection ........................................................................ 341
Task 5: Research article: Drones for conservation ............................................. 344
Task 6: Critical reading reflection ........................................................................ 355
SECTION 13: WRITE A REPORT.......................................................................... 358
Task 1: Topic and instructions ............................................................................ 358
Task 2: Introduction ............................................................................................ 359
2.1 Background information ............................................................................. 359
2.2 Research question or hypothesis............................................................... 362
2.3 Purpose or objective of the report .............................................................. 364
Task 3: Methodology ........................................................................................... 367
3.1 Materials / Instruments .............................................................................. 367
3.2 Data collection procedure .......................................................................... 369
Task 4: Results ................................................................................................... 374
4.1 Habitat description ..................................................................................... 375
4.2 Human activity ........................................................................................... 378
4.3 Tree species .............................................................................................. 379
4.4 Shrub or bush species ............................................................................... 381
4.5 Wildlife species .......................................................................................... 383
Task 5: Discussion .............................................................................................. 385
5.1 Review of research question and or hypothesis ........................................ 385
5.2 Explanation of the ecological significance of the observed species ........... 387
5.3 Limitations of the research ......................................................................... 389
5.4 Future implications..................................................................................... 390
Task 6: Complete your reference list .................................................................. 391
Task 7: Revision and Editing............................................................................... 392
Task 8: Assessment: Report – 30 Marks ............................................................ 393
Task 9: Reflect on what you have learned in this module ................................... 396

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1. INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION
Welcome! It is a pleasure to have each of you here, embarking on this journey of
enhancing your academic skills and literacy. This course is designed not only to
improve your reading, writing, and critical thinking skills but also to empower you to
navigate and succeed in the academic environment with confidence and competence.

CALN 1508 Module Mrs Miranda Gouws

Coordinator
Office number: Bloemfontein Campus, Centre for Teaching and
Learning, room 368
Email address: [email protected]
Phone number: 051 401 7354
Consultation hours: Please email me to schedule an appointment.

For all queries related to how the classes are run on campus, Blackboard queries, or
any other administrative issues regarding CALN1508 please contact the
administrative officer per campus.

Bloemfontein Mrs Annamarie Otto

Office number: Centre for Teaching and Learning, room 362
Email address: [email protected]
Consultation hours: Monday – Thursday: 09:00-11:30 & 14:30-15:30; Friday:
09:00 – 11:30
South Campus Mrs Linda Sparks
Office number: Centre for Teaching and Learning, room 365
Email address: [email protected]
Consultation hours: Mondays to Fridays 09:00 – 11:30, and 14:30 – 16:00
QwaQwa Ms Palesa Selepe
Email address: [email protected] or 058 718 5308
Consultation hours: Mondays to Fridays 09:00 – 11:30, and 14:30 – 16:00

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2. MODULE DESCRIPTION
• Have you ever wondered how the language of science influences the way we
perceive and understand the world around us?
• How can developing strong academic reading and writing skills impact your career
prospects in the field of science?
• Why is it important to critically evaluate sources and distinguish between credible
and non-credible scientific information?

Welcome to CALN1508, also known as Critical Academic Literacy for Natural and
Agricultural Science students. This course will equip you with essential skills that will
support your academic journey and beyond. Throughout our time together, we will
explore various strategies and skills to enhance your reading, writing, and critical
thinking abilities, which are crucial for your success in the university and your future
careers.

Throughout the course, you will engage with various scientific articles to enhance
your ability to analyze, evaluate, and question the validity and reliability of research
findings. Reading scientific literature can deepen your understanding of specific topics,
theories, and methodologies in the field of science.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Reading skills
▪ Engage with reliable and valid scientific literature, research, and practices;
▪ Distinguish between essential and non-essential information via notetaking and
summarization techniques;
▪ Identify and evaluate how academic texts are organised and structured;
▪ Understand and use a range of academic vocabulary as well as content or
discipline-specific vocabulary in context.

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Writing skills
▪ Identify different parts of a text, be aware of the logical development,
organisation, and coherence of an academic text, from the introduction to the
conclusion;
▪ Synthesize and integrate information from a multiplicity of sources through
quoting and paraphrasing with an understanding of academic integrity and the
risks of plagiarism;
▪ Communicate opinions about a variety of issues fluently, critically, as well as
creatively in written and oral modes;
▪ Integrate feedback from instructors and peers to revise and improve writing.

Critical thinking skills

▪ Evaluate arguments and evidence to distinguish between fact and opinion;
▪ Utilize relevant, inquiring questions to deepen understanding and draw logical
conclusions;
▪ Combine and connect ideas, solutions, methods, or concepts through
brainstorming or graphic mapping.

Language development
▪ Identify and explain the fundamental principles of grammar, including parts of
speech, sentence structure, and punctuation;
▪ Construct varied and dynamic sentences to improve the fluency and clarity in
writing;
▪ Apply editing techniques to enhance the clarity, coherence, and overall quality of
written texts.

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3. GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES
In this module, you will develop the following graduate attributes:

Written communication

Written communication is the development and expression of ideas in writing. Written

communication involves learning to work in many genres and styles. It can involve
working with many different writing technologies and mixing texts, data, and images.
Written communication abilities develop through iterative experiences across the
curriculum. Effective written communication is essential in most professional fields.
Graduates who can write clearly and persuasively are better equipped to create
reports, proposals, emails, and other documents that are critical for their job
performance and career progression.

Oral communication

Oral communication is a prepared, purposeful presentation designed to increase

knowledge, foster understanding, or promote change in the listeners' attitudes, values,
beliefs, or behaviours. Graduates with strong oral communication skills are better able
to engage in community activities, participate in public debates, and contribute to civic
life. Effective oral communication is crucial in problem-solving and decision-making
processes. Being able to articulate problems, propose solutions, and negotiate
effectively are important skills in many professions.

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is a habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of

issues, ideas, artifacts, and events before accepting or formulating an opinion or
conclusion. Critical thinking skills enable graduates to evaluate information, weigh
options, and make informed decisions, which are crucial in managerial and leadership
roles. Critical thinking allows students to engage deeply with complex ideas, theories,
and texts, leading to a richer and more nuanced understanding of their field of study.

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4. HOW LEARNING WILL TAKE PLACE
Class time is face-to-face on campus. All the classes take place on campus during the
designated hours according to the official UFS timetable.

There are a couple of exceptions where late / evening classes are presented online
via Blackboard Collaborate due to safety concerns. In extreme or emergency
situations classes can also be moved online – but all the students will be informed of
this beforehand via Blackboard.

During class time, students will engage with their facilitators and classmates through
group work, open discussions, and creative thinking activities to foster deep learning
and collaboration. During class, there are multiple opportunities for students to ask
questions and seek guidance if they are unsure. Students can approach their
facilitators during class with any questions they have on the academic work or
assessments.

To pass this year's module, you need to attend 2 double periods every week. You
must attend the same class with the same facilitator. In other words, you must attend
4 hours of CALN every week throughout the year. There are different groups in
different timeslots to choose from available on Blackboard. Pick the class/group that
best suits your timetable. Class attendance is compulsory and students are graded for
every attendance.

Students will be introduced to various reading materials like journal articles specific to
Natural and Agricultural Science. They will learn how to identify key arguments,
methodologies, and findings, as well as how to critically assess the validity of claims,
and data in various sources. Students will practice how to develop coherent, evidence-
based arguments and how to structure essays according to academic standards.

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5. BLACKBOARD
STUDENTS ON THE BLOEMFONTEIN CAMPUS

Students registered on the Bloemfontein campus should, before the commencement

of class, enrol in a CALN1508 group on Blackboard.

There are different groups in different timeslots to choose from. Pick the class group
that best suits your timetable.

Remember that you need to attend CALN 1508 twice a week, so make sure that
neither one of the sessions clash with your other subjects. If it clashes you must
change to a group that does not clash. If you have a clash then you can send an email
to Mrs. Annamarie Otto at [email protected] as soon as possible. You need
to supply her with valid documentation as to why you cannot attend any of the classes.

Important:

• You can only choose one class group, and once you have submitted your choice
you cannot remove your name from the list.
• You cannot move from group to group. The class/group which you choose will be
the group in which you will stay for the rest of the semester/year. Therefore, check
your timetable meticulously.
• Only Mrs Annamarie Otto, in Room 362 of the Centre for Teaching and Learning,
which is located on the third level of the Sasol Library on the Bloemfontein Campus,
can change the group you are enrolled for. If you have a valid reason for changing
classes you need to go speak with her and you need to provide her with proof as
to why you need to change classes.
• Once a class group is filled, the choice will disappear from the system.
• If you cannot attend any of the available groups, please see Mrs Otto. You need to
supply her with valid documentation as to why you cannot attend any of the
classes.
• During registration, the Blackboard Buddies will be available to help you register
for a class group.
• If you prefer to do it on your own, you should do the following:
1. Open the UFS website
2. Click on the Students tab
3. Then click on the eLearn (Blackboard) option
4. Type in your UFS username and password. Then click submit
5. Under the heading: My Courses, click on CALN1508
6. The CALN1508 home page will open
7. Click on the contact session sign-up link
8. Then click on the sign-up sheet button
9. Choose a contact session that suits your timetable (e.g. group A)

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 10. Once you have chosen, click on the sign-up button of that session
11. You have now been signed up to a contact session. Please click the OK button
to exit

NB: Remember the name of the group you signed up for.

STUDENTS ON SOUTH CAMPUS

Students registered on the South Campus need to pick an EALN class before classes
commence. You can find the instructions regarding choosing a class on the Academic
Literacy Blackboard site. On South Campus, students receive a copy of the timetable
when they collect their textbooks.

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6. ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
This course makes use of continuous assessment. Therefore, it is very important
that you hand in all of the assignments given to you by your facilitator.

Assessment type Mark allocation

iCAN quizzes (8) 40 marks

Grammar course 40 marks

Section 2: Listening skills 20 marks

Semester 1

Section 3: Blackboard quiz 30 marks

Section 7: Group Argumentation 30 marks

Section 8: Essay Writing 30 marks

Academic engagement (class attendance) 20 marks

Class activities 30 marks

Total 240 marks

MReader quizzes (8) 40 marks

Grammar course 40 marks

Section 10: Plant description 30 marks

Semester 2

Section 11: Field observation 30 marks

Section 12: Report writing 30 marks

Academic engagement (class attendance) 20 marks

Class activities 30 marks

Total 220 marks

Year total 460 marks

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7. POLICIES AND EXPECTATIONS

The purpose of this document is to ensure that all students in the Critical Academic
Literacy courses are informed and aware of the risks and consequences of Academic
Misconduct, with the intention to completely avoid the behaviour by acting with
academic integrity.

1. Absenteeism

If you miss any assessment you need to send the necessary documentation (medical
certificate, or a copy of the death certificate) that proves this to your facilitator within 7
days. Please send any documentation to your facilitator in the Unit for Academic
Language and Literacy Development in the Centre for Teaching and Learning (CTL).
Your semester marks and final results will be placed on Blackboard. You will also be
able to obtain your marks from your facilitator.

2. Academic misconduct

This includes any action which gains, attempts to gain, or assists others in gaining or
attempting to gain an unfair academic advantage such as plagiarism, collusion or
cheating, and the inappropriate use of generative artificial intelligence.

3. Plagiarism

This is a form of academic misconduct and is described as the failure to acknowledge

the ideas and writings of others and/or the presentation of others’ ideas or writings as
one’s own. This definition includes intentional and/or unintentional failure to
acknowledge the ideas or writings of others. Plagiarism occurs when a student:

• paraphrases other people’s work and/or ideas without referencing the source;
• provides reference to the source but inappropriately paraphrases other people’s
work and/or ideas by not expressing them in the student’s own words;
• copies other people’s work in whole or in part;
• presents other people’s ideas, designs, codes or images as the student’s own
work;
• uses exactly the same phrases, passages, layout or structure without quotation
marks or without a reference to the source; or
• reproduces provided lecture notes or materials without acknowledgement.

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Why is plagiarism taken seriously?

The UFS Plagiarism Policy contributes to instilling the values of academic integrity,
high standards, and ethics in all academic activities. Academic writing misconduct and
plagiarism are serious concerns and are subject to strict disciplinary measures. In
other words, plagiarism is considered to be ‘academic theft’ and is not acceptable.

How will plagiarism be identified?

According to the University of the Free State’s Policy on Preventing and dealing
with Plagiarism approved on 24 March 2023, the “process for dealing with plagiarism
proposes three levels that are structured according to the year-level of the student (i.e.
whether a student is a 1st--year UG, a senior student or a postgraduate student).

[This policy document can be accessed on the University’s website via the Centre for
Graduate Support under postgraduate resources and policy documents.]

What this means for you is:

• you can only be given credit for work that is your own and work that has been duly
and appropriately referenced.
• it is necessary to determine which if any, portion(s) of the work submitted is your
own independent work and is properly referenced.
• only those portions that are your own work and have been appropriately referenced
will be awarded any marks.
• portions that are not identifiable as your own work and are not duly referenced will
not be awarded any marks.
• where it is not possible to determine which portions are your own work with
reasonable ease and certainty (or if none of the work is your own) it will not be
possible to award a mark for the work submitted.
Within the CAL courses, we use the following referencing/plagiarism rubric:

Criteria Correct Subtract 1 mark Subtract 2 marks

Reference list Reference list is The reference list No reference list is
correct and is present with provided
accurate some omissions or
problems.
In-text In-text referencing In-text referencing No in-text
referencing is correct and is present with referencing
(Citation = accurate some omissions or is done
Author, date, problems.
page number)
Paraphrase and Paraphrasing Paraphrasing No paraphrasing
direct quotes and/or direct and/or direct and/or no direct
quotations are quotations is quotations

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 correct and present with some
accurate omissions or
problems.
How to use this rubric (only use if NO UNETHICAL USE OF AI IS SUSPECTED):

• If all the criteria in the “-2” column are valid, then it is plagiarism and the draft
should receive zero.
• If some of the three variables above are present (reference list, citation or
paraphrasing) and one of them is either incorrect or missing, but the other one or
two are present, then marks will be subtracted accordingly.

Examples to illustrate:
• In-text referencing and paraphrasing are present and done correctly, but there is
no reference list: subtract 2 marks
• In-text referencing and paraphrasing are present and there are some omissions
or problems with both, but there is no reference list: subtract 4 marks
• Paraphrasing is present and done correctly, but there is no in-text referencing.
The reference list is present and has been done correctly: subtract 2 marks
• There is blatantly copied text (no paraphrasing or citation), but there is a
reference list with some omissions or problems: subtract 5 marks

Why is referencing important?

Referencing academic work is a commitment to academic integrity, academic honesty,

and excellence in teaching and learning, and the submission/presentation of credible
research findings and outputs. Students show their respect to the knowledge creation
by contributing to it and guarding it, as well as not exploiting it through plagiarism.
Students of the UFS need to be committed to producing academic work that adheres
to scholarly standards in the accurate citation of sources, appropriate collection and
use of data, and transparent acknowledgement of the contribution of others to their
ideas, discoveries, interpretations, and conclusions. In other words, we reference so
that we can acknowledge that information is not our own.

In this course, you will learn how to reference, summarise and paraphrase so
that you can avoid plagiarising someone else’s work.

Use of Turnitin

Turnitin is the similarity detection software that is freely available at the University of
the Free State. The use of this similarity detection software does not take away the
role of the lecturer or facilitator in checking for and identifying any suspected cases of
plagiarism. The maximum recommended similarity percentage from the Turnitin
report is 30%. In other words, Turnitin is a tool that the university uses to check how
similar your work is to someone else’s.

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Reference method: The reference method used in this course is Harvard.

4. Collusion

This is unauthorised collaboration with another person, where students work together
on an assessment task which is then presented as a student’s own individual work.
Collaboration on group tasks when authorised or instructed to do so in an appropriate
manner is not collusion. Collusion occurs when a student, without the authorisation of
teaching staff:

• provides copies of notes or work to others, allowing content to be copied for the
purposes of an assessment task;
• produces or edits assessable work for another student;
• allows others to copy their work or notes, or shares questions or answers to an
assessment task;
• copies the work or notes of another, with or without changes, for the purposes of
an assessment task;
• allows another person or entity to produce or edit their work, except where
Disability Support Services has approved the use of a scribe; or
• offers to produce academic work for other students in lieu of collaboration

5. Generative artificial intelligence

Inappropriate use of generative artificial intelligence is when a student uses generative

artificial intelligence tools like ChatGPT or others to produce new work and submits it
as their own original work. Specifically, this can occur when a student:

• uses generative artificial intelligence tools when the instructor has specified in the
assessment documentation that it cannot be used; or
• fails to appropriately acknowledge the use of generative artificial intelligence tools
in the creation of work submitted for assessment.

How will the use of generative AI be identified?

We do not allow students to use generative AI to produce work and submit it as their
own. The aim of these courses is to teach you the necessary critical reading, writing,
thinking and language skills that you need to be successful at university. Using
generative AI to produce your work for you will only undermine your own learning and
skills development!

The marking rubrics that we use to assess your work will allow us to determine whether
a student has used generative AI to produce work that is not their own. In addition to
this, we have developed a generative AI detection tool, which helps us to determine
specific features of generative AI writing. If your facilitator suspects that you have used
generative AI to produce your work for you, they may deduct additional marks.

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Assessment Submissions on Blackboard

Before all of your submissions, you will need to submit a signed plagiarism declaration.

Your facilitator will not mark your work if you have not submitted your
plagiarism declaration! This clarification can be copied and pasted into a Word
document even before you start typing your assignment.

Critical Academic Literacy Assessment Cover Sheet

Surname and Initials

Student number

Module code

Assignment Title

Facilitator

Academic Integrity Declaration

As a student of the University of the Free State, I recognize the importance of maintaining the
highest standards of academic integrity. By signing this declaration, I affirm that I understand
and will abide by the policies and expectations regarding academic honesty and ethical
behaviour as outlined in the institution's academic regulations. Specifically, I acknowledge
that:

1. Plagiarism is the act of presenting someone else’s work, ideas, data, or words as my own,
without proper acknowledgement or citation. This includes, but is not limited to:

• Copying, paraphrasing, or directly quoting another person’s written or verbal

communication without proper citation.
• Submitting work that has been previously submitted for another course or assessment,
without prior permission from all instructors involved.
• Using unauthorized materials, sources, or devices in the preparation of work submitted
for academic credit.

I understand that plagiarism is a serious violation of academic ethics, and I agree to ensure
that all work I submit reflects my own original efforts, with proper citations where applicable.

2. Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) Misuse

The use of generative AI tools, including but not limited to text, code, or image generation
technologies, in the creation of academic work is prohibited unless explicitly permitted by the
instructor. Misuse of AI includes:

• Submitting AI-generated content as my own original work.

• Failing to disclose the use of AI tools where permitted.
• Relying on AI tools to complete work that requires human-generated knowledge, analysis,
or creativity, without instructor approval.

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I understand that misuse of generative AI tools in academic submissions constitutes
academic misconduct and agree to abide by all guidelines regarding AI use as provided by the
institution.

3. Collusion

Collusion refers to unauthorized collaboration with one or more individuals in the preparation
or production of work that is submitted for academic credit. Collusion includes, but is not
limited to:

• Working with others to produce a joint piece of work when individual work is required.
• Allowing or assisting another student to copy or use my work.
• Accepting or providing substantial unauthorized assistance during an examination or in
the completion of any academic task.

I understand that collusion undermines the value of academic qualifications and agree to
complete all assessments individually unless explicitly permitted to work collaboratively.

I understand that the following consequences may result from such violations:

• Zero credit or failure for the affected assignment, exam, or course.

• Academic probation, suspension, or expulsion from the institution.
• A formal record of academic misconduct placed on my student record.
• Reporting of academic misconduct to future academic or professional institutions.

By signing this declaration, I affirm that I have read, understood, and agree to comply with the
policies outlined above. I commit to upholding academic integrity in all my work and will not
engage in plagiarism, misuse of generative AI, or collusion. I further understand that if I have
any questions regarding academic integrity, it is my responsibility to seek clarification from
the instructor or the appropriate academic authority.

Signature Date

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8. LESSON SCHEDULE
Semester 1: 10 February – 30 May
Date Content
Week 1 SECTION 1: FIRST SEMESTER ORIENTATION
10 - 14 February Task 1: Welcome to university
Task 2: What is Critical Academic Literacy? (CAL)
Task 3: Reading and writing at university
Task 4: Reflect on your degree
Task 5: Introduction to CALN
Task 6: The interdisciplinary nature of science
Task 7: Multiple Intelligences in Science

Week 2 SECTION 2: CRITICAL LISTENING SKILLS

17 – 21 February Task 1: Prep work before you attend class
Task 2: Active listening and note-taking during class
Task 3: After the lecture
Task 4: Assessment: Listening skills – 20 Marks

Week 3 SECTION 3: CRITICAL READING SKILLS

24 – 28 February Task 1: The importance of reading in higher education
Task 2: Extensive reading
Task 3: Intensive reading
Task 4: Argumentation in Academia
Task 5: Recognise and assess claims

Week 4 Task 6: Distinguish between a fact and an opinion

3 – 7 March Task 7: Identifying credible evidence to support your argument
Task 8: Credibility in academic research
Task 9: Referencing sources
Task 10: Quoting and paraphrasing from a source
Task 11: Assessment: Blackboard Quiz – 30 Marks

Week 5 SECTION 4: CRITICAL WRITING SKILLS

10 -14 March Task 1: Formality in tone and style
Task 2: Objective argumentation
Task 3: Logical organisational structure

Week 6 Task 4: Coherence and flow

17 – 20 March Task 5: Myths about academic writing
21 March Human
Rights day
Week 7 SECTION 5: THE WRITING PROCESS
24 – 28 March Task 1: Instruction analysis - Unpack the question
Task 2: Plan and brainstorm around the topic
Task 3: Conduct research on the topic
Task 4: Read critically and take notes

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Week 8 31 March - 4 April UFS Holiday
Week 9 Task 5: Synthesise information
7 – 11 April Task 6: Create an outline
Task 7: Draft the essay
Task 8: Revise, edit and proofread

Week 10 SECTION 6: YOUR ESSAY QUESTION

14 – 17 April Task 1: Unpack the essay question
18 – 21 Easter Task 2: Brainstorm around the topic
weekend
Week 11 SECTION 7: CRITICAL READING FOR A TOPIC
22 – 25 April Task 1: Activating background knowledge
28 April Freedom Task 2: Contextualisation – South Africa
Day Task 3: Research from journal articles

Week 12 Task 4: Understanding data and trends

29 – 30 April Task 5: Reading and comparing multiple sources
1 May Workers
Day
Week 13 Task 6: Synthesise ideas and sources - Concepts 1-5
5 – 9 May Task 7: Group argumentation – 30 Marks

Week 14 SECTION 8: WRITE YOUR ESSAY

12 – 16 May Task 1: Review your topic
Task 2: Brainstorm ideas
Task 3: Create body paragraphs for each question.

Week 15 Task 4: Write the introduction paragraph

19 – 23 May Task 5: Write the conclusion paragraph
Task 6: Complete your reference list
Task 7: Revision and editing
Task 8: Essay – 30 Marks

Week 16 Wrap-up and semester review

26 – 30 May

Semester 2: 21 July – 31 October

Date Content
Week 1 SECTION 9: SECOND SEMESTER ORIENTATION
21 – 25 July Task 1: Think and reflect
Task 2: Review the key academic literacy skills
Task 3: Set SMART goals for the second semester
Task 4: Learning outcomes
Task 5: From theory to practise

Week 2 SECTION 10: CRITICAL READING FOR A TOPIC

28 July – 1 August Task 1: Activating background knowledge
Task 2: Vocabulary building – sentence creation
Task 3: Listening and note-taking

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Week 3 Task 4: Vocabulary building and analysis
4 – 8 August Task 5: Indigenous trees and plants in the Free State
9 August –
Women’s day
Week 4 Task 6: Descriptive language in science
11 – 15 August Task 7: Habitat description
Task 8: Assessment: Plant description – 30 marks
Week 5 SECTION 11: FIELD OBSERVATION
18 – 22 August Task 1: Activating background knowledge on the topic

Week 6 Task 2: Data collection methods

25 – 29 August Task 3: Conducting fieldwork observations

Week 7 Task 4: Assessment: Field observation – 30 marks

1 – 5 September
Week 8: 8 – 12 September UFS Holiday
Week 9 Task 5: Share your research findings
15 – 19 September

Week 10 SECTION 12: SCIENTIFIC WRITING

22 – 26 September Task 1: Scientific text types
Task 2: Research Articles in Journals
24 September – Task 3: Research article: Ecological restoration
Heritage Day Task 4: Critical reading reflection
Week 11 Task 5: Research article: Drones in conservation
29 September – 3 Task 6: Critical reading reflection
October
Week 12 SECTION 13: WRITE A REPORT
6 – 10 October Task 1: Topic and instructions
Task 2: Introduction
Task 3: Methodology

Week 13 Task 4: Results

13 – 17 October Task 5: Discussion

Week 14 Task 6: Compile your reference list

20 – 24 October Task 7: Revision and editing
Task 8: Submit your report – 30 marks

Week 15 Task 9: Reflect on what you have learned in this module

27 – 31 October Wrap-up and semester review

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SECTION 1: FIRST SEMESTER ORIENTATION
Task 1: Welcome to university

Starting your university journey is an exciting and transformative experience that

marks a significant milestone in your academic and personal development. As you
step into this new chapter, you’ll discover that the university offers a unique
environment that encourages intellectual exploration, independence, and a deeper
understanding of the world. It’s a place where you will not only gain specialized
knowledge in your chosen field but also develop the critical thinking, problem-
solving, and interpersonal skills needed to succeed in both your career and life.

University is more than just an extension of high school. It’s a dynamic learning
environment where students are encouraged to take ownership of their education,
engage in intellectual debates, and contribute to the creation of new knowledge. Unlike
previous schooling experiences, where learning might have been more structured and
teacher-centred, university education places a strong emphasis on independent
learning, research, and critical inquiry. Lectures, seminars, labs, and tutorials will
introduce you to a wide range of topics, but you are also expected to explore beyond
the classroom by conducting your own research, reading, and reflection. At university,
you will engage with complex subjects, explore diverse viewpoints, and encounter
ideas that challenge your assumptions. This is a time for intellectual growth, where
you are encouraged to question what you know, form your own perspectives, and
contribute to scholarly discussions.

The purpose of a university also extends far beyond the simple acquisition of
knowledge. It serves as a transformative journey that empowers individuals to explore,
understand, and shape the world around them. Universities are creators of intellectual
growth, fostering critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills. They provide a
platform for deepening students' understanding of various disciplines and for
cultivating the ability to engage with complex ideas. Beyond academia, universities
nurture personal development, independence, and a sense of responsibility, preparing
students not only for fulfilling careers but also for lives rich in purpose and societal
contribution. In essence, a university education is a profound voyage, an opportunity
to discover not only the world's intricacies but also one's own potential to impact it
positively.

Think about and answer the following self-reflection questions:

1. Why did you choose to attend university?

a) To gain knowledge and skills for a future career.

b) To meet new friends.

c) To have a break from work or family commitments.

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d) Family expectations.

e) Personal passion and curiosity.

f) Peer pressure.

2. What is your primary academic goal at university?

a) To maintain a high grade average.

b) To explore various subjects and find your passion and interests.

c) To socialize and have a good time.

d) To develop skills and abilities to help you through life.

3. What do you hope to achieve through your university education?

a) To earn a degree as quickly as possible.

b) To develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

c) To enjoy the campus social scene.

d) To get the best grades you can.

4. Which of the following best describes your career aspirations?

a) I have not thought of a career yet.

b) I have a clear career goal and want to gain the necessary qualifications.

c) I don't plan to pursue a career after university.

5. What role does the pursuit of knowledge play in your decision to attend
university?

a) Not very important.

b) Extremely important; I value learning for its own sake.

c) Somewhat important, but not the main focus.

b) Yes, I want to be well-prepared for my chosen career.

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c) I haven't thought about it.

6. Are you attending university to increase your earning potential?

a) No, my primary motivation is learning.

b) Yes, I want to secure a better-paying job in the future.

c) Money is not a consideration for me.

7. How do you envision your university education benefiting society?

a) It won't make any difference.

b) I hope to contribute to positive change throughout my career.

c) I hope to make a positive contribution through my work or activities.

d) I haven't thought about it.

8. How do you plan to balance your academic and extracurricular activities?

a) I'll focus primarily on academics.

b) I want to explore a range of extracurriculars alongside my studies.

c) Extracurriculars are my main priority; academics can wait.

d) I haven't decided yet.

9. How important is it for you to explore diverse perspectives and cultures during
your university experience?

a) Not important at all.

b) Somewhat important, but not a top priority.

c) Very important; I want to broaden my horizons and views in life.

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10. What motivates you to attend lectures and participate in class discussions?

a) Class attendance is mandatory.

b) A genuine interest in the subject matter and learning from others.

c) To pass the time.

d) I want to explore my interests and potential.

e) I enjoy my lecturers and classmates.

11. How do you perceive the role of mentors, professors, or advisors in your
university journey?

a) They're not important; I can figure things out on my own.

b) They are valuable guides who can provide support and guidance.

c) They are only there when I need help.

c) I haven't thought much about it.

12. Are you considering further education or postgraduate school after

completing your undergraduate degree?

a) No, I want to enter the workforce right away.

b) Yes, I want to continue my academic journey.

c) I haven't decided yet.

13. How do you plan to use the resources and facilities available at the university
to achieve your goals?

a) I'm not aware of the available resources.

b) I intend to take full advantage of the resources and facilities.

c) I'll use them if I have time.

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Task 2: What is Critical Academic Literacy? (CAL)

Patterson and Weideman (2013:139-140) explain that academic literacy

encompasses “speaking, careful listening and note-taking, effective reading,
sound critical thinking, forming and discussing opinions, and good processing of
arguments”.

Literacy can further be defined as “the

ability to use language and images in
rich and varied forms to read, write,
listen, view, represent, and think
critically about ideas. It involves the
capacity to access, manage, and
evaluate information; to think
imaginatively and analytically, and to
communicate thoughts and ideas
effectively. Literacy includes critical
thinking and reasoning to solve
problems and make decisions related
to issues of fairness, equity, and social
justice. Literacy connects individuals and communities, and is an essential tool for
personal growth and active participation in a cohesive, democratic society” (Ontario
Ministry of Education, 2008:2).

Academic literacy can benefit you personally as you become more articulate in
expressing your own ideas about the various subjects you study. The ultimate goal of
this participatory learning is to create knowledge, which, on a larger scale, has the
potential to transform society. Taking advantage of opportunities to practice academic
skills can mean the difference between “receiving” a college education and “claiming”
a college education—the difference
between students who attend four to
five classes each semester, passively
learn and demonstrate the reception
of information, take exams, and enter
the workforce wondering what kind of
training will be “done” to them next;
and students who claim their learning,
practice thought patterns and look
forward to working with colleagues within a community.

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Consider the list of academic literacy skills and abilities below that a university
student must acquire.

Listening skills

• Engaging fully with what the speaker is saying, paying close attention, and
processing the information to understand the content.
• Evaluating the content of the speech or lecture critically, identifying key arguments,
evidence, and potential biases.
• Writing down important points, ideas, or questions while listening to a lecture,
discussion, or presentation to aid in later recall and review.
• Understanding and interpreting the main ideas, arguments, and supporting details
presented by the speaker.
• Formulating relevant questions based on what has been heard, either for
clarification, further exploration, or discussion.
• The ability to retain and recall information heard during lectures, seminars, or
discussions for future application in academic tasks.

Speaking skills

• Clearly and effectively expressing ideas, arguments, and opinions in a structured

and coherent manner.
• Building and presenting logical, evidence-based arguments during discussions,
debates, or presentations.
• Engaging in academic discussions, contributing meaningful insights, and
interacting with peers and instructors constructively.
• Organizing and delivering content in a formal presentation, using appropriate
language, tone, and non-verbal cues to communicate effectively.
• The ability to influence others through well-reasoned arguments and persuasive
speech, often supported by evidence.
• Receiving and processing feedback from peers or instructors during discussions
or presentations, and responding appropriately.

Reading skills

• Searching through a text for specific information, such as key terms, data, or
answers to particular questions, without reading the entire content.
• Quickly scan a text to get an overview of its structure, main ideas, and key sections.
This is useful for deciding which parts of the text to read more carefully.
• Understanding the main ideas, arguments, and details in a text. This involves
grasping the overall meaning and key points presented by the author.
• Evaluating the content of the text critically, identifying biases, assessing the validity
of arguments, and considering the quality of evidence.
• Understanding how the context in which a text was written influences its meaning,
including the author’s background, historical setting, and intended audience.

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• Making notes, highlighting, or marking up a text to capture important points, ask
questions, or identify areas for further exploration.
• Understanding how the context in which a text was written influences its meaning,
including the author’s background, historical setting, and intended audience.
• Drawing conclusions and making inferences based on information that is implied
rather than explicitly stated in the text.
• Reflecting on the text’s content, relating it to personal knowledge or experience,
and considering its implications or applications in broader contexts.
• Condensing the main ideas and arguments of a text into a concise summary,
capturing the essence without losing important details.

Writing skills

• The ability to write in a formal, structured, and coherent manner, adhering to the
conventions and standards expected in academic work.
• Organizing content logically with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. This
includes using paragraphs effectively to separate ideas and maintain a smooth flow
of information.
• Constructing logical, evidence-based arguments to support the thesis, ensuring
each point is well-developed and convincingly presented.
• Integrating ideas from multiple sources to create a cohesive narrative or argument
in writing. This involves summarizing, paraphrasing, and combining different
perspectives.
• Formulating a clear, concise thesis statement that serves as the central argument
or focus of the writing. This guides the structure and content of the entire piece.
• Writing clearly and precisely, avoiding ambiguity and ensuring that ideas are
communicated effectively. This includes careful word choice and sentence
structure.
• Accurately citing sources and creating a reference list according to the required
academic style (e.g., APA, Harvard). This skill is essential to avoid plagiarism and
give proper credit to original authors.
• Reviewing and refining the written work to correct grammatical errors, improve
clarity, and ensure coherence. This process often involves multiple drafts and
revisions.
• Planning and allocating time effectively to complete writing assignments, allowing
for research, drafting, editing, and final revisions within given deadlines.

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Consider the typical learning activities most students are required to complete at
university. Read each one and comment on the types of academic literacy skills each
task requires.

Learning activity 1: Finding information for an assignment

Thabo is tasked with writing an assignment on climate change's impact on biodiversity.

He begins by unpacking the essay question, then searches and evaluates various
academic articles and books using the UFS library databases such as Primo and
EBSCO Discovery Service. He also searches for information on Google Scholar to
compare and contrast results and findings. He organises his notes while ensuring
proper citation of all sources. Which academic literacy skills did Thabo use to complete
this task?

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Learning activity 2: Engage with the topic during class

During a lecture on “Genetically Modified Foods”, Lerato is expected to participate in

class discussions. She has read several academic articles beforehand, allowing her
to engage critically with the topic and material so that she can contribute insightful
ideas. She also responds to peers’ arguments with well-reasoned counterpoints.
Which academic literacy skills did Lerato use to complete this task?

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Learning activity 3: Analysing research

In his biology module, Sipho is asked to read and analyze a journal article that involves
statistical data on frog population trends in South Africa. He must understand the
quantitative methods used, interpret graphs and tables, and critically assess the
study’s conclusions based on the data presented. After reading the prescribed article,
he must go and find similar articles that can use similar quantitative methods and
compare the results. Which academic literacy skills did Sipho use to complete this
task?

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Learning activity 4: Preparing for an exam

As exams approach, Mpho needs to organize her study schedule to cover all
necessary material. She critically engages with the readings, making notes and
summaries to aid understanding and retention. Mpho prioritizes topics based on
importance and complexity. She creates her own summaries and mind maps based
on the important topics and concepts that her lecturer identified in class. Which
academic literacy skills did Mpho use to complete this task?

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Learning activity 5: Completing a group project

Bongani, Kabelo and Zanele are assigned a group project on sustainable energy
solutions. The project requires them to research various types of sustainable energy,
such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power, and assess their viability in different
regions of South Africa. The final deliverable is a comprehensive group presentation,
complete with data analysis and visual aids in the form of a PowerPoint presentation.
Kabelo is tasked with selecting specific sustainable energy solutions for the group to
focus on. He will find 5 journal articles for them to read. He also coordinates the group
and ensures that all group members are on the same page and that no one duplicates
work. Zanele takes on the responsibility of researching the efficiency, cost, and
environmental impact of each energy source. She analyzes the data to determine
which solutions are most viable in different geographic and economic contexts. She
will synthesise the important ideas that will go into the presentation. Bongani is in
charge of designing the PowerPoint presentation. He must create charts, graphs, and
infographics based on the data and research findings that Zanele has identified,
ensuring that the presentation is visually engaging and informative. Which academic
literacy skills did each of them use to complete this task?

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Learning activity 6: Drafting and writing an essay

Tumelo is told that in 4 weeks he needs to submit an essay for his module about
agricultural economics. Tumelo begins by creating a plan to manage his time
effectively. He allocates the first week to planning and research, the second week to
writing, and the third week to editing and revising. In the second week, he begins by
writing the various parts of the essay. In the third week, Tumelo reads through his
essay to check for content coherence and structural flow. He revises sections where
his arguments need more depth or where the structure is unclear. He carefully
proofreads his essay for grammatical, spelling, and punctuation errors and also checks
that all the references are accurately cited and formatted according to the required
Harvard citation style. Satisfied with his work, Tumelo submits his essay through the
university’s online portal Turnitin. Which academic literacy skills did Tumelo use to
complete this task?

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Task 3: Reading and writing at university

Reading and writing tasks in university are typically more advanced and demanding
compared to those in school. While the fundamental skills remain the same, there are
several key differences in how reading and writing are approached at the university
level.

Reading skills
Complexity and University readings are often more complex, specialized, and
Depth in-depth. They require a higher level of critical thinking and
the ability to engage with complex ideas and theories.

Volume University courses may have a heavier reading load

compared to school. Students are expected to read a larger
volume of material within a shorter timeframe.

Independent University students are expected to take greater

Learning responsibility for their learning. They need to independently
manage their reading assignments, research, and
supplementary materials.

Primary Sources University courses often emphasize primary sources, original

research papers, and scholarly articles. Students engage
directly with the latest research and contribute to academic
discussions.

Critical Analysis University-level reading requires a deeper level of critical

analysis. Students are expected to evaluate sources, identify
biases, assess arguments, and synthesize information from
multiple sources.

Engagement University reading is not just about comprehension; it's about

engaging in debates, and discussions, and contributing to
the academic discourse surrounding the topics.

Writing skills
Complexity Students are expected to develop their own arguments,
support them with evidence, and present complex ideas in a
clear and organized manner. Assignments are generally
longer and require greater depth. Essays, research papers,
and projects delve deeply into topics and often require
thorough exploration.

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 Originality University writing places a greater emphasis on original
thought. Students are encouraged to develop unique
perspectives, question established ideas, and contribute to
ongoing academic conversations.

Research skills University writing often involves extensive research.

Students need to locate, evaluate, and integrate sources
effectively into their work to support their arguments. Proper
citation and referencing are critical at the university level.

Language use University writing adopts a more formal and academic tone.
Students are expected to demonstrate a high level of
professionalism in their writing.

Interdisciplinary University assignments may require students to apply

knowledge from various disciplines, fostering a broader
perspective on topics.

Answer the following questions and share your answers with the rest of the class.

1. How would you compare the volume of reading assignments at university to

those at school?
a. Much more at university
b. Slightly more at university
c. About the same
d. Less at university

2. What type of reading materials were most common in school?

a. Textbooks
b. Novels
c. Journals and articles
d. News articles

3. What type of reading materials are most common at university?

a. Textbooks
b. Academic journals and articles
c. Novels
d. Newspapers

4. How would you describe the complexity of the texts you read in school?
a. Very complex
b. Moderately complex
c. Somewhat simple
d. Very simple

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5. How would you describe the complexity of the texts you read at university?
a. Very complex
b. Moderately complex
c. Somewhat simple
d. Very simple

6. How often do you think you will be required to do independent reading at

university?

a. Very often
b. Often
c. Sometimes
d. Rarely

Task 4: Reflect on your degree

Write down the name of your degree.

Write down the top three subject areas that are relevant to your current field of
study or degree. Share them with the rest of the class.

1 2 3

What motivated you to study this? Write down at least 5 reasons.

1.

2.

3.

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 4.

5.

What long term goals do you have for university?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

What career aspirations do you have?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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Task 5: Introduction to the CALN

Regardless of the degree you are enrolled in, if you are in the Faculty of Natural and
Agricultural Science, effective scientific communication is crucial for sharing
research findings, advancing knowledge, and facilitating collaboration within the
scientific community and beyond. Scientific communication is distinct from other
genres of communication in several key ways:

Emphasis on Objectivity: Scientific communication places a

strong emphasis on objectivity and evidence-based reasoning. It
requires researchers to present findings and conclusions based on
empirical evidence, data, and rigorous methods, rather than
personal opinions or emotions.

Rigorous Methodology: Scientific communication involves a

detailed and transparent description of research methods, allowing
others to replicate experiments or studies. This level of
methodological detail is often not required in other forms of
communication. Unlike many other forms of communication,
scientific communication relies on empirical evidence to support
claims. This evidence is usually gathered through systematic
observation, experimentation, or data analysis.

Peer Review: Scientific research undergoes a peer-review process,

where experts in the field evaluate the quality and validity of the work
before it is published. This rigorous evaluation sets scientific
communication apart from many other genres and ensures a level
of quality control.

Formal Writing Style: Scientific writing typically follows a formal

and structured style, characterized by clear and precise language,
and the use of passive voice to name a few. This formality helps
convey information accurately and unambiguously. Scientific
articles and papers typically adhere to a structured format, such as
IMRaD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion), which
allows readers to quickly locate and understand the key components
of the research.

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 Citations and References: Scientific communication heavily relies
on citations and references to previous research and adherence to
specific citation and formatting styles such as APA or Harvard.
Researchers must acknowledge the work of others and provide a
comprehensive list of references, distinguishing it from most other
genres.

Specialized Terminology: Scientific communication often employs

specialized terminology and jargon that are specific to a particular
field. This terminology helps communicate complex concepts
efficiently but may be less accessible to non-experts.

Do you think scientific communication is primarily for scientists, or does it have a

broader audience?

Why is it important for scientists to communicate their research findings to others?

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What do you find most challenging about understanding scientific research papers or
articles?

What role do visuals (e.g., graphs, charts, images) play in scientific communication,
and how do they impact your understanding of the content?

What role do vocabulary and language use play in science?

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Task 6: The interdisciplinary nature of science

The interdisciplinary nature of science reflects a profound reality: the world's

complexities rarely adhere to the neat boundaries of individual academic disciplines.
In an era of rapid advancement and discovery, scientific challenges often demand
collaborative efforts that transcend traditional subject silos. Consider the shortlist
below. Complete the chart with three more areas.

Biology

Zoology

Genetics

Chemistry

Physics

Maths

Architecture

Computer Science

Medical science

Ecology

Engineering

Micobiolgy

Geology

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Consider the following topics/areas of knowledge. Which topics relate to your degree?

Technology
Ecosystem
services and Economy
biodiversity

Education
Animal
and
welfare
knowledge

Science
Natural today Living
spaces /
resources
housing

Human
Urbanisation
wellbeing

Food Population
security growth

The interdisciplinary nature of science stands as a testament to the

interconnectedness of knowledge, where researchers from diverse fields converge to
tackle complex problems, harnessing the collective wisdom of multiple disciplines to
unveil new insights and innovative solutions. This approach not only broadens our
understanding of the natural world but also holds the potential to address some of
humanity's most pressing questions, from climate change and public health crises to
the exploration of the cosmos.

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How do different branches of science (e.g., biology, physics, chemistry) rely on each
other to solve complex problems?

Which disciplines cover any aspect of environmental crises, biodiversity loss, public
health and sustainable development?

What future innovations might require an even greater degree of interdisciplinary

collaboration? Why?

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Task 7: Multiple Intelligences in Science

The theory of multiple intelligences, developed by Howard Gardner in 1983 in his book
called “Frames of Mind”, posits that people possess different types of intelligences
rather than a single, general intelligence. These intelligences each represent unique
ways in which individuals can learn and express understanding. Gardner1 (2000:28)
defines intelligence as a “biopsychological potential to process information that
can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that
are of value in a culture”. That means that intelligence is developed throughout your
life and isn’t solely dependent on cognitive abilities.

Let’s take a look at each one and how they can be beneficial for university study in the
world of Natural and Agricultural Science.

Type of Intelligence Explanation Example

Verbal - Linguistic Learners strong in linguistic • Critical reading
Intelligence intelligence benefit from • Storytelling
reading, writing, speaking, • Debates
and listening activities. • Discussions
• Essay writing
• Active listening
• Creative writing
• Games like Scrabble and
crossword puzzles

Logical- These learners excel when • Science experiments

Mathematical faced with problem-solving • Math problems
Intelligence tasks, puzzles, and logical • Strategic games (Chess)
reasoning exercises. They • Computer programming
learn best by seeing • Excel software
patterns and relationships in • Auditing and calculations
information. • Statistical analysis
• Conceptual and abstract
thinking

Visual-Spatial Spatial learners think in • Diagrams, graphs, charts

Intelligence images and enjoy • Maps

1
Gardner, H. E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. Hachette
UK.

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 visualizing concepts. They • Drawing activities
are often skilled at • Educational videos
understanding spatial • Live demonstrations
relationships and may learn
best through visual aids.

Musical Intelligence Learners with musical • Songs

intelligence remember and • Musical patterns
understand concepts better • Rhymes and rhythms
when they are associated
with rhythm, sounds, or
music. They may use music
as a tool for memorization or
to boost focus.

Bodily-Kinesthetic These learners process • Role-playing

Intelligence information best through • Physical demonstrations
physical activities and • Lab experiments
hands-on experiences. • Sport
Movement helps them • Self-control and
engage with the material, perseverance
making abstract ideas more
concrete.

Interpersonal Interpersonal learners excel • Group work in class

Intelligence in group activities where • Class discussions
they can interact with • Group projects
others, discuss ideas, and • Peer feedback
collaborate. • Brainstorming or mind-
mapping ideas as a
class
• Oral presentations

Intrapersonal Intrapersonal learners • Independent learning

Intelligence benefit from self-reflection • Self-directed learning
and prefer to work • Mediation
independently. They • Self-study
connect better with content • Reflection
that relates to personal • Journaling
experiences or inner • Observations skills
thoughts.
Naturalistic Naturalistic learners connect • Outdoor education
Intelligence best when learning involves

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 nature, the environment, or • Experiential learning in
real-world contexts. They nature
thrive when they can relate • Field observations
topics to the natural world. • Hiking and walking in
nature or parks
• Knowledge of plants and
animals

Consider some guiding questions that can help you discover your strengths.

Question ✓/
Do you enjoy reading books, stories, or articles, and can you easily recall
what you’ve read?
Are you good at explaining your thoughts or ideas to others, either
verbally or in writing?
Do you enjoy solving puzzles, logic games, or brainteasers, and find
them easy or fun to complete?
Do you often look for patterns, connections, or cause-and-effect
relationships in what you observe or learn?
Do you think in images or pictures and find it easy to visualize scenes,
objects, or layouts in your mind?
Do you enjoy activities like drawing, designing, or interpreting maps,
diagrams, or visual data?
Do you enjoy listening to music, or do you often create rhythms or beats
even while doing other activities?
Do you remember information better when it’s set to music or rhythm, or
can you easily identify notes and pitches?
Do you prefer hands-on activities or learning by doing, such as building,
acting, or using tools?
Are you good at physical activities, like sports, dance, or even learning
new moves or routines quickly?
Do you enjoy working in groups or collaborating with others, and do you
often sense what others are feeling?
Do you find it easy to make friends, or are you good at resolving conflicts
and understanding others’ viewpoints?
Do you prefer working alone or setting personal goals, and do you feel
you know yourself well?
Are you good at self-reflection, and do you often think about your own
thoughts, feelings, and motivations?
Do you feel most comfortable or interested when you’re in nature or
learning about plants, animals, or ecosystems?

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 Are you often curious about the natural world and enjoy studying or
identifying different types of animals, plants, rocks, or weather patterns?

Which types of activities or subjects do you lose track of time in because you’re so
engaged?

How do you think your strongest intelligence could help you excel in your university
courses? In what ways could your intelligence guide you in setting and achieving your
academic and personal goals?

In what ways can you use your intelligence to make learning more enjoyable and
meaningful in your studies?

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SECTION 2: CRITICAL LISTENING SKILLS
Critical listening is a foundational skill for effective communication, critical thinking, and
personal and professional success. By mastering this skill, students can engage more
deeply with others, navigate complex ideas, and make informed, thoughtful
contributions to any discussion. Critical listening is a vital skill that goes beyond merely
hearing or understanding what someone says. It involves actively engaging with the
speaker's message to evaluate, interpret, and respond effectively fostering clearer and
more constructive dialogues. Lectures and class presentations are key sources of
information at university, and students must learn to listen to key ideas being
discussed during class.

Task 1: Prep work before you attend class

One of the most common mistakes students make is not preparing for class or feeling
that they don't have to prepare. They effectively waste their and the lecturer’s time
because they have not prepared. Some students even regard lectures as ‘going to the
movies’ where they just sit and watch and don’t expect to participate in any way.
Remember, you have paid for every single class, so the wise thing to do is to give it
your very best!

Often, lecturers don't check to see if students have done the reading, and often, they
don't collect homework. So, while you may not receive a mark for your preparation
work, you will suffer the consequences in an exam, or even in a pop quiz. You also
risk falling behind and playing catch-up at the end of the semester. Moreover, when
you don't prepare, you place yourself at another kind of disadvantage. You are less
likely to ask questions and are less engaged in the discussion or the lecture. You put
yourself on the outside of the class instead of feeling like you are a part of it.

Lectures are extremely important because:

▪ New concepts are introduced and terms are explained

▪ Important information is clarified;
▪ Assessments are discussed;
▪ It helps you cut down on study time;
▪ You get to ask questions in class if you don’t understand something;
▪ You can talk to your peers and lecturer about important information regarding
the module; and
▪ It fills in the gaps when you read the textbook or course materials.

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Which of these do you do before a class? Select all that apply. Add 2 more to the list.

Read the prescribed readings

Do some preparatory research on the topic

Check background knowledge about the topic

Find PowerPoint slides/summaries / or any related information available

on the content before the class/lesson

Make notes about key information to be covered in the class/lesson

Prepare questions about the content that you can ask in class

Skim through the activities that will be covered in class

Task 2: Active listening and note-taking during a lecture

Now let’s move on to active listening and note-taking during a lecture. Obviously, this
is the part everyone thinks about when considering listening and taking notes in
lectures. Often, students can find it hard to keep up with the lecturer and struggle to
take notes in class. It is not like a video that you can pause or rewind to listen again.
Luckily, there are some strategies to make life easier.

1. Listen actively in class

Active listening involves attentively seeking to understand a speaker’s message,

rather than passively hearing the words that a speaker says. It can help to build trust
within a conversation, thereby allowing the speaker to communicate more easily,
openly, and honestly. Active listeners also provide verbal and nonverbal feedback
to show their sincere investment in what the speaker is sharing.

Think about the reasons we listen actively in class:

1. To acquire new knowledge and skills.

2. To comprehend and retain information accurately.
3. To understand others’ perspectives and emotions.
4. To identify and resolve issues collaboratively.
5. To broaden your understanding by considering diverse viewpoints.
6. To enhance self-awareness and personal development.

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7. To receive constructive criticism and improve performance.
8. To make informed decisions based on comprehensive understanding.

2. You won’t be able to write down every word

The aim of a lecture is not so that you can take down every word a lecturer says. It
is not a dictation exercise. If you do this, you are most likely only listening passively,
and not listening actively. Listening actively means that you engage with and think
about what the lecturer is saying. It means you listen so you can distinguish between
key points, arguments themes and supplemental information.

3. Underline, highlight and capitalise

Lecturers often stress or draw attention to certain words or phrases because they
are important in some way. It is important that you somehow distinguish these
words/information from your other notes. Try underlining/highlighting these
words/information; draw a circle or box around the words/information; or draw a big
star next to this information.

It might also be useful to start using key terms in your group discussions in order to
get familiar with them.

4. Use abbreviations and symbols

In order to write more quickly, some words can be written in short but
understandable forms. So, take some time to work out whatever abbreviation you
are comfortable with. For example, using ‘2' instead of ‘to', ‘too' and ‘two', or ‘da' for
‘the'; ‘w/' for ‘with', btwn for ‘between’, etc.

Here are some common abbreviations:

Word Abbreviation Word Abbreviation Word Abbreviation

because b/c with w/ something s/t
about abt without w/o someone s/o
amount amt within w/i somewhere s/w
standard std compare cp regarding re
years yrs contrast ct important nb
minimum min before b4 especially esp
maximum max in relation irt look up L
to
versus vs alternative alt information info
between btwn continue cont subject subj
background b/g word wd people ppl
example e.g. reference ref follow up f

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 Some signs and symbols for quick notetaking

&/+ And ➔ Leads to

% Percent # Number
 Therefore  Increase; decrease
= Equals, is / More than, less than
 Not the same as / or
NB / * Important information ± More or less
 Extra information / missing { } Includes
information

Let’s practise active listening! Get into groups of 3 – a speaker, listener, and
observer. Select a person for each role in your group.

Speaker role: Think of a scenario that involves a situation where you were happy to
be in nature. Be sure to include both feelings and events where you can. Try to give
your statements some emotional texture by including descriptions of your feelings.
Then, tell the rest of the group about this experience. Try to keep it to two or three
sentences.

Listener role: The role of the listener is to listen very carefully to what the speaker is
saying. Use your own words to communicate what you understand the speaker to have
said (paraphrase). Don’t just repeat what the speaker has said.

Observer role: Provide constructive feedback to both the speaker and listener based
on the interaction. Do not add in your beliefs, feelings, or opinions on the item
discussed. What did they do effectively? What could be improved?

Note: Each person in the group must have an opportunity to play each role.

After each person has had an opportunity to talk, answer the following questions:

Which of the three roles did you find to be the most difficult for you? Speaker, listener,
or observer? Give reasons for your answer.

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2. Which of the three roles were you most comfortable with? Speaker, listener, or
observer? Give reasons for your answer.

3. What did you learn from the experience?

Write 5 top tips you would give to a friend for listening and paraphrasing effectively.

55 | P a g e
Task 3: After the lecture

Attending a lecture on campus is only the first step in the learning process. After the
lecture, students must take deliberate actions to solidify their understanding, integrate
new knowledge, and prepare for assessments or real-world applications. While a
lecture introduces key concepts, frameworks, and ideas it rarely covers everything in-
depth. Simply attending a lecture does not ensure understanding or retention.
Students must actively process and interact with the material afterwards to benefit
fully. What must you do after attending a lecture?

1. Review your notes

Go through the notes taken during the lecture, ensuring they are clear and structured.
Fill in any gaps with details from memory while the lecture is still fresh. Two heads are
better than one! Form a study group with your friends and find time straight after your
lectures to compare notes. They might have written down information that you missed,
and vice versa. In other words, try learning collaboratively.

2. Ask questions when you are confused

Don't just write down things you do not understand. Ask for clarification when you are
confused. If your lecturers ask if there are any questions, then don’t just keep quiet.
That is your opportunity to ask your question! If you still don’t understand, make an
appointment with your lecturer during their office hours.

Lectures are not always one-sided. There are times when lecturers ask students
questions. Don’t be left out. Discuss how the subject matter relates to what you have
heard or seen before and your personal opinion about it. This facilitates critical
analysis and often gives you a better understanding of the content. A lecture is more
of a dialogue than a monologue.

3. Learn to summarize

A summary is a condensed version of information that captures the main ideas, key
points, and essential details of a larger text, lecture, or discussion while omitting minor
details, examples, and less critical content. It focuses on distilling the original material
into a clear, concise format to aid understanding and recall. Summaries can be
transformed into flashcards, mind maps, or notes for quick revision. Summaries are
powerful tools for learning, allowing students to condense complex information,
reinforce understanding, and optimize study time effectively.

For example, after attending a lecture on cell biology, a student can summarize the
key processes like mitosis and meiosis in a few sentences, ensuring they understand
the concepts.

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Task 4: Assessment: Listening skills 20 Marks

Type Individual assessment

Marks 20
Format Paper-based
Due date

Before you listen to the video, activate your background knowledge about the topic.
Activating background knowledge helps students link what they already know to the
new information they are about to learn. This creates a foundation on which new
knowledge can be structured, making it easier to understand and retain the material.
Background knowledge provides context, making unfamiliar topics less intimidating
and more understandable.

What do you think ecosystem services are? Brainstorm some ideas before you listen
to the video.

What do you think ecosystem services are important?

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Next, you are going to listen to ONE of the following videos:

1. Eurac Research (2018): What are ecosystem services?

(2.44min)
YouTube Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r7UCAsBT5Yg

2. ScienceABC II (2022): What Are Ecosystem Services?

(3.38min)
YouTube Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIH2v4Nr9i4&t=13s

3. ACCIONA (2022): Ecosystem services and why they are vital

for humans (2:39min)
YouTube Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vAjuYBzu4TI

While listening to the video:

• When listening to the video, focus on active listening and efficient note-taking.
• Pay attention to how the speaker introduces new topics. Key phrases like "first,"
"most importantly," or "in conclusion" often signal main points or shifts in topics.
• Don’t try to write everything down. Focus on capturing main points, key terms, and
supporting details, rather than transcribing the entire video.
• Write short notes and key ideas.

Why should you take notes on paper?

Using pen-and-paper activities in class has clear cognitive, psychological, and
practical benefits. Writing by hand requires more deliberate effort than typing, leading
to deeper cognitive processing. Students who take handwritten notes tend to
remember information longer and understand concepts more deeply compared to
those who type their notes. Writing by hand forces students to synthesize information
more carefully. As a result, they must listen, filter, and rephrase information, promoting
long-term retention.

In-class pen-and-paper activities reduce opportunities for cheating or copying from the
internet. Without access to digital devices, students are more likely to rely on their own
knowledge and skills to complete the task. Many exams, especially in academic
institutions, are still conducted on paper. Having students practice writing in-class
activities with pen and paper prepares them for these types of assessments by
developing their ability to organize thoughts and manage time effectively in a written
format.

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Make your notes below.

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After listening to the video, write your summary.

• After the video, review your notes and organize your thoughts before writing
the summary.
• Go over your notes and identify the main themes or concepts. Rearrange or
organize them into a logical flow, grouping related points together.
• Ensure that the major arguments or ideas from the video are clearly reflected
in your notes. Highlight the most important parts to focus on when writing the
summary.
• Start with a sentence that introduces the topic or main idea of the video. This
should reflect the overall theme or argument of the video.
• Summarize the key points from your notes, condensing them into concise
statements.
• Paraphrase the content, but make sure you stay true to the speaker’s original
message.
Use the space below to write a rough draft. Write the final version on a separate
sheet of paper that you can hand in / submit to your facilitator at the end of the class.

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How will you be assessed?

Criteria Needs
Incomplete (1) Good (3-4) Excellent (5)
development (2)

Organization The summary is The summary is The summary is The summary is

disorganized and somewhat generally well- well-organized,
5 marks lacks coherence, disorganized, organized, though with a clear
making it difficult with ideas some transitions or structure that
to understand the presented in a the logical flow of reflects the
flow of ideas / manner that is ideas may be logical flow of
missing key ideas difficult to follow. slightly unclear. ideas from the
/ incomplete video.

Content Struggles to Identifies some Identifies most key Accurately

identify key ideas; key ideas, but ideas and main identifies all key
10 marks significant misses or points, with only ideas and main
omissions or misunderstands minor omissions or points from the
misunderstandings important points. misunderstandings. video,
are present. demonstrating a
thorough
understanding of
the content.

Language Language is unclear Language is Language is clear Language is good

use or confusing somewhat clear and appropriate and clear
Numerous errors in and vague Minor errors in Good grammar,
5 marks grammar, Major errors in grammar, mechanics, mechanics, and/or
mechanics, and/or grammar, and/or spelling spelling
spelling mechanics, and/or Appropriate tone Consistent tone
Inconsistent tone spelling Appropriate Good vocabulary
Basic vocabulary Somewhat vocabulary
inconsistent tone
Limited vocabulary

Total: 20 marks

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SECTION 3: CRITICAL READING SKILLS
Task 1: The importance of reading in higher education

At university the ability to read relevant texts critically, and analyse, synthesise and
evaluate knowledge is a common requirement at all levels of study (Bharuthram,
2012). University lecturers expect their students to read at a school-exit level, and to
have some of the critical reading capacity required upon entering university. However,
research suggests that many students entering higher education in South Africa, for
example, are not able to read and write at the school-exit level and therefore struggle
to cope academically (Nel, Dreyer and Klopper 2004; Ngwenya 2010; Ralfe and Baxen
2012). For these students, reading academic texts presents a huge challenge and they
may not complete prescribed readings despite the explicit requests from lecturers to
read. Students who are unable to fully understand and interpret the texts they read are
less able to complete tests, assignments and exams successfully, and are less likely
to participate fully in class discussions, which can lead to feelings of alienation within
teaching and learning environments, as well as increased dropout rates (McKenna
2004; Ngwenya 2010).

In higher education, writing about something generally stems from reading about
something, and the level at which one is reading determines the relevance and clarity
of what one writes. Therefore, as students need to learn to write effectively, they need
to learn to read critically and comprehend the texts that they use as models for their
writing, and that serve as evidence and exposition in their texts.

“Do not consider it proof just because it is written in books, for a liar who will
deceive with his tongue will not hesitate to do the same with his pen.” ―
Maimonides

Reading is important in society. It's something we do every day, whether we're reading
signs, instructions, or leisure reading for fun. However, when it comes to learning,
there's a more active form of reading that's known as critical reading. Critical reading
is an attempt to get the readers to read and understand, on a deeper level, the material
that they're engaged with. It is a more complex form of reading that asks the reader to
analyze the material and interpret it. It's also important for evaluating materials1.

Being a critical reader means questioning the perspectives, assumptions, and

evidence behind the author's argument. It means not passively accepting the authority
of the printed word. We need to train our minds to ask certain questions and look for
clues so we can separate essential points from less important ones. The process of
critical reading is similar to reverse engineering—your task entails breaking the
argument into its parts to see how the pieces fit together. The following key questions
will help you to understand the logic or structure of an author's argument.

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Critical reading is particularly important as people begin to enter higher levels of
education, although it's a useful skill at any age. However, it's an absolutely critical
skill to have for people in college and getting advanced degrees. For instance, take a
person putting together a research paper. They may have a dozen sources that they're
thinking about including in their argument. The question becomes whether every
source should be included, or whether certain sources are more valuable than others.

Consider the list of critical reading strategies below.

Before you read

• Previewing the text before you start reading

• Skim the text to get an overview of the structure, headings, subheadings, and
key points before reading in detail.
• Make predictions about what will happen next or what the author will argue
based on the information you’ve read.

During reading

• Ask questions about the text before, during, and after reading to stay engaged
and focused on key concepts.
• Mark up the text with notes, and comments, underlining, and highlighting
important information or areas of confusion.
• Read between the lines to understand the implied meanings and underlying
themes.
• Determine the main argument or central idea that the author is conveying.
• Identify the structure of the argument, including claims, evidence, and
reasoning.
• Evaluate the quality, relevance, and sufficiency of the evidence provided by the
author.
• Assess the credibility of the author, sources, and publication to determine the
reliability of the information.
• Identify what is factual information versus the author's opinions or
interpretations.
• Pay attention to the author’s tone, language, and style to understand their
attitude and approach.

After reading

• Summarize the main points in your own words to reinforce understanding.

• Compare the text with other works or viewpoints to identify similarities and
differences.
• Relate the text to other readings, your own experiences, or current events to
deepen understanding.

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 • Integrate ideas from different parts of the text or from various texts to form a
comprehensive understanding.
• Reflect on the text after reading, considering how it impacts your thoughts,
beliefs, or understanding of a subject.

Reference: Cleveland State University. 2020. The Writing Center: Critical reading: what is critical
reading, and why do I need to do it? [Online]. Available at: https://www.csuohio.edu/writing-
center/critical-reading-what-critical-reading-and-why-do-i-need-do-it [Accessed 6 March 2020]

Use the following parameters outlined by Benjamin Bloom (2001) in his taxonomy.
Benjamin Bloom and colleagues developed the taxonomy to provide a structured way
of thinking about different levels of cognitive skills, arranged hierarchically from lower
to higher order. Lower-order (level 1 -3) thinking skills involve basic cognitive
processes that are foundational to learning. Higher-order thinking skills involve more
complex cognitive processes (levels 4-6).

Level Definition Example

Level 1: The ability to recall or recognize Recalling facts, terms, and basic
Remembering specific facts, terms, concepts, concepts. Typically involves rote
or answers. This is the most learning, memorization, and
basic level of cognitive learning. direct recall.

Level 2: The ability to comprehend and Grasping the meaning of

Understanding interpret information. At this information, explaining
level, learners can explain ideas concepts, or summarizing
or concepts in their own words. material. Using your own words
to describe something.

Level 3: The ability to use information or Using knowledge in new but

concepts in new or concrete similar situations, applying rules
Application situations. This involves or methods to solve problems.
applying knowledge to solve Solving math problems using a
problems or execute tasks. learned formula.

Level 4: The ability to break down Breaking down information into

information into its component parts, identifying patterns, and
Analysis parts and understand its understanding relationships.
structure. This involves Comparing and contrasting
examining relationships, ideas across different sources.
motives, and causes.

Level 5: The ability to make judgments Making judgments based on

about the value of ideas or criteria, critiquing, and forming
Evaluation materials. This involves reasoned opinions. Assessing
critiquing and assessing the the validity of a scientific
quality or effectiveness based argument.
on criteria or standards.

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 Level 6: The ability to combine elements Combining elements in new
to form a coherent or original ways, generating original ideas,
Creation whole. This involves and producing new work.
synthesizing information to Designing an innovative solution
generate new ideas or solutions. to a real-world problem.

Consider the reading and note-taking strategies below. Label each one according to
the level of taxonomy. Some options might have multiple levels.

Reading and note-taking strategies Level

Skim through the headings, subheadings, and introductory

paragraphs to get an overview of the content before delving into
the details.

Relate the new information to what you already know, as it helps

in forming connections and better understanding the material.

Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review. Survey the material,

generate questions, read actively, summarize key points, and
review your notes.

Divide your reading into smaller chunks and take short breaks in
between to prevent information overload and improve focus.

Underline or highlight essential points, write marginal notes, and

ask questions while reading to engage actively with the content.

Pause periodically to reflect on what you've read and assess your

understanding of the material.

Organize your notes using bullet points, outlines, mind maps, or

Cornell note-taking system to improve clarity and facilitate review.

Capture the main concepts, key terms, and supporting evidence

instead of transcribing everything verbatim.

Develop a personalized shorthand to jot down notes more

efficiently during lectures or while reading.

Condense complex information into concise summaries or

paraphrased sentences, ensuring better retention and
comprehension.

If you don't fully understand a concept, leave blank spaces in your

notes to come back to later for clarification.

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 Assign different colours to highlight main ideas, supporting
details, and examples, making it easier to visually distinguish
different information.

Regularly review your notes, clarify unclear points, and revise

them periodically to reinforce your understanding and memory.

Visualize relationships between ideas using concept maps to help

with information organization and understanding.

Group related concepts together in your notes to see the

connections between different pieces of information.

Write a brief summary of the main points after finishing reading to

reinforce your understanding and identify any knowledge gaps.

Task 2: Extensive reading

Extensive reading refers to reading large amounts of material for general

comprehension, pleasure, and broad exposure to language or ideas, rather than for
detailed analysis. It plays a crucial role in learning by enhancing fluency, broadening
knowledge, and fostering a more natural engagement with language and ideas.
Extensive reading helps students improve reading fluency and vocabulary
development by allowing students to practice reading longer texts at a comfortable
pace, which enhances their overall comprehension. Stories and narratives often
present problems and solutions, which can enhance students' ability to think through
challenges and develop creative solutions.

At the beginning of the year, all students must write the Online Reading Proficiency
test, a diagnostic test that tests students' literacy level upon entering university.
Thereafter students complete two extensive reading components in the year.

First iCAN The Initiative for Creative African Narratives (iCAN) was
semester created to meet the ever-increasing need for decolonised
curricula, steeped in the local cultural perspective of ubuntu.
African stories are important for several reasons, and they
hold significant cultural, historical, and social value. They
reflect the diversity of African cultures, traditions, languages,
and belief systems. These stories are passed down through
generations and serve as a way to preserve and transmit
cultural knowledge and values. Stories often convey
important life lessons, moral values, and ethical principles.
Students select a story on their level and take a quiz after

66 | P a g e
 reading to test their knowledge and comprehension of the
story. iCAN is hosted on Blackboard.

Students must complete 4 stories/quizzes on their level and

4 stories/quizzes on a higher level, 8 in total.

Second MReader MReader is an online platform designed to support students

semester improve their reading skills and track their progress through
levels. MReader facilitates extensive reading by allowing
students to take quizzes on books they have read. MReader
hosts a comprehensive database of stories and other
educational texts. These are categorized by levels of
difficulty, making it easier for students to select books
appropriate for their reading proficiency. After reading a
book, students can take quizzes to assess their
comprehension. These quizzes are designed to test
understanding of key details, main ideas, and specific
content from the book. The platform allows both students
and teachers to track reading progress. This includes the
number of books read, quiz scores, and overall reading
comprehension.

Students must complete 4 stories/quizzes on their last level

and 4 stories/quizzes on a higher level, 8 in total.

When students read widely across genres and disciplines, they encounter new words
and phrases in various contexts, which helps them understand and remember
vocabulary better than through isolated learning. Regular exposure to diverse texts
helps in developing a more sophisticated understanding of language, including
idiomatic expressions and complex sentence structures.

How does leisure reading differ from academic or required reading in terms of
engagement and enjoyment?

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How can regular leisure reading improve your vocabulary and language skills?

How does reading for fun influence your imagination and creativity?

How does leisure reading contribute to building a lifelong habit of reading and
learning?

In what ways can leisure reading help you understand and empathize with different
perspectives and cultures?

68 | P a g e
Task 3: Intensive reading

The primary goal of intensive reading sometimes referred to as close reading is to

foster a deeper understanding of the text. By slowing down and paying attention to
details, students learn to uncover the nuances, themes, and ideas that may not be
obvious at first glance. This ensures students are not just passively consuming
information, but actively engaging with the material, preparing them to participate
meaningfully in class discussions and activities.

Intensive reading involves a focused, detailed study of assigned texts, often

prescribed by the lecturer or teacher. Prescribed readings are central to the
curriculum, forming the backbone of classroom discussions, assignments, and exams.
Lecturers select these readings because they provide foundational knowledge or offer
insights critical to the subject matter in the discipline. These readings or texts often
introduce essential theories, case studies, or examples that underpin the rest of the
course.

When you read intensively you typically analyze the material closely to understand its
deeper meanings, structure, and arguments. Students learn to extract key ideas, make
annotations, and summarize arguments concisely. This is especially important in
research-based disciplines where students are expected to synthesize information
from multiple sources and form their own interpretations.

Here are some effective reading strategies and notetaking strategies for intensive
reading, aimed at maximizing comprehension and retention.

1. Before you start reading, first skim through the text looking at the headings and
subheadings, introduction, and conclusion. This provides an overview of the main
ideas and structure, setting a framework for understanding the content in detail.

2. As you read, underline or highlight key points, terms, and phrases. Write notes
in the margins to capture your thoughts, reactions, or questions (What are the author’s
main arguments? What evidence supports these arguments? What are the
keywords/concepts that are discussed). Focus on one section at a time. This approach
helps prevent feeling overwhelmed and aids in digesting complex information.

3. After you have read the text, organize and summarise your notes in a structured
format, using headings, subheadings, and bullet points. This hierarchical approach
allows you to see the relationships between main ideas and supporting details clearly,
making it easier to review and study later.

We will look at this more closely in Section 4 of the writing process with our example
student, Nomusa.

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Task 4: Argumentation in Academia

You may be surprised to hear that the word “argument” does not have to be written
anywhere in your assignment for it to be an important part of your task. Making an
argument—expressing a point of view on a subject and supporting it with
evidence—is often the aim of academic writing. Argumentation is not just what your
lecturers do. We all use argumentation daily, and you probably already have some
skill at crafting an argument. The more you improve your skills in this area, the better
you will be at thinking critically, reasoning, making choices, and weighing evidence.

Most material you learn in university is or has been debated by someone, somewhere,
at some time. Even when the material you read or hear is presented as a simple fact,
it may be one person’s interpretation of a set of information.

Consider the example.

Topic: Human activity is the primary cause of climate change

Argument Counterargument

The vast majority of climate scientists However, others argue that climate
agree that human activities, particularly change is a natural phenomenon that
the burning of fossil fuels and has occurred throughout Earth's history.
deforestation, are the primary drivers of They claim that current changes could be
climate change. This conclusion is part of a natural cycle and not solely
supported by extensive data showing a driven by human activity. Critics argue
correlation between the rise in that drastic measures to combat climate
greenhouse gas emissions and global change could have significant economic
temperature increases. Immediate and repercussions, including job losses and
substantial action is necessary to increased energy costs. They suggest a
mitigate the worst effects of climate more gradual approach that balances
change. This includes reducing environmental concerns with economic
greenhouse gas emissions, transitioning stability.
to renewable energy sources, and
implementing policies to protect
ecosystems and biodiversity.

Lecturers may call on you to examine that interpretation and defend it, refute it, or offer
some new view of your own. In writing assignments, you will almost always need to
do more than just summarize information that you have gathered or regurgitate facts
that have been discussed in class. You will need to develop a point of view on or
interpretation of that material and provide evidence for your position.

In other words, gone are the happy days of being given a “topic” about which you can
write anything. Your lectures usually assign assignments to see if you understand the
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study material and to assess your ability to apply or use the material in ways that go
beyond what you have read or heard. This can be done in many ways: you can critique
the material, apply it to something else, or even just explain it in a different way.

Therefore, the ultimate aims for developing argumentative skills in academic writing
are to:

• Develop independent thinkers;

• Understand information as well as critique it;
• Value and appreciate different forms or sets of evidence; and
• To recognise and value other perspectives and sets of knowledge.

Now it’s your turn! Consider the topic and develop an argument and counterargument.
Do this as a class activity together.

Topic: Can renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydroelectricity) fully

replace fossil fuels (coal and oil) in South Africa?
Argument Counterargument

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Task 5: Recognise and assess claims

Human knowledge grows out of differences in opinion, and scholars like your lecturers
spend their lives engaged in debate over what claims may be counted as accurate in
their fields. In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often called a
“claim” backed up with evidence that supports the idea. In the majority of your written
assignments, you will need to make some sort of claim and use evidence to support
it, and your ability to do this well will separate your papers from those of students who
see assignments as mere accumulations of fact and detail.

You need to take a position on the topic - decide what you think about the topic from
your reading and why you think what you do. Your 'position' on a topic is your point
of view. Positions are often complex and highly qualified (i.e. there's no simple
answer). When you read for an essay, you are trying to develop your position. As you
critically evaluate the literature, try to identify the main ideas you want to bring forward
in developing your position.

Criteria for a claim:

• It should be stated clearly and precisely, leaving no room for ambiguity or

confusion;
• It is specific and focused, addressing a particular aspect of the topic;
• It must be backed up by credible evidence, such as research findings, data,
statistics, expert opinions, or examples from authoritative sources;
• It is usually an interpretation, evaluation, or synthesis of information;
• In academic writing, claims often invite analysis, discussion, or debate; and
• Claims should maintain an objective tone and avoid emotional language or biased
language.

Consider the following claims and if they are strong or weak claims. Support your
answer.

Claim Strong / Weak

Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels (Smith,

2022), are the primary drivers of the current global climate
change, as supported by multiple studies from organizations like
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Renewable energy is free because the sun and wind cost nothing.

Renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and hydro,

produce little to no greenhouse gases compared to fossil fuels,
which helps combat climate change."

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 AI will render all human jobs obsolete and lead to widespread
unemployment.

Vaccination programs have been instrumental in eradicating or

significantly reducing the prevalence of several deadly infectious
diseases, such as smallpox and polio, as demonstrated by
historical data (Sullwald, 2014) and extensive research conducted
by health organizations.

Plants convert carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight into glucose

and oxygen through the process of photosynthesis

Exploring space provides valuable scientific data, enhances our

understanding of the universe, and drives technological
innovation

Water constitutes approximately 60% of the human body's

weight, which is essential for physiological processes

Antibiotic resistance is a pressing global health concern, and its

rise is mainly driven by the misuse and overuse of antibiotics in
human medicine and agriculture, as demonstrated by scientific
studies and surveillance data

AI systems are inherently unbiased and fair in their operations

Conservation efforts do not make a difference and are not needed

to protect wildlife.

Investing in space exploration is a waste of money that could be

better spent on immediate Earthly concerns

For the next activity, you are going to read the following supporting ideas given and
write the claim that summarises the support. Consider the first example.

Supporting Points:

1) Studies show that spending time in parks and natural environments decreases
cortisol levels, a primary stress hormone.
2) Access to green spaces provides opportunities for physical activity, which is
linked to better mood and lower rates of depression.
3) Green spaces offer a respite from urban noise and pollution, contributing to a
more peaceful and restorative environment.

Claim: Exposure to green spaces significantly improves mental health and reduces
stress levels in urban populations.

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Task 1

1) The sounds of water, such as waves or flowing streams, have a calming effect on
the brain, helping to reduce anxiety.
2) Proximity to water encourages outdoor activities like swimming and walking,
which are beneficial for physical and mental health.
3) The visual appeal of water bodies provides a sense of tranquillity and escape
from the stresses of daily life, improving overall mood.

Write the claim

Task 2

1) Exposure to diverse microbiomes in natural environments can strengthen the

immune system, reducing the risk of allergies and autoimmune diseases.
2) Interaction with animals, such as walking dogs or observing wildlife, increases
physical activity and reduces symptoms of depression and anxiety.
3) Animal-assisted therapy in natural settings has been shown to lower blood
pressure and improve psychological well-being, especially in people with mental
health conditions.

Write the claim

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Task 3

1) Morning sunlight helps regulate the body's circadian rhythm, promoting better
sleep quality and more consistent sleep patterns.
2) Natural light exposure increases serotonin levels, a neurotransmitter associated
with mood regulation, which can help alleviate symptoms of depression.
3) Regular exposure to natural light has been linked to higher energy levels and
reduced feelings of fatigue, contributing to better overall well-being.

Write the claim

Task 4

1) Prolonged exposure to high levels of pollutants like particulate matter (PM2.5)

and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can lead to chronic respiratory conditions such as
asthma and bronchitis.
2) Children and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, often
experiencing more severe and frequent respiratory symptoms.
3) Air pollution has been linked to a higher incidence of lung cancer, even in non-
smokers, due to the inhalation of carcinogenic particles.

Write the claim

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Task 6: Distinguish between a fact and an opinion

The ability to distinguish between fact and opinion helps students develop critical
and analytical skills in reading and listening. Fact and opinion are often woven
together in texts and speeches. It is, therefore, imperative that students unravel the
threads of what is true from what is mere belief.

What is a fact?
In science, a fact is a statement that can be objectively verified through
observation, measurement, or empirical evidence. Facts are the fundamental
building blocks of scientific knowledge and are established through rigorous
experimentation and validation. A scientific fact is something that is consistently
observable and verifiable by multiple observers. It is not subject to personal
opinions or interpretations but can be measured or tested against objective criteria.
The source of a fact must be credible or a recognized authority.

What is an opinion?
Opinions are based on assumptions that cannot be proven and reflect somebody's
views, beliefs, personal perspectives, or values. All opinions must be quoted
from a source, and sources from both sides should be cited. Even a statement like
“it is too hot outside” can be an opinion. Some people prefer hot weather, whereas
others do not. Opinions cannot be verified: I think, I believe, I feel, In my opinion,
Some people think, My friends think, My parents think, Some people claim, He/she
claims, Always/Never, Awful/Wonderful, Beautiful/Ugly, Better/Best/Worst,
Delicious/Disgusting, Enjoyable/Horrible/Favourite, For/Against, Good/Bad,,
Inferior/Superior, Oppose/Support, Terrible/Unfair, Worthwhile

Consider the claims below and decide if they are facts or opinions.

Statement Fact Opinion

Living in a big city is better than living in a small town.
Horror movies are too scary to watch.
The Earth is round.
The colour blue is the most calming colour.
Politics is too complicated to understand.
Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius.
Pizza is the best food in the world.
The Earth orbits the Sun
The Beatles are the greatest musicians of all time.
Bloemfontein is in South Africa.
Gravity causes objects to fall towards the Earth.
The fastest land animal is the cheetah.
Exercise is essential for a healthy lifestyle.

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 The internet is the greatest invention in human history.
The Nile River is the longest river in the world.
Chocolate ice cream is better than vanilla ice cream.
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Dogs are better pets than cats.
The human body has 206 bones.

Now it’s your turn!

Write down any 5 claims – fact or opinion. Take turns sharing your claims with the
person sitting next to you. They must guess if it is a fact or opinion.

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Task 7: Identifying credible evidence to support your argument

If you’re writing an essay or completing an assignment, you can use various types of
evidence to add supporting details and provide proof of your thesis statement (a thesis
statement is a single sentence that identifies the main idea or argument of the paper).
Knowing how to use these effectively and which types of evidence best support
various points can help you write a stronger argumentative essay. Consider mixing
multiple forms of evidence in the supporting details for your essay to make a strong
argument.

Let’s consider different types of evidence:

Type Description Examples

Anecdotal Anecdotal evidence is stories or • Interviews
Evidence: case studies that support your • A personal experience
thesis. On its own, it’s not a • A case study
Stories that connect strong type of evidence because • An excerpt from a
it’s the retelling of something letter
that happened to one person or
a few people.

Testimonial Just like in a court case, • Direct interviews with

Evidence: bringing in an expert opinion is a experts
great way to add support to your • Quotes from an
Opinions of Experts writing. You should always expert’s book, paper,
establish credibility for the or newspaper editorial
expert before using that • Paraphrases of what
person’s opinion as supporting the author says in the
evidence in your essay. text

Statistical Statistics are powerful, • Numbers

Evidence: especially if they come from • Percentages
good sources. You can use • Measurements
Numbers that talk statistics as a type of support in • Statistics
writing if they directly relate to
your thesis. Especially shocking
statistics can even capture your
reader’s attention. The key is
good sourcing since statistics
are easy to refute if they come
from sources that are not
reputable.

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Consider the examples below and decide what type of evidence each contains:

Example Anecdotal Testimonial Statistical

Genes are the blueprints of life, containing
the instructions that shape the
development and functioning of all living
organisms." (Griffiths et al. 2000).

A meta-analysis of randomized controlled

trials, published in the Journal of the
American Medical Association,
demonstrated that statin therapy resulted
in a 25% reduction in the risk of major
cardiovascular events in patients with high
cholesterol levels (Chou et al., 2016).

A man who quit his job with very little

savings ended up finding another, even
better, job three weeks later. Now, he
recommends to anyone who’s unhappy in
their job to quit because you’ll land on your
feet, too – just like him.

After incorporating mindfulness meditation

into my daily routine for a month, I noticed
reduced stress levels, improved focus, and
better overall well-being( Davidson and
Kaszniak, 2015).

Form follows function (Sullivan, 1896)

A survey conducted among 1,000

households found that 75% of respondents
reported a significant decrease in energy
consumption after implementing energy-
saving measures, resulting in an average
monthly cost savings of 20%.

A friend claims that they cured their cold by

taking a particular herbal remedy. They
state that they felt better the next day after
taking the remedy, attributing the
improvement solely to the herbal
treatment.

A longitudinal study conducted by the

National Institute on Aging found that
individuals who engaged in regular
physical exercise showed a 32% lower risk
of developing cognitive decline compared

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to those who led sedentary lifestyles
(Brown et al., 2018).

Dr. Sarah Johnson, a prominent

neuroscientist, stated in an interview that
recent advancements in brain imaging
technology have significantly enhanced
our understanding of neural plasticity. She
emphasized that these advancements
have revealed the brain's remarkable
ability to rewire and adapt in response to
experiences and learning, leading to
potential breakthroughs in
neurorehabilitation therapies.

An analysis of satellite data recorded a

25% decrease in Arctic sea ice extent over
the past two decades, with an average
annual loss of 75,000 square kilometres of
ice.

A social media influencer claims that a

certain skincare product cleared their acne
completely in just a few days. They present
before-and-after pictures as evidence, but
there are no objective data or scientific
studies to verify the product's efficacy.

John Evans, a seasoned astronaut,

recounted his experiences during a space
mission in a candid interview. He described
the physiological challenges of living in
microgravity and the fascinating
experiments conducted onboard the
International Space Station to study the
effects of space travel on the human body.

A survey conducted by the Pew Research

Center revealed that 72% of South Africans
believe that climate change is a significant
threat, with 54% attributing it primarily to
human activities (Pew Research Center,
2021).

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Task 8: Credibility in academic research

Credibility in academic research refers to the trustworthiness, reliability, and

validity of the information, sources, and processes involved in producing and
presenting research findings. Research published in peer-reviewed journals is
typically more credible. Peer review involves evaluation by experts in the field before
publication, ensuring that the research meets certain standards of quality and rigor.
The reputation and impact factor of the journal where the research is published also
contribute to its credibility. High-impact journals are often more selective and have
stringent publishing standards.

Credible research is transparent about its methods, data collection procedures, and
analysis techniques. Detailed descriptions allow others to replicate the study and verify
results. Conclusions should be well-supported by the data and evidence presented.
Credible research relies on evidence rather than personal opinions or anecdotal
information.

Here is a list of different types of credible academic sources:

1. Research Articles: Peer-reviewed and published articles in academic journals

presenting original research and findings.
2. Books: Academic books authored by subject matter experts and published by
reputable publishers or university presses.
3. Conference Papers: Papers presented at academic conferences and
subsequently published in conference proceedings.
4. Theses and Dissertations: Graduate-level research papers submitted as part of
a master's or doctoral degree.
5. Reports: Research reports from government agencies, research institutions, or
non-profit organizations.
6. Literature Reviews: Comprehensive reviews of existing research and literature
on a particular subject.
7. Academic Encyclopaedias: Scholarly encyclopaedias with in-depth articles
written by experts in various fields.
8. Academic Websites: Websites affiliated with educational institutions, research
centers, or scholars, providing academic content and resources.
9. Case Studies: In-depth examinations of specific cases or scenarios often used in
fields like business, law, and social sciences.
10. Data Repositories: Repositories hosting datasets used in academic research
and publications.
11. Government Publications: Reports, statistics, and research studies published
by government agencies.
12. Academic Videos and Lectures: Online platforms offering recorded lectures,
presentations, and educational videos from universities and scholars.
13. Academic Magazines and Journals: Periodicals that contain scholarly articles,
essays, and reviews on various academic subjects.

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14. Dissertations and Theses Databases: Online databases hosting collections of
theses and dissertations from various universities.

Where can you find academic sources on the University of the Free State’s
website?

Step 1: Go to the University of the Free State’s website at ufs.ac.za. Select

Library.

Step 2: Select the Resources tab.

Step 3: Under Electronic Resources you will have access to the Database for
Journals

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 Step 4: Under UFS Library PRIME VE you will have access to books, digital
records, images, periodicals, and more.

Let’s practice!

Consider the following essay question: What is the impact of human activities on
biodiversity loss?

Which sources from the list below could be useful for research on this topic? Consider
the relevance and credibility of each source according to authority, publisher, date,
and content. Comment on which sources you would use and which sources you
would discard.

Title Author Publication Type Utility

date
1 The Sixth Elizabeth Kolbert 2014 Book
Extinction: An
Unnatural
History
2 IPBES Global Intergovernmental 2019 Report
Assessment Science-Policy Platform on
Report on Biodiversity and
Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem
Services (IPBES)

3 Endangered James P. Gibbs 2006 Book

Species:
Understanding
Wildlife at Risk
4 The Best Vegan www.veganlifestyle.com 2023 Website
Recipes for a
Sustainable
Future

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 5 Living Planet World Wide Fund for 2018 Report
Report 2018: Nature (WWF)
Aiming Higher
6 Climate Change John D. Thompson et al. 2024 Academic
and Biodiversity Journal
Loss: A Article
Comprehensive
Review
7 Top 10 Travel www.traveladventures.com 2022 Website
Destinations for
Wildlife
Enthusiasts
8 The Ecological William E. Rees and 1999 Academic
Footprint: New Mathis Wackernagel Journal
Developments in Article
Sustainability
Research

Task 9: Referencing sources

Referencing is a standardised academic method of acknowledging sources of

information that one used in their academic work. Credible research properly cites
sources and references relevant literature and research. This demonstrates that the
research is informed by existing knowledge and acknowledges contributions from
other researchers.

Referencing helps you to:

• Recognise the source of ideas;

• Use authority to bolster your argument or claim;
• Evidence your research;
• Maintain academic integrity; and
• Avoid plagiarism.

While there are many styles of acknowledging sources, most faculties at the University
of the Free State recommend the use of the Harvard referencing style. The Harvard
style is a widely used citation and referencing system, primarily in academic writing. It
is characterized by its author-date format, where citations in the text are accompanied
by a reference list at the end of the document. The citation is located within the body
of the assignment and is made up of the author’s surname and the publication date.
The reference is found at the end of the assignment, where all details of the in-text
citations are written in full.

Read the paragraph below. Notice the citation and accompanying reference.

Deforestation, human activity, impacts climate change by reducing the Earth's

capacity to absorb carbon dioxide through the removal of forests, which act as
carbon sinks. For example, human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels

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 release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which trap heat
and contribute to the greenhouse effect, leading to rising global temperatures. In
fact, in a study published in the journal Nature, researchers concluded that “the
increase in global temperatures is primarily driven by human activities such as the
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation" (Smith, 2020:45). Smith's 2020 study
reinforces the need for international cooperation and policy initiatives aimed at
reducing carbon emissions and combating climate change to prevent further
environmental consequences.

Reference: Smith, J. 2020. "The Increase in Global Temperatures: Human

Activities, Fossil Fuel Burning, and Deforestation." Nature, 45(7), 1234-1256. DOI:
10.1038/nature.2020.9876.

Consider the following guidelines for Harvard referencing.

Source Method Example

Book Surname, Initial(s). Year of Smith, J. 2020. Introduction to

Publication. Title of the Book. Environmental Science. Green Press.
Publisher.

Book Surname, Initial(s). and Jones, M. and Brown, L.2018. Advanced

with Surname, Initial(s). Year of Biology. Science Books.
Multiple Publication. Title of the Book.
Authors Publisher.

Journal Surname, Initial(s). Year of Green, R. and Taylor, S. 2021.

Article Publication. ‘Title of the ‘Renewable Energy Innovations’, Journal
Article’, Title of the Journal, of Sustainable Energy, 45(2), pp. 123-
Volume Number (Issue 135.
Number), Page Numbers.

Online Surname, Initial(s). Year of Lewis, D. 2022. ‘Artificial Intelligence in

Journal Publication. ‘Title of the Healthcare’, Journal of Health
Article Article’, Title of the Journal, Technology, 30(1), pp. 45-60. Available
Volume Number (Issue at:
Number), Page Numbers. https://www.healthtechjournal.com/article
Available at: URL (Accessed: (Accessed: 15 July 2023).
Date).

Website Surname, Initial(s). Year of National Institute of Health. 2023.

Publication. Title of the COVID-19 Vaccination Information.
Webpage. Available at: URL Available at: https://www.nih.gov/covid19
(Accessed: Date). (Accessed: 20 August 2023).

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In Harvard, referencing, "et al." is used to simplify citations and references when
dealing with works authored by multiple people. The Latin term "et al." means "and
others.

Single Author: For a work by a single author, list the author's surname followed by
the year of publication. For example (Smith, 2020)

Two Authors: For a work with two authors, list both authors' surnames followed by
the year of publication. For example (Smith and Jones, 2021)

Three or More Authors: For a work with three or more authors, list only the first
author’s surname followed by "et al." and the year of publication. For example (Smith
et al., 2022)

Read the questions below and select the best answer.

Question Answer options

1. Which of the following is the a) (Smith, 2020)

correct in-text citation format for a b) (Smith, J. 2020)
book by John Smith published in c) (Smith, J.)
2020? d) (2020, Smith)

2. What is the proper way to a) Author, A. Year. Title of webpage. Available at:
reference an online source? URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).
b) Author, A. Year. ‘Title of webpage’. Website
name. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month
Year).
c) Author, A. Year. Title of webpage. Available at:
URL. (Accessed: Day Month Year).
d) Author, A. Year. Title of webpage. Available at:
URL (Accessed: Day Month Year)

3. How should a reference list be a) Alphabetically by title

ordered? b) Alphabetically by author’s last name
c) Chronologically by publication date
d) Alphabetically by publisher’s name

4. When citing a source with more a) List all authors up to the first six, then use et al.
than three authors, how do you list b) List all authors up to the first three, then use et
them in the reference list? al.
c) List only the first author followed by et al.
d) List the first author followed by et al. for every
additional author.

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 5. When citing a source with more a) List all authors up to the first six, then use et al.
than three authors, how do you list b) List all authors up to the first three, then use et
them in the reference list? al.
c) List only the first author followed by et al.
d) List the first author followed by et al. for every
additional author.

Task 10: Quoting and paraphrasing from a source

A quote from an article is a direct excerpt or a verbatim reproduction of a specific

portion of the article's text. This excerpt is usually enclosed in “quotation marks” to
indicate that it is the exact wording from the source. Quotes are used in writing to
provide evidence, support arguments, or convey a particular idea or point made by the
original author. In the example above the quote (with the citation) is integrated into the
paragraph as evidence to support the previous ideas.

There are various reasons why it is useful to include quotes from the article in your
writing.

• Quotes can help clarify complex concepts or ideas by using the original author's
words. This ensures that you accurately convey the intended meaning of the
source material.
• Quotes from reputable sources, such as academic articles, enhance the credibility
of your writing. They show that you have done your research and are engaging
with established experts or scholars in the field.
• Incorporating quotes allows you to incorporate different voices and perspectives
into your writing. This demonstrates that you have considered multiple viewpoints,
fostering a well-rounded and balanced discussion.
• Properly cited quotes help you avoid plagiarism. When you attribute the source of
the quote, you give credit to the original author, which is essential for ethical writing.

Useful verbs for citations

Verbs for citations, also known as reporting verbs, or verbs of saying or thinking, link
an in-text reference with a quotation or paraphrase. One of the most common ways to
incorporate in-text citations into your writing is to use ‘reporting’ verbs to present the
information.

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Below is a table of useful reporting verbs that you might use with citations.

- advocate the view - criticise - describe - investigate

- analyse - define - discuss - maintain
- argue - demonstrate - dispute - notes
- believe - present - discover - observe
- claim arguments to - emphasises - point out
- comment emphasise - establish - predict
- compare - propose - estimate - stipulate
- concede - recognise - evaluate - suggest
- conclude - remarks - explains - validate
- confirm - report - hold the position - state
- show - illustrate - verify
- indicate

For example:

• Smith (2010) argues that climate change is a pressing issue.

• The study by Taylor (2012) states that there is a correlation between X and Y.
• Brown (1989) and Davies (2000) claim that biodiversity has significant
implications for economic development.
• Lopez (2013:3) explains that “Biodiversity includes plants, animals, fungi, and
other living things”.
• Various studies (Miller, 2022; Wilson, 2023) confirm that ecosystems with a
lot of biodiversity are generally stronger and more resistant to disaster than
those with fewer species.
• Johnson (2010:25) defines biodiversity as “all the different kinds of living
organisms within a given area”.

Paraphrasing means putting someone else’s ideas into your own words.
Paraphrasing a source involves changing the wording while preserving the original
meaning. Every time you paraphrase, it’s important to cite the source or in-text
reference. Also, take care not to use wording that is too similar to the original.
Otherwise, you could be at risk of committing plagiarism.

Plagiarism is academic theft and the intentional or unintentional stealing of another

person’s work and presenting it as your own. Consequences of plagiarism: Not
receiving a mark for your plagiarised assessment and possibly facing disciplinary
action, which might lead to the suspension of your studies. Let’s look at some do’s and
don’ts.

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 Do Don’t
▪ Copy from a text, word for word,
▪ Make sure you fully comprehend the without using quotation marks and
original passage before attempting to citing the source
paraphrase it. This ensures you
capture the intended meaning
accurately.
▪ Cite a primary source without reading
▪ Rewrite the text using your own it yourself but give the impression that
vocabulary and sentence structure you read the text yourself
while preserving the original
meaning.
▪ Simply swap out a few words with
▪ Change the sentence structure - synonyms is not sufficient for proper
break long sentences up into shorter paraphrasing.
ones.

▪ Read your paraphrase and compare ▪ Forget the add the in-text reference
it to the original to make sure that it for a paraphrase.
still makes

▪ Always provide a proper citation to

give credit to the original author and
avoid plagiarism.

Consider the following quotes. Select the best paraphrase for each direct quote.
Identify which paraphrasing strategy was used in the correct answer.

Original quote Paraphrase

1 “Human health and a) Human health and well-being are often viewed
well-being can be as the pinnacle of all ecosystem services
considered the (Sandifer and Sutton-Grier, 2014).
ultimate or cumulative b) According to Sandifer and Sutton-Grier (2014),
ecosystem service” human health and wellness cannot be classified
(Sandifer and Sutton- as ecosystem services.
Grier, 2014:65). c) The overall benefits provided by ecosystems
can be summarized as contributing to human
health and happiness (Sandifer and Sutton-
Grier, 2014).
d) Human health and well-being do not relate to
ecosystem services, as stated by Sandifer and
Sutton-Grier (2014).
e) Sandifer and Sutton-Grier (2014) argue that the
collective benefits of ecosystem services

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 ultimately enhance human health and well-
being.

2 “There is a large and a) A vast and expanding amount of research

growing body of shows that interacting with nature, such as
literature that urban green spaces, parks, and forests, can
demonstrates that result in significant mental and physical health
contact with nature improvements, along with other positive impacts.
(broadly defined in the b) There is little evidence to support that being in
introduction and nature, including urban green spaces and parks,
including urban green has any significant effect on mental and physical
space, parks, forests, health.
etc.) can lead to c) Studies have shown that visiting places like
measurable urban parks and forests do not contribute to any
psychological and measurable health benefits or other positive
physiological health outcomes.
benefits, as well as d) Research indicates that urban green spaces,
numerous other parks, and forests have a detrimental effect on
positive effects” psychological and physiological health.
(Sandifer and Sutton- e) It has been proven that only forests, not urban
Grier, 2014:68). green spaces or parks, lead to measurable
health benefits.

3 "Renewable energy a) Renewable energy sources, like solar, wind, and

sources, such as solar, hydroelectric power, play a crucial role in
wind, and hydroelectric decreasing global carbon emissions and fighting
power, are essential climate change (Smith, 2023).
for reducing global b) Smith (2023) claims that renewable energy
carbon emissions and sources are not important for reducing carbon
combating climate emissions or addressing climate change.
change" (Smith, c) According to Smith (2023), the use of solar,
2023:47). wind, and hydroelectric power increases global
carbon emissions and exacerbates climate
change.
d) Smith (2023) argues that traditional energy
sources, rather than renewable ones, are key to
combating climate change.
e) The article by Smith (2023) states that
renewable energy sources have no significant

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 impact on reducing global carbon emissions or
climate change.

4 "Conservation efforts a) Johnson (2023) states that conservation

are vital for preserving initiatives are crucial for maintaining biodiversity
biodiversity and and securing natural resources for the future.
ensuring the b) According to Johnson (2023), conservation
sustainability of our efforts have no impact on biodiversity or the
natural resources for sustainability of natural resources.
future generations" c) Johnson (2023) argues that preserving
(Johnson, 2023:52). biodiversity and natural resources is not a
significant aspect of conservation.
d) The article by Johnson (2023) suggests that
conservation efforts are detrimental to
biodiversity and the sustainability of natural
resources.
e) Johnson (2023) claims that natural resources
can sustain themselves without any
conservation efforts.

5 "Genetic research has a) Brown (2024) believes that genetic research

the potential to could transform medicine by allowing for
revolutionize medicine personalized treatments tailored to each
by enabling person's genetic profile.
personalized b) According to Brown (2024), genetic research
treatments based on does not play a significant role in the
an individual's unique development of personalized medical
genetic makeup" treatments.
(Brown, 2024:21). c) Brown (2024) argues that genetics have no
impact on the advancement of personalized
medicine.
d) The article by Brown (2024) claims that
personalized treatments based on genetics are
unlikely to revolutionize the field of medicine.
e) Brown (2024) suggests that personalized
treatments should be avoided in medical
practice.

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Now it’s your turn! Read each quote and paraphrase it using the strategies discussed.

Quote 1

"In the intricate dance of ecosystems, every species plays a crucial role. The loss of
even a single species can have a cascading effect, disrupting the delicate balance of
nature" (Williams, 2023:5)

Quote 2

"Agriculture remains important in driving economic transformation, sustainable

livelihoods, and development in developing countries” (Nhemachena et.al. 2020:1).

Quote 3:

“The African elephant is the largest land animal on Earth. African elephants are
found in a variety of habitats across South Africa, including savannas, forests, and
deserts” (Davies, 2016:34).

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Task 11: Assessment: Blackboard Quiz – 30 Marks

Type Individual assessment

Marks 30
Format • Online (Blackboard)
• Timed: 60min
• You will get 2 attempts to take the quiz. Only use the second attempt
if you had connection problems. The last recorded score will count.

Types of • Multiple-choice questions

questions • True/False questions
• Matching

Due date Check Blackboard announcements

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SECTION 4: CRITICAL WRITING SKILLS
Academic writing helps students present ideas, analyse research and construct an
effective argument. Academic writing is a formal style of writing that researchers and
educators use in scholarly publications. This type of writing focuses on evidence-
based arguments and logical reasoning to guide a reader's understanding of a subject.
Writers can use this format to identify and analyze a concept and propose a theory or
rational conclusion. Professionals may use academic writing differently depending on
their field. For example, scientists use this type of writing to explain their research and
support their findings, while literary critics use academic writing to make a convincing
argument through fact-based research. Though the purpose of academic writing can
vary among disciplines, this style of writing has many common features. All students
can benefit from knowing the characteristics and categories of academic writing.

Task 1: Formality in tone and style

Academic writing uses a formal style that shows the writer's knowledge and expertise
in the subject area. Formal writing has a serious tone to give credibility to the ideas
the writer is presenting. It is characterized by its adherence to standard grammar,
structured organization, and a more serious tone. Each paragraph should focus on a
single idea or point, starting with a topic sentence and followed by supporting
sentences.

For example:

Recent studies indicate that South Africa's climate is experiencing notable

alterations, including increased temperatures and variable rainfall. According
to Smith et al. (2022), these changes have led to a reduction in crop yields,
particularly in staple crops such as maize and wheat. The study underscores that
the increased frequency of extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods,
disrupts planting and harvesting schedules, further exacerbating the problem. The
impact on water resources is equally concerning. Jones (2021) highlights that
shifting rainfall patterns have resulted in decreased water availability for irrigation,
which is critical for maintaining crop productivity. In regions such as the Western
Cape, where water scarcity is already a pressing issue, the situation is becoming
increasingly dire. The research suggests that adaptation strategies, including the
implementation of efficient irrigation technologies and the development of drought-
resistant crop varieties, are essential to mitigate these effects.

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In the example above, consider the following:

▪ The text begins with a topic sentence about climate change impacts on South
Africa, followed by specific supporting ideas backed up by research, and concludes
with suggested adaptation strategies.
▪ Phrases like "According to Smith et al. (2022)" and "Jones (2021) highlights" show
an objective tone. This is important to convey information impartially and credibly.
The text cites studies by Smith et al. (2022) and Jones (2021) to support its claims,
providing credibility and backing up statements with research.
▪ Subject-specific vocabulary like "notable alterations," "exacerbating," "irrigation
technologies," and "drought-resistant crop varieties" contribute to the formal tone
by avoiding colloquialisms and slang.
▪ The use of the third person (e.g., "The study underscores" and "Jones (2021)
highlights") keeps the writing impersonal and objective, which is suitable for formal
contexts.
▪ The text follows proper grammar and punctuation rules, which enhances clarity and
professionalism, contributing to the formal tone.

Let’s practice! Read each sentence below and rewrite it so that it is more formal in
language use.

Bees are awesome because they help plants by moving pollination around.

People should use less plastic because it's bad for the planet.

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A lot of companies don't care about the environment and just want to make money.

Solar power is the best thing because it doesn't pollute the air.

Recycling is so cool cause it helps conserve this amazing planet.

Animals are really awesome for the planet because they help humans in many ways.

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Task 2: Objective argumentation

Academic writing aims to make an objective argument using evidence. Writers back
up their statements and key points using facts and evidence-based research. They
use data and analysis to present an argument objectively, without stating their own
beliefs or assumptions. Writers use academic writing to show their knowledge of the
subject. Writers typically use the third-person point of view throughout academic
writing to show objectivity.

They support their conclusions with evidence and cite those resources, often including
a reference list with their work. A reference list includes all the scholarly articles, books
or other resources a writer references throughout the text. It's important to cite sources
in academic writing because it gives credit to others for their research and helps to
support the major points of your text. When writing a paper, one should support all
arguments and opinions with solid evidence. Very often, the work is based on the
information collected from reputed experts in a certain field. Thus, it is necessary to
reference the information properly paying attention to both in-text citations and the
reference list.

For example:

Migratory birds play a crucial role in various ecosystems, contributing to ecological

balance and biodiversity. Migratory birds are known for their role in seed dispersal,
which is essential for plant reproduction and ecosystem diversity. Research
conducted by Thompson and Rogers (2021) reveals that migratory species such as
the American robin and the Eurasian blackbird are key dispersers of seeds for a
variety of plant species. Their long-distance flights enable the transfer of seeds
across large areas, which promotes plant distribution and genetic diversity. The
study quantitatively demonstrates that areas with high densities of migratory birds
exhibit greater plant species richness compared to areas with fewer migratory
species. In addition to seed dispersal, migratory birds also contribute significantly to
pollination. According to Green and Smith (2022), certain migratory species, such
as the Ruby-throated hummingbird, are vital pollinators for a range of flowering
plants.

References:

Green, R., & Smith, T. 2022. The role of migratory birds in plant pollination. Ecological
Research Letters, 15(3), 245-258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12271-022-01374-1

Thompson, C., & Rogers, H. 2021. Effects of migratory birds on plant species richness.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 30(9), 2371-2390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-
02134-3

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In the example above, consider the following:

▪ The text includes findings from Thompson and Rogers (2021) and Green and
Smith (2022), which provide scientific evidence for the roles of migratory birds in
seed dispersal and pollination, enhancing objectivity.
▪ The use of third person (e.g., "Research conducted by Thompson and Rogers
(2021) reveals") keeps the focus on the subject matter and evidence, rather than
personal opinions (I think, I believe) or experiences. The text does not include
personal opinions, which helps maintain a focus on factual information and
research findings, thus preserving objectivity.
▪ The text mentions "areas with high densities of migratory birds exhibit greater plant
species richness," providing measurable and objective data that support the
claims.
▪ Citations (e.g., Thompson and Rogers (2021), Green and Smith (2022)) provide
sources for the information, allowing readers to verify the data and ensuring the
writer's claims are supported by credible research.
▪ The text presents roles of migratory birds in both seed dispersal and pollination
without favouring one aspect over the other, offering a comprehensive and
balanced view that supports objectivity.

Let’s practice! Read each sentence below and rewrite it so that it is more objective.

It seems like the new drug is effective for treating the disease.

Most people think that Mercury is a dangerous chemical.

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The experiment probably worked because the results were positive.

It’s pretty clear that this plant grows better with more sunlight.

Many researchers believe that this is the best explanation.

Now write your own objective sentence

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Task 3: Logical organisational structure

Academic writing's clear and logical structure can help readers follow the text and
make connections between related concepts. The academic essay is a common type
of writing in most undergraduate courses. At a first-year level essays have up to 3 or
5 (sometimes even more) paragraphs that support or help to explain the main topic or
theme. Essays have an introduction, multiple body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Consider the example below.

Structure and
INTRODUCTION organisation
of the essay

Sustainability is a concept that has gained significant attention in recent Background

decades, particularly in the context of environmental preservation and information
resource management. The term sustainability can be defined as "the
development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"
(White, 2016:202). This definition underscores the importance of
balancing economic growth, environmental health, and social well- Thesis
being. Sustainability is crucial for achieving long-term ecological Statement
balance, economic stability, and social equity, ensuring that
future generations can thrive without depleting natural resources.
This essay will explore two primary aspects of sustainability, the Road map
environmental dimension and the economic dimension.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSION

The environmental dimension of sustainability is vital for Topic

safeguarding natural resources and reducing pollution to ensure sentence
a liveable planet for future generations. Firstly, one of the critical
challenges in this area is addressing climate change, which is driven
by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Renewable
energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power offer
viable alternatives to fossil fuels, reducing carbon footprints and Supporting
mitigating climate impacts. Additionally, sustainable agriculture sentences
practices, such as crop rotation, organic farming, and permaculture, linked with
help maintain soil health, conserve water, and enhance biodiversity. transitional
Therefore, protecting ecosystems and endangered species also plays expressions.
a vital role in maintaining ecological balance, ensuring that natural
habitats are preserved for future generations.

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THE ECONOMIC DIMENSION

Economic sustainability is essential for developing resilient and Topic

inclusive economies that thrive without depleting natural sentence
resources. Sustainable business practices, including the adoption of
corporate social responsibility (CSR) and environmental, social, and
governance (ESG) criteria, are essential for long-term economic
health. For instance, green technologies, such as energy-efficient
buildings, electric vehicles, and waste recycling systems, contribute to Supporting
reducing environmental impacts while fostering economic growth. In sentences
fact, circular economy principles, which emphasize the reuse, repair, linked with
and recycling of products, also promote resource efficiency and reduce transitional
waste. By investing in sustainable infrastructure and green jobs, expressions.
economies can achieve growth while minimizing their environmental
footprint.

CONCLUSION

Sustainability is fundamental to achieving a balanced future that Restating the

ensures ecological health, economic resilience, and social equity for thesis
future generations. Throughout this essay, we have explored how
environmental sustainability involves preserving natural resources and
minimizing pollution through renewable energy and sustainable Summary of
agriculture practices. Economic sustainability was examined in terms ideas
of fostering resilient economies that incorporate sustainable business
practices, green technologies, and circular economy principles.
Looking ahead, it is crucial for individuals, businesses, and
The way
governments to commit to sustainable practices in all areas of life. By
forward
integrating sustainability into our daily decisions, policy-making, and
economic strategies, we can create a more just and sustainable world.
As we face the challenges of climate change and resource depletion, it
is our collective responsibility to act now to protect the planet and
ensure a prosperous future for all.

REFERENCE:

White, R., 2016. Sustainable Development in the Modern Era.

International Journal of Sustainable Development, 9(4), pp. 201-213.

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Let’s look at each section of the essay in more detail.

Introduction: The introduction paragraph helps orientate the reader to the topic and
broadly introduce the topic to them. This helps the reader to see the relevance and
importance of the topic and it also helps to grab their attention.

• Background information on the topic serves to provide the reader with some
relevant information about the main idea of the essay. This could be a definition,
some historical facts or contemporary ideas.

• The thesis statement or the central idea of the essay states the topic of the essay
in one single sentence, similar to a topic sentence in a paragraph. The thesis
statement needs to be narrowed and focused so that it does not try to cover too
much information in a short essay.

• The road map which is usually the last sentence of the introduction, mentions the
sub-topics that will explored in the body of the essay. It tells the reader which topic
is going to be first, second and so forth.

The body paragraphs: Paragraphs are the building blocks of a paper. A paragraph
discusses one idea in detail and aids the development of an overall topic for the essay.
Briefly stated, a paragraph is a group of sentences about one specific idea. Paragraph
lengths will vary depending on the purpose of the paragraph.

• The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph.

• The supporting sentences are details that support the topic sentence. These
might include facts, descriptions, examples or any evidence that relates back to
your topic sentence, and ultimately your thesis statement.

• Transitional devices (firstly, secondly, furthermore, however, thus, as a result,

however etc.) link sentences together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps
or breaks between ideas.

• The concluding sentence ties together the ideas brought up in the paragraph or
links the paragraph with the next one coming after it, thereby transitioning to the
ideas of the next paragraph.

The conclusion: While the introduction prepares the reader for what is to come, the
conclusion summarises what the reader has read. The conclusion wraps up the essay
in a tidy package and brings it home for the reader. A concluding paragraph of an
academic essay consists of 3 components.

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• Restating the thesis helps to remind the reader what the purpose or viewpoint of
the essay was. In other words, it restates what the essay set out to prove or discuss
in the introductory paragraph.

• Summary of the main ideas mentioned in the body paragraphs by highlights the
most important points made. This helps the reader by providing a recap of what
was written without retelling everything.

• The way forward - leaves the readers with something to think about, like perhaps
a new insight into the topic or a relevant quote, or a call for more research to be
done in future. The closing sentence should help the reader feel a sense of closure
and make the readers glad they read the paper. Some scholars leave their readers
with a responsibility. After the reader has read the text, this sentence informs them
what they should think, feel, or change.

Read the following essay and identify all the sections. Label them in the margin.

INTRODUCTION Sections

South Africa is at a crossroads in its energy landscape. Historically

reliant on coal for electricity generation, the country is now shifting its
focus towards renewable energy sources to address environmental
concerns, energy security, and economic development. A significant
portion of South Africa’s coal-fired power plants are aged, with many
operating for over 40 years. Notably, the Komati Power Station, one of
the oldest, began operations in 1961 (Eskom, 2023). To overcome
these challenges and maximize the benefits of renewable energy,
South Africa needs a comprehensive and integrated approach. This
essay explores the state of renewable energy in South Africa,
examining the opportunities it presents, and the challenges faced
towards a sustainable energy future.

RENEWABLE ENERGY OPPORTUNITIES

South Africa is endowed with abundant renewable energy resources,

including solar, wind, and biomass, making it well-positioned to
harness these resources to meet its energy needs. The country has
significant solar potential due to its high levels of solar irradiation,
especially in the Northern Cape region. Solar photovoltaic (PV)
systems and concentrated solar power (CSP) are increasingly being
utilized, with large-scale solar farms contributing to the national grid.
Wind energy also holds great promise for South Africa, particularly
along the coastal regions and in areas with high wind speeds. The
development of wind farms has been growing, and projects such as the

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Sere Wind Farm in the Western Cape highlight the potential for wind
power to become a major contributor to the energy mix.

CHALLENGES FACING SOUTH AFRICA

Despite the promising opportunities, South Africa faces several

challenges in transitioning to renewable energy. One of the primary
obstacles is the dependency on coal-fired power plants, which still
account for the majority of electricity generation. The infrastructure and
economic interests tied to coal can slow down the adoption of cleaner
technologies. Financial and regulatory barriers also affect the growth
of renewable energy. Although the Renewable Energy Independent
Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP) has attracted
significant investment, the high initial costs of renewable energy
projects and the need for supportive policies can deter potential
investors. Another challenge is the uneven distribution of renewable
energy resources across the country. While some regions have high
solar or wind potential, others may not be as well-suited for these
technologies. Addressing regional disparities and ensuring equitable
access to renewable energy benefits are crucial for a balanced energy
transition.

CONCLUSION

South Africa stands at a pivotal moment in its energy transition, with

renewable energy offering significant opportunities for economic
growth, environmental protection, and energy security. By addressing
the challenges and leveraging its abundant renewable resources, the
country can move towards a more sustainable and resilient energy
system. Through continued investment, supportive policies, and
innovative solutions, South Africa can harness the power of
renewables to shape a brighter and cleaner energy future.

REFERENCE:

Eskom, 2023. Eskom Power Station Operating History. [online]

Available at: https://www.eskom.co.za/our-
business/generation/power-stations/ [Accessed 6 August 2024].

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Go through a checklist to see if this essay meets the criteria.

Tick the appropriate box for each statement or question. Yes No

THE INTRODUCTION

The background information is enough and relevant to the theme of

the essay.

The thesis statement is accurate and complete.

The thesis statement is aligned with the topic of the essay.

The road map identifies two relevant topics that will be mentioned in
the essay.

BODY PARAGRAPHS

The topic sentences introduce the main ideas of the paragraphs.

Each supporting idea is linked to the topic sentence.

Each supporting idea gives evidence or an example.

The supporting sentences are linked with transitional expressions or

cohesive devices.

The correct amount of supporting ideas is included.

There are concluding sentences.

The concluding sentences restate the main idea of the paragraph or

links to the next paragraph.

The ideas flow logically and make sense.

The content is interesting.

All ideas, evidence and examples are referenced appropriately.

THE CONCLUSION

The conclusion has a transition word at the start of the paragraph.

The thesis statement is restated in a new/different way.

The major ideas in the essay are summarised effectively.

The conclusion ends with a way forward.

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 REFERENCING

Have all the in-text references been included in the reference list?

Is the reference list structured according to Harvard referencing?

Is the reference list written in alphabetical order?

Make comments about the areas that can be improved:

Task 4: Coherence and flow

Cohesion and coherence are important features of academic writing. It is important for
the parts of a written text to be connected. Another word for this is cohesion. This
word comes from the word cohere, which means 'to stick together'. Cohesion is
therefore related to ensuring that the words and sentences you use stick together.

Good cohesion is achieved through the following methods:

• Repeated words: One way to achieve cohesion is to repeat words, or to repeat

ideas using different words (synonyms).

• Transitional expressions: Also called cohesive devices or linking words, these

words or phrases show the relationship between ideas. Transitional devices are
words or phrases that function like bridges between parts of your essay. They are
cues that help the reader to interpret ideas in the way that you, as a writer, want
them to understand. Transitional devices help you carry over a thought from one
sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another
with words or phrases. Finally, transitional devices link your sentences and
paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between
ideas.

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There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads your reader
to make certain connections or assumptions about the areas you are connecting.
Some lead your reader forward and imply the “building” of an idea or thought, while
others make your reader compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding
thoughts.

Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue your reader
in a given way.

Again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further,

To add: furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what’s more, moreover, in
addition, first (second, etc.)
Whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the
other hand, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up
To
against, balanced against, but, although, conversely, meanwhile,
compare:
after all, in contrast, although this may be true, by contrast,
contrastively
Because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently,
To prove: furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any
case, that is

To show Immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later,
time: previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then

To repeat: In brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted

Definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case,

To absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever,
emphasise: perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a
doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation
First, second, third, and so forth, a, b, c, and so forth. Next, then,
To show following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward,
sequence: subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this,
simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then,
soon

For example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this

To give an
occasion, in this situation take the case of, to demonstrate, to
example:
illustrate, as an illustration

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 To
In brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I
summarise
have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as
or
a result, consequently, on the whole
conclude:

To show In other words, namely, that is, i.e., I mean, for example, for
identity: instance, specifically

To show But, however, while, instead, nevertheless, on the other hand, in

opposition: contrast

To show
cause and As a result, because, for, so, as a consequence, therefore
effect:

Let’s look at an example and notice how cohesion has been created using repeated
words, transitional expressions, and repeated key ideas.

History shows that human beings have come a long way from where they started.
They have developed new technologies, which means that everybody can enjoy
luxuries they never previously imagined. However, the technologies that are
temporarily making this world a better place to live could well prove to be an ultimate
disaster due to, among other things, the creation of nuclear weapons, increasing
pollution, and loss of animal species. The biggest threat to the earth caused by
modern human activity comes from the creation of nuclear weapons. Although it
cannot be denied that countries have to defend themselves, the kind of weapons
that some of them currently possess are far in excess of what is needed for defence.
If these weapons were used, they could lead to the destruction of the entire
planet.

Animals are an important feature of this earth and the past decades have witnessed
the extinction of a considerable number of animal species. This is the
consequence of human encroachment on wildlife habitats, for example,
deforestation to expand cities. Some may argue that such loss of species is
natural and has occurred throughout the earth's history. However, the current rate
of species loss far exceeds normal levels and is threatening to become a mass
extinction event.

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Circle the letter that correctly identifies the nature of the bold transition in each of the
following sentences.

1 A water pipe downtown broke this morning, so a. addition

several businesses had no water for b. time
hours. c. comparison
d. cause and effect
2 Even though most South Africans are primarily a. addition
concerned about poaching, it should be b. time
remembered that it is now nearly a worldwide c. contrast
concern.
d. comparison
3 Nomusa will probably go to the UFS, just like her a. time
older brothers. b. contrast
c. comparison
d. cause and effect
4 There are ways you can make boring tasks more a. contrast
pleasant. For instance, bring a portable radio b. comparison
and listen to music on the earphones while you c. illustration/example
work.
d. cause and effect
5 The lazy checkout clerk forced the six-pack of a. time
cola into the bottom of the bag, tearing it. Then b. contrast
she shrugged her shoulders and said, “I guess c. comparison
you’ll have to carry the bag from the bottom.”
d. illustration/example
6 Science-fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke correctly a. addition
predicted that satellites would be used for b. time
communication. Moreover, in 1947 he correctly c. contrast
predicted that 1959 would be the year the first
d. cause and effect
rocket to the moon was launched
7 Some people in Durban built their houses very a. addition
close to the shoreline. Consequently, they have b. contrast
had to spend a lot of money trying to protect their c. illustration/example
property from the sea.
d. cause and effect
8 Running can make people more aware of their a. addition
physical surroundings, such as the scent of b. contrast
honeysuckle or the changing moods of the trees. c. illustration/example
d. cause and effect
9 Residents complain bitterly about potholes in the a. time
streets and sloppy trash pick-up, yet these same b. contrast
people resist paying higher taxes for the c. comparison
improvement of these services.
d. illustration/example
10 Telephone interviewing allows for a large number a. addition
of responses in a short time and at relatively low b. time
cost. Moreover, the method permits interviewers c. contrast
to reach respondents at specific times of the day;
d. comparison

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 this is an important consideration in the study of
radio and TV listening habits.

Circle the letter of the word that correctly identifies the appropriate transition word or
phrase. Then underline the kind of transition you have used.

1 __________ the invention of television, The transition word indicates:

people probably spent more of their leisure • Addition
time reading. • cause and effect
• time
a. Nevertheless
b. Because
c. Before

2 If you’re having company for dinner, try to get The transition word indicates:
as much done in advance as possible. • illustration/example
__________, set the table the day before. • comparison
• contrast
a. For instance
b. In contrast
c. Similarly

3 __________ I’m very allergic to flowers, my The transition word indicates:

friend bought a bouquet of roses. • time
• contrast
a. Until • addition
b. Because
c. Even though

4 My grandfather loves to say, “You’re as The transition word indicates:

nervous __________a long-tailed cat in a • cause and effect
roomful of rocking chairs.” • time
• comparison
a. after
b. as
c. as a result

5 __________ John’s car stereo was on full The transition word indicates:
blast, I could see his lips moving, but I had no • comparison
idea what he was saying. • addition
• cause and effect
a. Moreover
b. Because
c. Just as

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Task 5: Myths about academic writing

Many students believe that writing well is a “natural gift” rather than a learned skill.
Typically, these students find writing very difficult and try to avoid writing at all costs.
Consequently, their attitude towards writing becomes the primary reason they struggle
with writing. They have brainwashed themselves into thinking that they can never write
well. However, a better attitude would be for these students to believe that writing is a
skill that can be learned. Like any sport or hobby, the more you practice, the better
you will become. The important thing to remember is that writing is not an automatic
process, it takes hard work and determination.

Myth #1: Writers only start writing when they have everything figured out

Writing is not like sending a WhatsApp! Writers figure out much of what they want
to write as they write it. Rather than waiting, get some writing on the page—even
with gaps or problems. You can come back to patch up rough spots.

Myth #2: Perfect first drafts

We put unrealistic expectations on early drafts, either by focusing too much on the
impossible task of making them perfect (which can put a cap on the development of
our ideas), or by making too little effort because we do not care or know about their
inevitable problems. Nobody writes perfect first drafts; polished writing takes lots of
revision.

Myth #3: Good grammar is good writing

When people say “I can’t write”, what they often mean is they have problems with
grammatical correctness. Writing, however, is about more than just grammatical
correctness. Good writing is a matter of achieving your desired effect upon an
intended audience. Plus, as we saw in Myth#2, no one writes perfect first drafts.

Think about the following statements and decide what is True or False.

Write down some ideas next for each statement to justify your choice.

Statement True False

A good writer must sit down and write the entire paper in
one sitting without stopping.

Anyone can write well.

Using long sentences makes your writing appear more

scholarly.

Good writers never make mistakes in spelling, grammar,

and punctuation.

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Writers start writing far in advance.

Personal opinions have no place in academic writing.

A person uses the same set of skills when speaking and

listening compared to reading and writing.

Academic writing demands a formal tone and style.

Every sentence in academic writing needs a citation.

A well-organized paper with a logical flow enhances

readability and comprehension.

Academic writing must use complex language and jargon to

sound authoritative.

The more sources you cite, the stronger your argument.

Academic writing requires evidence to support claims.

Plagiarism is a serious offence in academic writing.

Academic writing is just about summarizing other people’s

work.

Editing and revision are critical steps in the writing process.

You must write your introduction first before the rest of the
paper.

Body paragraphs can vary in length and complexity in an

essay

Academic writing should not be creative.

Academic writing requires careful organization and logical

flow.

Research is a fundamental part of academic writing.

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SECTION 5: THE WRITING PROCESS
Writing is not a one-time act of creation but a multi-step approach that involves
several stages to produce a polished and effective piece of writing. This concept
emphasizes that writing involves planning, drafting, revising, and editing.

Let’s consider each stage and then work through an example of the whole process.

Step 1: Instruction ▪ Identify key concepts and ideas that must be included.
analysis: Unpack ▪ Identify the question to be answered (implications of the
your essay or action verbs such as Define, Explain, Outline, Discuss
assignment etc.)
question. ▪ Understand the product requirements:
o Who is the audience? Who am I writing for?
o In what format must it be? (Essay, Portfolio,
Assignment, Report, Oral, Presentation etc.)
o What length must it be? (1200 words, 2 pages, etc.)
o What format must be in? (headings, subheadings,
Calibri; font size 12; 1.5 line spacing etc)

Step 2: Plan and ▪ Determine what you want to find out or the specific
brainstorm question you need to answer.
▪ Gather and organize ideas about the topic.
▪ Write down ideas, concepts, and themes related to the
topic.

Step 3: Research ▪ Read extensively or broadly about the topic to gain an

overview of the general topic
▪ Make a list of important terms and concepts related to
your topic that can help in searching for more detailed
information.
▪ Collect information from original materials such as
research studies, journal articles, historical documents,
statistical data or course textbooks.
▪ Utilize search engines like Google Scholar or specialized
search engines for academic content.

Step 4: Take ▪ Take detailed notes, including referencing information for

notes and record citation purposes.
information ▪ Start grouping related information together, similar
studies/findings etc.

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 ▪ Summarize key points and categorize information based
on relevance and themes.
▪ If needed, seek additional sources to fill any gaps or
provide further clarification.

Step 5: Synthesise ▪ Examine the information for recurring themes, patterns, or

information concepts. Look for similarities and differences in how
different sources address the topic.
▪ Group the information into categories or themes based on
common elements.
▪ Compare how different sources approach the same topic.
▪ Draw connections between the information, showing how
different pieces of evidence relate to one another.

Step 6: Create an ▪ Create a clear debatable thesis statement.

outline ▪ Create a structured plan or outline to organize thoughts
▪ Get ideas down on paper without worrying about
perfection.
▪ Organise ideas into sections or chunks according to topic
and theme

Step 7: Draft the ▪ Write the main points or subtopics that will be covered in
essay the body of the essay.
▪ Develop a body paragraph for each major idea.
▪ Present evidence, examples, or data to support the idea.
▪ Use transitional phrases (Firstly, however, furthermore) to
smoothly connect paragraphs and ideas.
▪ Write the introduction and conclusion after writing all the
body paragraphs.
▪ Share the draft for constructive feedback to improve the
essay

Step 8: Edit, ▪ Go through each sentence to check for clarity and style.
proofread and ▪ Carefully proofread the draft to correct any grammatical,
revise spelling, or punctuation errors.
▪ Replace average words with better words.
▪ Refine and revise ideas for argument strength.
▪ Check that all the referencing, direct quotes and
paraphrases are correct.
▪ Ensure that the essay meets all assignment requirements
or guidelines before submitting it.

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Which of these steps have you used in the past for assessments?

Which of these steps do you find easy or difficult? Why?

What methods do you use to check for grammatical, punctuation, and stylistic errors
during the editing phase?

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Let’s consider an example of the writing process in action.

Nomusa, a student in the NAS faculty, has received her first academic assignment
from her Ecology lecturer. Her essay is due in 4 weeks, and she has decided to start
early. Consider her essay question below.

Topic: Discuss the effectiveness of sustainable water management practices in

South Africa. Present the challenges and provide possible solutions for water
pollution in South Africa.

Audience: The Ecology lecturer.

Format: It must be in the form of an essay with a maximum of 1200 words. Use
headings and subheadings to clearly organize the content.

Task 1: Instruction analysis - Unpack the question

What are the key concepts and ideas that must be included? List and explain each.

What are the instruction words she must adhere to? What do they mean?

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In what format must her submission be? How can she structure her submission?

How many parts are there to the question? In other words, what are all the sections
that must be included in the answer for it to be complete?

Who is the essay for? What is the goal or purpose of the essay?

Do you think research or referencing is necessary for this assignment? Why?

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Task 2: Plan and brainstorm around the topic

Consider all the ideas Nomusa has brainstormed about her topic.

Sustainable • Water
water • Agriculture
practices • Conservation

• Drought
• Water scarcity
South Africa • Climate change
• Policies
• Pollution control

• Dam resevoirs
• Waste less
Conservation • Rainwater harvesting
• Sustainability
• Green landscaping

Which of these ideas in the mind map above do you think she can use? Write down
any 5 ideas/ concepts.

Then, add an additional idea. The additional idea can be an elaboration on the first
idea or a new idea.

5 ideas / concepts Additional idea

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2

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Task 3: Conduct research on the topic

After brainstorming some ideas around the topic, Nomusa has decided that she wants
to start finding and reading some good resources to help her prepare for the essay.

Let’s consider the list of resources she has found this far. She now needs to decide
based on her topic which sources are relevant or irrelevant.

Reference: Type Utility

1 Smith, J., 2022. Sustainable Water Management in South Journal

Africa. Journal of Environmental Management, 135(2), article
pp.123-136.

2 Calverley, C.M., Walther, S.C. 2022. Drought, water Online

management, and social equity: Analysing Cape Town, Journal
South Africa’s water crisis. Frontiers in Water 4:910149. article
Doi: 10.3389/frwa.2022.910149

3 Department of Water and Sanitation, South Africa, 2015. Website

[online] Available at: http://www.dwa.gov.za/

4 Gleick, P.H., 2010. Water Management Adaptations to Journal

Prevent Climate Change Impacts on the USA's Water article
Supply. Water Resources Research, 46, W10529.

5 Mpandeli, S., 2019. Water Resources Management in Book

South Africa. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.

6 White, D., 2021. Industrial Pollution and Water Quality in Journal

South Africa. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, article
186(7), pp.3959-3969.

7 News24, 2024. Environment. [online] Available at: Website

https://www.news24.com/Green

8 Lee, H., Park, K. and Han, M., 2018. IoT-Based Smart Journal
Irrigation System for Efficient Water Management in article
Agriculture. Journal of Sensors, 2018, p.8471283.

9 World Wildlife Fund South Africa, 2024. [online] Available Website

at: http://www.wwf.org.za/

10 Blokland, M. and Alaerts, G., 2000. Sustainable Book

Development of Water Resources in Africa. Rotterdam:
A.A. Balkema.

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 11 Huchzermeyer, M., 2006. Urban Planning and Informal Journal
Settlements in South Africa: Challenges and Strategies. article
Development Southern Africa, 23(1), pp. 3-20.

12 Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 2024. Website

[online] Available at: http://www.csir.co.za/

13 White, R., 2016. Sustainable Development in the Modern Journal

Era. International Journal of Sustainable Development, article
9(4), pp. 201-213.

14 Molobela, P.I., Sinha, P. 2011. Management of water Journal

resources in South Africa: A review. African Journal of article
Environmental Science and Technology Vol. 5(12), pp.
993-1002. [online] Available at
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJEST

15 Marine Conservation Institute, 2024. Saving Wild Ocean Website

Places. [online] Available at: https://marine-
conservation.org/

Which 3 sources would you recommend she use? Why?

Are there any other types of sources or information you think she can use or add?

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Task 4: Read critically and take notes

Nomusa has selected an article from the list above that she has read and taken
notes on. Consider her notes below and add / comment on the efficacy. You can add
your own notes too.

Title: Management of water resources in South Africa: A review

Reference: Molobela, P.I., Sinha, P. 2011. Management of water resources in

South Africa: A review. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
Vol. 5(12), pp. 993-1002. [online] Available at
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJEST

Nomusa has underlined key ideas that she thinks are important for her essay. She
has also made notes in the margin to help her think critically about the article. Please
note, this is just a small section of the article.

Article Nomusa’s Notes

Introduction
Water may be everywhere, but its use has always been These 3 aspects are
important regarding the
constrained in terms of availability, quantity and quality conversation around
(Biswas, 2004). The scarcity of water globally has lead to water.
intense political pressures, often referred as “water stress”.
Furthermore, water problems not only involve political
boundaries but, also evades institutional classification and
eludes legal generalization (Wolf, 1999). Many challenges
regarding water management continue to face the world. This is relevant to the
Some of the primary difficulties may include: limited physical second part of the essay
resources, a long cycle of inadequate rainfall, a rapid question. It can be used as
growing population, and stagnant economies. Complex a quote or paraphrased.
challenges such as these dictate a critical need to manage
and conserve water resources properly (Christopher, 1988).

In order to adapt to water shortages, some changes are

needed that will maintain or improve the ability of a system
such as the municipal water supply to continue to serve its
function (Ivey et al., 2004). Hence, problems relating to water All countries struggle with
water sustainability at
are neither homogenous, nor constant or consistent over various times in the year.
time. They often vary from one region to another, even within
a single country, from one season to another, and also from
one year to another (Biswas, 2004).

Solutions to water problems depend not only on water

availability, but also on many other factors such as: the
processes through which water is managed; competence
and capacities of the institutions (private and government)
that manage them; prevailing socio-political conditions that This is relevant to South
dictate water planning; development and management Africa.

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processes and practices (Ivey et al., 2004; Biswas, 2004);
supply management (Ivey et al., 2004) appropriateness and
implementation status of the existing legal frameworks;
availability of investment funds; social and environmental
conditions of the countries concerned; levels of available and
usable technology; national, regional and international
perceptions; modes of governance including issues like
political interferences, transparency, corruption, etc.;
educational and development conditions and status; quality
and relevance of research that are being conducted on the
national, subnational and local water problems (Biswas,
2004).

WATER MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA

Since 1994, the South African Government has undertaken These are some
important reforms aiming to address rural poverty and aspects that I can
inequalities inherited from the past apartheid regime. include in my essay
Amongst other programs, it has adopted a new water when I mention /
legislation that promotes equity, sustainability, discuss the solutions
representatively and efficiency through water management to the water problems.
decentralization, new local and regional institutions, water
users’ registration and licensing, and the emergence of
water rights’ markets (Perret, 2002).

The progressive South African water law (RSA, 1998) is I could include a
expected to bring about fundamental changes in the way in definition about
which water is used and shared among different users. A sustainability in my
major aim is to ensure a better balance between efficiency, essay.
sustainability and equity needs in water allocations (Levite et
al., 2003). Water must be guaranteed for all, especially to
meet the basic human needs of poor people in rural areas
who have been disadvantaged for so long. Furthermore, Some of the sectors
water cannot be simply allocated to meet the increased using the most water
demand from agriculture, industry and other productive – could include this
sectors but must also satisfy the requirements of aquatic under challenges.
ecosystems and the ecological reserve. Finally,
responsibility for decision-making in respect of water
allocations will be decentralized to the level of the future
catchment management agencies (CMAs). A system of
authorizations for water abstractions is foreseen with
compulsory licensing when the basin is water stressed
(Levite et al., 2003).

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Distinguishing between essential and nonessential information when reading is a
crucial skill for effective comprehension and retention. This skill helps readers focus
on key points, arguments, and details that contribute significantly to understanding the
text's main ideas. Nonessential information includes additional details, examples,
anecdotes, or descriptive elements that enhance the text but are not crucial for
understanding the main idea.

When reading to prepare for your essay, look for the following information:

• Headings, subheadings, introductory and concluding paragraphs, and

highlighted or bolded terms;
• Key vocabulary that is mentioned in the essay topic;
• Main ideas, and critical details that are necessary to understand the overall
message or argument of the text; and
• Critical facts, statistics, or data that support the main ideas.

Now it’s your turn. Read a small section of the article below and take notes to help
Nomusa prepare for her essay.

Title: Management of water resources in South Africa: A review

Reference: Calverley, C. M. Walther, S. C. 2022.Drought, water management,

and social equity: Analyzing Cape Town, South Africa’s water crisis. Front. Water
4:910149. doi: 10.3389/frwa.2022.910149

Article Notes

Introduction

Climate change impacts on hydrologic systems, coupled

with an increasing water demand from a growing population,
have led to conflict over water resources in semi-arid regions
around the world. Although water is critical to human health
and survival as well as economic growth and production,
over a billion people in developing countries lack adequate
access to water (Ziervogel et al., 2010). Global climate
change will undoubtedly be a major stressor on freshwater
ecosystems, especially in arid and semi-arid regions in the
latter half of the twenty-first century (du Plessis, 2019).

One such region is the Western Cape of South Africa,

notably Cape Town, whose water scarcity recently reached
a level that significantly threatened the freshwater supply of
its citizens. Low levels of rainfall led to the worst drought in
the region since 1904 (Otto et al., 2018). Annual rainfall in

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the Western Cape had been steadily decreasing in the last
few decades, with 2017 having the lowest annual rainfall
since 1933 (Morabito, 2018). Past research suggests that
human-caused climate change made this drought five to six
times more likely to occur (Tucker, 2020). Along with low
rainfall, Cape Town's water resources are also under
increasing stress due to a consistently increasing population.
The city's population grew from 2.4 million people in 1996 to
4 million in 2017, a 67% increase. During the same time, the
dam storage capacity only increased by about 15%, and
rainfall remained highly variable (Nhamo and Agyepong,
2019). This forebodes further future water supply scarcity
and the viability of future water access, a crisis seen around
the world as more people move to urban centers, placing
pressure on the water sources supplying these cities (Parker
et al., 2018).

During the 2014–2017 drought, the overall dam levels

supplying Cape Town dropped from 92.5 to 23% (Nhamo
and Agyepong, 2019). Cape Town's water crisis reached
peak recognition when the city released its notice of “Day
Zero” in January of 2018. Originally predicted to be in April
2018, Day Zero was the point when the dam levels that
supply the city's water would hit 13.5%, at which time
citywide water rationing would be enforced (Millington and
Scheba, 2020). At that point, taps would shut off to residents
and water distributed through communal standpipes, limited
to 25 l per person per day, as per the World Health
Organization's minimum short-term emergency survival
recommendations. In part due to management decisions and
several subsequent high rainfall events in the winter of 2018,
“Day Zero” never became a reality, though the city strongly
felt the effects of water shortage during these years.
Although much of the press focused on Cape Town as a
major metropolitan area, this drought affected cities across
the region.

Extreme events like Day Zero could become much more

common by the end of the century (Tucker, 2020). Therefore,
this multi-year drought in the Western Cape can serve as an
example for other water scarce cities and regions to explore
their changing drought risks. As climate change hazards
worsen, it is crucial to understand the physical changes up
to this point, and to evaluate the strategies and adaptations

125 | P a g e
 the city undertook in response. This includes assessing the
changes in environmental conditions, but also the political,
economic, and social implications of a reduced and variable
water supply. Prioritizing water resources management is
necessary, as decreasing water availability in these regions
could easily lead to social unrest and conflict. South Africa
has undertaken significant progress in their water policy and
infrastructure, which provides a unique case study of
changing management decisions. Understanding the crisis
in Cape Town requires recognizing the role of the
governance system, as it provides the foundation for the
management and accessibility of water.

Further, water resource policy and management have

significant implications for environmental equity and justice.
Water access and allocation are deeply social processes;
therefore, to explain the Cape Town crisis, it is crucial to
recognize how they intersect with social justice issues. The
World Economic and Social Survey found that poor and
marginalized groups would likely experience the worst
impacts of future water shortages (Savelli et al., 2021). The
history of water access in South Africa mirrors its political
history, divided along racial and class lines. Because South
Africa has such a deep history of inequity, the policy
outcomes from this event may also provide a test case for
the justice concerns that accompany water scarcity in other
regions.

Was there anything in the article Nomusa could use in her essay?

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Task 5: Synthesise information

Nomusa has completed her pre-reading and done some extensive research on her
topic. One of the reasons for finding and looking for similarities in academic articles is
to enhance our comprehension of complex subjects. By weaving together threads of
information from different studies, we construct a more substantial foundation on the
topic

She has made notes on some of the important key concepts and ideas relevant to her
essay. The first important concept she wants to investigate is the idea of sustainability.
Consider all the definitions / quotes she has collected.

Quotes with citation Reference

"Sustainability is defined as the capacity to Brown, G., Smith, W., Robbinson, T.,
endure in a relatively ongoing way across Blake, Y.2015. Conceptualizing
Sustainability: An Overview. Journal
various domains of life, such as ecosystems, of Environmental Management, 160,
economic systems, and human communities" pp. 13-23.
(Brown et al., 2015:14).

"Sustainability refers to the development that White, R., 2016. Sustainable

meets the needs of the present without Development in the Modern Era.
International Journal of Sustainable
compromising the ability of future generations
Development, 9(4), pp. 201-213.
to meet their own needs" (White, 2016: 202).

"Water sustainability is the practice of Gleick, P.H., 2000. Water

managing water resources to ensure the Management and Sustainability:
Integrating Policy, Governance, and
availability of adequate quantity and quality of Science. Journal of Hydrology, 228(1-
water for present and future generations while 2), pp. 1-12.
maintaining the integrity of the hydrological
cycle and associated ecosystems" (Gleick,
2000:3).

"Sustainability is the practice of maintaining Jackson, T., 2017. Long-term

processes of productivity indefinitely by Sustainability and Resource
Management. Journal of Cleaner
replacing resources used with resources of
Production, 142, pp. 45-55.
equal or greater value without degrading or
endangering natural biotic systems" (Jackson,
2017:47).

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Consider the various quotes above. Do the various authors have similar views or
claims? Do all authors agree on what sustainability means?

If yes, why? How are they the same?

If no, why? How are they different?

Now, in your own words, write a definition for sustainability based on your
understanding. You can paraphrase from the quotes above. Remember to include the
in-text reference / citation.

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Task 6: Create an outline

After Nomusa has completed her reading on the topic, she needs to start planning and
drafting her essay. Drafting and outlining helps to organize ideas and arguments in a
coherent and logical structure. The first draft is an opportunity to experiment with
different ideas, structures, and styles without worrying about perfection.

First, revise what the topic expects her to include:

1) A discussion on the effectiveness of sustainable water management practices

in South Africa.
2) An explanation of the challenges of water pollution in South Africa
3) An explanation of the possible solutions for water pollution in South Africa.

Before Nomusa starts drafting her essay she must plan what goes where. She decides
to first organise her ideas into two different outlines. Read through each one and
answer the questions that follow.

Essay outline: Option A

• A definition of sustainability
Introduction paragraph: • Thesis: Sustainable water management practices
I. Background information
can mitigate problems and challenges associated
II. Thesis statement
III. Roadmap with water pollution.
• Roadmap

• Rainwater harvesting in dams and reservoirs

Topic 1: • Drip irrigation to reduce waste
Water management • Efficient water fixtures and pipes
practices

• Urbanisation: increased demand

Topic 2: • Inefficient water treatment facilities
Challenges to water • Lack of infrastructure in rural area
sustainability • Water pollution

• Environmental regulations
Topic 3: • Laws, penalties
Recommendations for future • Awareness and education

• Explain why measures to manage water is

Conclusion paragraph: necessary
I. Restate the thesis
II. Summary of ideas
III. The way forward

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 Essay outline: Option B

Introduction paragraph: • Why water is important in South Africa

I. Background information • Thesis: Water pollution poses a significant threat

II. Thesis statement to public health and biodiversity necessitating
III. Roadmap urgent awareness and sustainable management
practices.

• Roadmap

• Industrial mining
Topic 1: • Chemical production – heavy metals and toxins
• Agricultural pesticides and fertilizers
Types of water pollution • Plastic

Topic 2: • Water toxicity – human health

• Damage to aquatic life – habitat loss
Consequences of water • Damage to ecosystems – loss of biodiversity
pollution

Topic 3: • Community engagement

• Upgrading wastewater treatment plants
Solutions to water pollution • Organic farming – provide South African
example
• Constructed wetlands

Conclusion paragraph: • Explain why measures to manage water are

necessary
I. Restate the thesis
II. Summary of ideas
III. The way forward

Which outline has a clearer and more focused thesis statement? Explain

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Which outline provides a more comprehensive coverage of the topic? How do the
outlines present different perspectives or approaches to the topic?

Which outline has a more logical flow and better organization of ideas? Do the main
points and subpoints build on each other effectively?

What are the unique strengths of each outline? Are there any sections or ideas from
one outline that could enhance the other?

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Now it’s your turn to help Nomusa use her rough ideas and create a final outline that
she can use for her essay. Develop a new outline that incorporates the strongest
elements from both, ensuring a logical flow of ideas and an effective answer to the
essay question.

Essay outline: Option C

Introduction paragraph:

I. Background information

II. Thesis statement

III. Roadmap

Topic 1:

Topic 2:

Topic 3:

Conclusion paragraph:

I. Restate the thesis

II. Summary of ideas

III. The way forward

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Task 7: Draft the essay

After planning the structure of the essay, it’s time to write it out into proper paragraphs.

Consider the first rough draft of Nomusa’s essay.

• She is still missing a thesis statement and roadmap for her introduction.
• She also needs to add some transitional expressions to link her supporting ideas
together in the body paragraphs.
• She still needs to write the conclusion as well.

Read through the essay and help her by adding all the missing information.

INTRODUCTION

South Africa is a water-scarce country with an irregular distribution of water

resources. Sustainable water management is crucial to ensure the availability and
quality of water for various sectors, including agriculture, industry, and domestic use.
"Water sustainability is the practice of managing water resources to ensure the
availability of adequate quantity and quality of water for present and future
generations while maintaining the integrity of the hydrological cycle and associated
ecosystems" (Gleick, 2000:3). Effective management involves planning, regulating,
and using water resources in ways that meet current needs without compromising
future availability. Sustainable water management aims to balance water supply and
demand while protecting natural water cycles and supporting long-term
environmental health. ________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Sustainable water management incorporates a variety of techniques to optimize

water use and minimize waste, with rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation, and efficient
water fixtures and pipes being key practices. _____________, rainwater harvesting
involves collecting and storing rainwater in dams and reservoirs, which serves as a
vital resource for regions facing water scarcity or seasonal rainfall. By capturing
rainwater, communities can reduce dependence on external water supplies and
ensure a reliable water source for agriculture, drinking, and industrial use. Ghaffari
and Saadi (2019:223) explain that “the implementation of rainwater harvesting can

133 | P a g e
significantly reduce the dependence on conventional water supply systems and
contribute to the conservation of groundwater resources". _____________, drip
irrigation is another essential technique that delivers water directly to the roots of
plants in small, controlled amounts, significantly reducing water waste compared to
traditional irrigation methods. This precision in water delivery not only conserves
water but also enhances crop yields by providing optimal moisture
levels_____________, efficient water fixtures and pipes play a crucial role in
sustainable water management by reducing water loss through leaks and ensuring
that water is used effectively in homes, businesses, and public spaces. Installing
low-flow faucets, toilets, and showerheads, as well as maintaining and upgrading
water distribution systems, can lead to substantial water savings. Together, these
practices exemplify a comprehensive approach to managing water resources
sustainably, ensuring that water is available for both current and future needs.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution has severe and far-reaching consequences that affect human
health, aquatic life, and entire ecosystems. "Water toxicity resulting from industrial
pollutants, including heavy metals and organic chemicals, poses significant risks to
human health, contributing to the prevalence of diseases such as cancer and
neurological disorders" (Gupta and Sharma, 2017). _____________, contaminated
water can lead to serious illnesses such as gastrointestinal diseases, neurological
disorders, and even cancers. These health issues are particularly severe in
communities with limited access to clean water, where reliance on polluted water
sources is often a necessity rather than a choice. Damage to aquatic life is another
critical consequence of water pollution. Pollutants such as industrial chemicals,
agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage can create toxic environments in rivers,
lakes, and oceans, leading to habitat loss and the decline of fish and other aquatic
species. _____________,, excessive nutrients from fertilizers can cause
eutrophication, leading to oxygen-depleted zones where marine life cannot survive.
This not only disrupts food chains but also impacts local economies that depend on
fishing. Damage to ecosystems goes beyond individual species; water pollution can
lead to the loss of biodiversity, as entire ecosystems become degraded. Wetlands,
coral reefs, and other sensitive environments are particularly vulnerable, and their
destruction can have cascading effects, such as the collapse of ecosystem services
like water filtration, flood protection, and carbon sequestration. _____________,,
water pollution undermines the health and stability of natural systems, with profound
implications for the planet's biological diversity and the well-being of all living
organisms, including humans.

SOLUTIONS TO WATER SUSTAINABILITY

Urbanization, inefficient water treatment facilities, lack of infrastructure in rural

areas, and water pollution are interconnected challenges that require urgent
solutions due to their significant impact on water availability, quality, and

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sustainability. As urban areas grow, so does the demand for water. Urbanization
leads to a higher concentration of people in cities, which in turn increases the need
for water for domestic, industrial, and recreational purposes. _____________,
solutions are needed to manage water demand in cities, including promoting water
conservation, improving water-use efficiency, and developing alternative water
sources like rainwater harvesting and desalination. _____________, many water
treatment facilities, particularly in developing regions, are outdated or poorly
maintained, leading to inefficiencies in the purification process. Inefficient facilities
struggle to remove contaminants effectively, resulting in water that is unsafe for
human consumption and harmful to the environment. Investing in advanced
treatment technologies and ensuring regular maintenance of existing facilities can
significantly improve water quality. _____________, solutions to water pollution
include stricter enforcement of environmental regulations, the implementation of
pollution control technologies, and the promotion of sustainable agricultural and
industrial practices. Public awareness and education about the impacts of pollution
and the importance of protecting water resources are also crucial in driving
community-led initiatives to reduce pollution.

CONCLUSION

_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________

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 Reference list

Ghaffari, A., & Saadi, S. (2019). "Evaluating the Efficiency of Rainwater Harvesting
in Semi-Arid Regions: A Case Study from Iran." Journal of Hydrology, 574, 223-
234.

Gleick, P.H., 2000. Water Management and Sustainability: Integrating Policy,

Governance, and Science. Journal of Hydrology, 228(1-2), pp. 1-12.

Gupta, P., & Sharma, P. (2017). "Human Health Risks Associated with Heavy
Metal Exposure through Contaminated Water: A Review." Environmental Science
and Pollution Research, 24(20), 16816-16823.

After reading Nomusa’s first draft, make some recommendations for how she can
add, change or edit anything to make it more complete.

Step 1: Add a thesis statement

The thesis statement, or central idea of the essay must state the topic of the essay.
The primary purpose of a thesis statement is to clearly articulate the main argument
or claim that the writer intends to make in the paper. It answers the question or
addresses the issue posed by the essay prompt or research question. By doing so,
the thesis statement provides a clear focus for the reader, ensuring that all subsequent
content is relevant to and supports this central argument.

What do you think is Nomusa’s central claim? What do you think she is trying to argue?
What do you think is her stance on the topic?

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How do you create a thesis statement? Consider the following example.

Step 1 Ask a question How do biodiversity or eco-system services

benefit us and what happens when biodiversity
or eco-system services are not protected or
conserved or no longer available?

Step 2 Create a declaration Biodiversity or eco-system services create

based on the question. ecological stability and provide essential natural
This is the thesis resources for human psychological and
statement. physical well-being.

Step 3 Create 3 claims that 1. Ecological stability is a fundamental

support the thesis requirement for the health and well-being of
statement or our planet and all the life it supports.
declaration. 2. Natural resources such as clean air and
water, regulate climate, support pollinators
for agriculture, and offer habitat for
countless species.
3. Ecosystems provide opportunities for
people to connect with nature such as
hiking, camping, and wildlife observation,
promoting physical activity which has been
shown to reduce stress and improve mental
health.

Step 4 Use each claim as a topic sentence for a paragraph. Add supporting
sentences that can include evidence, examples, details, or arguments that
clarify, explain, or validate the claim.

Now it’s your turn! Complete the table below for Nomusa. The essay question has
already been completed for you.

Step 1 Ask a question Discuss the effectiveness of sustainable water

management practices in South Africa. Present
the challenges and provide possible solutions
for water pollution in South Africa.

Step 2 Create a declaration, the

thesis statement.

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 Step 3 Create 2 claims that 1.
support the thesis
statement or
declaration.

2.

Step 2: Add the roadmap

The next aspect that is missing is the roadmap. A roadmap in an essay introduction
serves as a critical element for guiding both the writer and the reader through the
structure and content of the paper. It helps to outline the key points or arguments that
will be explored, providing a clear path for the essay's development. By indicating what
topics or points will be covered, it helps readers understand how the essay will unfold
and what to expect in each section.

The road map, which is usually the last sentence of your introduction mentions the
sub-topics (the body paragraphs) that you will explore in your thesis statement. It gives
the reader a direction and an idea of what you will be discussing in the body of the
essay.

Consider the following sentence structures and write a roadmap for Nomusa’s essay.

• The essay begins by…It will then go on to.

• The first section of the essay will examine.

• The essay has been organised in the following way

• The essay has been organised into X parts. The first part deals with…

• The main issues addressed in this essay are…

• The essay first gives a …. It then goes on to…

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Step 3: Add transitional expressions to link ideas together

After reading Nomusa’s essay you would have noticed that there are open spaces for
transitional expressions. Also called cohesive devices or linking words, these words
or phrases show the relationship between ideas. Transitional devices are words or
phrases that function like bridges between parts of your essay. They are cues that
help the reader to interpret ideas in the way that you, as a writer, want them to
understand. Transitional devices help you carry over a thought from one sentence to
another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another with words or
phrases

There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads your reader
to make certain connections or assumptions about the areas you are connecting.
Some lead your reader forward and imply the “building” of an idea or thought, while
others make your reader compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding
thoughts.

Go back to the essay and consider the open spaces in the essay and add suitable
transitional expressions. Share your ideas with the rest of the class to check if their
answers are similar to yours.

Step 4: Write the conclusion for Nomusa’s essay

While the introduction prepares the reader for what is to come, the conclusion
summarises what the reader has read. The conclusion wraps up the essay in a tidy
package and brings it home for the reader. A concluding paragraph of an academic
essay consists of 3 components.

1) Restating the thesis helps to remind the reader what the purpose or viewpoint
of the essay was. In other words, it restates what the essay set out to prove or discuss
in the introductory paragraph. Rephrase the thesis statement with a fresh and deeper
understanding.

2) A summary of the main ideas mentioned in the body paragraphs highlights

the most important points made. This helps the reader by providing a recap of what
was written without retelling everything.

3) The way forward - leave the readers with something to think about, like
perhaps a new insight into the topic or a relevant quote, or a call for more research to
be done in future. The closing sentence should help the reader feel a sense of closure
and make the readers glad they read your paper. Some scholars leave their readers
with a responsibility. After the reader has read the text, this sentence informs them
what they should think, feel, or change.

Remember to avoid these missteps in the conclusion:

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• Do not introduce new ideas in your conclusion that you have not discussed in the
body of your essay.

• Do not restate word for word what you have already mentioned in the essay. Try to
think of another way to phrase it (paraphrasing) that offers new insight into the matter.
It is also a good idea to end on a positive note.

Use the space below to write the conclusion.

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Task 8: Revise, edit and proofread

Revising and editing are the two tasks that can significantly improve the essay. Both
are very important elements of the writing process. You may think that a completed
first draft means little improvement is needed. However, even experienced writers
need to improve their drafts and rely on peers during revising and editing. You may
know that athletes miss catches, fumble balls, or overshoot goals. Dancers forget
steps, turn too slowly, or miss beats. For both athletes and dancers, the more they
practice, the stronger their performance will become. Writing has the same capacity
to profit from improvement and revision.

When you revise, you take a second look at the ideas. You might add, cut, move, or
change information in order to make your ideas clearer, more accurate, more
interesting, or more convincing.

When you edit, you take a second look at how you expressed your ideas. You add or
change words. You fix any problems in grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure.
You improve your writing style. You make your essay into a polished, mature piece of
writing, the end product of your best efforts.

As a writer and a thinker, you need to learn to be critical of yourself in a positive way
and have high expectations for your work. You also need to train your eye and trust
your ability to fix what needs fixing. For this, you need to teach yourself where to look.

Nomusa has asked her facilitator to give her specific comments on how she can
improve her first body paragraph. Read through the comments.

Sustainable water management incorporates a variety of techniques to

optimize water use and minimize waste, with rainwater harvesting, drip
irrigation, and efficient water fixtures and pipes being key practices. Firstly,
rainwater harvesting involves collecting and storing rainwater in dams and
reservoirs, which serves as a vital resource for regions facing water scarcity or
seasonal rainfall. By capturing rainwater, communities can reduce dependence on
external water supplies and ensure a reliable water source for agriculture, drinking,
and industrial use. Ghaffari and Saadi (2019:223) explain that “the implementation
of rainwater harvesting can significantly reduce the dependence on conventional
water supply systems and contribute to the conservation of groundwater resources".
In addition, drip irrigation is another essential technique that delivers water directly
to the roots of plants in small, controlled amounts, significantly reducing water waste
compared to traditional irrigation methods. This precision in water delivery not only
conserves water, but also enhances crop yields by providing optimal moisture levels.
Finally, efficient water fixtures and pipes play a crucial role in sustainable water
management by reducing water loss through leaks and ensuring that water is used
effectively in homes, businesses, and public spaces. Installing low-flow faucets,
toilets, and showerheads, as well as maintaining and upgrading water distribution

141 | P a g e
systems, can lead to substantial water savings. Together, these practices exemplify
a comprehensive approach to managing water resources sustainably, ensuring that
water is available for both current and future needs.

Facilitator comments:

• Good topic sentence! The topic sentence is strong because it clearly introduces
the main idea of the paragraph, which is sustainable water management and its
associated techniques. It sets the stage for the detailed explanations that follow
by highlighting both the goals (optimizing water use and minimizing waste) and
the key practices (rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation, and efficient water fixtures
and pipes). This gives the reader a clear understanding of what to expect in the
paragraph, making the structure and focus of your discussion immediately
apparent.
• Good that you have a reference here to add evidence and support for your ideas.
• Your discussion on sustainable water management is thorough, but you could
strengthen your argument by providing specific examples or case studies where
these techniques have been successfully implemented. Add some real examples
in a South African context to strengthen your argument.
• Good use of transitions!
• While your explanation is clear, consider expanding on the challenges or
limitations associated with these techniques. For example, what are some
potential obstacles to implementing rainwater harvesting or drip irrigation in
South Africa? Addressing these could show a more critical understanding of the
topic.
• You could also make the concluding sentence more impactful by linking the
importance of sustainable water management to broader environmental or social
goals. For example: "Together, these practices are essential not only for
sustaining water resources but also for promoting environmental resilience and
supporting the well-being of communities worldwide."

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Use the space below to rewrite Nomusa’s paragraph with the added improvements
and suggestions.

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SECTION 6: YOUR ESSAY QUESTION
Essay writing is a fundamental skill in academia and beyond, and the effectiveness of
an essay often begins with a clear understanding of the topic and instructions. It guides
your research efforts by helping you identify the most relevant sources and
information. You can save time by concentrating on resources that directly contribute
to your essay's content. A good understanding of your topics helps you stay on track
and avoid irrelevant information, maintaining the focus of your writing. We are now
going to start applying the multi-step process we have discussed in the previous
section.

Essay question:

1) Identify and discuss the value and availability of ecosystem services in South Africa.
Mention any South African example.

2) Explain how ecosystem services are important (beneficial) for the health of humans
and the environment.

3) Discuss the impact of what happens when ecosystem services are not protected or
conserved or no longer available.

The next step is to consider other aspects before you start planning and drafting ideas:

Who is the audience? Who am I writing The facilitator and your fellow students
for?

What is the purpose of the assignment? • To show your understanding of the

concepts / ideas covered in the
reading material;

• To present a clear and convincing

argument with logical reasoning and
sound evidence around

• To present facts, evidence, and

information in a structured and
organised way.

In what style must I write? Formal and objective

How long must the assignment be? 1 typed page or page and a half

Must I include references and citations? Yes. Throughout your essay you MUST
include evidence and examples with in-
text references and a reference list to
support your ideas.

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 Must I include examples and evidence Yes. You must do some research on the
to support my ideas? topic.

How must the essay be organised? • Introduction paragraph

• Multiple body paragraphs

• Conclusion paragraph

• Reference list

How and when must I submit? The due date will be communicated in
class and on Blackboard

Are there any technical details? • Length: more or less 1,200 words

• Use headings and subheadings

• Font: Calibri; font size 12; 1.5 line

spacing

Watch the following YouTube video – “How to unpack your essay question”

Available online at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLMFpYUNz7o

This will help you understand why and how you can break up your assignment topic
so that you know what to do.

What are the 5 steps you can follow to unpack you essay question (as suggested in
the video)? Write them down below.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

145 | P a g e
Task 1: Unpack the essay question

What are the key concepts and words that must be included?

What are the instruction words that must adhered to? What do they mean?

In what format must the submission be? In what style must the submission be?

How many parts are there to the question? In other words, what are all the sections
that must be included in the answer for it to be complete?

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Task 2: Explore your topic

Consider the type of human needs below and rate which ones you think are most
important to least important.

▪ Access to clean and breathable air for survival.

▪ A sense of security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
▪ The need for affectionate relationships, social connections, and being part of a
community.
▪ The need for self-respect, self-esteem, and recognition from others.
▪ The need for the latest smartphone.
▪ Adequate hydration through access to clean drinking water.
▪ The desire to realize one’s full potential and pursue personal growth.
▪ Proper nutrition for energy and bodily functions.
▪ The need for independence, control, and the ability to make one’s own choices.
▪ Sufficient rest for physical and mental recovery.
▪ Protection from environmental hazards and a safe place to live.
▪ The need for mental engagement, learning, and intellectual challenges.
▪ The need for transport.
▪ Appropriate attire for protection against weather and environmental conditions.
▪ Access to healthcare and medical attention when needed.
▪ Regular physical activity to maintain physical health and fitness.
▪ The need to express feelings and emotions in a healthy way.
▪ The biological need to procreate and ensure the continuation of the species.
▪ The need for interaction, companionship, and positive relationships with others.
▪ The ability to maintain a stable body temperature through environmental control
or clothing.
▪ ________________________________________________________
▪ ________________________________________________________
▪ _________________________________________________________

Add 3 more to the list

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Which human need is the most important? Why?

Which human need is the least important? Why?

Which human need is the most underrated? Why?

Which human need is the most overrated? Why?

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SECTION 7: CRITICAL READING FOR A TOPIC
Task 1: Activating background knowledge

Activating background knowledge helps students link what they already know to the
new information they are about to learn. This creates a foundation on which new
knowledge can be structured, making it easier to understand and retain the material.
Background knowledge provides context, making unfamiliar topics less intimidating
and more understandable. Read the information below to activate your knowledge
about ecosystem services.

According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem services are

defined as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, split into four categories of
provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural services. Because they are so
beneficial in a variety of ways, the international community has begun to monitor
and monetize these services, in addition to advocating for environmental
sustainability. Each category of ecosystem services provides a certain type of
benefit to the global population.

1) Provisioning services are often described as ecosystem goods and refer to

benefits such as food production. It also includes water, and fuel.
2) Supporting services are services that enable other categories to work,
including but not limited to nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production and
habitat provision.
3) Regulatory services such as carbon-storing, are processes often considered to
be public goods, and are perhaps the most difficult to measure. It includes
climate regulation, flood regulation and water purification.
4) Cultural services refer to social aspects of the ecosystem, such as the services
sacred land provides and eco-tourism. It includes spiritual, aesthetic, educational
and recreational services.

Overall, ecosystem services are crucial for maintaining the balance of natural
systems and supporting human life, economies, and cultures. Their degradation or
loss can lead to significant environmental and socio-economic challenges. Humanity
has expended substantial effort to engineer ecosystems to cheaply and reliably
produce desired ecosystem services such as food, timber, and fibre. However, these
efforts have often overlooked the fact that landscapes simultaneously produce
multiple ecosystem services that interrelate in complex dynamic ways. Thus, an
unintended consequence of human domestication of ecosystems has been
unexpected or undesirable declines in other ecosystem services. Globally, this has
led to an increase in a few services, such as food and timber, and a decline in most
other services such as flood control, genetic resources, or pollination (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment 2005).

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 References:
Bennett, E.M., Peterson, G.D. and Gordon, L.J. 2009. Understanding relationships among multiple ecosystem
services. Ecology Letters, 12: 1394-1404. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01387.x

Integra Government Services International LLC . 2012. Recent developments in ecosystem services accounting.
Available at https://www.integrallc.com/recent-developments-ecosystem-services/.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press,
Washington, DC.

Consider the following ecosystem services:

Plants: crops, vegetables, fruits, food, Animals: Livestock for agriculture, fish,
medicine, fiber, textiles (cotton; silk), forests, milk, wildlife, bees, insects, pollinators, pest
climate regulation, moderation of weather, and disease control,
soil fertility

Water: Natural rivers and lakes, aquifers, Economy: Fuel, biomass, wind, solar, coal,
dams for drinking, irrigation, and industrial oil, wood, ocean trade
use, oceans (trade-routes), aquatic life, flood
and drought mitigation.

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 Recreational: National parks, beaches, Cultural: spiritual landmarks, traditional
botanical gardens; nature reserves, fishing landscapes, traditions and religious
festivals, ancestral burial grounds

How do ecosystem services directly impact your quality of life?

In what ways do human activities enhance or diminish the ability of ecosystems to

provide essential services?

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How do cultural and recreational uses shape the way different communities rely on
and manage services from ecosystems?

How do ecosystem services contribute to the economic stability of a region or country?

How do ecosystem services contribute to the health of an individual?

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Task 2: Contextualisation – South Africa

Contextualizing learning to your local context is important because it helps you to

connect abstract ideas to real-world experiences, encouraging deeper understanding
and engagement. Let’s look a little more closely at ecosystem services in South Africa.

The South African context

The growing global recognition of the value

of ecosystem services and their importance
to human well-being is mirrored in South
Africa, where there are clear links between
biodiversity and human welfare in both
commercial (such as in ‘Big 5’ tourism) and
subsistence (for instance, food and water)
sectors. This country has a wealth of both
biological and cultural diversity.

Although it comprises only 2% of the Earth’s surface, it contains a wealth of

biodiversity (10% of global plant species and 7% of all vertebrates) within its borders,
which is un-equalled by other temperate regions, and is home to three of the world’s
34 global biodiversity hotspots. South Africa’s rich cultural diversity is reflected by
the mix of peoples and cultures of African, European and Asian origin, for example.
Cultural backgrounds influence how people view their environment 35,36,65 and,
thus, how they view and value ecosystem services.

The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity from the National
Biodiversity Assessment – Report of 2018

The number of South African animal species is estimated at 67 000 and over 20 400
plant species have been described. Approximately 7% of the world’s vascular plant
species, 5% of mammals, 7% of birds, 4% of reptiles, 2% of amphibians, 1% of
freshwater fish and 16% of shark, skate and ray species are found in the country.
South Africa has nearly 10% of the worlds coral species and almost a quarter of the
global cephalopod species (octopus, squid, cuttlefish). Some terrestrial invertebrate

153 | P a g e
groups have high richness relative to global statistics, e.g. 13% of the world’s sun
spiders (Solifugae) and nearly 5% of butterflies occur in South Africa. Around half of
the South African species of reptiles, amphibians, butterflies and freshwater fish are
endemic (of a plant or animal native and restricted to a certain place). Almost two-
thirds of South Africa’s plant species are endemic – mostly linked to the unique Cape
Floristic Region. Approximately 40% of South Africa’s estimated 10 000 marine
animal species are endemic, the vast majority of which are invertebrates. South
Africa has a wide range of bioclimatic, oceanographic, geological and topographical
settings. Together, these create high ecosystem diversity and endemism across all
realms.

TERRESTRIAL: Nine biomes and 458 ecosystem types, approximately 80% of

which are endemic.

MARINE: Exceptional marine biodiversity and a wide array of ecoregions with 150
distinct ecosystem types.

FRESHWATER: High variability of rainfall leads to diverse freshwater ecosystems.

Inland wetlands are classified into 135 distinct types; rivers are classified into 222
distinct types.

ESTUARINE: South Africa’s 290 estuaries and 42 micro-estuaries are classified into
22 estuarine ecosystem types. An ecological definition of the COAST draws from

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 the terrestrial, marine and estuarine ecosystem maps and includes 186 ecosystem
types.

References:
Le Maitre D. C. O'Farrell Patrick J. Reyers B. 2007. Ecosystems services in South Africa: a research theme that can engage
environmental, economic and social scientists in the development of sustainability science? South African Journal of
Science 103, pp 367-376

Van Deventer, H., Van Niekerk, L. Harris, L., Smith-Adao, Lindie, B., Foden, Wendy, B., Midgley, Guy, F.2019. National
Biodiversity Assessment 2018: The status of South Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity. Synthesis Report. Synthesis
Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute, an entity of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries,
Pretoria. Available at https://opus.sanbi.org/items/84c7907f-10e2-405d-ba98-d383d8e87fd3.

In what ways do ecosystems in South Africa support the livelihoods of local

communities, particularly those in rural areas? How might changes to these
ecosystems impact these communities?

How do ecosystems (for example the Fynbos, the Karoo, or the Drakensberg
mountains) contribute to South Africa's economy, particularly in sectors like tourism,
agriculture, and fishing?

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What are the potential consequences of losing key ecosystems in South Africa due to
urbanization, agriculture, or climate change (floods; drought)? How might this affect
both the environment and human societies?

How do you personally connect with the natural ecosystems in South Africa, and what
actions can you take to contribute to their conservation and sustainable use?

What activities do you engage in to experience the natural beauty of South Africa?
Can you describe a memorable experience you’ve had in South Africa’s natural
landscapes?

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Task 3: Research from journal articles

Journal articles, especially those published in reputable academic journals, go through

a rigorous peer-review process. Experts in the field evaluate the research for quality,
validity, and accuracy before publication. This ensures that the findings are credible
and reliable. Journal articles often present the latest findings and advancements in a
field. They provide up-to-date information that may not be available in textbooks, which
can sometimes be outdated by the time they are published.

Read the following extract from a journal article and answer the questions that
follow.

Exploring connections among nature, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and

human health and well-being

Human health and well-being can be considered the ultimate or cumulative

ecosystem service (Sandifer and Sutton-Grier, 2014). For medical practitioners and
the public, health often is thought of narrowly as the absence of disease. However,
the World Health Organization (WHO, 1946) defines health much more broadly as
“…a state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity.” Health, or health and well-being, are also described as
including a supportive environment, personal security, freedom of choice, social
relationships, adequate employment and income, access to educational resources,
and cultural identity (Diaz et al., 2006, MA (Millennium Assessment), 2005). Here
we use these latter definitions to encompass the breadth of factors that together
comprise human health and well-being.

Just as we are beginning to appreciate the variety and complexity of human health
benefits that stem from experiencing nature and, more specifically, biodiversity, we
are reaching a critical point in human history where biodiversity and habitat losses
are accelerating due to increased human use, climate change, and rampant
development. Based on language from the Convention on Biological Diversity
(United Nations, 1992), Duffy et al. (2013) described biodiversity as “the variety of
life, encompassing variation at all levels, from the genes within a species to
biologically created habitat within ecosystems.”

Nature is not biodiversity, nor a proxy for biodiversity, but certainly encompasses
biodiversity. Ecosystem services are the specific benefits people derive from nature
(MA (Millennium Assessment), 2005). Strengthening the focus of nascent science
efforts in this area on a much deeper understanding of nature–biodiversity–
ecosystem service–health linkages could play a critical role in supporting growing
policy efforts to incorporate more natural areas and biodiversity in the design and
protection of our cities and coastal communities, with concomitant public health
benefits.

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Based on our review, the
significance of biodiversity to human
welfare is immense. Diaz et al.
(2006) stated it simply as “human
societies have been built on
biodiversity.” A major concern of
many ecologists is that the loss of
biodiversity will negatively impact
human access to reliable. The
Forest et al. study, clean water, and
raw materials (provisioning and
regulating ecosystem services)
(Diaz et al., 2006, Cardinale, 2012),
and will likely have a greater impact
on poor and vulnerable people (Diaz et al., 2006). However, Raudsepp-Hearne et
al. (2010) noted that despite the degradation of some major ecosystem services, it
is difficult to discern impacts on human health and well-being at the global scale.
They reported that “existing global data sets strongly support the Millennium
Assessment (MA (Millennium Assessment) 2005) finding that human well-being is
increasing” and that overall there was only weak evidence of impacts on human
well-being at the global scale. This finding should be qualified, however, to include
the fact that patterns of disease are changing with the result that in the developed
world issues such as obesity (Caballero, 2007) and a variety of other inflammatory-
based physical and psychiatric disorders are now some of the most important public
health concerns. It is also likely that not all the important ecosystem services, such
as the significant role that environmental microbial biodiversity plays in human
immune function [see (Rook, 2013) and below], were considered.

Human Health and Nature

There is a large and growing body of literature that demonstrates that contact with
nature (broadly defined in the introduction and including urban green space, parks,
forests, etc.) can lead to measurable psychological and physiological health
benefits, as well as numerous other positive effects. Although there are a few
studies that report no positive effects of nature exposure [e.g., (Huynh et al., 2013;
Richardson et al., 2010)], these are far outweighed by evidence for positive mental
and physiological health measures and general feelings of well-being. We
summarized the positive effects, benefits and key findings from a very broad range
of studies.

Mental processes and behaviour:

▪ Psychological well-being
▪ Attention restoration/perceived restorativeness

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 ▪ Decreased depression, dejection, anger, aggression, frustration, hostility,
stress
▪ Increased self-esteem
▪ Positive/improved mood
▪ Reduced anxiety and tension
▪ Increased prosocial behaviour/improved behaviour
▪ Increased opportunities for reflection
▪ Increased vitality and vigour/decreased fatigue
▪ Increased creativity
▪ Increased happiness
▪ Increased calmness, comfort and refreshment
▪ Improved body image for women
▪ Reduced ADHD in children
▪ Improved emotional, social health of children; self-worth

Cognitive ability or function

▪ Attentional restoration
▪ Reduced mental fatigue/fatigue
▪ Reduced confusion
▪ Improved academic performance/education/learning opportunities
▪ Improved cognitive function
▪ Improved cognitive function in children
▪ Improved productivity/ability to perform tasks/positive workplace attitude

Physical function and/or physical health

▪ Better general health

▪ Perceived health/well-being
▪ Reduced illness/cough/mortality/sick leave
▪ Stress reduction/less stress-related illness/ improved physiological
functioning:
▪ Reduced cortisol levels (indicative of lower stress)
▪ Reduced blood pressure
▪ Reduced mortality from circulatory and respiratory disease
▪ Reduced headaches/pain
▪ Reduced mortality due to income deprivation Reduced mortality from stroke
▪ Reduced COPD, upper respiratory tract infections, asthma, other
inflammatory disorders and intestinal disease
▪ Reduced obesity
▪ Faster healing/recovery from surgery/illness/trauma
▪ Improved addiction recovery
▪ Reduced cardiovascular and respiratory disease
▪ Reduced pulse/heart rate

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 ▪ Reduction in spread/amplification/of some infectious diseases including
some zoonotic diseases

Individual, community, or national scale

▪ Increased/facilitated social interaction

▪ Enables social empowerment
▪ Reduced aggression, crime rates, violence, fear
▪ Supply of ecosystem services that support communities and enable
community resilience

Cultural and spiritual well-being

▪ Aesthetic appreciation
▪ Increased inspiration
▪ Enhanced spiritual well-being
▪ Increased recreational satisfaction

Material goods and benefits

▪ Material goods and benefits

▪ Contribution to biomedical advances
▪ Increased value of property/housing; money
▪ Economic value of recreation

Based on our review, experiencing nature can have positive effects on

mental/psychological health, healing, heart rate, concentration, levels of stress,
blood pressure, behaviour, and other health factors (Brown and Grant, 2005). For
example, viewing nature, even through a window, improves recovery from surgery
(Ulrich, 1984), while exercise outdoors in a natural environment improves mood
and self-esteem (Barton and Pretty, 2010) and is more restorative than exercise
outdoors in an urban environment (Hartig et al., 2003).

Hiking Outdoor exercise

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In another example, Coon et al. (2011) assessed the effects on mental health of
short-term outdoor (natural environment) physical activity compared with physical
activity indoors. In more than half of the studies reviewed, participants‫ ׳‬mood and
attitude were significantly more positive following outdoor compared to indoor
activity. Participants reported greater revitalization, self-esteem, positive
engagement, vitality, energy, pleasure, and delight, as well as lower frustration,
worry, confusion, depression, tension, and tiredness. Similarly, a recent meta-
analysis assessed changes in mental health before and after short-term exposure
to facilitated outdoor exercise (Barton and Pretty, 2010) and determined that
exercise in green places improved both self-esteem and mood. The type of green
environment experienced affected the mental health benefits and exercise
associated with waterside habitats revealed the greatest positive change for both
self-esteem and mood. In addition, green spaces in urban areas have the ability to
temper other factors that negatively affect human health, such as poor air quality
and heat stress effects (Brown and Grant, 2005).

Some positive health effects of nature exposure were seen for all ages and both
sexes, although some papers reported different responses between males and
females [e.g., (Astell-Burt et al., 2014a, Richardson and Mitchell, 2010)] and
sometimes more important beneficial effects in socio-economically deprived
populations (Maas et al., 2009a, Lachowycz and Jones, 2014). However, these have
not yet been identified widely as associated factors. Notwithstanding the fact that a
number of studies demonstrate positive impacts of natural environments (or green
space) on mental health and well-being, most of these studies did not empirically
test for, or identify, ecological or other mechanisms that link nature or biodiversity to
human health (Dean et al., 2011). Overall, these results demonstrate that there is a
great deal of evidence suggesting that there are many, varied health and well-being
benefits of human exposure to nature or more natural, green settings.

Please refer to the full article for a complete list of the references.

Reference:

Sandifer, P. A., Sutton-Grier, A. Ward, B.P. 2015. Exploring connections among

nature, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human health and well-being:
Opportunities to enhance health and biodiversity conservation. Ecosystem services,
vol (12), pp 10-15. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/
S2212041614001648

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Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the extract.

Question True or False?

The World Health Organization defines health solely as the

absence of disease.

Ecosystem services are the benefits people derive directly from

nature.

Biodiversity refers only to the variety of species within an

ecosystem.

The loss of biodiversity is likely to have a greater impact on

poor and vulnerable people.

Exposure to nature has been shown to have no measurable

psychological and physiological health benefits.

There is weak evidence of global-scale impacts on human well-

being due to ecosystem service degradation.

Environmental microbial biodiversity plays a significant role in

human immune function.

The Convention on Biological Diversity describes biodiversity

as simply the number of species in an ecosystem.

Reflect on how your personal health and well-being might be influenced by the natural
environment around you.

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Why do you think biodiversity is considered crucial to human societies?

How might the degradation of ecosystem services impact future generations?

What role do you think urban planning should play in preserving biodiversity?

How might access to urban green spaces contribute to public health in cities?

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Task 4: Understanding data and trends

Data refers to raw facts, figures, or information that can be processed to gain
knowledge, insights, or make decisions. Data can be in many forms, and it is a critical
element in computing, research, and analysis. Data can be collected in two ways:

Qualitative data is non-numeric in value which describes

qualities, opinions, characteristics or even observations. It
often answers questions like "what," "how," or "why".
Qualitative data can include interview responses, open-
ended questions, focus group discussions, field notes, or
images etc. Qualitative data is often used in fields like
sociology, psychology, ecology, and health sciences to
understand complex human behaviours, opinions, and
experiences.

Quantitative data in numeric in value that can be

measured, counted and quantified. This type of data is
often used to quantify variables and can be subjected to
mathematical or statistical analysis to identify patterns,
relationships, or trends. It typically answers questions like
"how much," "how many," or "how often." Quantitative
data is widely used in fields like maths, economics,
biology, engineering, health sciences, and physics to
perform statistical analysis, test hypotheses, and make
data-driven decisions.

Understanding data is a graduate attribute

A graduate attribute refers to the qualities, skills, and abilities that a university or
educational institution aims to develop in its students by the time they graduate. These
attributes go beyond academic knowledge and are intended to prepare graduates for
success in their personal, professional, and civic lives. Many jobs today require a basic
understanding of data, from interpreting figures in business to analyzing scientific data
in research. Even non-technical fields increasingly rely on data-driven decision-
making.

Understanding data helps students develop critical thinking skills. They learn to
analyze, interpret, and evaluate information rather than accepting it at face value.
This ability to think critically about data enables students to solve problems more
effectively and make informed decisions.

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Let’s apply some data collection skills and analysis!

Consider the list of types of natural environments where humans can experience
psychological and physiological health benefits. Conduct a class survey to find out
which one’s students prefer most. Surveys collect data on opinions, behaviours, and
characteristics from a large number of people efficiently.

Type Number

Forests: Dense woodlands with a variety of trees, plants, and wildlife.

For example, the Tsitsikamma National Park between Knysna and
George.

Parks: Urban green spaces that provide areas for recreation and
relaxation. For example, the Botanical Gardens in Bloemfontein.

Shoreline: Coastal areas with sand, ocean views, and the sound of
waves. For example, Umhlanga Rocks in Durban.

Mountains: High-altitude regions or with rugged terrain, fresh air, and

scenic views. For example, the Drakensberg Mountain range in the
Golden Gate National parks.

Gardens: Manicured areas with flowers, plants, and trees, often

found in residential or public spaces. For example, Kirstenbosch
National Botanical Garden in the Western Cape.

Swamps: Areas such as marshes and swamps that are rich in

biodiversity and provide unique ecosystems. For example, the
iSimangaliso Wetland Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site in
KwaZulu-Natal.

Rivers: Areas along the banks of rivers, offering flowing water and
lush vegetation. For example, the Orange river or the Sabie River in
Mpumalanga.

Fields: Open grasslands often filled with wildflowers, grasses, and

low shrubs. For example, the Free State.

Deserts: Arid regions with unique landscapes, including sand dunes,

cacti, and sparse vegetation. For example, the Karoo and Namib
Desert.

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Create a visualisation of the data in the class survey in the form of a column graph.
Graphs are used in quantitative data useful for comparing quantities across different
categories, visualizing trends over time, and presenting data in a clear and
straightforward manner. A column graph (or bar chart) is a typical visual representation
of data where individual columns are used to show the frequency or value of different
categories. Each column's length or height corresponds to the value it represents.

Consider the example below.

Graph title
5
4
3
2
1
0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5 Category 6

Series 1

The X Axis (Horizontal) displays the categories or groups being compared.

The Y-Axis (Vertical) represents the values or frequencies corresponding to the

categories.

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Now, analyze the graph to draw conclusions from the data. For instance, you might
observe which results has the highest or lowest number of students and consider
reasons for these differences. Use the following sentence structures to help you think
about the trends. Write your own version of each structure based on the graph above.

The data indicates a [trend] in [variable], with [specific observation], suggesting that
[interpretation].

When comparing [Category A] to [Category B], [Category A] shows a [higher/lower]

[metric] than [Category B], which implies [interpretation].

A notable finding from the data is that [specific result], which indicates [possible
explanation].

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There appears to be a correlation between [Variable A] and [Variable B], as evidenced
by [specific observation], suggesting that [interpretation].

Approximately [percentage]% of [group/participants] reported [specific finding], which

suggests [interpretation].

Overall, the data suggests that [general finding], which implies [implication for
practice/strategy].

Share your ideas and sentences with the rest of the class during feedback.

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Task 5: Reading and comparing multiple sources

Different sources and articles may present varying perspectives on a topic based on
the authors' biases, backgrounds, or the goals of the publication. Comparing sources
helps you recognize these biases and understand how they influence the presentation
of information. Each source may offer different pieces of the puzzle. By reading and
comparing multiple sources, you can develop a more complete and nuanced
understanding of a topic. When faced with multiple perspectives, comparing sources
allows you to weigh evidence and arguments, leading to better-informed decisions.

Read the 3 extracts below and answer the questions that follow.

Extract 1: The Impact of Urbanization on Land (Assennato et al. 2022)

The impact of urbanization on land

Compact and dispersed patterns of urban expansion are a global phenomenon and
are one of the most important factors in landscape change. Starting from the 20th
century, the increasing demand for land to be used for buildings and infrastructures
led to greater urbanization of previously natural and agricultural areas, making
urbanization a major cause of land consumption. More generally, land consumption
can be considered to be the change from non-artificial land cover to artificial land
cover, with a distinction having to be made between permanent consumption (due
to permanent artificial landcover, such as concrete or asphalt) and non-permanent
consumption (due to reversible artificial land cover or soil alteration processes, such
as, soil compaction in construction sites or excavations in quarries). The process of
urbanization, and the related increase in impervious surfaces, affects other types of
land use and land cover, triggering a series of effects on the environment, which
results in it being the main cause of land degradation. The main effects consist of
the loss of fertile soils, the adverse impact on water balance, the increase in surface
water runoff and flood risk, the negative influence on local microclimates due to
urban heat islands [13,14], landscape fragmentation, and the loss of biodiversity.
Such effects limit the accessibility to natural resources and the provision of
ecosystem services, defined as the goods and benefits that people derive from
ecosystems.

Soils play a crucial role in providing several so-called soil ecosystem services, in
particular provisioning and regulation services, contributing for example to food and
wood production, hydrological flow regulation, carbon sequestration, pollination,
habitat function, and biodiversity conservation. Indeed, there is, through soil
functions, a direct link of soil properties to specific ecosystem services, as indicated
in Adhicari et al. In recent decades, policies and strategies have highlighted the
importance of ecosystem services in maintaining livelihoods, and have stressed the
fact that, for the purpose of providing ecosystem services, the natural land and
agricultural system depend on soil.

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Ecosystem services assessment is a complex process, which involves integrating
different scientific fields and several databases that vary in accuracy, scale,
updating, and availability. Therefore, an approach based on various thematic layers
is required, so as to have an overview of ecosystem services loss that supports the
resource management decision-making process. Furthermore, monitoring land use
and land cover spatial distribution, especially in urban areas, is essential for
providing accurate and timely information to be used as input data that allows soil-
based ecosystem services provision changes to be assessed. Within this context,
major advances in satellite remote sensing have improved data collection and
analysis methodologies used for the purpose of detecting artificial land covers.

Extract 2: Agricultural land use in South Africa (Governmental report, 2023)

Agriculture is the foundation of many developing economies. The South African

agriculture sector is one of the mainstays of the country’s economy and offers
opportunities for small, large, commercial and emerging farmers in areas such as
capital investment, training and the supply of equipment and services. Agriculture
plays an important role in South Africa’s economic development and contributes
significantly to household food security In the first quarter of 2020, the sector
contributed about 2 per cent to the country’s economy, with a further approximately
12 per cent from peripheral agricultural activities. It contributes 10 per cent of formal
employment.

South Africa’s total land area is approximately 122.3 million hectares, of which
farmland makes up 100.6 million hectares. Of this, 83.3 per cent is grazing land with
only 16.7 million hectares considered potential arable land according to the
Development Bank of Southern Africa. 1.35 million hectares of the country’s
potential arable land is available for irrigation and accounts for more than one third
of total output in the agriculture sector (Kirstern & Vink, 2003). Unfavourable climatic
and soil conditions leave only 12 per cent of the country suitable for the production
of rain-fed crops, with only 3 per cent considered genuinely fertile land. About 69
per cent of South Africa’s land surface is suitable for grazing and livestock farming
is the largest agricultural sector in the country.

The agriculture sector is gradually recovering from the drastic impact of the drought
of 2014/15. The health of the sector depends on the sustainability of farming
practices, the long-term productivity of the land, profitable yields and the well-being
of farmers and farmworkers. South Africa’s population is growing at approximately
1.4 per cent a year and is expected to reach 67 million by 2030. To feed this
population, food production will have to double. Increasing production using the
same or fewer agricultural inputs will demand extreme efficiency. According to the
2018 General Household Survey, fewer than one-fifth of South African households
(14.8 per cent) were involved in agricultural production activities during the review
period. Of these, 10 per cent cultivated farmland while 90 per cent had backyard

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gardens. These numbers are insufficient to meet the increasing demand for
agricultural products and the sector is under pressure to respond to this demand.

Extract 3: South Africa’s cropland mapping (Waldner et al. 2017)

South Africa is located at the southern tip of Africa and lies between latitudes 22˚
and 35˚S, and longitudes 16˚ and 33˚E spreading over 1,221,037 km2. The country
is divided into nine provinces and has a wide variety of climates ranging from arid to
sub-tropical, temperate or Mediterranean. The agricultural economy is a dual, with
both well-developed commercial farming and more subsistence-based production in
the remote rural areas. The dominant activities include intensive crop production
and mixed farming in areas characterized by winter rainfall and high summer rainfall,
cattle ranching in the bushveld and sheep farming in the arid regions. About 12% of
the territory can be used for crop production but only 22% of this is of high-potential.
The main growing regions lie along the more fertile soils of the Western Cape valleys
and the KwaZulu-Natal province. Agricultural systems have been primarily
developed under arid and semi-arid climatic conditions where droughts are common
Irrigation agriculture is by far the largest consumer of water, and is responsible for
30% of the total crop production. The majority of the grain production is irrigated
under center-pivot systems, and in many cases based on a double cropping rotation
with winter wheat followed by summer maize. Most of the dryland crop production
occurs in the semiarid zones that can be divided into winter and summer rainfall
regions.

National-scale cropland mapping in South Africa.

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 The largest area of cropland is planted with maize, followed by wheat, and to a lesser
extent sugarcane and sunflower. It is estimated that over 8,000 commercial maize
producers are responsible for the majority of the South African crop (10.8 Mt of
maize produced in 2011/ 12 on 2.7 million ha of land), while thousands of small-
scale producers are responsible for the rest. The “maize quadrangle” in the North
West Province and northwestern Free State produces 75% of the country’s maize.
Half of the production consists of white maize for human food consumption. Wheat
is produced mainly in the winter rainfall areas of the Western Cape and the eastern
parts of the Free State (2,0 Mt produced on 0,6 million ha in 2011). Sorghum is

cultivated mostly in the drier parts of the summer rainfall areas such as
Mpumalanga, the Free State, and Limpopo, especially in shallow and heavy clay
soils. North West and the Northern Cape under irrigated or rainfed conditions.
Soybeans are mainly cultivated in Mpumalanga, the Free State and KwaZulu-Natal,
and are a small but important and growing component of South Africa’s agricultural
economy. Sunflower seed is produced in the Free State, North West, on the
Mpumalanga highveld and in Limpopo.

References:

Assennato, F.; Smiraglia, D.;Cavalli, A.; Congedo, L.; Giuliani, C.;Riitano, N.;
Strollo, A.; Munafò, M. 2022. The Impact of Urbanization on Land: A Biophysical-
Based Assessment of Ecosystem Services Loss Supported by Remote Sensed
Indicators. Land 2022,11, 236. Available online:
https://doi.org/10.3390/land11020236.

Provincial budgets and expenditures review. 2023. Chapter 9: Agriculture, land

reform and rural development. Pp 173-197. Available online:
https://www.treasury.gov.za/publications/igfr/2021/prov/Chapter%209%20-
%20Agriculture%20Land%20Reform%20and%20Rural%20Development.pdf

Waldner, Francois & Hansen, Matthew & Potapov, Peter & Löw, Fabian & Newby,
Terence & Ferreira, Stefanus & Defourny, Pierre. (2017). National-scale cropland
mapping based on spectral-temporal features and outdated land cover information.
PLOS ONE. 12. e0181911. 10.1371/journal.pone.0181911.

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the articles above.

1. What is urbanization most directly associated with?

a) Increase in natural land cover
b) Increase in impervious surfaces
c) Decrease in building infrastructure
d) Decrease in land consumption
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2. What percentage of South Africa's land area is used for grazing?

a) 10%
b) 25%
c) 83%
d) 50%

3. Which of the following is considered an impervious surface?

a) Forest floor
b) Grassland
c) Concrete pavement
d) Agricultural field

4. Which agricultural product is most commonly produced in South Africa?

a) Wheat
b) Sugarcane
c) Maize
d) Sunflower seeds

5. What is the primary agricultural sector in South Africa?

a) Livestock farming
b) Soybean farming
c) Sunflower farming
d) Sugarcane farming

6. What percentage of South Africa’s land is considered arable?

a) 3%
b) 12%
c) 16.7%
d) 69%

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7. What is a key consequence of landscape fragmentation?

a) Improved biodiversity
b) Loss of fertile soils
c) Increase in agricultural yields
d) Better water balance

8. What type of land cover change is considered permanent?

a) Soil compaction at construction sites

b) Quarry excavation
c) Asphalt paving
d) Grazing land

9. Which is the largest consumer of water in South African agriculture?

a) Livestock farming
b) Irrigation agriculture
c) Forestry
d) Sugarcane production

How do the 3 extracts emphasize / explain the critical role that land use plays in
agriculture in South Africa?

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Consider the word “sustainable”. Explain in your own words what that means and how
it is used and implied in the extracts.

5.1 Ecosystem services

Definitions Reference
“Ecosystem services are "the benefits people Daily, G.C. 1997. "Nature's
obtain from ecosystems, including provisioning Services: Societal Dependence
services such as food and water; regulating on Natural Ecosystems." Island
services such as climate regulation and disease Press.
control; cultural services such as recreational,
aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting
services such as nutrient cycling that maintain
the conditions for life on Earth."

Ecosystem services are "the diverse benefits Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de
that ecosystems provide to humans, including Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M.,
provisioning services (e.g., food, water), Hannon, B. & Limburg, K. 1997.
regulating services (e.g., climate regulation, "The value of the world’s
flood control), cultural services (e.g., recreation, ecosystem services and natural
spiritual values), and supporting services (e.g., capital." Nature, 387(6630), 253-
nutrient cycling)." 260

Ecosystem services are "the benefits people Millennium Ecosystem

obtain from ecosystems, which include Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems
provisioning services (e.g., food, water), and Human Well-being:
regulating services (e.g., flood regulation, Synthesis. Island Press.
disease control), cultural services (e.g.,
recreational and spiritual benefits), and
supporting services (e.g., soil formation, nutrient
cycling)."

Ecosystem services are "the functions and Boyd, J., & Banzhaf, S. 2007.
processes of natural ecosystems that support "What are ecosystem services?
human life and contribute to human well-being, The need for standardized

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 including provisioning, regulating, cultural, and environmental accounting units."
supporting services." Ecological Economics, 63(2-3),
616-626.

Ecosystem services are "the benefits that Haines-Young, R., & Potschin, M.
people receive from ecosystems, including 2010. "The links between
provisioning services (e.g., food, water), biodiversity, ecosystem services
regulating services (e.g., air quality, climate and human well-being."
regulation), cultural services (e.g., recreation, Ecosystem Ecology: A New
spiritual benefits), and supporting services (e.g., Synthesis. Cambridge University
soil formation, nutrient cycling)." Press.

Do the authors and academic sources agree or disagree on the meaning of

“ecosystem services”?

How are the definitions the same?

How are the definitions different?

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Identify all the important key words / concepts that reoccur in all the definitions. Then
try find a synonym or related word for it.

Key word / Key concept Synonym or related word

10

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A GOOD CUP OF ROOIBOS TEA

Few of the small-scale farmers

of the Suid Bokkeveld, near
Nieuwoudtville in the Northern
Cape, own a piece of land. Many
of them aren’t formally
educated. For decades, they’ve
eked out an existence by
tending small herds of sheep or
goats on someone else’s farm.
Some grow a few crops. Many
hire themselves out as seasonal
labourers for a few months
every year. Very few of them even had bank accounts until recently. But these
farmers know tea. And the rooibos tea plants that grow wild in this far northern part
of the Cape’s floral region is their most important asset. For these farmers,
harvesting wild rooibos to sell to the international organic and fair trade tea markets
has been the answer to their limited livelihood options in this remote and
agriculturally marginal countryside.

In 2001 they formed the Heiveld

Cooperative with the help of Cape Town-
based civil society organisation, the
Environmental Monitoring Group (EMG)
and local non-governmental
organisation, Indigo Development and
Change. Their financial returns have
been significant. Some people of
retirement age have opened their first
bank accounts. Others have been able to
buy second hand bakkies or tractors which, for people who used to spend an entire
day travelling to the nearest town to do a basic grocery shop, were a significant
improvement in their lives. Many were able to access basic health care for the first
time, like getting dentures made, something that had previously been unaffordable.
Wild rooibos isn’t just important for this historically impoverished community, though.
It might hold the key to the future of rooibos cultivation as the region becomes hotter,
drier and less hospitable for tea farming.

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 Globally, the demand for rooibos has
exploded in recent years because of its
potential health benefits. Few people
realise that this unprecedented demand
is fed by a relatively tiny commercial
rooibos tea sector, because rooibos is
indigenous to the winter-rainfall fynbos
communities in the Cape Floral
Kingdom. This tea, harvested from the
shrub-like plant that is a member of the
pea family, doesn’t grow anywhere else in the world. The entire global market is
supplied by just 79 000 hectares of tea fields, according to Conservation
International’s 2010 Green Choice Biodiversity Baseline Study. The rooibos grown
for commercial purposes is known as the ‘Rocklands’ or ‘Nortier’ type, which is one
of several wild types which Khoi people have been using for generations. This
particular type was found in the Pakhuis area in the Cederberg in the 1930s and
was believed to be the best to farm commercially because it grows fast and upright.

Since rooibos became the darling of the health industry because of its many health
promoting properties, commercial farmers are ploughing up more and more
indigenous and marginal veld to make room for tea fields. As such, they are slowly
eroding the genetic stock of wild rooibos which is banked away in the natural veld.
This holds rooibos types which they might need one day if they are to continue
farming in a hotter, drier world. Although commercially grown rooibos is fast growing,
it is less resistant to drought and pests, write EMG’s Noel Oettle and Rhoda Malgas
of Stellenbosch University’s Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology.
Wild rooibos, on the other hand, is far more resilient.

‘In the light of what we are learning about climate change and how important it is to
conserve the diversity of varieties of plants to facilitate adaptation to changed
weather conditions,’ write Malgas and Oettle in The Sustainable Harvest of Wild
Rooibos, ‘the conservation of the various varieties of wild rooibos is of great
significance.’ They foresee a day when commercial rooibos will struggle under new,
hotter climate regimes, and commercial farmers will need to turn to drought resistant
wild types in order to keep their farming operations viable.

Medicinal plants in the wild Rooibos tea’s medicinal qualities make it amongst the
over 2 000 indigenous plants in South Africa that are used for some medicinal
purpose. A third of these are traded commercially. According to the South African
National Biodiversity Assessment 2011, some ‘R2.9 billion changed hands through
the harvesting, trade and manufacture of these natural remedies, as well as through
associated industries (such as consultation with traditional healers)’. The heavy
demand for medicinal plants is also pushing many species perilously close to

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 extinction. ‘Nearly 10% of all the plant species that are bought and sold for medicinal
purposes are threatened, some 56 species in all,’ states the South African National
Biodiversity Institute. ‘Ecologists recommend urgent action to prevent the further
loss of these valuable threatened species ... so that we can ensure they are
harvested sustainably and don’t also find themselves on the threatened list.’
Protecting natural vegetation is an investment in keeping these populations of
medicinal plants, just like wild rooibos, thriving so that future generations can also
harvest them for medicines, or benefit from farming or selling them. However, this
must be done sustainably.

Which ecosystem services does the Rooibos tea industry fulfil in the Northern Cape?
Give examples of each.

Ecosystem services Example

Provisioning services

Regulating services

Cultural services

Supporting services

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What specific natural processes and resources are crucial for rooibos cultivation?

What role do indigenous knowledge and traditional farming practices play in sustaining
ecosystem services for the rooibos tea industry?

Now, based on your understanding of the concept ecosystem services so far, write
5 claims. A claim is a statement that asserts a point, belief, or truth that requires
supporting evidence. Your claims must be clear and objective, backed up by credible
evidence (use the quotes in the table), and offer an interpretation, evaluation, or
synthesis of information.

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 3

Share and compare your claims with the rest of the class.

5.2 Human health and well-being

Definitions Reference
Health is defined as "a state of complete World Health Organization. 1946.
physical, mental, and social well-being and Preamble to the Constitution of the
not merely the absence of disease or World Health Organization as
infirmity." adopted by the International Health
Conference, New York, 19-22 June,
1946.

Health is "a dynamic state of well-being Bircher, J. 2005. Towards a dynamic

characterized by a physical, mental, and definition of health and disease.
social potential, which satisfies the demands Medicine, Health Care and
of a life commensurate with age, culture, Philosophy, 8(3), 335-341.
and personal responsibility."

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 Health is defined as "the result of a complex Marmot, M., & Wilkinson, R. G.
interplay between biology, lifestyle, and (Eds.). 2005. Social determinants of
environmental factors," emphasizing the health. OUP Oxford.
importance of the social determinants of
health.

Psychological well-being is defined as "the Ryff, C. D. 1989. Happiness is

realization of personal potential, including everything, or is it? Explorations on
positive relationships, autonomy, self- the meaning of psychological well-
acceptance, and purpose in life." being. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069-1081.

Health is linked with well-being in a broader Appleby, J. 2016. Wellbeing and

sense, where well-being is "more than just being well. BMJ, 354, i3951.
the absence of disease, encompassing
happiness and satisfaction with life."

Health is "an outcome of the interplay McLeroy, K. R., et al. 1988. An

between human biology, environment, and ecological perspective on health
lifestyle choices, influenced by policies and promotion programs. Health
services that promote well-being." Education Quarterly, 15(4), 351-377.

Do the authors and academic sources agree or disagree on the meaning of “human
health and well-being”?

How are the definitions the same?

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How are the definitions different?

Identify all the important key words / concepts that reoccur in all the definitions. Then
try find a synonym or related word for it.

Key word / Key concept Synonym or related word

1

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 9

10

How do factors some like income, education, and environment or physical activities
influence human health? Which determinant do you believe has the most profound
effect, and why?

Think of a situation where you were happy outside in nature. It could be a time when
you were exercising, walking, hiking, picnicking, relaxing, playing, reflecting, exploring
or anything similar. List some benefits you experienced below.

Mental

Cognitive

Physical

Cultural / Spiritual

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 Material

Community-related

How has technology (e.g., telemedicine, wearable health devices, AI) influenced
human health and well-being? What are the potential benefits and drawbacks?

Now, based on your understanding of the concept human health and well-being so
far, write 5 claims. A claim is a statement that asserts a point, belief, or truth that
requires supporting evidence. Your claims must be clear and objective, backed up by
credible evidence (use the quotes in the table), and offer an interpretation,
evaluation, or synthesis of information.

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 2

Share and compare your claims with the rest of the class.

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5.3 Conservation

Definitions Reference
"Conservation is the management of human Kareiva, P., & Marvier, M. 2012.
interactions with nature to prevent the loss of What is conservation science?
biodiversity and maintain ecosystem services BioScience, 62(11), 962-969.
essential for human survival."

"Conservation is the protection, preservation, Mace, G. M., Masundire, H., &

management, or restoration of wildlife and Baillie, J. E. M. 2012. Biodiversity
natural resources, with the aim of preventing the and Ecosystem Services: A
extinction of species and maintaining ecosystem Multidisciplinary Approach.
health." Science, 336(6087), 1354-1355.
"Conservation is the sustainable use and Carpenter, S. R., Mooney, H. A.,
management of natural resources to maintain Agard, J., & Bennett, E. M. 2009.
biodiversity and ecosystem functions, ensuring Science for managing ecosystem
that these resources are available for future services: Beyond the Millennium
generations." Ecosystem Assessment.
Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, 106(5),
1305-1312.
"Conservation is the management of natural Wilson, E. O., Sobel, S. K., &
resources in a way that ensures their long-term Wilson, J. R. 2007. Conservation
sustainability, protection of biodiversity, and the Biology and Biodiversity:
maintenance of ecosystem services." Protecting Nature's Variety.
Conservation Biology, 21(2), 429-
438.
Conservation refers to the efforts made to Primack, R. B. 2012. A Primer of
preserve, protect, and restore natural Conservation Biology. Sinauer
environments and wildlife, with the objective of Associates.
maintaining ecological balance and preventing
species extinction."
Conservation is the maintenance of the integrity, Noss, R. F. 1990. Indicators for
function, and diversity of ecosystems, aiming to Monitoring Biodiversity: A
protect species and habitats from anthropogenic Hierarchical Approach.
threats and environmental degradation." Conservation Biology, 4(4), 355-
364.
"Conservation involves a variety of practices Hubbard, S., & Scholes, R. J.
aimed at preserving natural resources and (2013). Conservation Strategies
habitats, managing wildlife populations, and for Ecosystem Services.
ensuring that ecosystems continue to provide Ecosystem Services, 6, 97-105.
vital services to humanity."

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Do the authors and academic sources agree or disagree on the meaning of
“conservation”?

How are the definitions the same?

How are the definitions different?

Identify all the important key words / concepts that reoccur in all the definitions. Then
try find a synonym or related word for it.

Key word / Key concept Synonym or related word

1

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4

10

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WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Conservation of wildlife is frequently seen as a cost to governments, resulting in little

investment in wildlife resources despite the extensive contributions that the wildlife
economy can, and does, make in terms of employment and revenues. The African
Leadership University’s School of Wildlife Conservation received funding to conduct
research and produce the inaugural State of the Wildlife Economy in Africa Report
to illustrate the current and potential value of wildlife to economies in Africa and
through this to encourage investment in this important economic asset. For the
purposes of this research, the wildlife economy is defined as: “The Wildlife
Economy uses wildlife, plants and animals (marine and terrestrial), as an economic
asset to create value that aligns with conservation objectives and delivers
sustainable growth and economic development” In South Africa, more than 400
private organisations focus on conservation, wildlife and the general environment,
while more than 30 botanical and horticultural organisations concentrate on the
conservation of the country’s flora (South Africa, 2020).

SANParks was established under the National

Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, 2003
(Act No. 57 of 2003) with a mandate to oversee the
conservation of South Africa’s biodiversity, landscapes and
associated heritage assets through a system of national
parks. The core mandate of SANParks includes:
conservation management through the national parks
system, constituency building and people-focused
ecotourism management ((DEFF, n.d). SANParks
supports transformation, sustainable use, inclusive
governance, and science-based decisions as founding principles on conservation
and sustainable use of South Africa’s biodiversity. SANParks was formed in 1926,
and currently manages 19 parks consisting of 3,751,113 hectares (37,511.13 km2),
over 3% of the total area of South Africa.
Here are some popular parks:
• Addo Elephant National Park (Eastern Cape)
• Agulhas National Park (Western Cape)
• Richtersveld National Park (Northern Cape)
• Augrabies Falls National Park (Northern Cape)
• Garden Route National Park (Western Cape)
• Golden Gate Highlands (Free State)
• Kruger National Park (Limpopo and Mpumalanga)
• Namaqua National Park (Northern Cape)
• Table Mountain (Western Cape)

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SANBI was established in terms
of the National Environmental
Management: Biodiversity Act,
2004 (Act No. 10 of 2004) with a
mandate to play a leading role in
South Africa’s national
commitment to biodiversity management. In partnership with the Department of
Environment, Forestry and Fisheries and the biodiversity sector, SANBI leads the
biodiversity research agenda; provides knowledge and information, policy support
and advice, manages gardens as windows to biodiversity for leisure, enjoyment,
spiritual upliftment and education, and engages in ecosystem restoration and
rehabilitation programmes, and best-practice models to manage biodiversity better
(DEFF, n.d). SANBI engages in ecosystem restoration and rehabilitation, leads the
human capital development strategy of the sector and manages the National
Botanical and Zoological Gardens as ‘windows’ to South Africa’s biodiversity for
enjoyment and education. Our work starts with a strong foundation of surveying,
classifying and mapping South Africa’s ecosystems and species. We answer
questions like: What is out there? How should it be classified and named? How
many are there? Where are they located? SANBI’s herbaria, DNA bank, Millennium
Seed Bank, and the National Vegetation Map are some examples of this
foundational work.

Driver et al. (2019) conducted a

study to determine the extent to
which South Africa’s biodiversity
assets contribute to providing
jobs. An initial estimate was
developed of 388,000 direct
jobs related to biodiversity in
2014, representing 2.5% of
national employment. The
estimate was subsequently
updated to 418,000 biodiversity-
related jobs in 2017, representing 2.6% of national employment. Of these, 17%
(72,000) were jobs involved in conserving biodiversity, and 83% (346,000) were jobs
that depend on using biodiversity, including both harvest based and non-harvest
based.

The number of jobs that depend on using biodiversity is likely to be an

underestimate, as data was available only for some biodiversity-related sectors or
sub-sectors. The results suggest strong potential for biodiversity assets to support
long-term inclusive growth and employment outside major urban centres, with

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 further work needed to quantify this potential and to determine how best it can be
enabled. For every job dedicated to conserving or managing South Africa’s
biodiversity assets and ecological infrastructure, approximately five jobs depend on
utilising biodiversity. The implication is that current efforts to conserve and manage
biodiversity should not be seen simply as an end in themselves or a cost to the
economy, but as an investment in a resource that supports wider economic activity
and employment. See also Chidakel et al. (2019), which shows that the return on
investment of public funds in Kruger National Park is significant, due to the
multipliers from the private tourism lodges in the Greater Kruger landscape.

References:
African Leadership University School of Wildlife Conservation. 2020. The State of
the Wildlife Economy in South Africa. Country case study for the State of the Wildlife
Economy in Africa report.

Consider the role that wildlife conservation and national parks play in ecosystem
services. Give examples of each.

Ecosystem services Example

Provisioning services

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 Regulating services

Cultural services

Supporting services

Now, based on your understanding of the concept conservation so far, write 5 claims.
A claim is a statement that asserts a point, belief, or truth that requires supporting
evidence. Your claims must be clear and objective, backed up by credible evidence
(use the quotes in the table), and offer an interpretation, evaluation, or synthesis of
information.

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 2

Share and compare your claims with the rest of the class.

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5.4 Urbanization

Definitions Reference
"Urbanization refers to the process by which an Davis, K. 1965. The Urbanization
increasing proportion of a population comes to of the Human Population.
live in urban areas, which are characterized by Scientific American, 213(3), 42-
higher population density and infrastructure 51.
development."

"Urbanization is the process of population Sassen, S. 2001. The Global

movement from rural to urban areas, resulting in City: New York, London, Tokyo.
the growth of cities and changes in economic, Princeton University Press.
social, and physical structures."

"Urbanization is the process whereby towns and Burgess, E. W. 1925. The Growth
cities grow as a result of population migration of the City: An Introduction to a
from rural areas and other regions, leading to Research Project. Publications of
changes in land use and social organization." the American Sociological
Society, 18, 85-97.
"Urbanization involves the expansion and McGranahan, G., & Satterthwaite,
intensification of human settlements into urban D. 2003. Urbanization Concepts
areas, often accompanied by changes in and Trends. IIED Working Paper
economic structures, land use, and social Series.
dynamics."

"Urbanization is the process through which cities Kundu, A. 2006. The Dynamics of
and towns expand and develop as a result of Urbanization in India: Issues and
migration, economic development, and Challenges. Economic and
demographic changes, leading to increased Political Weekly, 41(32), 3471-
urban populations and infrastructure." 3476.

"Urbanization is the growth of urban areas Lloyd, S. M. 2012. The Evolution

through population migration, economic of Urbanization: Concepts and
transformation, and infrastructural development, Perspectives. Urban Studies,
resulting in more densely populated and 49(5), 1017-1037.
functionally complex cities."

Urbanization refers to the process of expanding Li, Q., & Zhang, X. 2023. The
urban areas and increasing urban populations Dynamics of Urbanization and Its
due to migration, economic development, and Effects on Land Use Patterns.
infrastructural investments, which reshape land Urban Geography, 44(2), 241-
use and social interactions." 259.

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Do the authors and academic sources agree or disagree on the meaning of
“urbaniszation”?

How are the definitions the same?

How are the definitions different?

Identify all the important key words / concepts that reoccur in all the definitions. Then
try find a synonym or related word for it.

Key word / Key concept Synonym or related word

1

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4

10

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Now, based on your understanding of the concept urbanization so far, write 5 claims.
A claim is a statement that asserts a point, belief, or truth that requires supporting
evidence. Your claims must be clear and objective, backed up by credible evidence
(use the quotes in the table), and offer an interpretation, evaluation, or synthesis of
information.

Share and compare your claims with the rest of the class.

THE URBANIZATION OF JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA

Johannesburg, the largest city in South Africa, serves as a powerful example of the
complex consequences of urbanization. Johannesburg was founded in 1886
following the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand. The city’s origins are closely
tied to the gold rush, which rapidly transformed the area from a sparsely populated
region into a booming mining town. This discovery triggered one of the largest gold
rushes in history, attracting thousands of prospectors, miners, and entrepreneurs
from around the world.

As the economic hub of the country,

Johannesburg has seen rapid growth over
the past century, evolving from a small
mining town into a sprawling metropolis.
Johannesburg has experienced
significant urban sprawl, expanding far
beyond its original boundaries. The city's
growth has consumed vast tracts of
surrounding rural land, leading to habitat destruction and the encroachment on
natural landscapes. Townships and informal settlements have sprung up on the

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periphery, contributing to the city's horizontal spread. This sprawl has resulted in
fragmented communities, increased reliance on automobiles, and the loss of
agricultural land that once surrounded the city.

The rapid growth of Johannesburg has put immense pressure on its

infrastructure. Roads are often congested, public transportation systems like the
Gautrain and Rea Vaya are frequently overcrowded. Johannesburg's reliance on
cars has led to severe traffic congestion, especially during peak hours. Major
highways like the M1 and N1 are often gridlocked, causing long commute times and
high levels of stress among residents. In addition, aging water pipes and electricity
grids struggle to keep up with the demands of the city's population. Power outages,
known locally as "load shedding," have become common, affecting businesses and
households alike. The strain on infrastructure is also evident in the under-resourced
waste management systems, leading to uncollected garbage and illegal dumping in
some areas.

Johannesburg's air quality has deteriorated due to the high concentration of

vehicles, industrial activity, and the burning of coal and wood in informal settlements.
The city regularly experiences smog, which exacerbates respiratory conditions
among its residents. Water pollution is another critical issue, with the Jukskei
River—one of the major rivers flowing through the city—often contaminated by
industrial waste, sewage, and litter. The pollution of water bodies poses a significant
threat to both the environment and public health.

The city's rapid urbanization has led to a severe housing shortage, particularly for
low-income residents. Many people live in informal settlements, such as Diepsloot
and Alexandra, where housing conditions are poor, and access to basic services is
limited. These areas are often characterized by overcrowding, lack of sanitation, and
inadequate access to clean water. The struggle for affordable housing has also led
to the occupation of abandoned buildings in the inner city, known as "hijacked
buildings," where residents live under precarious conditions. Urbanization in
Johannesburg has exacerbated social inequalities, creating a stark contrast
between affluent suburbs like Sandton and impoverished areas like Soweto. While
some residents enjoy access to top-tier education, healthcare, and employment
opportunities, others face high levels of unemployment, crime, and limited access
to essential services.

As Johannesburg has expanded, many of its green spaces have been lost to
development. Parks, forests, and wetlands have been replaced by residential and
commercial buildings. For example, the Modderfontein Nature Reserve, once a
large green area on the city's outskirts, has been partially developed for housing.
The loss of green spaces not only diminishes recreational opportunities for residents
but also impacts local biodiversity and reduces the city's capacity to mitigate urban

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 heat and air pollution. Urbanisation has brought both opportunities and challenges,
particularly in terms of infrastructure, social inequality, environmental impact, and
public health.

How does the expansion of Johannesburg’s urban footprint affect the relationship
between city dwellers and the natural environment, and what might be done to
reconnect residents with the ecosystems around them?

How do you think the air and water pollution in Johannesburg impacts the long-term
health and quality of life for its residents, and what individual actions could contribute
to reducing this pollution?

Reflect on your own preferences. Do you prefer the fast-paced lifestyle of the city or
the slower, more relaxed pace of the countryside? Why do you feel this way, and how
does it influence your daily routines?

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5.5 Biodiversity loss

Definitions Reference
"Biodiversity loss refers to the decline in the IPBES. 2019. Global Assessment
variety and variability of life forms, including the Report on Biodiversity and
loss of species, genetic diversity, and Ecosystem Services.
ecosystem diversity, which negatively impacts Intergovernmental Science-Policy
ecosystem functions and services." Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services.
"Biodiversity loss is the reduction in the number Barton, J., & Lindhjem, H. 2023.
of species and genetic variability within Implications of Biodiversity Loss
ecosystems, which leads to diminished for Ecosystem Function and
ecosystem resilience and reduced capacity to Resilience. Ecological
provide essential ecological services." Applications, 33(2), e2604.

"Biodiversity loss refers to the reduction in the Sala, O. E., et al. 2000. Global
number of species and genetic variations in biodiversity scenarios for the year
ecosystems, often driven by habitat destruction, 2100. Science, 287(5459), 1770-
overexploitation, and pollution, leading to 1774.
ecosystem degradation."
Biodiversity loss is the decline in species Dirzo, R., & Raven, P. H. 2003.
richness and abundance due to anthropogenic Global State of Biodiversity and
factors such as habitat destruction, climate Loss. Annual Review of
change, and pollution, resulting in reduced Environment and Resources,
ecosystem functionality. 28(1), 137-167.

"Biodiversity loss is the decrease in the diversity Worm, B., et al. 2006. Impacts of
of species and ecosystems, leading to a loss of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean
ecosystem services and a decrease in the Ecosystem Services. Science,
stability and productivity of natural systems." 314(5800), 787-790.

"Biodiversity loss involves the extinction or Brook, B. W., et al. 2008. A

reduction in populations of species, leading to Method for Quantifying the
the degradation of ecosystem structures and Magnitude of Biodiversity Loss.
functions that are critical for maintaining Conservation Biology, 22(2), 274-
ecological balance." 283.

"Biodiversity loss refers to the reduction in the Cardinale, B. J., et al. 2012.
variety and abundance of species in an Biodiversity Loss and Its Impact
ecosystem, which impacts ecosystem functions on Humanity. Nature, 486(7401),
such as productivity, stability, and nutrient 59-67.
cycling."

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Do the authors and academic sources agree or disagree on the meaning of
“biodiversity loss”?

How are the definitions the same?

How are the definitions different?

Identify all the important key words / concepts that reoccur in all the definitions. Then
try find a synonym or related word for it.
Key word / Key concept Synonym or related word
1

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3

10

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Fynbos Biome in the Western Cape

A biome is a large geographical area that is

characterized by its climate, vegetation, and
the types of organisms that live there. Biomes
are defined by factors like temperature,
precipitation, and the presence of specific
types of plants and animals that are adapted
to those conditions. They can span across
continents and include multiple ecosystems
within them.

The current concept of the Greater Cape Floristic Region includes the combination
of Fynbos and Succulent Karoo biomes. The Fynbos Biome is considered by many
to be synonymous with the Cape Floristic Region or Cape Floral Kingdom.
However, the "biome" refers only to the two key vegetation groups (Fynbos and
Renosterveld) within the region, whereas both the "region" and the "kingdom" refer
to the general geographical area and include other vegetation types in the Forest,
Nama Karoo, Succulent Karoo and Thicket Biomes, but exclude peripheral outliers
of the Fynbos Biome such as the Kamiesberg, North-western and Escarpment
Mountain Renosterveld and Grassy Fynbos east of Port Elizabeth. The Cape Floral
Kingdom is the smallest of the six Floral Kingdoms in the world, and is the only one
contained in its entirety within a single country. It is characterized by its high richness
in plant species (8 700 species) and its high endemicity (68% of plant species are
confined to the Cape Floral Kingdom). The Cape Floral Kingdom thus compares
with some of the richest floras worldwide, surpassing many tropical forest regions in
its floral diversity.

In South Africa, over one third of all plant species occur in the Cape Floral Kingdom,
even though the Kingdom occupies less than 6% of the area of the country. This is
not primarily due to the large number of vegetation types in the Cape Floral
Kingdom. Over 7 000 of the plant species occur in only five Fynbos vegetation types,
with perhaps an additional 1 000 species in the three Renosterveld vegetation types.
The contribution of Succulent and Nama Karoo, Thicket and Forest vegetation types
in the region to the plant species diversity is thus relatively small. Thus, although the
Cape Floral Kingdom contains five biomes, only the Fynbos Biome, comprising the
Fynbos and Renosterveld vegetation groups, contains most of the floral diversity.
Furthermore, the Cape Floral Kingdom traditionally does not include the Fynbos and
Renosterveld vegetation outliers to the north and east. Including these would mean
that endemicity would approach 80%, the highest level of endemicity on any
subcontinent.

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Giant or king protea (Protea cynaroides). The giant or king protea is widely
distributed in the south-western and southern areas of the Western Cape, from the
Cedarberg up to just east of Grahamstown. The artichoke-like appearance of the
flower-heads of the king protea lead to the specific name ‘cynaroides’, which means
‘like cynara’ (the artichoke). The Protea has been a part of South African culture for
centuries, known to indigenous peoples and later celebrated by European settlers
who marvelled at its beauty. It was designated as the national flower in 1976,
chosen to reflect the natural beauty and rich botanical heritage of South Africa. The
Protea symbolizes the country’s national identity. The Protea, with its ability to
regenerate after wildfires, symbolizes hope, renewal, and transformation—qualities
that resonate deeply with South Africa's history and its journey towards democracy
and nation-building.

References:
Brownell, FG, Nasionale en Provinsiale Simbole. 1993. Johannesburg: Chris van
Rensburg Publications.

South African National Biodiversity Institute. 2023. Vegetation of SA: Fynbos Biome.
Available at: https://pza.sanbi.org/vegetation/fynbos-biome

Which ecosystem services do the Fynbos biome perform in the Western Cape? Give
examples of each.
Ecosystem services Example
Provisioning services

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 Regulating services

Cultural services

Supporting services

What do you think are the human well-being, economic, social, and ecological benefits
of the Fynbos biome?

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Now, based on your understanding of the concept so far, write 5 claims. A claim is a
statement that asserts a point, belief, or truth that requires supporting evidence. Your
claims must be clear and objective, backed up by credible evidence (use the quotes
in the table), and offer an interpretation, evaluation, or synthesis of information.

Share and compare your claims with the rest of the class.

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Task 7: Assessment: Group argumentation – 30 Marks

The quality of your argument heavily depends on your ability to critically engage with
the sources you read during research. Whilst reading various texts about your topic,
you were exposed to multiple aspects and viewpoints that informed your perspective.
Critical reading informs your stance, helps you build a logical structure, and ensures
that your argument is credible and nuanced. In essay writing, your argument forms the
backbone of your work. It is more than just stating your opinion – it's about presenting
a well-reasoned, persuasive case built on evidence from research, logic, and critical
thinking. Transitioning from critical reading to building your argument is a vital process
in academic writing.

Step 1: Get into groups of 3. Get out a piece of paper and add all the student names
and details. Assign roles to ensure the group works efficiently, such as a discussion
leader, note-taker or scribe, and someone responsible for synthesizing ideas.

Why work in groups?

Group work encourages students to interact,

share ideas, and communicate effectively with
peers. This interaction fosters the development
of strong verbal communication skills, as
students must articulate their thoughts clearly
and listen to others. By working in a group,
students are exposed to different perspectives.
They can collectively analyze problems,
challenge assumptions, and think critically to find
solutions. This exchange of ideas helps deepen
their understanding of the subject matter.
Students must learn to manage conflicts, share responsibilities, and negotiate,
which are crucial life skills. In many professions, collaboration and teamwork are
essential. Group work in class mimics the collaborative nature of many work
environments, preparing students for their future careers by helping them develop
teamwork and leadership skills.

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Step 2: Choose ONE of these topics as a group. Brainstorm ideas.

1. Why is food (plants, animals) such an important ecosystem resource/service?

2. Why is medicine and pharmaceuticals such an important ecosystem
resource/service?
3. How does nature recreation or outdoor activities contribute to our well-being?
4. How do ecosystem services offer climate resilience to natural disasters?
5. Why is biodiversity (genetic variety) such an important ecosystem resource/
service?

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Each student should brainstorm independently, coming up with at least one possible
claim based on all the reading texts covered so far in line with the topic they have
selected. Students are not allowed to use AI, only referenceable academic sources

Once each student has developed their claims, they share them with the group. The
group should discuss each claim critically, considering its strength and relevance. This
might involve merging similar claims, adding supporting details or evidence, or
improving the logic and reasoning behind each claim. If time allows, students could
also bring in external research or knowledge to further support their claims with
academic evidence, but should work primarily with what has been discussed so far.

Altogether, each group must have at least 10 claims for their chosen topic – a
combination of assertions or opinions on the topic and debatable points backed
up by evidence and references.

Step 3: After the students have developed and refined their final claims, they need to
work together to organize them into a structured response. Use the following structure
to organise your ideas.

For each claim you must have some form of evidence in the form of a reference to
back up your claim. The evidence can be a paraphrase or a direct quote from any
academic research. Then, you must explain (reason) the quote or paraphrase to your
claim to show how they are related. In other words, explain why that evidence is
connected to the claim, making the validity of the claim stronger.

Topic:

1 Claim

Evidence (with
a reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to
the evidence)

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2 Claim

Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

3 Claim

Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

4 Claim

Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

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5 Claim

Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

6 Claim

Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

7 Claim

Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

8 Claim

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 Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

9 Claim

Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

10 Claim

Evidence (with a
reference)

Reasoning (Link
your claim to the
evidence)

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Step 4: After you have drafted your ideas, write and submit the final version online via
Blackboard. The whole group will get the same mark because this is a group work
activity.

Each claim counts 3 marks.

1. The claim (1 mark): A relevant, clear, specific, insightful claim based on the
selected topic.
2. Evidence (1 mark): A quote or paraphrase with a reference (that is relevant
to the claim)
3. Reasoning (1 mark): The quote or paraphrase is explained and linked to the
claim to show they are logically connected. The provided evidence must
support the claim.

Marks will be subtracted for language use errors (sentence structure, grammar,
vocabulary, mechanics).

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SECTION 8: WRITE YOUR ESSAY
Task 1: Review your topic

The effectiveness of an essay often begins with a clear understanding of the topic and
instructions. It guides your research efforts by helping you identify and collect the most
relevant sources and information. You can save time by concentrating on resources
that directly contribute to your essay's content. A good understanding of your topic
helps you stay on track and avoid irrelevant information, maintaining the focus of your
writing.

Let’s review your essay topic:

1) Consider the value and availability of ecosystem services in South Africa.

2) Explain how ecosystem services benefit us and why are they important for human
psychological and physiological needs.
3) Discuss the impact of what happens when ecosystem services are not protected
or conserved or no longer available.

Task 2: Brainstorm ideas

Brainstorming is a creative process used to generate a wide range of ideas on a

particular topic or problem. It involves thinking freely and without judgment to explore
all possible solutions, approaches, or concepts. The goal of brainstorming is to unlock
creative thinking by allowing ideas to flow freely, without worrying about whether they
are right, wrong, realistic, or practical at the start.

Often, one idea leads to another. You can expand on, combine, or modify initial
thoughts to create more refined ideas. After generating a broad set of ideas, you can
evaluate them, select the most promising ones, and develop them further.

Use the space below to brainstorm ideas.

Q1: Consider the value and availability of ecosystem services in South Africa. Why
are ecosystem services important in South Africa? Think of a South African example
you can include in your discussion: a place, a certain biome, an activity, a national
park, a particular plant or animal etc.

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Q2: Explain how ecosystem services benefit us and why are they important for human
psychological and physiological needs. Why are ecosystem services important
(beneficial) for health of humans and the environment? How do ecosystem services
benefit us?

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Q3: Discuss the impact of what happens when ecosystem services are not protected
or conserved or no longer available. What happens when ecosystem services are not
protected or conserved or destroyed or no longer available?

Task 3: Create body paragraphs for each question.

The body paragraphs are the building blocks of your essay. A paragraph discusses
one idea in detail and aids the development of an overall topic for the essay. Briefly
stated, a paragraph is a group of sentences about one specific idea. Paragraph
lengths will vary depending on the purpose of the paragraph.

Every paragraph must include:

1) The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It usually appears at
the beginning of the paragraph and sets the stage for what the paragraph will
discuss. The topic sentence guides the reader by providing a summary of the
content and focus of the paragraph, ensuring that all the subsequent sentences in
the paragraph support, explain, or elaborate on this main idea.

2) The supporting sentences are details that support the topic sentence. These
might include facts, descriptions, examples or any evidence and research (with
intext citations) that relates back to your topic sentence, and ultimately your thesis
statement.

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3) Transitional devices (firstly, secondly, furthermore, additionally, thus, as a result,
however etc.) link sentences together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps
or breaks between ideas. Transitional devices are words or phrases that function
like bridges between parts of your essay. They are cues that help the reader to
interpret ideas in the way that you, as a writer, want them to understand.
Transitional devices help you carry over a thought from one sentence to another,
from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another with words or phrases.

4) The concluding sentence ties together the ideas brought up in the paragraph or
links the paragraph with the next one coming after it, thereby transitioning to the
ideas of the next paragraph.

Consider the first body paragraph that Nomusa wrote for her
essay

Plastic waste poses a significant threat to both the environment

and human health, with its pervasive presence causing widespread Topic sentence
harm. (S1) Plastic waste accumulates in South African rives (for
example the Vaal River in Gauteng) and landscapes, where it
breaks down into microplastics that are ingested by fish and
aquatic life, leading to the disruption of ecosystems and the death
of numerous species. O'Brien and Thondhlana (2019) explain Claims supported
by evidence and
that “plastic waste management in South Africa remains a
research
significant challenge, with large quantities of plastic ending up in
landfills or the environment due to inadequate recycling
infrastructure and public awareness." (S2) Consequently, these
microplastics also enter the food chain, eventually reaching
humans and contributing to potential health risks, including
Transition words
hormonal disruptions and carcinogenic effects. Many animals,
especially marine life, mistake plastic for food because of its
appearance, texture, or smell. Over time, plastics floating in oceans
or lakes can become covered in algae, which makes them (S1-3) Supporting
resemble natural prey. (S3) Moreover, the improper disposal and ideas
burning of plastic waste release toxic chemicals into the water, air
and soil, further polluting the environment and exposing
communities to harmful substances. Human activities, such as
improper waste disposal and plastic pollution, significantly increase
the amount of plastic in natural habitats. As plastic waste continues
to proliferate, its impact on both ecological systems and human
Concluding
health becomes increasingly severe, underscoring the urgent need
sentence
for sustainable waste management practices and reduction
strategies.

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 Reference: O'Brien, K., & Thondhlana, G. (2019). Plastic bag use in
South Africa: Perceptions, practices and potential for change. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 146, 1007-1013. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.07.003

Now it’s your turn! Once you’ve completed your brainstorming and generated a range
of ideas in the table, the next step is to select and organize those ideas into a coherent
academic paragraph. Prioritize ideas that can be supported by strong evidence (such
as research studies, data, or examples). Choose ideas that can be clearly expressed
and elaborated on within a paragraph. Avoid overly complex or broad ideas that could
confuse the reader or need more space than a single paragraph allows.

• Remember to explain yourself fully. Use your best sentences and best
vocabulary.
• Create your own claims about what you have learnt and think about the topic.
These are your supporting sentences.
• Include research and evidence (with in-text references) to support what you are
saying.
• Include a South African example wherever possible.

Use the grid to help you but write the final version in your essay without a table.

Body paragraph 1: The value and availability of ecosystem services in South

Africa

Topic sentence

Supporting idea 1

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Supporting idea 2

Supporting idea 3

Concluding sentence

Body paragraph 2: Ecosystem services benefits for humans

Topic sentence

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Supporting idea 1

Supporting idea 2

Supporting idea 3

Concluding sentence

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Body paragraph 3: Loss of ecosystem services

Topic sentence

Supporting idea 1

Supporting idea 2

Supporting idea 3

Concluding sentence

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Task 4: Write the introduction paragraph

4.1 Background information

In the introduction of an essay, background information plays a crucial role by

providing the reader with context. It helps situate the reader within the topic. It explains
the broader situation or issue that leads up to the essay's main focus. By offering
relevant background details, you draw the reader in, sparking interest in the topic while
preparing them for the argument or analysis that follows.

Background information could include a definition, some historical facts or current events
that are related to your topic and theme. You need to capture the reader’s attention first
with compelling details or quotes about your topic.

Think about the following questions that you can answer for your readers.
• What does your reader already know about the topic?
• Will you be using specific terminology you need to inform your reader about?
• What key terms need to be introduced and defined?
• Is there an interesting quote about your topic?
• Can you find any interesting stats about your topic?

If you would like to include a definition, you can use any of these sentence structures:
• Throughout this essay the term X will refer to…
• It is necessary here to clarify what is meant by….
• In this essay the term X will be used to refer to…
• While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this essay will use
the definition suggested by Jones (2004) who saw it as…
• The term X will be used in this essay to describe the….

If you would like to include historical or scientific information, you can use any of these
sentence structures:
• The issue of X has received considerable attention
• Studies on X represent a growing field
• X is a major area of interest
• One of the most significant current discussions in the field of X is…
• X has received considerable scholarly attention in recent years
• There has been increasing interest in the topic of X
• X has been studied widely

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Use the space below to plan and write your background information for your essay.

4.2 Formulate a thesis statement

After writing your body paragraphs you will have a much better idea of what your essay
is about. The thesis statement, or central idea of your essay states the topic of the
essay. The thesis statement needs to be narrowed and focused so that it does not try
to cover too much information in a short essay. Remember that your thesis statement
puts your fingerprint on your essay. It sums up the content of your essay and it shares
the ideas that you want to explore. A thesis statement can be either one or two
sentences depending on the topic and content.

Consider the following example.

Nomusa has been asked to write a 1,200 word essay about the following topic:

Her essay question: Discuss the various ways in which pollution affects human
health and the environment. Provide examples of specific ecosystems that have
been severely impacted by pollution.

She first identifies the main theme of the essay which is pollution. Pollution
degrades the quality of water in rivers, lakes, and oceans. Contaminants like plastic
waste, chemicals, heavy metals, and pathogens make water unsafe for
consumption, recreation, and supporting aquatic life. Pollutants from agricultural
runoff, industrial waste, and landfills seep into the soil, reducing its fertility and ability
to support plant life. This also leads to the contamination of crops with harmful

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 substances. Contaminated water can cause waterborne diseases such as cholera,
dysentery, and hepatitis.

She also has to mention some examples of specific ecosystems that have been
severely impacted by pollution. She decides to focus her discussion on pollution
on South Africa’s rivers in particular.

The three topics of pollution she is going to discuss in her 3 body paragraphs are:

1) Plastic waste

2) Agricultural runoff

3) Inadequate wastewater treatment

The first draft of her thesis statement looks like this.

Thesis statement: The increasing pollution of South Africa's rivers, driven by

plastic waste, agricultural runoff, and inadequate wastewater treatment, poses a
severe threat to the environment and to the health and wellbeing of humans.

Consider some thesis statement sentence structures to guide you:

Sentence structure Example

[Subject] + [Position] + because + Deforestation harms biodiversity

[Reason 1], [Reason 2], and [Reason 3]. because it destroys habitats, disrupts
ecosystems, and accelerates species
extinction.

[Counterargument], [Subject] + Although some argue that climate

[Position] + because + [Supporting change is a natural process, human
Reason]. activities have significantly accelerated
global warming because of increased
carbon emissions and deforestation.

[Subject] + should/should not + [Action] Governments should implement stricter

+ because + [Reason 1] and [Reason regulations on plastic waste because it
2]. pollutes oceans and threatens marine
life.

By examining [Evidence 1], [Evidence By examining the decline in polar ice

2], and [Evidence 3], it is clear that caps, the rise in global sea levels, and
[Position]. the frequency of extreme weather
events, it is clear that climate change
poses an urgent threat to our planet."

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 [Subject] + not only + [First Point], but Urban green spaces not only improve
also + [Second Point], which leads to + air quality, but also promote biodiversity,
[Conclusion]. which leads to healthier and more
sustainable cities."

Now try write your thesis statement below.

4.3 Write the roadmap

The road map, which is usually the last sentence of your introduction mentions the
sub-topics (the body paragraphs) that you will explore in your thesis statement. It gives
the reader a direction and an idea of what you will be discussing in the body of the
essay.

• The essay begins by…It will then go on to.

• The first section of the essay will examine.

• The essay has been organised in the following way

• The essay has been organised into X parts. The first part deals with…

• The main issues addressed in this essay are…

• The essay first gives a …. It then goes on to…

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What is your first body paragraph going to be about? What is your second body
paragraph going to be about? What is your last body paragraph going to be about?

Task 5: Write the conclusion

While the introduction prepares the reader for what is to come, the conclusion
summarises what the reader has read. Your conclusion wraps up your essay in a tidy
package and brings it home for your reader. A concluding paragraph of an academic
essay consists of 3 components.

5.1 Restate the thesis in a new way

This helps to remind the reader what the purpose or viewpoint of the essay was. In
other words, it restates what the essay set out to prove or discuss in the introductory
paragraph. Rephrase the thesis statement with fresh and deeper understanding.

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5.2 A summary of the main ideas

Highlight the key ideas mentioned in the body paragraphs. This helps the reader by
providing a recap of what was written without retelling everything. Do not introduce
new ideas in your conclusion that you have not discussed in the body of your essay.
Do not restate word for word what you have already mentioned in the essay. Try to
think of another way to phrase it (paraphrasing) that offers new insight into the matter.

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5.3 The way forward

Leave the readers with something to think about, like perhaps a new insight into the
topic or a relevant quote, or a call for more research to be done in future. The closing
sentence should help the reader feel a sense of closure and make the readers glad
they read your paper. Some scholars leave their readers with a responsibility. After
the reader has read the text, this sentence informs them what they should think, feel,
or change.

Task 6: Complete your reference list

A reference list supports the credibility of your arguments by showing that they are
based on reliable sources. It demonstrates that your claims are backed by research
and not merely personal opinions. Readers can use your reference list to locate the
original sources of information, data, or quotations.

Citing sources in your reference list ensures that you give proper credit to the original
authors and researchers whose work you have used. This is crucial for maintaining
academic integrity and avoiding plagiarism.

Your reference list should appear at the end of your essay. The in-text citation is
located within the body of the assignment and is made up of the author’s surname
and the publication date. Each source you cite in the essay must appear in your
reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.
Your reference list must be in alphabetical order.

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Which references did you / are you going to use in your essay?

Reference list

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Task 7: Revision and Editing

It is time for you to revise your essay draft before you write, and submit the final
version. Revising, for most writers, is the most important thing to improving your
writing, the most crucial part of the writing process. You may think that a completed
first draft means little improvement is needed; you just need to fix errors. Even
experienced writers, however, need to improve their drafts.

Why do we revise and edit?

Revising and editing are the two tasks you undertake to significantly improve your
essay. Both are very important elements of the writing process. You may think that a
completed first draft means little improvement is needed. However, even experienced
writers need to improve their drafts and rely on peers during revising and editing. You
may know that athletes miss catches, fumble balls, or overshoot goals. Dancers forget
steps, turn too slowly, or miss beats. For both athletes and dancers, the more they
practice, the stronger their performance will become. Writing has the same capacity
to profit from improvement and revision.

When you revise, you take a second look at your ideas. You might add, cut, move,
or change information in order to make your ideas clearer, more accurate, more
interesting, or more convincing.

When you edit, you take a second look at how you expressed your ideas.

You add or change words. You fix any problems in grammar, punctuation, and
sentence structure. You improve your writing style. You make your essay into a
polished, mature piece of writing, the end product of your best efforts.

As a writer and a thinker, you need to learn to be critical of yourself in a positive way
and have high expectations for your work. You also need to train your eye and trust
your ability to fix what needs fixing. For this, you need to teach yourself where to look.

Make a list of the aspects that you need to revise for your draft.

Is your thesis statement clear and focused?

Are the ideas for each body paragraph strong and relevant to the thesis?

Have you provided sufficient and credible evidence to support your

arguments?

Are they organized logically, with one clear idea per paragraph?

Is your language clear and easy to understand?

Are you using appropriate vocabulary for your audience and purpose?

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 Are your sentences varied in length and structure, or are they repetitive?

Are there any grammatical errors, such as subject-verb agreement or

tense inconsistencies?

Are punctuation marks used correctly (commas, semicolons, quotation

marks, etc.)?

Are there any run-on sentences or fragments?

Do the ideas follow a logical order, guiding the reader through the essay?

Are all sources properly cited within the text?

Is the reference list complete and correctly formatted?

Task 8: Assessment: Essay – 30 Marks

▪ Please go and type your essay and submit the electronic version on Blackboard.

▪ Remember! No late submissions will be allowed. If you do not submit in time, you
will need valid proof such as a medical or death certificate.

▪ Do not wait until the last minute before midnight on the due day to submit. This is
irresponsible and unwise. Make sure that you submit your assessment at least 24
hours before the due date so that if something goes wrong, you lose connection
or Wi-Fi or your device gets stolen or anything else, you still have enough time to
resubmit. This remains your responsibility as the student.

▪ Remember that office communication closes at 16:30 each day. If you experience
any difficulties during submission, we can only help you during normal office
hours. Your email will not be answered at 11:59 PM because we are probably
sleeping.

▪ Your facilitator will mark this and give you feedback.

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How will you be assessed? Look at the detailed rubric below.

Organization (5 marks)

1 Not meeting No apparent beginning /introduction, development and conclusion. No

expectations apparent use of topic sentences, concluding sentences and paragraphing (if
applicable)

2 Novice Weak beginning/ introduction, development and conclusion. Weak use of

topic sentences, concluding sentences and paragraphing (if applicable)

3 Developing Adequate beginning/ introduction, development and conclusion. Adequate

use of topic sentences, concluding sentences and paragraphing (if
applicable)

4 Competent Mostly clear and suitable beginning/ introduction, development and

conclusion. Mostly clear and suitable use of topic sentences, concluding
sentences and paragraphing (if applicable)

5 Exceeding Clear and appropriate beginning/ introduction, body paragraphs, and

expectations conclusion. Clear and appropriate use of topic sentences, concluding
sentences and paragraphing (applicable)

Content (10 marks)

1-2 Not meeting Little to no line of argumentation/thesis in response to the question/assigned

expectations topic. Little to no development of the thesis, with little to no support and little
to no relevant assertions and evidence that focuses on the central ideas.
Little to no coverage of appropriate content and other theory. Little to no
logical development of key points made in support of the thesis

3-4 Novice Insufficient evidence of a line of argumentation/thesis in response to the

question/assigned topic, with very few moments of clarity. Insufficient
development of the thesis, with insufficient support and insufficient relevant
assertions and evidence that focuses on the central ideas. Very few
moments of clarity, most points need better support and evidence.
Insufficient coverage of appropriate content and other theory. Very few
moments of clarity with very little appropriate content covered. Insufficient
logical development of key points made in support of the thesis. Very few
moments of logical development, much more work is needed.

5-6 Developing Some evidence of a line of argumentation/thesis in response to the

question/assigned topic, with several digressions. Some development of the
thesis, with little support and little relevant assertions and evidence that
focuses on the central ideas. Several points need better support and
evidence. Some clear and appropriate coverage of content and any other
theory, with several digressions. Some logical development of key points
made in support of the thesis, with several digressions.

7-8 Competent Adequately clear line of argumentation/thesis in response to the

question/assigned topic, with very few digressions (2 – 3 instances).
Adequately substantial development of the thesis, with adequately clear

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 support and relevant assertions and evidence that focuses on the central
ideas. Very few points may need better support and evidence (2 – 3
instances where development may be lacking). Adequately clear and
appropriate coverage of content and any other theory, with very few
digression (2 – 3 instances of inappropriate/unclear coverage). Adequately
logical development of key points made in support of the thesis, with very
few digressions (2 – 3 instances of unclear development).

9-10 Exceeding Very clear line of argumentation/thesis in response to the question/assigned

expectations topic. Substantial development of the thesis, with clearly support and
relevant assertions and evidence that focuses on the central ideas Very
clear and appropriate coverage of content and any other theory. Logical
development of key points made in support of the thesis.

Language use (5 marks)

1 Not meeting Totally inaccurate sentence structure with no variety (totally inaccurate use
expectations of inflections, subject-verb agreement, word order, modifiers; with several
run-on sentences or sentence fragments that interfere with meaning). Totally
inaccurate spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation. Totally inappropriate
register.

2 Novice Insufficiently accurate and varied sentence structure (insufficiently accurate

use of inflections, subject-verb agreement, word order, modifiers; with
several run-on sentences or sentence fragments that interfere with
meaning). Insufficiently accurate spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation.
Mostly inappropriate register.

3 Developing Adequately accurate and varied sentence structure (some accurate use of
inflections, subject-verb agreement, word order, modifiers; some run-on
sentences or sentence fragments). Mostly accurate spelling, punctuation,
and capitalisation. Some inappropriate register.

4 Competent Mostly accurate and varied sentence structure (mostly accurate use of
inflections, subject-verb agreement, word order, modifiers; with very few run-
on sentences or sentence fragments). Mostly accurate spelling, punctuation,
and capitalisation. Mostly appropriate register.

5 Exceeding Accurate and varied sentence structure (accurate use of inflections, subject-
expectations verb agreement, word order, modifiers; with no run-on sentences or
sentence fragments). Accurate spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation.
Appropriate register

Source use (5 marks)

1 Not meeting No clearly supported assertations with no relevant evidence that has not
expectations been clearly and accurately referenced.

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2 Novice Weakly supported assertations with weak evidence that has been somewhat
clearly and accurately referenced.

3 Developing Adequately supported assertations with adequately relevant evidence that

has been adequately clearly and accurately referenced.

4 Competent Mostly supported assertations with mostly relevant evidence that has been
mostly clearly and accurately referenced.

5 Exceeding Clearly supported assertations with relevant evidence that has been clearly
expectations and accurately referenced.

Vocabulary (5 marks)

1 Not meeting Totally inaccurate word/idiom choice and use with no variety
expectations

2 Novice Insufficiently accurate and varied word/idiom choice and use

3 Developing Adequately accurate and varied word/idiom choice and use

4 Competent Mostly accurate and varied word/idiom choice and use.

5 Exceeding Accurate and varied word/idiom choice and use

expectations

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SECTION 9: SECOND SEMESTER ORIENTATION

The goal of this session is to help first-year students transition smoothly into their
second semester by reviewing important experiences and lessons from the first
semester, reminding them of key resources, and setting them up for success moving
forward.

Task 1: Think and reflect

Let’s start by reviewing your first semester experience. What was a highlight or
success for you last semester? (A valuable lesson; a module you really enjoyed or
liked, a new experience, an insight etc.)

What was a challenge or difficulty that you faced? How did you overcome it?

What are you looking forward to this semester? What do you hope to achieve?

Work with the student sitting next to you and share some ideas and thoughts.

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Task 2: Review the key academic literacy skills

Throughout the first semester, we have covered the following academic literacy
skills. Review the table below.

Listening skills

• Listening actively in a lecture.

• Taking notes during a lecture.
• Identifying key arguments, evidence in a lecture.
• Understanding and interpreting the main ideas, arguments, and supporting
details in a lecture.
• Formulating relevant questions for clarification, further exploration, or
discussion.
• Retaining and recall information heard during lectures, seminars, or
discussions for future application in academic tasks.
• Making summaries and class notes.

Critical reading skills

• Understanding how authors “argue” their ideas.

• Recognising what a claim looks like and means.
• Identifying credible evidence and academic resources.
• Quoting and paraphrasing from academic resources.
• Building vocabulary through key concepts and terms covered in the
prescribed readings.
• Synthesising ideas and sources.

Writing skills

• Unpacking and brainstorming ideas around a given topic.

• Planning and organising content in an essay according to a given structure.
• Writing and drafting ideas, sentences and paragraphs.
• Referencing and citating academic texts and sources.
• Revising and editing language use in an essay.

How have you used these skills in your other subject-specific modules? (Physics,
Chemistry, Maths, Biology, Architecture, Plant science, Information science, etc)

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How has your understanding of academic referencing and citation systems (e.g., APA,
Harvard) developed across different course modules?

How have you applied effective note-taking strategies in lectures, seminars, or when
reading assigned materials?

In what ways have you used feedback (oral, written) from lecturers, tutors or peers to
improve your academic writing and literacy skills?

In which modules have you been required to engage in academic debate or

discussions, and how have you used oral communication skills to present your ideas
effectively?

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Task 3: Set SMART goals for the second semester

Why must you have SMART goals?

Specific Vague goals often lead to confusion and procrastination. By

making a goal specific, you can know exactly what you want to
achieve and increases your focus. Learn to articulate (express
clearly) what you stand for and want.

Measurable Measurable goals allow you to track your progress and stay
motivated. When you see how much you have accomplished, it
boosts your confidence. It means that you can “tick off / check” the
things you have accomplished on your list.

Achievable Goals need to be realistic to avoid frustration. When goals are

achievable, students can work step-by-step, increasing their
chances of success. Learn to take and respect the small steps. Do
what you can with what you can now. Learn as you go.

Relevant Setting goals that align with your personal or academic priorities
keeps you motivated. Relevance ensures the goal contributes to
your overall success or well-being.

“Pursue meaning, not happiness” – Jordan Peterson (2018).

Peterson often argues that happiness is a temporary emotion,
largely dependent on external circumstances. If one’s primary goal
is the pursuit of happiness, life becomes about chasing pleasurable
experiences, which can lead to disappointment when life inevitably
presents challenges. Meaning, on the other hand, is deeper and
more enduring. It provides a sense of purpose and direction in life.
Meaning often comes from taking responsibility for yourself,
contributing to the lives of others, and engaging in tasks or roles
that matter, like your education.

Time-bound Without a deadline, students may lose focus and delay taking
action. A time-bound goal encourages students to work
consistently toward a specific endpoint. Throughout this semester
you will see that all your assessments are time-bound with
deadlines. You will by now have realised that you must keep a
calendar and time-table with all your module assessment due dates
aligned so that you understand what is due far in advance.

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What areas of your academics or personal life do you want to improve, and why is it
important to you? Write down any 3 SMART goals.

What steps can you take to make progress toward these goals, and how will you
measure your success? How does achieving these goals fit into your larger academic
or personal plans?

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Task 4: Learning outcomes

Learning outcomes list the skills students are expected to understand, develop or
apply by the end of the course. Let’s look at the learning activities you are going to
complete this semester.

Reading and Topics:

vocabulary • South African biomes
development • Indigenous plants
• Biodiversity mapping
• Phyllotaxy
• Ecological conservation

Practical application of • Identify various tree and plant species accurately

knowledge on campus
• Apply various research methods
• Collect data through a field work observation
• Analyse data and create graphs and charts to
represent findings
• Share research findings
• Participate in class discussions

Report writing • Understand the components of a report – IMRAD

(Introduction, Methodology, Results and
Discussion)
• Paraphrase, cite and reference information from
credible academic resources
• Discuss and interpret results and findings
• Use formal and objective language to convey
ideas clearly
• Apply language grammar rules consistently
• Produce a well-structured report

What specific skills or knowledge do you hope to gain from achieving these learning
outcomes? Which of the upcoming learning outcomes do you find most interesting or
relevant to your personal interests or career goals? Why?

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Task 5: From theory to practice

This semester you are going to start by learning about various aspects of South African
biodiversity with regards to biomes and indigenous plants and animals.

Then you will conduct a field observation of the biodiversity on your UFS campus. You
will start by selecting a specific area on the Bloemfontein, South, or QwaQwa campus
to observe the biodiversity. You must identify and record ONE tree species and ONE
shrub/bush species in a designated area on campus. You must also record at least
ONE form of wildlife such as birds/insects/reptiles/small mammals.

After you have conducted your field observation, you will write a scientific report. You
will use the IMRAD report structure - Introduction, Methodology, Results and
Discussion.

Why investigate the biodiversity on your UFS campus?

Biodiversity, or the variety of life within a particular habitat or ecosystem, plays a crucial
role in maintaining healthy, resilient environments. The biodiversity on campus is
especially important, as these areas often face particular environmental pressures like
water restrictions, drought, pollution, habitat fragmentation, and the presence of non-
native or invasive species. Campuses often have green spaces in amongst lecture
halls and offices, such as gardens, courtyards, ponds, and wooded areas, which can
support a variety of activities, plants, animals, insects and birds. These spaces
become microhabitats, providing shelter, food, and breeding grounds for various
species. Investigating and recording all the types of species encountered can be very
useful and interesting for future references.

What skills are you going to develop?

Biodiversity tracking on campus can offer students a unique chance to develop

practical skills that are essential for various careers. Hands-on involvement in
biodiversity projects—such as species identification, ecological or environmental
surveys, and data collection can help students to deepen their knowledge of the
natural world and acquire a range of skills that are critical for scientific research in
many disciplines (chemistry, plant science, physics, biology, ecology, agriculture,
architecture etc).

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Consider the list of practical skills you will use below and answer the questions that
follow.

Skills Explanation

Species • You will carefully observe different organisms, paying

identification special attention to details such as physical characteristics,
behaviours, or any environmental aspects that can help you
to identify and understand different species.
• Species identification is a process that heavily involves
critical thinking because it requires careful observation,
analysis, and logical reasoning to accurately determine the
identity of an organism. It involves logical reasoning and
inferencing to connect the observed traits with a species’
known characteristics.
• Fieldwork also often involves unforeseen challenges (such
as weather conditions, inaccessible sites, or equipment
failures), and critical thinking is crucial for making quick,
informed decisions on how to adapt and proceed.
• You will also practise locating, evaluating, and using
scientific literature and databases effectively to assist
with accurate species identification.

Data collection • You will collect raw data. Small errors can lead to
inaccurate conclusions, so close attention to detail is vital.
This includes accurately noting locations, environmental
conditions, and times, as well as carefully measuring or
observing samples.
• You will record raw data accurately in a structured,
organized way, using a standardized procedure. Meticulous
recording practices are essential for the accuracy and
integrity of the dataset.
• You will use digital devices and software (GPS device,
smart phone apps; camera; laptop for data entry) to record
your data. This ensures that data is collected in a valid and
reliable way.
• You will practice ethical data collection which means
collecting and documenting data honestly, without altering
the results or selectively reporting findings.

Data • You will learn to interpret raw data and create graphs or
interpretation charts to visually represent trends or patterns. Visuals like
graphs and charts transform raw data into accessible

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 insights, enabling students to convey complex ideas clearly
and concisely for reports or presentations.
• When we plot data visually, it allows for quick
comparisons, facilitating faster understanding and
interpretation of the results. A well-designed chart can
make a report more persuasive, providing evidence that
reinforces the key points being communicated.
• Whether in science or business visualized data often plays
a key role in guiding stakeholders for effective decision
making. Understanding how to visualize trends or patterns
helps in making informed decisions, as data visualizations
provide a foundation for evaluating options and outcomes.

Scientific writing • You will learn how to communicate information in a clear

skills and structured way. Clarity is essential for effective
communication, as it ensures the reader can easily
understand the main points.
• You will learn how to organise information into a specific
report format - Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion,
Conclusion. This structure is easily transferable to other
genres (assignments, essays, business reports).
• Scientific reports require students to back up their
statements with evidence and credible cited research.
This helps them practice writing in an evidence-based
manner, essential for credible and persuasive
communication. It ensures transparency so that others can
follow-up on claims made in research.
• Writing scientific reports trains students to use formal,
professional language, which is appropriate for academic
and professional contexts. Learning to use precise
language (scientific vocabulary) and avoid vague wording
builds students' confidence and credibility in written
communication and language development.

Write down any 5 concerns you might have regarding the upcoming tasks and
activities. Discuss them with your facilitator and the rest of the class.

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SECTION 10: CRITICAL READING FOR A TOPIC

Task 1: Activating background knowledge

When you gage what you already know on a topic, it allows you to connect new
information to old information, making it easier to comprehend and remember the new
information. Prior knowledge offers context, helping to make unfamiliar topics less
daunting and more accessible. Read the information below to activate your knowledge
about indigenous plants and South African biomes.

WHAT ARE INDIGENOUS PLANTS?

Indigenous plants are those that naturally occur in a specific region or ecosystem
without human introduction. In South Africa, these plants have evolved over
millennia to thrive in the unique climates and soils of different areas, from the fynbos
in the Western Cape to the savannas in the Lowveld, from the Great Karoo desert
to the Tsitsikamma National Park in Knysna. South Africa is home to one of the
most diverse plant kingdoms in the world, known as the Cape Floristic Region,
which boasts around 9,000 plant species, 70% of which are found nowhere else
on Earth.

Figure 1: Storms river mouth, Tsitsikamma National Park

Indigenous plants are essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems. They provide
habitat and food for local wildlife, including birds, insects, and mammals. Pollinators,
like bees and butterflies, are crucial for healthy agricultural systems. These plants

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at vital for maintaining soil stability and preventing erosion. They promote water
conservation by adapting to local rainfall patterns.

For example, the Spekboom (Portulacaria afra), endemic to the Eastern Cape, is
known for its carbon-storing abilities and its role in combating climate change.
Another indigenous plant is Aloe ferox in the Karoo and the iconic Protea in the
Cape (South Africa’s national flower), and each has a unique role in the ecosystem.

Figure 2: Spekboom Figure 3: Cape sugarbird on a King

Protea

The Spekboom is often called the "miracle plant" because it can absorb and store
more carbon dioxide per hectare than many tropical rainforests, making it a powerful
tool in the fight against climate change. Spekboom is incredibly drought-resistant
and can survive in arid conditions, making it an ideal plant for South Africa’s dry
regions. It can thrive with as little as 250-350 mm of rainfall a year. The plant’s small,
juicy leaves are edible and have a slightly sour, lemony taste. Spekboom is also
known as "Elephant’s food" because it is a favourite snack for elephants and other
herbivores in the wild, particularly in South Africa’s Eastern Cape. A single
Spekboom plant can live up to 200 years, and mature plants can grow up to 5 meters
tall under optimal conditions. Spekboom has been used in South African traditional
medicine to treat dehydration and exhaustion, as well as for soothing sunburn
(Galuszynski, 2023).

South African biomes

South Africa has several biomes, or broad groupings of vegetation types that share
similar ecological characteristics. Each biome has a characteristic climate envelope,
or a range and pattern of temperature and rainfall values, within which it occurs.
(Driver et al. 2011).

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1. The grassland biome is found mainly on the high central plateau of South Africa
like the Free State, the Northern Cape and the inland areas of Kwa-Zulu Natal and
the Eastern cape.

2. Occupying one third of the area of South Africa, the Savanna is the largest biome
in the country. It is well developed over the Low-veld and Kalahari region of South
Africa and is also dominant in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe.

3. The thicket biome does not form a continuous zone and extends in rather
fragmented band along the coast from Kwa-Zulu Natal down to the Western Cape.
It is most extensive in the Eastern Cape and is thought to contain the most species
rich formations of woody plants in South Africa.

4. Forests cover less than 0,25% of South Africa’s surface area, making this the
smallest biome. Forests tend to be fragmented and occur in the high altitude
Drakensberg to the coastal plains, with the largest forests found in the Western
Cape in the Tsitsikama and Knysna regions. A narrow strip of continuous dune forest
also stretches up from St. Lucia to the northern Kwa-Zulu Natal border.

5. The Nama Karoo biome occurs on the central plateau of the western half of
South Africa. It is the second largest biome in South Africa with topography that
varies from expansive rocky or sandy plains to flat topped mesas. This region is
generally hot and windy in the summers and very cold in the winters with a fairly low
rainfall of below 500 mm per year.

Figure 4: South African biomes

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6. This biome is found in the south western corner of South Africa and is known to
be synonymous with the Cape Floral Kingdom, one earth’s six plant kingdoms.
The Cape floral Kingdom is the smallest of six total kingdoms in the world and is
the only one contained in its entirety within a single country. It is characterized
by its high richness in plant species, 8700 species, and high endemicity of 68%
of plants confined to the Cape Floral Kingdom.

7. The Succulent Karoo Biome has an equal status to the other biomes in South
Africa - it is not a subtype of "a Karoo Biome. The Succulent Karoo Biome is
primarily determined by the presence of low winter rainfall and extreme summer
aridity. Rainfall varies between 20 and 290 mm per year. Because the rains are
cyclonic, and not due to thunderstorms, the erosive power is far less than of the
summer rainfall biomes. During summer, temperatures in excess of 40°C are
common. The vegetation is dominated by dwarf, succulent shrubs, of which the
Vygies (Mesembryanthemaceae) and Stonecrops (Crassulaceae) are
particularly prominent. Mass flowering displays of annuals (mainly Daisies
Asteraceae) occur in spring, often on degraded or fallow lands.

South African land cover

Land cover data is used to quantify where natural habitat has been irreversibly lost
(Driver et al. 2011). The best currently available land cover data for South Africa is
the SANBI mosaic land cover 2009. It is based on the National Land Cover 2000
supplemented with more recent data from provinces and other sources where
available. The 2006 SAEO (DEAT 2006) highlighted the following major area
statistics of the land cover classes:

• Of the 12.8 million hectares of cultivated areas in South Africa, nearly 10.5
million hectares (82 per cent) is for commercial purposes, 0.8 million ha (only 6.2
per cent) is permanently under cultivation, and more than 10.8 million hectares (85
per cent) is rain-fed;

• Over 0.7 million hectares of land is degraded and left bare by soil erosion
(sheet and gully erosion); 4.6 million hectares of natural vegetation are degraded,
mainly in indigenous forests, woodlands, and grasslands; a further 0.2 million
hectares is degraded by mine tailings, waste rock dumps, and surface-based
mining;

• Urban areas comprise mainly formal residential suburbs and townships (1

million hectares) and informal settlements (0.2 million hectares); and,

• Savannahs (woodlands and bushlands) and grasslands cover 25.7 and 19.9
per cent of South Africa, respectively (DEAT 2006).

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There has been outright loss of natural habitat, over 18 per cent of South Africa’s
land surface, mostly as a result of cultivation of crops (such as maize, wheat and
sugar cane), but also mining, forestry plantations and urban development (Driver et
al. 2011). In some regions the percentage is much higher and the rates of loss are
alarming. For example, in North West, Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal, if loss of natural
habitat continues at current rates there will be little natural vegetation left outside
protected areas in these provinces by about 2050. Land use profoundly influences
the productivity and condition of land, as well as its biodiversity integrity. Land cover
change, which reflects an underlying change in land use, is therefore an important
indicator of the condition of terrestrial ecosystems (DEAT 2006).

South Africa holds the world’s largest reserves of gold, platinum-group metals,
chrome ore, and manganese ore, and the second largest reserves of zirconium,
vanadium and titanium. The sector spans the full spectrum of the five major mineral
categories i.e. precious metals and minerals, energy minerals, non-ferrous metals
and minerals, ferrous minerals, and industrial minerals. The country furthermore has
world-class primary processing facilities covering gold, diamonds, carbon steel,
stainless steel, and aluminium, in addition to gold and platinum (GDACE 2008).

The South African mining industry is long recognized as the most prominent sector,
despite the fact that it is only the sixth largest contributor to total GDP at present. It
is still regarded as the largest employer. South Africa’s mineral industry, based
mainly on gold, diamonds, coal, and recently, platinum-group metals, has made an
important contribution to the national economy.

References:

• DEAT (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism), (2006). 2006 South

Africa Environment Outlook: A report on the State of Environment. Department
of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria
• Driver A., Sink, K.J., Nel, J.N., Holness, S., Van Niekerk, L., Daniels, F., Jonas,
Z., Majiedt, P.A., Harris, L. and Maze, K. (2011). National Biodiversity
Assessment 2011: An assessment of South Africa’s biodiversity and
ecosystems. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute and
Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.
• Galuszynski, N. C. Peer, J. 2023. Regeneration dynamics of Portulacaria afra
in restored succulent thicket of South Africa. PeerJ journal: Life and
Environment. doi: 10.7717/peerj.15081
• GDACE (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment),
(2008). Mining and Environmental Impact Guide. Gauteng Department of
Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. Johannesburg (prepared by staff
at Digby Wells and Associates, Growth Lab, and Council for Geoscience).

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What strategies do indigenous plants use to survive in South Africa, and what
lessons can be drawn from these adaptations in the face of climate change?

Given that forests cover less than 0.25% of South Africa’s surface area, what unique
roles do these small, fragmented forest patches play in maintaining ecological
balance and supporting biodiversity?

Consider some of the key concepts discussed in the text above. Write your own
definition for each concept based on your understanding. You can paraphrase from
the text as well.

• Indigenous plants

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• South African biomes

• Carbon sequestration

• Land use / land cover

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Task 2: Vocabulary building – sentence creation

Use these concepts and create meaningful sentences related to the topic.

• Endemic

• Fragmented

• Drought-resistant

• Adapt

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Task 3: Listening and note-taking

Watch the following video on YouTube and take notes. Share your ideas with the
class.

What new information about biomes and the geography of South Africa is mentioned
in the video?

Is there anything in the video that surprised you?

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What particular information / facts does the video present about the Free State?

What particular information / facts does the video present about the area where you
live in South Africa?

What key ideas from the text you read are repeated in the video?

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Task 4: Vocabulary development and analysis

The study of leaf shapes is called phyllotaxy. Understanding leaf shapes can
significantly expand your knowledge of indigenous plants by offering insights into their
adaptations, ecological roles, and environmental relationships. Studying leaf shapes
helps you understand how these plants have adapted to factors like temperature,
sunlight, wind, and rainfall. Therefore, certain leaf shapes are more common in specific
ecosystems.

Phyllotaxy specifically refers to the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem, but when
focusing on leaf shapes, patterns, and structures, it often involves leaf morphology or
foliar morphology. Leaf morphology examines the form, shape, size, and structure of
leaves, including aspects like margins, veins, and shapes such as ovate, lanceolate,
or palmate. By studying leaf morphology, you become more proficient at identifying
and classifying indigenous plants, contributing to biodiversity awareness and
conservation efforts.

Brainstorm some ideas together as a class.

Why do plants have different shapes of leaves and branches? Why is it important to
understand some basic differences between plant species, such as shapes, forms,
and colours?

Phyllotaxy - consider the types of leaf shapes below and try answer the questions
that follow.

Acicular
Linear Oblong Ovate (oval) Obovate
(needle)

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 Elliptic Lanceolate Oblanceolate Cordate Obcordate

Rhomboid Deltoid Obdeltoid Reniform Cuneate

Palmatifid Palmatisect Pinnatifid Pinnatisect Fan-shaped

1. Which leaf shape is typically broad and flat to maximize sunlight absorption?

a) Needle-like
b) Oval
c) Heart-shaped
d) Lanceolate

2. What is an advantage of needle-like leaves in conifers?

a) Maximizes water retention

b) Increases surface area for photosynthesis
c) Reduces wind resistance
d) Facilitates quick growth

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3. Which leaf shape is characterized by a pointed tip and a broad base?

a) Linear
b) Elliptical
c) Cordate
d) Lobed

4. What is a benefit of deeply lobed leaves like those of oak trees?

a) Faster water evaporation

b) Easier shedding of snow
c) Better capture of sunlight
d) Reduced susceptibility to wind damage

5. Which leaf shape has a narrow, elongated form and is common in grasses?

a) Palmate
b) Lanceolate
c) Needle-like
d) Linear

6. The compound leaf, where leaflets are arranged in a radial pattern, is called:

a) Pinnate
b) Palmate
c) Ovate
d) Lanceolate

7. What is a key advantage of compound leaves in hot climates?

a) Increased shade tolerance

b) Better water retention
c) More efficient gas exchange
d) Enhanced wind dispersal

8. Which leaf type is likely to reduce overheating due to its division into small
leaflets?

a) Compound leaf
b) Simple leaf
c) Lobed leaf
d) Needle-like leaf

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9. What advantage do leaves with smooth margins provide?

a) Faster shedding of water

b) Reduced herbivory
c) Improved gas exchange
d) Better adaptation to cold environments

10. Which leaf shape is typically found in plants that grow in water-scarce
environments?

a) Spatulate
b) Needle-like
c) Cordate
d) Palmate

11. In which type of environment would you expect to find plants with large, broad
leaves?

a) High altitude, cold areas

b) Deserts
c) Tropical rainforests
d) Tundra regions

12. What is the advantage of succulent leaves in plants like cacti?

a) Rapid gas exchange

b) Increased surface area for sunlight
c) Water storage for drought resistance
d) Increased leaf lifespan

13.What is the main advantage of the heart-shaped (cordate) leaves in climbing

plants?

a) Resistance to high winds

b) Ability to collect water
c) Increased sunlight exposure
d) Ease of attachment to supports

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Task 5: Indigenous trees and plants in the Free State

The Free State landscape is comprised of picturesque valleys surrounded by dolerite

koppies (small hills) featuring grassland, woodland, and the bulbs and succulents of
the Nama Karoo. While the region is not dominated by vast forests, like some other
parts of South Africa, it is home to important indigenous tree species that thrive in its
grasslands and savannas, as well as in its high-altitude, cooler areas. The Free State
province of South Africa is characterized by its diverse climatic conditions and varied
landscapes, which support a range of vegetation, including both coniferous and
deciduous tree species.

Coniferous trees typically have needle-like or scale-like leaves, which are small, thin,
and tough. These leaves are well-suited for surviving in harsher conditions, such as
cold climates or dry environments. These leaves are adapted to minimize water loss.
Their reduced surface area, waxy coating (cuticle), and internal structures help
conserve water, which is crucial for survival in cold or arid conditions. Most coniferous
trees evergreen – they stay green all year around despite the weather. The Mountain
Cypress (Widdringtonia nodiflora) are present in the higher, rockier areas of the
province. These trees retain their needle-like leaves year-round, enabling them to
continue photosynthesis in colder conditions while minimizing water loss. However,
the introduction of invasive tree species poses a significant threat to the native
biodiversity of the Free State.

Invasive coniferous species such as the Pine (Pinus spp.) from North America and
Eucalyptus trees from Australia have been widely planted for commercial forestry
and windbreaks. These species have spread into natural areas, outcompeting local
flora for water and nutrients. Their rapid growth and ability to adapt to local conditions
have disrupted ecosystems, reducing the availability of resources for indigenous
species and altering the natural landscape.

Figure 5: Pine tree with cones Figure 6: Eucalyptus tree with

colourful bark

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Deciduous trees have broad, flat leaves that are often larger than coniferous leaves.
These leaves are designed to capture as much sunlight as possible during the growing
season. Broad leaves allow for greater surface area, maximizing photosynthesis
during the warm growing season when sunlight and water are abundant. However,
because of their large size, they lose a lot of water through evaporation. To prevent
water loss in winter or during dry periods, deciduous trees shed their leaves, becoming
dormant during these times. This helps them conserve water and energy when
resources are scarce.

Among the deciduous trees native to the Free State are species such as the White
Karee (Searsia pendulina) and Camel Thorn (Vachellia erioloba). These trees
shed their leaves during the dry winter months to conserve water and energy, adapting
to the semi-arid climate of the region. They play a critical role in supporting local
ecosystems, providing shelter and food for wildlife, and stabilizing soils.

Figure 7: Deciduous tree changes

Consider the following indigenous trees and plants found in the Free State. Answer
the questions that follow.

Excellent information for each plant can be found on the South African National
Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) website for PlantZAfrica.com.

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5.1 Acacia Karroo

Common Names

Afrikaans: Soetdoring

English: Sweetthorn

Sesotho: Mokhoro

Zulu: UmuNga

Description

The name Acacia is derived from Greek "akis" a point or barb. Known for many years
as Acacia karroo, this is one of South Africa's most beautiful and useful trees. It is
integrally part of our country's history having been used for everything from raft-
making to sewing needles and fencing for the houses of the royal Zulu women. The
thorns were even used by early naturalists to pin the insects they collected! It is very
widespread throughout southern Africa and there are different forms in some places,
which can be confusing.

Acacia karroo is a medium-sized deciduous tree that can grow up to 10 meters tall.
It has a wide, rounded crown and is characterized by its feathery, bright green leaves
and fragrant yellow flowers that bloom in clusters. The flowers appear in early
summer in a mass of yellow pompons. The bark of the Sweetthorn tree is used to
make a natural dye, which is popular among local artisans. This tree is commonly
used for fencing, firewood, and as a shade tree in rural areas. Its leaves and pods
can be fed to livestock, and the tree's gum has medicinal properties. This pleasant
tasting gum is eaten by people and animals, including the Lesser Bushbaby which
feeds exclusively on insects and gum from trees, particularly vachellia and sengalia
trees. It also had commercial value in the past when the gum was exported as "Cape
Gum" for making confectionary. This is apparently similar to gum arabic which is
used as a water soluble glue.

Several fungi are associated with this tree and the crown of mature trees may be
parasitized by various mistletoes, leading to the tree's decline. This tree has a long
taproot which enables it to use water and nutrients from deep underground, this and
its ability to fix nitrogen, lead to grasses and other plants thriving in its shade. Birds
also like to make nests in thorn trees as the thorns offer them some protection from

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 predators. Caterpillars of 10 species of butterflies are dependant on the tree for
survival.

Reference: Aubrey, A & Reynolds, Y. 2002. Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi &
Glasso. SANBI: PlantZAfrica.com. Available online at:
https://pza.sanbi.org/vachellia-karroo

Have you ever seen this tree? Do you agree with the common names in each
language?

Is this tree deciduous or coniferous? In what ways do you think this tree supports
wildlife and insects?

In what ways do you think this tree has adapted to survive?

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What other type of information do you think would be important to know about this
tree?

5.2 Olea Europaea

Common Names

Afrikaans: Olienhout

English: Wild Olive

Sesotho: Mohlware

Zulu: Umnquma

Description

The Latin name for olive is olea; europaea = from Europe, and africana = from Africa.
There are four species of Olea in South Africa. Olea europaea subsp. africana is a
neatly shaped evergreen tree with a dense spreading crown (9 x 12 m) of glossy
grey-green to dark-green foliage. Leaves are grey-green to dark-green above and
greyish below. The rough, grey bark sometimes peels off in strips. Sprays of tiny,
lightly scented white to greenish flowers (October to February) are followed (March
to July) by small, spherical, thinly fleshy fruits (either sweet or sour) which ripen
purple-black. This tree is found in a variety of habitats, often near water, e.g.on rocky
hillsides, on stream banks and in woodland (where it can reach 12 m). It is
widespread in Africa, Mascarene Islands, Arabia, India to China.

The fruits are popular with people, monkeys, baboons, mongooses, bushpigs,
warthogs and birds (e.g. redwinged and pied starlings, Rameron pigeons, African

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 green pigeons, Cape parrots and louries). Leaves are browsed by game and stock.
This tree is an asset on farms and game farms, especially in very dry areas because
it is extremely hardy and is an excellent fodder tree. A tea can be made from the
leaves. The hard, heavy and beautiful golden-brown wood is used for furniture,
ornaments, spoons and durable fence posts. An ink is made from the juice of the
fruit. Traditional remedies prepared from this plant serve as eye lotions and tonics,
lower blood pressure, improve kidney function and deal with sore throats. The early
Cape settlers used the fruits to treat diarrhoea.

Reference: Joffe, P. 2002. Olea europaea subsp. africana). SANBI:

PlantZAfrica.com. Available online at: https://pza.sanbi.org/olea-europaea-subsp-
africana

Have you ever seen this tree? Do you agree with the common names in each
language?

Is this tree deciduous or coniferous? In what ways do you think this tree supports
wildlife and insects?

In what ways do you think this tree has adapted to survive?

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What other type of information do you think would be important to know about this
tree?

5.3 Themeda Triandra

Common Names

Afrikaans: Rooigras

English: Red grass

Sesotho:

Zulu:

Description

This is a lovely green to blue-green tufted grass that is often flushed with pink and
turns red with age. Some forms have bright yellow culms (stems). The spikelets
(grass flowers) form wedge-shaped, usually hanging clusters that may or may not
be hairy, with long black or white hairs. It is a well-known grazing grass, forming,
where dominant, the red grass or rooigrasveld (grasslands) in parts of South Africa.

This is a tufted perennial grass which is very variable in appearance and size,
ranging from 0.3-1.5 m in height. Plants from higher altitudes tend to be shorter and
dark purple, whereas at lower altitudes plants are often lighter coloured and flushed
only with purple. This grass is widespread in South Africa, growing in undisturbed
grasslands to savanna, in areas of average to high rainfall. Although the grass grows
in any type of soil, it prefers clay and soils with high organic content.

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 The meaning of the genus name Themeda is obscure, but it is Arabic and appears
to have something to do with water or possibly the lack thereof. The species name
tri (three) and andr (man) is Greek, referring to the three male spikelets surrounding
the bisexual spikelet in each cluster.

World-wide, there are 18 species of Themeda occurring in the tropics and subtropics
of the Old World, mainly in Asia. T. triandra is the only species occurring in Africa,
but it is also found in Asia and Australasia. Themeda triandra is an indicator of the
veld being in good condition. It is also known to be resistant to fire, the resistance
increasing when burnt regularly, but only if rested after fire and if overgrazing does
not occur. The long awns of the spikelet twirl when wet, and drive the seed into the
ground. Themeda triandra is a very important and well-known grazing grass that is
palatable especially when young. In some parts of Africa it is used for thatching, but
the forms found in southern Africa tend to be flimsy and not durable enough. In
Lesotho and bordering areas it is used sometimes for thatching and some basketry.
Paper pulp can also be made from the culms (stems).

Reference: Fish, L. 2004. Themeda triandra Forssk. SANBI: PlantZAfrica.com.

Available online at: https://pza.sanbi.org/vachellia-karroo

Have you ever seen this plant? Do you agree with the common names in each
language?

Is this plant deciduous or coniferous? In what ways do you think this plant supports
wildlife and insects?

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In what ways do you think this plant has adapted to survive?

What other type of information do you think would be important to know about this
tree?

5.4 Crinum Bulbispermum

Common Names

Afrikaans: Vaal River lily

English: Orange River lily

Sesotho:

Zulu: Umnduze

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Description

The word "Krinon" means lily and the specific epithet refers to the bulblike shape and
size of the seed. Crinum bulbispermum is a highly attractive garden subject and can be
grown all over South Africa provided it is given adequate water during its growing season.
It does prefer the wetter parts of the country and does very well if planted in soggy soils.
This is a good plant for swamp or water gardens. The Orange River lily is a large bulbous
plant up to 1m high, which produces attractive grey green gracefully arching leaves
during the summer months. A tall stem bearing large, hanging, lily-type flowers which
are white with a pink to red stripe in each petal, is produced early in the growing season.
Although this plant is widespread, it occurs naturally mainly on the highveld areas of the
eastern hinterland wherever conditions allow. In nature it grows along stream banks and
in swampy grasslands that usually dry out during the winter months when these plants
are dormant. The sickly-sweet scented flowers are pollinated by insects. Once the
flowers fall they are followed by the large attractive pink fruit capsules containing few to
many bulbous seeds which germinate as soon as they fall to the ground. The large bulb
is protected from drying out during the dry winter months by many layers of papery dry
bulb scales. This plant is used in traditional healing for the common cold, rheumatism,
varicose veins, reduction of swelling and the treatment of septic sores. It is also used
during the delivery of babies and to stimulate breast milk. Local people believe that this
plant protects homes from evil.

Reference: Hankey, A. 2001. Crinum bulbispermum. SANBI: PlantZAfrica.com.

Available online at: https://pza.sanbi.org/crinum-bulbispermum

Have you ever seen this plant? Do you agree with the common names in each
language?

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Is this tree deciduous or coniferous? In what ways do you think this plant supports
wildlife and insects?

In what ways do you think this plant has adapted to survive?

What other type of information do you think would be important to know about this
tree?

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Task 6: Descriptive language in science

Descriptive language plays a critical role in science by helping scientists and students
communicate their observations and results with precision and clarity. Whether you
are describing a tree, flower, chemical reaction, a biological process, or an
environmental phenomenon, your choice of words must convey accurate details
without ambiguity. They help specify size, colour, shape, texture, and other
measurable qualities. Descriptive language also aids in creating vivid imagery, which
can be particularly useful in fields like biology or geology, where you might be
explaining the characteristics of plants, animals, or natural formations.

In science writing, adjectives help to:

• Specify characteristics (e.g., “granular texture,” “fragrant plant,” “complex

structure”).
• Highlight variations (e.g., “bright color,” “slow movement,” “dense population”).
• Measure or quantify attributes (e.g., “large sample size,” “high concentration,”
“moderate temperature”).

The careful selection of adjectives also ensures that descriptions are objective,
avoiding unnecessary embellishment or subjective opinions. An adjective is a word
that describes or modifies a noun (a person, place, thing, or idea). It gives more
information about the noun by specifying qualities such as size, colour, shape, amount,
texture, condition, or other characteristics.

Adjectives answer questions like: What kind? Which one? How many? How?

For example:

Original: Bacteria grew in the dish.

Better: The small, circular colonies of blue bacteria rapidly grew in the infected Petri
dish.

Original: The bird perched on the tree branch.

Better: The small African, red-eyed bulbul bird perched delicately on the narrow,
wind-swept branch of the tall Karee tree.

While adjectives can enrich scientific descriptions, they must always remain neutral
and fact-based. Avoid adjectives that imply opinion, judgment, or emotional
responses, which can lead to bias.

Objective: "The sample was dense and opaque."

Subjective: "The sample was ugly and disgusting."

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Let’s consider some adjectives below.

Qualitative: acidic, transparent, bright green, organic, synthetic. elongated,

Appearance, texture, minute, spherical, cylindrical, translucent, opaque, granular,
taste, sound, smell, or velvety, fragrant, deciduous, tropical, climbing etc.
behaviour something.

Quantitative: The Few, many, several, some, much, significant, vast, small-scale,
number or degree of numerous, sparse, abundant etc.
something.

Comparative: add "-er" Larger, faster, more efficient, younger etc.

or “more”

Superlative: add "-est" Fastest, most concentrated, least reactive etc.

or “most”

Precision: Exact Microscopic, non-toxic, electrically conductive, radioactive,

qualities or vibrant, delicate, biodegradable, thermodynamic, volatile,
characteristics drought-resistant etc.

6.1 Identify the plant

Now try reading the following descriptions and guess what plant they refer to.

a) Flower: ____________________________

This striking flowering plant towers in height with large yellow lanceolate shaped
petals, and distinctive structure, this flower is not only admired for its beauty but also
valued for its agricultural significance. Their strong, erect stems are typically smooth
and green, often featuring a few rough textures or hair-like structures. The stems
can be as thick as 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.5 cm) in diameter, providing robust support
for the heavy flower heads that form atop them. The most distinctive feature of this
flower is its large, circular flower head, which can measure anywhere from 3 to 12
inches (7.5 to 30 cm) in diameter. These elongated, petal-like structures radiate
outward from the center and can sometimes be found in hues ranging from golden
yellow to orange, depending on the specific variety. The seeds are contained within
the thick, robust disk, which develops as the flower matures. Each flower head can
produce up to 2,000 seeds. The seeds are oval and flat, often with a hard outer shell
that can be striped or solid, typically in shades of gray, brown, or black. The seeds
are a rich source of oil, protein, and nutrients, making them valuable for human
consumption and wildlife.

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b) Tree: ____________________________

This tree is renowned for its graceful appearance, flexible branches, and distinctively
shaped leaves. They are often found near water bodies, contributing to the
landscape's serene beauty. They grow to heights of 30 to 60 feet (9 to 18 meters),
with some species reaching up to 80 feet (24 meters). The tree has a spreading
crown that can extend 20 to 40 feet (6 to 12 meters) wide, creating a canopy that
provides ample shade. The bark is often grayish-brown and can appear rough and
scaly in older specimens. In younger trees, the bark tends to be smoother and may
exhibit a greenish hue. As the tree matures, the bark develops deep fissures, adding
character to its overall appearance. These trees are characterized by their long,
slender, and flexible branches that cascade downwards, giving the tree a weeping
appearance. The leaves are long, narrow, and lance-shaped, typically measuring
between 3 to 5 inches (7.5 to 12.5 cm) in length. The leaves have a smooth, glossy
surface and a pointed tip, with a slight serration along the edges. The upper surface
is a vibrant green, while the undersides are paler and can be somewhat hairy. The
leaves turn yellow in the fall, adding a splash of colour to the landscape.

c) Tree: ____________________________

This tree is a stunning and iconic ornamental tree native to the tropical and
subtropical regions of South America, particularly in Brazil, Argentina, and Peru.
Renowned for its breathtaking, vibrant purple flowers and fern-like foliage, it has
become a popular choice in urban landscapes and gardens worldwide. These trees
typically reach a height of 25 to 50 feet (7.5 to 15 meters) and can spread equally
wide, with a canopy that can extend up to 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter. Their
trunk is generally straight, with a diameter of 1 to 2 feet (30 to 60 cm). As the tree
matures, the bark becomes rough, with a grayish-brown colour and deep fissures,
giving it a textured and rustic appearance. The branches of this tree spread and are
irregular, creating a rounded or umbrella-like canopy. The branches grow in a
somewhat ascending fashion, contributing to the tree's graceful silhouette. During
the flowering season, the tree's bare branches are adorned with clusters of stunning
blossoms, creating a spectacular visual display of striking purple-blue flowers. Each
flower is composed of a bright, vibrant hue ranging from lavender to deep violet,
often with a white or yellow center.

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6.2 Describe a plant

Use your best most descriptive language to describe this plant. Use the image below
to help you. Compare your descriptions with the rest of the class. Remember to use
all your senses! (See, smell, touch, taste).

Description Name: Rose

Now choose any other plant you would like to describe. Write down as detailed
description as possible. Allow your classmates to listen to your description and try
guess or identify which plant it is. You can even make a quick sketch of the plant to
help you.

Description Name:

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Task 7: Habitat description

A habitat description is a detailed account of the physical and biological features of

an environment where a particular species or group of organisms live. It provides
information about the location, conditions, and resources available in the area that
support the survival and reproduction of those particular species.

Understanding and describing a habitat or area is essential in plant science, biology,

geology, ecology, environmental science, agriculture, architecture and
conservation as it reveals how living organisms interact with their surroundings and
adapt to specific environmental conditions. A detailed habitat description allows
scientists and researchers to understand the relationships between organisms and
their environment, providing insights into how ecosystems function. In scientific
research, a habitat description forms the foundation for studying species behaviour,
population dynamics, and environmental changes over time. Let’s consider several
aspects:

7.1 Geographical features

The geographic features of an area refer to the physical characteristics that define
the landscape, such as landforms, terrain, and other natural features. These include
mountains, rivers, plains, valleys, plateaus, and any other significant landforms that
affect the ecology and the way organisms interact with their environment. Geographic
features also influence climate patterns, soil types, water availability, and the
biodiversity of the region. Consider the example below.

Geographical features in the Free State, South Africa

The Free State Province in South Africa provides a fascinating example of a region
with distinct geographic features. Situated in the central part of the country, the Free
State is known for its flat, expansive landscapes, but also features various
landforms and geological characteristics that affect its climate, ecosystems, and
biodiversity.

The Free State is predominantly a flat and rolling landscape, part of the Highveld
region and part of the Grassland Biome. The province lies at a high elevation,
ranging from 1,200 to 1,800 meters above sea level. This elevation makes the
climate cooler than what might be expected for its latitude. The flat plains and fertile
soils, combined with irrigation from rivers and dams, make the Free State an
important agricultural region, especially for maize, wheat, and livestock farming.
However, overgrazing and improper land management have led to soil erosion in
some areas.

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 However, the flat terrain is broken up by several low hills and ridges, which are
remnants of ancient geological formations. For example, the Thaba Nchu Mountain
(Black Mountain) near Botshabelo and Navil Hill (part of Franklin Game Reserve)
in the center of Bloemfontein.

Bloemfontein could well be the

only City in the World that has
a game Reserve in the heart of
the City! Within the reserve
you will discover amazing
African wildlife including zebra,
blesbok, springbok, giraffe
and eland as well as abundant
bird life. Naval Hill is situated
within this 250-hectare
wildlife reserve and is well-
known for its wonderful city
views on a lazy afternoon, outside jogging, the Nelson Mandela statue, and the
Naval Hill Planetarium.

In the eastern Free State, near towns like Clarens and the Golden Gate Highlands
National Park, the landscape changes dramatically, with towering sandstone cliffs
and rocky outcrops. These are part of the Drakensberg Foothills, which extend into
the neighbouring province of KwaZulu-Natal.

7.2 The availability of water

Water plays a crucial role in shaping ecosystems, influencing the distribution and
behaviour of species, and determining the overall ecological health of the area. Water
is one of the fundamental needs for all living organisms, and its availability, quality,
and distribution have direct impacts on the habitat's biodiversity and functionality.
Water is essential for the survival of plants, animals, and microorganisms.

In any habitat, access to water is a limiting factor that determines whether life can
thrive. Water is involved in nutrient cycling, helping to transport nutrients from one part
of the ecosystem to another. Wetlands, for example, are critical for filtering and

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cleaning water while providing habitats for many species. Water sources can create
microhabitats within larger ecosystems. For instance, the edges of ponds or rivers may
host specific plant species that thrive in moist soils, and these, in turn, provide shelter
and food for various animal species. Understanding these microhabitats adds depth
to the habitat description. Consider the example below.

Public walkway on campus

In Red Square located near the main

building, students pass by on their way to
and from classes, creating a lively yet
peaceful atmosphere. The pathway is
lined with red brick pavers, winding gently
between patches of artificial grass lawns
and vibrant indigenous flowerbeds. A
fountain runs along the pathway. It sprouts
water providing a soft, calming sound that
contrasts with talking and laughing
students sitting under the Acasia trees.
The fountain itself is a circular stone
structure, with clear water bubbling from
its center and cascading down into a
lowering basins. It serves as a refreshing
focal point, both for aesthetic beauty and as a place for students to pause and
gather. On either side of the walkway, low-growing Cape honeysuckle (Tecoma
capensis) bushes burst with vibrant orange trumpet-shaped flowers, adding a splash
of colour and attracting bees and butterflies. Further along the path, clusters of Aloe
ferox, a striking indigenous succulent, stand tall with their spiny leaves forming
rosettes.

7.2 Describe a habitat

Now try write your own description for what you see below. You can also access this
colour image in the PDF version of the study guide on Blackboard. If the image is not
clear enough, your facilitator will select a different one in class that will be displayed
on the PowerPoint slides for your group. Consider the images below from the Free
State Botanical garden.

Choose 1 image and write down as detailed description as possible.Take note of:

• Plants (flower beds, shrubs etc)

• Trees
• The weather
• Infrastructure (buildings, paving)

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Option 1

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Option 2

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Take turns sharing your sentences with the rest of the class! Compare your answers.
Write down any extra ideas below.

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Task 8: Assessment: Plant description – 30 marks

Step 1: Select any plant or tree on campus.

Walk around on campus and select a plant or tree that interests you. Consider a
specimen that has unique features such as unusual leaf shapes, textures, or colours.
It may be an indigenous species (native) or an alien species (non-native). Your task is
to provide a rich, detailed description that helps readers visualize and understand the
chosen plant or tree’s physical characteristics, environment, and unique features.

Step 2: Observe and take notes

Take a close look at the chosen plant or tree, paying attention to its size, shape,
colour, and texture. Observe the specimen from different angles.

PLANT: FIELD NOTES

Scientific name (2 marks)

Common names (2 marks)

English:

Afrikaans / Sesotho / Zulu:

Plant characteristics: (6 marks)

Leaves (shape, colour, patterns)

(2 marks)

Flowers / seeds / scent

(2 marks)

Stem (texture, colour, shape)

(2 marks)

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Role in the ecosystem (5 marks)

• Is it near other plants?

• How much sunlight does it get?
• Is the ground dry or near water?
• Does the plant attract bees, butterflies, birds, animals or other pollinators?
• Does it provide shade?
• Does the plant have a medicinal value?

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What drew your attention to this particular plant or tree over others on campus?
Summarize the main reasons you were drawn to this plant, combining sensory,
emotional, and intellectual factors. Think about how the plant’s appearance, setting, and
any personal connections blended to make it compelling (15 marks)

You will be graded for:

• Paragraph structure (topic sentence, supporting ideas linked with expressions,

concluding sentence) (5 marks)
• Language use (sentence structures, grammar, punctuation, and spelling) (5 marks)
• Vocabulary (Strong, descriptive language; varied, precise (scientific) vocabulary) (5
marks)

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SECTION 11: FIELD OBSERVATION
Task 1: Activating background knowledge on the topic

Activating background knowledge helps students link what they already know to the
new information they are about to learn. This creates a foundation on which new
knowledge can be structured, making it easier to understand and retain the material.
Background knowledge provides context, making unfamiliar topics less intimidating
and more understandable. Read the information below to activate your knowledge
about biodiversity mapping and citizen science.

What is biodiversity mapping?

Biodiversity mapping is a process that involves the collection, analysis, and

visualization of data related to the variety of life forms (biodiversity) within a
specific area or habitat. This mapping is crucial for conservation efforts,
environmental management, and understanding ecological relationships. Mapping
the distribution of biodiversity has a long history and still represents one of the main
advisable targets for ecologists. Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) was one of
the first “spatial thinkers” and biodiversity mappers of the ecological tradition. He
described the latitudinal and altitudinal distributions of vegetation zones and was
one of the first scientists to use maps to generate and test scientific hypotheses. At
the turn of 19th and 20th century, in the wake of Charles Darwin's ideas about the
need to consider the complex interplay between organisms and their environment,
mapping the distribution of biodiversity took hold among naturalists, to the extent
that Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) coined both the terms “ecology” and “chorology”;
the latter defined as “…the science of the geographic and topographic spread of
organisms” (Williams and Ebach, 2008). However, it is only since the end of the
1960s that biodiversity mapping and cartography has raised much interest
(Domon et al., 1989), of which several researchers began to devise schemes to
divide the landscape into functional units of significance for conservation and/or
resource development.

Biodiversity maps are now extensively adopted for protecting biodiversity and the
operation of many conservation programmes is inherently spatial. As of December
2016, the World Database on Protected Areas (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2016)
reported that 14.8% of terrestrial and inland water areas are covered by protected
areas, while 5.1% of the global ocean surface and 12.7% of coastal and marine
areas under national jurisdiction are covered by marine protected areas. To date,
the designation of protected areas is regarded as “the most common human
response to human-induced ecosystem degradation” (Woodley, 1997), to the extent
that the addition of 25% of land to the 15% already protected (resulting in 40% of
land protected) has been recently proposed to face an unprecedented change in
global biodiversity (Leclère et al., 2020).

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What role does technology have in biodiversity mapping?

The pervading application of biodiversity maps has been bankrolled by progress in

tools, modelling techniques (e.g., Species Distribution Models), and software such
as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (Burrough, 2001), along with the
growing availability of high-quality spatial data from a variety of remote sensing
sources (Moudrý et al., 2019). Our capacities for biodiversity mapping have now
reached standards that seemed impossible until not long ago (Rocchini et al., 2016),
making remote sensing and GIS one of the major technological revolutions that
ecology has witnessed and
has been partaker of (Chave,
2013). Data can also be
collected using satellite
imagery and aerial
photography to gather
information about land use,
habitat types, and large-
scale biodiversity patterns
without direct observation.

Spatial data and mapping

can provide multiple benefits
for biodiversity strategies
and action planning at a
national scale, such as
determining the state of
biodiversity in a country, identifying national priority areas, monitoring progress
towards international targets, and visually communicating key biodiversity issues.

What does biodiversity mapping look like in South Africa?

The National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA) for South Africa, completed in

2011, provided an assessment of the headline indicators for the terrestrial, inland
water, coastal and marine ecosystems of the country. The assessment of threat
status in the NBA 2011 showed that wetlands are the most threatened of all of
South Africa’s ecosystems, with 48% of wetland ecosystem types being classified
as Critically Endangered.

Terrestrial ecosystems are critical for food security, protection from natural hazards,
and development of economic sectors such as tourism and the wildlife industry, as
well as providing a safety net for rural communities where the cash economy is
meagre. Healthy terrestrial ecosystems are vital for healthy catchments, which
supply South Africa’s water. The main pressure faced by terrestrial ecosystems is
outright loss of natural habitat as a result of land cover change through, for example,
cultivation, mining, forest plantations and urban expansion.

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Forty percent of terrestrial ecosystem types are threatened (9% critically
endangered, 11% endangered and 19% vulnerable).

The Indian Ocean Coastal Belt, Grassland, Fynbos and Forest biomes have the
highest proportions of threatened ecosystem types. Threatened terrestrial
ecosystems tend to be concentrated in areas that are hubs of economic production,
with the remaining fragments of these ecosystems embedded in production
landscapes.

The remaining natural habitat in critically endangered and endangered ecosystems

makes up less than 3% of the country’s area. The assessment of ecosystem
protection level revealed that offshore ecosystems are the least protected of South
Africa’s ecosystems, with only
4% of these marine ecosystem
types classified as Well
Protected. As many as 35% of
South Africa’s terrestrial
ecosystem types have no
representation (or very minimal
representation) in the protected
area network, and these are
mostly found in the Grassland,
Thicket, and Nama-Karoo
biomes. The NBA found that
progress had been made in
improving the protection level of
60 terrestrial ecosystem types
(out of approximately 440) since
the previous assessment in
2004.

Conservation assessments, or Red Lists, use an internationally agreed set of criteria

to assess how threatened different species are, based on the likelihood of extinction.
South Africa is a world leader in Red Listing, having assessed a wider range of
taxonomic groups than most countries, and being the only mega-diverse country to
have assessed its entire flora, in the Red List of South African Plants.

Red List assessments in South Africa to date show that:

• one in five inland mammal species is threatened;

• one in five freshwater fish species is threatened;
• one in seven frog species is threatened;
• one in seven bird species is threatened;
• one in eight plant species is threatened;
• one in twelve reptile species is threatened; and

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• one in twelve butterfly species is threatened.

Analysis based on Red Lists shows clearly that the primary threat to species comes
from loss of natural habitat, particularly as a result of cultivation in the terrestrial
environment. Habitat loss is one of the biggest threats to biodiversity in South
Africa, driven by agriculture, urban expansion, mining, and deforestation.
Biodiversity mapping provides data on where important habitats for threatened
species exist and where they are most vulnerable. This information helps prioritize
areas for habitat protection and restoration.

Keeping track of the status of species and gathering the required data for assessing
their status is a daunting task. Hundreds of volunteers, or citizen scientists, have
played a crucial role in the process and continue to do so through a range of
atlassing projects and virtual museums that make use of modern technology to
enable amateurs to contribute data from around the country.

What is citizen science?

Citizen science refers to the

involvement of the public in
scientific research processes,
including data collection, analysis,
interpretation, and dissemination
[Heigl, Kieslinger, Paul, Uhlik &
Dörler, 2019].

The objectives of citizen science

projects typically include:

• Scientific advancement
through data collection,
• Public education and engagement,
• Promotion of scientific literacy and skill development, and
• Environmental conservation and policy formulation [Alender, 2016; Turrini,
Dörler, Richter, Heigl & Bonn, 2018].

Citizen science projects can be classified based on their primary goal, such as
action-orientated, conservation, investigation, virtual, and education [Wiggins &
Crowston, 2011]. Previous research has demonstrated that citizen science projects
can foster skills development, scientific literacy, and personal development,
enhance awareness and understanding of science, and increase scientific
knowledge. Learning through citizen science can foster emotional, behavioural,
cognitive, and social experiences when engaging with participants [Jordan, Ballard
& Phillips, 2012; Phillips, Ferguson, Minarchek, Porticella & Bonney, 2014; Phillips,
Ballard, Lewenstein & Bonney, 2019; Kloetzeret al., 2021; Somerwill & Wehn, 2022].

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Citizen science also helps to develop learning. According to Ertmer and Newby
[1993], learning occurs in the mind through knowledge acquisition, depending on an
individual’s cognitive processes and desire to acquire knowledge. Personal
thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values also cognitive processes such as problem-
solving, language use, concept formation, and information processing. Learning is
observable through what an individual knows and how they came to know it [Ertmer
& Newby, 1993]. Therefore, citizen science participants can derive valuable learning
experiences from their involvement, provided they are motivated and interested in
learning. Learning through experience significantly influences the choices a person
makes and the direction a person takes [Bandura, 1971]. Hence, citizen science
projects can facilitate the construction of knowledge through active participation in
scientific research processes.

According to the theory of science capital, the more exposure a person has to
science, the higher their level of science capital. Science capital refers to an
individual’s science-related qualifications, social networks, and behaviours [Archer,
Dawson, DeWitt, Seakins & Wong, 2015]. It also refers to the relationships between
the public and scientists and how they shape public perceptions and engagement
with science [Hecker et al., 2018]. Several factors that influence an individual’s level
of science capital have been identified. These include

• Scientific literacy;
• Scientific-related values (objectivity, integrity and honesty, curiosity and open-
mindedness);
• Knowledge about the transferability of science in the labour market;
• Consumption of science-related media (Ted Talks, National Geographic);
• Participation in out-of-school science learning contexts,
• Knowing someone who works in a science-related job,
• Parental science qualifications, and
• Informal discussions about science with others [Archer et al., 2015; DeWitt et al.,
2016; Hecker et al., 2018].

Scientific literacy and science-related values are crucial components of citizen

science. Individuals engaging more with science are likelier to develop
curiosity, attentiveness, and objectivity [Phillips, 2017]. Participating in a citizen
science project, as an out-of-school learning activity, allows individuals to know
someone who works in a science-related job and engages in discussions with their
peers about science.

Citizen science projects are typically developed by scientists and researchers,

whom we will refer to as citizen science project leaders. These projects have
become increasingly popular in biodiversity and environmental conservation due
to their effectiveness in collecting spatiotemporal data [Davies, Measey, du Plessis
& Richardson, 2016]. Applications for spatiotemporal data analysis include the study

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of biology, ecology, meteorology, medicine, transportation and forestry. Citizen
science enables hypotheses testing and the monitoring of environmental changes
by collecting large quantities of data that may not be obtainable through
conventional methods [Bonney, Cooper et al., 2009; Geoghegan, Dyke, Pateman,
West & Everett, 2016].

Citizen science projects have the potential to have a significant impact on

environmental attitudes, behaviour, and knowledge [Somerwill & Wehn, 2022]. They
offer an opportunity for the public to take ownership and be more responsible for
their environment, understand the scientific process, and be directly involved in
producing scientific knowledge [Riesch, Potter & Davies, 2013]. These projects can
potentially improve scientific literacy and expertise, as participants have better
access to scientists and scientific information, which fosters a better understanding
of science due to their involvement [McKinley et al., 2017]. Participating in citizen
science projects may also cultivate a desire to pursue a career in science or
environmental management and also increase the pool of candidates available for
jobs in those fields [McKinley et al., 2017; Turrini et al., 2018].

Through citizen science, scientists can engage with communities and gain access
to indigenous knowledge that they may not have had access to previously [Conrad
& Hilchey, 2011; Geoghegan et al., 2016; McKinley et al., 2017]. Scientists initiating
citizen science projects aim not only to contribute to research but also to enhance
public scientific literacy [Geoghegan et al., 2016; Frensley et al., 2017; Fraisl et al.,
2022]. Their endeavours seek to raise awareness, promote positive behavioural
changes, and instil a sense of shared responsibility within communities [Geoghegan
et al., 2016; Masterson et al., 2017]. By empowering communities to act and
fostering collaboration, these projects generate valuable scientific data and enhance
scientific communication [Gunnell et al., 2021]. Participants, motivated by personal
interests, a connection with nature, and a desire to contribute, engage in citizen
science projects for learning opportunities and skill acquisition [Rotman et al., 2014;
Alender, 2016; Frensley et al., 2017]. Weingart and Meyer [2021] identified 56
various South African citizen science projects that involves the tracking, listing,
identifying, and mapping of animals, birds, plants, insects, reptiles, fish, trees, and
sea animals across South Africa.

References:

• Alender, B. (2016). Understanding volunteer motivations to participate in citizen science

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• Archer, L., Dawson, E., DeWitt, J., Seakins, A. & Wong, B. (2015). “Science capital”: a
conceptual, methodological, and empirical argument for extending bourdieusian notions
of capital beyond the arts. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 52 (7), 922–948.
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Shirk, J. (2009). Citizen science: a developing tool for expanding science knowledge
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potential for understanding students’ science participation. International Journal of
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African National Biodiversity Institute and Department of Environmental Affairs,
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M. (2022). Citizen science in environmental and ecological sciences. Nature Reviews
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motivations for citizen science. Final report on behalf of the UK Environmental
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(University of York), University of the West of England. Retrieved July 15, 2020, from
https://www.ukeof.org.uk/resources/citizen-
scienceresources/MotivationsforCSREPORTFINALMay2016.pdf
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based approach to national biodiversity assessment and prioritisation to inform
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approaches. Environmental Sciences Europe 34, 18. doi:10.1186/s12302-022-00596-1
• Turrini, T., Dörler, D., Richter, A., Heigl, F. & Bonn, A. (2018). The threefold potential of
environmental citizen science — generating knowledge, creating learning opportunities

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 and enabling civic participation. Biological Conservation 225, 176–186.
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• Wiggins, A. & Crowston, K. (2011). From conservation to crowdsourcing: a typology of
citizen science. In 2011 44th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.
doi:10.1109/HICSS.2011.207

What is biodiversity mapping, and why is it crucial for conservation efforts?

How does the loss of natural habitat drive biodiversity threats in South Africa’s
terrestrial ecosystems?

What is your understanding of citizen science, and how does it differ from traditional
scientific research?

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In what ways can citizen science contribute to large-scale scientific data collection?
How does citizen participation foster responsibility for environmental conservation?

Consider the following scenarios where biodiversity mapping could be useful. Identify
the stakeholders in each case. Stakeholders are individuals, groups, or organizations
that have an interest in or are affected by the planned project or proposed undertaking.
For example, University management, students, staff, visitors to the campus,
university service workers etc.

Case 1: Expanding campus infrastructure

The university administration is planning to build more computer labs on campus.

The goal is to create a central hub for student activities, including study spaces and
collaboration areas. However, the proposed site has been identified as an area rich
in biodiversity and the construction could disturb current green spaces home to
several native plant species, birds, and pollinators like bees and butterflies.

Why might the university administration prioritize the development of a new student
centre over preserving the biodiversity of the green space?

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What would motivate students and researchers to advocate for the protection of
green spaces on campus?

How can the university administration balance the need for campus infrastructure
development with their responsibility for environmental stewardship?

Who are the stakeholders in this case?

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 Case 2: Managing invasive species

A biodiversity mapping project conducted by environmental science students and

researchers has identified several invasive plant species on campus that are
aggressively spreading and threatening the health of native flora. These invasive
species, though non-native, have become a familiar part of the campus landscape
over time, with some of them admired for their aesthetic value. However, they are
displacing native plants, altering soil conditions, and potentially impacting local
wildlife that depends on the native flora for food and habitat. The university
management is also concerned about the long-term sustainability of resources such
as water used for plant and garden irrigation. In response to the findings, the campus
groundskeeping team has proposed a plan to remove these invasive species in
order to restore ecological balance and protect native biodiversity. However, this
decision has sparked mixed reactions across different stakeholder groups, with
some supporting the move and others expressing concerns about the
consequences of such drastic action.

Why is it important for the campus groundskeeping team to remove invasive species,
and what ecological risks do these species pose to the native biodiversity on
campus?

How do the interests of environmental science students align with broader

environmental goals, and why might they be more supportive of invasive species
removal than other student groups?

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What are the potential long-term ecological consequences if invasive species are
allowed to continue spreading on campus?

How might removing invasive species impact the visual landscape of the campus,
and what are the potential consequences for students' and the community’s
perception of the campus environment?

Who are the stakeholders in this case?

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 Case 3: Reducing the campus carbon footprint

As part of its sustainability initiatives, the university administration is committed to

reducing its carbon footprint and increasing its resilience to loadshedding and
climate change. As part of its commitment to sustainability and reducing its carbon
footprint, the university administration has decided to invest in renewable energy
sources, specifically solar panels and wind turbines. However, to ensure that these
installations are both effective and ecologically responsible, a biodiversity mapping
project is initiated. The goal is to identify suitable locations for renewable energy
infrastructure that minimizes ecological disruption while maximizing energy
generation. This assessment considers factors such as solar irradiance, wind
patterns, and ecological sensitivity. Sites with rich biodiversity, rare species, or
critical habitats will be prioritized for conservation and excluded from energy
installation plans.

What are the primary motivations for the university to invest in renewable energy,
and how does biodiversity mapping contribute to these goals?

What are the potential ecological consequences of installing solar panels or wind
turbines in areas with high biodiversity, and how can mapping help prevent these
impacts?

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What long-term impacts might arise from successfully integrating renewable energy
installations and biodiversity conservation, and how can these benefits be
measured?

Who are the stakeholders in this case?

Task 2: Data collection methods

Data collection is the systematic process of gathering and measuring information

on variables of interest, in a structured and reliable manner, to answer research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. It is a fundamental step in
conducting scientific research. Data collection in citizen science involves a series of
steps and the use of various skills to ensure that the data gathered is accurate, reliable,
and valid for scientific research. High-quality data depends on both accuracy
(collecting the correct data) and precision (repeating the process reliably). Errors in
measurement, misidentification, or incomplete observations can lead to faulty
conclusions. Citizen science projects may use various sampling methods to ensure
data is representative of a larger area or population.

Type Description Example

Convenience Data is collected from Participants are encouraged to submit

Sampling: a population that is observations of any wildlife they encounter
easy to access, in their daily lives, whether in their
though this method backyards, local parks, or during travels.

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 may not provide
representative data.

Random Every member of the Participants report their animal or plant

Sampling population has an observations without a predetermined
equal chance of schedule or location, meaning that any
being selected. observer can submit data for that plant
from any place and time.

Systematic Selecting participants Participants are asked to observe a

Sampling: at regular intervals designated type of plant (often at regular
from a larger intervals, such as once a week) for a set
population. period of time (e.g., 10 minutes) and
record the number and types of pollinators
they see.

Stratified The population is Parks may be divided into different habitat

Sampling: divided into types (e.g., wetlands, forests, grasslands).
subgroups (strata), Volunteers are then assigned to collect
and a sample is data from specific habitat types, ensuring
taken from each representation from each stratum. This
subgroup. stratified sampling approach helps to
ensure that data reflects the diversity of
ecosystems within the park and allows for
more detailed analysis of how different
habitats are faring.

Consider the following examples and answer the questions that follow.

2.1 Mapping Tree Diversity

The University of the Free State’s environmental management team is interested in

assessing the biodiversity of tree species on the Bloemfontein campus. The aim is
to create a biodiversity map of the tree species present in various locations, which
will inform future planning for green spaces, shade areas, and environmental
sustainability efforts on campus. The Bloemfontein campus is a large area with a
mixture of academic buildings, student residences, recreational zones, and green
spaces. The campus is home to various indigenous and exotic tree species, with
areas like the Botanical Garden and walkways shaded by older trees. Mapping tree
diversity will help the UFS environmental management team monitor campus
ecology and plan tree planting for biodiversity and shade provision.

The project team, which includes environmental science students and campus
sustainability officers, wants to focus on high-traffic areas where trees contribute to

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 shade, aesthetics, and air quality. To make data collection easier, the team chooses
several convenient locations to map, particularly near building entrances, pathways,
and common areas like the student center and lecture halls. The selected locations
include:

1. Around the Main Library (Sasol Library) and adjacent lawns.

2. Walkways leading to the Agricultural Sciences Building and Humanities
Building.
3. Around the Student Center (Thakaneng Bridge) where social and
recreational activities take place.
4. In and around the central gardens and the Botanical Garden.

The team to quickly gather data without needing to survey the entire campus. At
each location, the team marks a circular plot with a 50-meter radius and counts and
records the species, number, and condition of trees.

The data collection process:

• At each plot, team members walk in a circular direction to visually identify the
species of trees present.
• Species are identified using tree guides, campus plant catalogues and
TheTreeApp (South African 2nd Ed).
• Data is recorded on the number of each species, their height, and canopy
size.
• The team notes any signs of tree health, such as damage, disease, or
overgrowth.
• GPS coordinates of each tree are recorded for precise mapping using GIS
tools.

After the fieldwork, the data is uploaded into a Geographic Information System (GIS)
to create a visual map of tree diversity on campus. Each tree species is plotted
based on its GPS location, and different colours or symbols are used to represent
the different species. This map allows the team to visualize the tree species’
distribution and identify patterns, such as species concentration in certain areas or
gaps where more trees could be planted.

What challenges could arise from focusing data collection only on high-traffic areas,
and how might this affect the accuracy of the biodiversity assessment?

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What could be the potential ecological and social benefits of increasing tree density
in areas identified as lacking in biodiversity?

Which sampling method was used in this scenario?

If the goal was to map the tree diversity across the entire UFS Bloemfontein campus
rather than just high-traffic areas, which sampling method would be more
appropriate, and why?

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What would be possible ways to represent the data?

2.2 Mapping Searsia lancia Trees

The Environmental Management Unit at the University of the Free State (UFS)
seeks to map the distribution of Searsia lancea (commonly known as the Karee
tree) across the Bloemfontein campus. This indigenous tree plays an important
ecological role in providing shade, stabilizing the soil, and supporting local wildlife.
The goal of the project is to assess the current distribution of Karee trees on campus,
identify areas where they are concentrated, and determine potential locations for
future planting.

The UFS Bloemfontein campus covers a large and varied landscape, including
green areas, walkways, parking zones, and sports fields. Searsia lancea is an
indigenous species known to thrive in this region’s semi-arid climate and contributes
to local biodiversity. The trees are scattered across the campus, with noticeable
populations around open lawns, student gathering areas, and less-developed zones
near the outskirts of the campus. The goal is to achieve a clear spatial distribution
map of Searsia lancea on campus, with an even sampling effort across different
types of terrain and developed areas.

The campus is divided into a grid with equal-sized plots, each 200 meters by 200
meters. This grid covers both highly developed and open spaces, ensuring all areas
of the campus are represented in the survey. The survey includes:

1. Green spaces like the Botanical Garden, open lawns, and sports fields.
2. Built-up areas such as near faculty buildings, student residences, and parking
lots.
3. Less-accessible areas around the outer edges of the campus, where fewer
people pass regularly.

The data collection process:

• At the center of each grid plot, a sampling point is designated. Surveyors

collect data by walking in a circular area with a 100-meter radius from the
center, recording all Karee trees within the plot.

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 • Each Searsia lancea tree is identified based on leaf shape, bark texture, and
size, ensuring accurate identification.
• The location of each tree is recorded using GPS devices. Additional data
such as tree height, canopy size, and health condition are collected.
• Photographs of representative trees in each plot are taken to accompany the
data and provide a visual reference.

Data is collected at regular intervals across the entire campus. By using a grid
system and selecting plots at regular intervals, the team ensures that they capture
a broad and even distribution of Karee trees, avoiding any potential biases toward
areas that are easier to access or more developed. Once data collection is
completed, the information is entered into a Geographic Information System (GIS)
to create a comprehensive map of Searsia lancea distribution on the UFS
Bloemfontein campus. Each tree is plotted on the map according to its GPS location.
The GIS software allows for visual analysis, helping to identify areas where Karee
trees are abundant and where they are sparse or absent.

Which sampling method was used in this scenario?

If the goal was to map the Searsia lancea tree across only the open lawns of the UFS
Bloemfontein campus, which sampling method would be more appropriate, and why?

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What would be possible ways to represent the data?

2.3 Mapping Waterwise Plants

The University of the Free State (UFS) aims to enhance water conservation efforts
through the identification and mapping of waterwise plants across its Bloemfontein
campus. This initiative is critical in promoting sustainable landscaping practices that
conserve water while maintaining the ecological integrity of the campus. The study
focuses on classifying and assessing waterwise plants based on their distribution
across various campus environments. With the Bloemfontein campus situated in a
semi-arid region, water scarcity poses a significant challenge to landscaping efforts.
Waterwise plants are crucial for maintaining green spaces while minimizing water
use. These plants, often indigenous to the region, require less irrigation and are
better adapted to the local climate. The goal of this study is to map these plants,
categorize them by habitat type, and evaluate their effectiveness in sustainable
landscaping.

To achieve the mapping objective, the team employs sampling that allows the
researchers to ensure that various habitat types are represented in the study,
leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the distribution of waterwise
plants. The campus is divided into various habitat types, which may include:

1. Botanical Garden: Features a variety of waterwise plants and serves as a

controlled environment for biodiversity.
2. Residential Areas: Areas with housing facilities for students and staff,
showcasing landscaping with waterwise plants.
3. Academic Buildings: Surrounding areas of lecture halls and offices, where
waterwise ornamental plants may be utilized.
4. Open Recreational Spaces: Parks and lawns that may have low-water
landscaping practices integrated.
5. Paved Areas: Pathways and courtyards where waterwise plants are planted
for aesthetic purposes.

The data collection process:

• At each sampling point, the specific waterwise plants present are recorded.

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 • The growth habits, ecological benefits, and water requirements of each
species is also documented.
• The soil type, sunlight exposure, and proximity to water sources are also
noted.

Once data is collected, it is analyzed to assess the distribution and abundance of

waterwise plants within each habitat type. The presence of waterwise species is
compared across different habitat types, identifying which environments are most
conducive to their growth. GIS is utilized to create detailed maps showing the
distribution of waterwise plants in each habitat type, making it easier to visualize
patterns and relationships.

Why is water conservation particularly important for the UFS Bloemfontein campus,
given its geographical location?

How might the use of indigenous waterwise plants contribute to both environmental
sustainability and campus aesthetics? What are the potential challenges in
implementing waterwise landscaping across different types of campus
environments?

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What are the ecological benefits of mapping and categorizing waterwise plants by
habitat type rather than just focusing on overall distribution?

Which sampling method was used in this scenario?

What would be possible ways to represent the data?

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Task 3: Conducting field work observations

Observation skills are a crucial part of scientific inquiry, especially in citizen science
projects, as they involve the ability to notice, document, and interpret details in the
natural environment. This skill allows students to gather accurate, reliable data and
contributes significantly to the quality of scientific research. Careful observation is
crucial for accurately identifying species, environmental changes, or phenomena.
Observation skills refer to the ability to carefully watch, listen, and notice details in
the environment.

Good observation skills involve being

attentive to visual, auditory, tactile, and
sometimes olfactory cues in nature, which
might otherwise go unnoticed. Spend time
in a quiet natural area, focusing on every
detail you can perceive—different sounds,
movements of animals, colours, patterns
in leaves, or temperature changes. This
helps sharpen the senses. Besides, we
know that spending time outside in
nature is really important for your
physical and psychological health
anyway!

In order to observe in a “scientific” manner, students must learn to keep an accurate

record of details. Therefore, keeping a field journal is a key practice in scientific
research, especially in citizen science and environmental studies. It helps students
document their observations, analyze findings, and record data for future reference. A
well-kept field journal allows for the accurate tracking of changes in the environment,
species behaviour, or other phenomena over time. Accurate documentation is a vital
part of observation.

Whether through notes, sketches, photographs, or audio recordings, students

must capture as much detail as possible. Students can keep a detailed field journal
where all observations are written down with precise descriptions of what was seen.
A physical notebook, digital device, or mobile app can be used, but a paper journal
is often preferred in the field for quick, flexible note-taking.

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Note-taking and record-keeping are essential skills in fieldwork observations. Field
observations often capture fleeting or unique phenomena. An observation is the
documentation of a) a species or ecosystem, b) at a location, c) at a given time,
d) by a sensor (human or machine). Without precise notes, key details may be lost
or inaccurately remembered, leading
to incorrect conclusions. Immediate
recording minimizes the chance of
forgetting details and ensures that all
key elements are noted, even those
that seem insignificant at first. Well-
documented observations ensure
that your work can be repeated and
verified by other researchers. This is
fundamental to the scientific method.

Let’s look at an example field observation entry.

Title: The biodiversity mapping of indigenous wildlife and plants on campus

PHYSICAL LOCATION
Address: The area in front of the Equitas Building, Red Square,
University Rd, Park West, Bloemfontein.
GPS coordinates: -29.110727, 26.187601
Date and time 10 October 2024 at 13:15
Weather conditions Cloud cover: Sunny; partly cloudy
Temperature: 27 degrees Celsius

HABITAT DESCRIPTION

In the red quare, on the university campus grounds, there are various enclosed
spaces which have been turned into gardens along the paved areas. The red
square is so named due to the colour of the red pavers used to create walkways
for students and staff. These areas feature a variety of plants, including flowers,
shrubs, and a collection of indigenous trees, which are usually chosen for their
aesthetic appeal, water-wise properties and their ability to thrive in an urban
setting. Despite being small, these gardens create microhabitats that attract a
variety of organisms. For example, small pollinators like bees or butterflies might
visit flowering plants, while birds might use shrubs for temporary shelter. The
garden uses drip and spray irrigation ensuring that plants receive targeted
watering. The are also signs in the area that “grey water” is used for irrigation.

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There are also signs of maintenance as there are very few leaves on the paved
areas.

HUMAN ACTIVITY

This is a high traffic area for walking students and staff on the campus. Many
students use this route to and from class. Students frequently use the benches
placed next to the flower beds and borders, but minimal interaction with the plants
themselves was observed. Many students lie and sit on the artificial grass next to
Equitas building. Some litter, including plastic wrappers, was found near the base
of the hedges, likely due to foot traffic and wind.

TREE

Name: Searsia Lancia

Searsia was named after

Paul B. Sears (1891-
1990) who was head of
the Yale School of
Botany, and lancea refers
to the lance shaped
leaflets.

Family: Anacardiaceae

Common names:
Afrikaans: Rooikaree
English: Karee
SeSotho: Mosinabele
Zulu: Umtholo Figure 1: Searsia Lancia tree

Description:
The Searsia lancia is usually a single-stemmed, low branching tree which has a
dense, soft, round canopy. The karee has a coarse-textured bark and on older
specimens it is dark grey or brown in colour, while on young branches and trees
it is a reddish-brown colour. The leaves are trifoliate (a compound leaf with three
leaflets), possessing narrowly lanceolate (lance-shaped) leaflets. The leaves are
dark green above and paler green below. They do not have any hairs, and the
margins of the leaves are entire. The leaves are leathery and are often sickle-
shaped. The small, inconspicuous flowers are presented as much-branched
sprays which are greenish-yellow in colour and are produced from June until
September. Searsia lancea is useful in providing natural soil stabilisation and

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increasing infiltration of rainwater into the soil, thus reducing erosion and raising
the ground watertable.

Reference: Stern, M. 2008. Searsia lancea. SA National Biodiversity Institute.

Available at https://pza.sanbi.org/searsia-lancea

SHRUB / BUSH

Scientific name: Clivia

miniata Amaryllidaceae

Common names:
Afrikaans: Boslelie
English: Bush lily
Sesotho: Lekhubu
Zulu: Umayime

Figure 2: Clivia miniata

Description:

Clivia miniata is a clump-forming perennial with dark green, strap-shaped

leaves which arise from a fleshy underground stem. The flowering heads of
brilliant orange (rarely yellow), trumpet-shaped flowers appear mainly in spring
(August to November) but also sporadically at other times of the year. The deep
green, shiny leaves are a perfect foil for the masses of orange flowers. The
species epithet miniata means the colour of red lead, referring to the flowers.
The genus Clivia is endemic to southern Africa, meaning that they do not occur
naturally anywhere else in the world! The wild bush lily grows in the forests of
Kwazulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga and Swaziland. The habitat may
vary from subtropical coastal forest to ravines in high-altitude forest. It grows in
dappled shade, often in large colonies. The soil is well-drained and humus rich.

Reference: Aubrey, A. 2001. Clivia miniata. SA National Biodiversity Institute.

Available at https://pza.sanbi.org/clivia-miniata

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WILDLIFE

Scientific name Columba livia

Common names
Afrikaans: Rotsduif
English: Rock Pigeon
SeSotho: Dikeledi
Zulu: Iphupha

Conservation Status
Least Concern
Scientific name Pycnonotus
nigricans Pycnonotidae

Common names
Afrikaans: Rooi-oog bulbul
English: African, red-eyed bulbul
SeSotho: Tsie
Zulu: Ibhubesi elimnyama

Conservation Status
Least Concern

Scientific name Gecko

(Pachydactylus)

Common names
Afrikaans: Gecko
English: Gecko
SeSotho: Kgalekgale
Zulu: Igecko

Conservation Status
Stable

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Consider the list below and decide what other types of information would also have
been useful for the above field notes. Add 3 more types of information to the list.
Explain your reasoning for each one.

Humidity

Wind speed

Soil characteristics
(type, pH, moisture
content, texture)

Distance to nearby
water sources (rivers,
lakes, or ponds)

Interactions between
surrounding plants and
animals species (e.g.,
predation, competition,
symbiosis)

Pollution (air, water,

ground)

Animal tracks

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What specific skills do you think are important for conducting field work observations
in your particular field of study? (Ecology, Biology, Plant Science, Architecture,
Zoology, Geology, Genetics, Chemistry, Microbiology)

Observing and recording even the smallest changes or differences in the

environment.
The ability to recognize and accurately identify different species of plants,
animals, and insects.
Maintaining accurate, organized, and detailed records of your
observations, including field notes, measurements, sketches, and photos.
Understanding ecological concepts like food webs, biodiversity,
ecosystem services.
Being able to use maps, compasses, or GPS devices to navigate and
document precise locations in the field.
Learning to use tools like soil pH meters, thermometers, measuring tapes,
and other instruments to collect quantitative data.
Analysing the data and observations you gather to draw logical
conclusions, identify patterns, or solve complex environmental issues.
Patience and perseverance in long hours of working in one place or being
uncomfortable (physically) in nature
Effectively communicating your observations, findings, and
recommendations through written reports, presentations, or discussions.
Working alongside others in the field, sharing observations, and
collaborating on data collection and analysis.

Choose any 3 skills from the list above that you think might be useful in your future
studies or career. Explain how it related to your particular chosen degree or field. Make
notes below and share your ideas in a class discussion.

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Consider the challenges citizen science participants can encounter in maintaining
accurate records from field observations. Why and how do you think these can
become challenges?

Misidentification of species

Variations in observational
skill levels

Unconducive
environmental or weather
conditions

Technological barriers
(lack of wifi access,
product, service)

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 Recording bias
(subjectivity)

Human error

Loss or damage of data

Inconsistent data collection

methods

How can the challenges be addressed to ensure field observations remain reliable and
valid?

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Task 4: Assessment: Field observation – 30 marks

Task: Conduct a field observation of the biodiversity on your campus.

Location: Bloemfontein, South, or QwaQwa campus (wherever you are registered

and studying).

Instructions: Identify and record (GPS/Google Maps) 1 (indigenous or alien) tree

species and 1 shrub/bush species in a designated area on campus. You must also
include any wildlife such as birds/insects/reptiles/small mammals.

You will need all of the following information.

4.1 Physical Location [4 marks]

Choose a specific area outside in nature on either the Bloemfontein, South, or

QwaQwa campus (e.g., near the residence halls, lecture halls, or sports fields, canteen
areas, sitting areas, study areas, walkways etc.). This can be a circular plot anything
from 2 – 25 meter radius. Record the GPS / Google Maps location coordinates for the
area.

Within this selected / demarcated area, select and record the species information for
1 tree, 1 shrub/bush (medium-sized ground plant) and 1-2 wildlife species (bird, insect,
reptile etc).

Record all of the following:

• Address: For example: The area in front of the Equitas Building, Red Square,
University Rd, Park West, Bloemfontein.
• GPS / Google Maps coordinates: For example: -29.110727, 26.187601
• Weather conditions at the time of observation:
o Cloud cover (clear, sunny, partly cloudy, overcast, rain)
o Temperature in Celsius

4.2 Habitat description [5 marks]

Give a detailed account of the physical and biological features of the selected
environment or habitat of the area. Provide descriptions of the (a) geographical
features, (b) the location (area specifics), and (c) water sources (if any) in that area.
Marks will be awarded to rich descriptions rather than basic ones. Try explaining the
are in as much detail as possible to someone who has never seen it or been there
before. Students must also include (d) a visual or photo of the area.

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4.3 Human activity [5 marks]

Give a detailed account of the type of human activity observed in the area if any. Note
what type of human activity is present (sport, leisure, study, relax, groupwork, walking,
listening to music etc). If there is no visible human activity is can be classified as wild
or semi-wild.

If the area is near any form of transportation network it can also be recorded. For
example, near the bus /taxi stop, near undercover or outdoor parking areas, near high
traffic walking areas etc. Note the intensity of traffic (if any) in the area. Highlight any
sources of pollution, like litter, water pollution or waste, or air pollution due to
transportation.

4.4 The tree [5 marks]

Trees are perennial plants with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and
leaves in most species.

1. Record the species scientific name and common names in English, Afrikaans,
SeSotho and Zulu.
2. Describe the plant: Size, colour, shape, canopy size, bark type, flowers (if any),
leaf type or size
3. Possible ecological function (e.g., shade, habitat for animals).
4. Photo / image of the plant (Do not pick the leaves, remove or damage the
tree/shrub/bush/animal/bird in any, shape or form)
5. GPS coordinates

4.5 The shrub/bush: [5 marks]

A shrub, also known as a bush, is a woody plant distinguished by its multiple stems
and generally shorter height compared to trees.

1. Record the species scientific name and common names in English, Afrikaans,
SeSotho and Zulu.
2. Description of plant: Size, colour, shape, canapy size, bark type, flowers (if any),
leaf type or size
3. Possible ecological function (e.g., shade, habitat for animals).
4. Photo / image of the plant (Do not pick the leaves, remove or damage the
tree/shrub/bush/animal/bird in any, shape or form)
5. GPS coordinates

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4.6 Wildlife species [5 marks]

1. Record the species scientific name and common names in English, Afrikaans,
SeSotho and Zulu.
2. Description of species: Size, colour, shape, form etc
3. Conservation status (risk of extinction in the wild)
4. Photo / image of the species

4.7 Field observation template

Use the following template to complete your field observation.

Title [1 MARK]
1. PHYSICAL LOCATION [4 MARKS]
Address:
GPS coordinates:
Date and time
Weather
conditions
2. HABITAT DESCRIPTION [5 MARKS]

3. HUMAN ACTIVITY [5 MARKS]

4. TREE [5 MARKS]
Scientific name and common names

Description

Ecological function / Conservation

status
Photo / image

GPS coordinates

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 5. SHRUB / BUSH [5 MARKS]
Scientific name and common names

Description

Ecological function / Conservation

status
Photo / image

GPS coordinates

6. WILDLIFE OBSERVATIONS [5 MARKS]

Scientific name and common names

Description

Conservation status

Photo / image

GPS coordinates

Assessment rubric – 30 marks

Language: Write in full sentences, no bullets of fragmented sentences. Full sentences

help students articulate their ideas more clearly. Writing in complete sentences forces
the writer to structure thoughts logically, connect ideas, and explain concepts fully.
When students use fragmented sentences or bullet points, the connections between
ideas can be lost, leaving gaps in their argument or reasoning. The ability to convey
ideas clearly and logically is essential, and this is best achieved through structured,
sentence-based writing.

Content: Make sure that all the specified and required information in completed for
each section under the tree, shrub and wildlife observation. Each aspect counts for 1
mark. Students must always reference all information they include from academic
sources or websites or articles etc.

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No plagiarism will be tolerated. Students are not allowed to use Artificial Intelligence
(AI) for this activity.

Incomplete / Insufficient Good Excellent

(1-2 marks) (2- 3 marks) (4 - 5 marks)
▪ Missing or insufficient ▪ Content is complete with ▪ Content is complete and
content. minor gaps or some well evidenced
▪ Ideas unclear or poorly missing elements ▪ Excellent visuals and
expressed ▪ Good visuals and clear clear identification
▪ Limited vocabulary or word identification ▪ Clear and well developed
choice ▪ Clear and accurate ideas ideas
▪ Poor sentence structure ▪ Good vocabulary or word ▪ Excellent vocabulary or
choice word choice
▪ Good sentence structure ▪ Excellent sentence
structure

Task 5: Share your research findings

Sharing research findings is a critical component of the scientific process and has
several important implications for the advancement of knowledge, collaboration, and
societal progress. Collaboration among researchers from different fields (Zoology,
Ecology, Plant Science, Environmental science, Geology) or institutions can lead to
interdisciplinary approaches that can address complex issues (conservation, climate
change, sustainability) more effectively. When findings are disseminated, they
contribute to the larger body of knowledge, fostering innovation and new discoveries.
When researchers share their work with the public, it can foster trust in the scientific
community. Transparency helps to counter misinformation and demonstrates that
science is an open, collaborative effort.

5.1 Reflect on your data collection

Get into groups of 3. Share your field notes and discuss the following:

• The species of trees and shrubs you identified;

• The habitat or area where found them;
• Observations about their growth habits, water requirements or accompanying
wildlife or biodiversity;

Where there any challenges (limitations) you faced during data collection?

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What surprised you about the biodiversity found on campus?

How can your observations inform future studies or conservation efforts?

What techniques did you find most effective in identifying and documenting species?
What apps or tools or sources or websites did you use?

What new skills did you have to learn to complete this field work observation?

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5.2 Class species inventory survey

This type of survey focuses on documenting the presence of various species (such as
trees, plants, animals, reptiles, or insects) within a specific area or ecosystem. It can
also be described as a species richness survey because it helps to determine the
biodiversity of a given habitat. This survey will act as a qualitative inventory aimed
at documenting what species are present on university campuses, making it useful for
studying biodiversity and ecosystem health.

Compile a list of about 10-20 different species collected in your class or group. Write
down the common name and the scientific name where applicable.

Take note of how many students (by show of hands) found/documented the same
species. If multiple students document the same species, it increases the reliability of
the identification. Cross-verification by several students helps ensure that species
were correctly identified, especially in cases where certain species might be difficult to
distinguish. By comparing data, students can discuss the characteristics they used to
identify the species, reinforcing accurate identification techniques and minimizing
potential errors. If many students document the same species, this could indicate that
the species is abundant in the surveyed area. It provides a quick visual measure of
how common or rare a species is in a specific ecosystem.

Name of tree Number of students who

identified this species

10

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Name of shrub/bush Number of students who identified
this specie

10

Name of the birds Number of students who identified

this species.

10

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 Name of insects / small animals Number of students who identified
this species.

10

Consider the prevalence or scarcity of the trees and shrubs mentioned above. Use
the following sentence structures to help you describe the class findings.

In our survey, _______[number] students identified ___________[plant species],

indicating its prevalence on campus.

In our survey, _______[number] students identified ___________[animal species],

indicating its prevalence on campus.

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In our survey, _______[number] students identified ___________[ bird species],
indicating its prevalence on campus.

In our survey, _______[number] students identified ___________[ ____ species],

indicating its prevalence on campus.

Think of what other questions can you ask about the class survey.

• What was the rarest of its kind?

• What was the smallest / largest of its kind?
• What was the most unique of its kind?

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 .

5.3 Campus species inventory survey

Depending on where you are registered as a UFS student (Bloemfontein, South,

QwaQwa) you can contribute to the campus species inventory survey. Through this
single shared campus-based survey, students can collaboratively build a
comprehensive dataset of the campus biodiversity, making the survey a tool for
collective and collaborative learning and research on biodiversity in an urban, campus
environment.

Once all the students have responded to their campus-based survey (by a certain
deadline) the data for each campus will be downloaded in an Excel spreadsheet,
allowing for easy sorting, filtering, and analysis. This data can then be used to create
various graphs or charts to visualize specie trends and patterns.

The data sets that will be used are:

Specie type • Bird

• Plant
• Animal
• Insect
• Reptile

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 Species name (Scientific and An open fill-in text box option.
common name)

Habitat: Location on campus • Landscaped garden

• Flowerbed
• Woodland area
• Parking area
• Open grass area
• Water area (pond or fountain)
• Path or walkway
• Lecture halls (near or outside)
• Sports field area (stadium, sport grounds etc.)
• Recreational area (sitting areas near shops or
restaurants, or canteens)
• Other

What types of information might be useful for the survey?

More information about this survey will be communicated closer to the time on
Blackboard and in your class. In the next section you are going to learn how to use
the raw information from your field observation to write a report

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SECTION 12: SCIENTIFIC WRITING
Task 1: Scientific text types

Understanding the most important text types in science is crucial for students because
these texts form the foundation for scientific communication, critical thinking, and
academic success. In science, communication is essential for sharing knowledge,
advancing research, and engaging with the broader academic and public
communities. Scientific communication includes several text types, each serving a
specific purpose. Text types like research articles, conference papers, reports
(technical, field, laboratory, financial), vary in purpose, structure, style, and intended
audience, but all contribute to the dissemination and presentation of findings, theories,
and ideas.

Reports are an useful because they serve multiple important functions, both for the
researcher and the broader scientific community. Lab reports are widely used in
scientific studies across numerous disciplines, including chemistry, biology, physics,
microbiology and engineering. Writing a report involves documenting the details
of an experimental or investigative process, analysing the data, and interpreting
the results. This process ensures that scientific work is communicated clearly,
transparently, and accurately, enabling others to understand, replicate, and build upon
it.

Science relies on the ability of other researchers to replicate experiments to confirm

or challenge findings. A well-written report provides the necessary details for others to
repeat the experiment. By documenting the entire process, reports ensure that the
methodology is transparent and clear. This allows for critical evaluation and ensures
that the work is valid (the extent to which a test, measurement, or study
accurately represents what it is intended to measure) and reliable (consistent
and stable over time). Scientific articles and reports serve as a permanent record of
what was done, which can be referred to later, even long after the experiment is
completed which is crucial for tracking scientific progress over time.

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Scientific writing is used across a wide range of disciplines and contexts, both
academic and professional and serve as structured, formal ways of presenting
information, data, analysis, or findings on specific topics. Each format is tailored to
their audience and purpose, but generally follow a standardized format, which makes
it an effective tool for conveying complex information clearly and concisely. Scientific
writing follows a formal structure that ensures clarity, organization, and easy
navigation for the reader.

Task 2: Research articles in Journals

A scientific or research article is a published piece of writing that presents original

research, reviews existing research, or provides new insights into a specific scientific
topic. These articles are typically found in academic journals and are written by
researchers, scientists, or scholars in a particular field. Scientific articles are excellent
academic sources of information for students about new discoveries and technological
advancements. The latest research articles incorporate the most recent findings,
which can provide a more accurate understanding of a topic. This is especially
important in fast-evolving fields like technology, medicine, and environmental science.
Recent research is more likely to address contemporary issues and challenges,
making it more applicable to current contexts and practical applications. While older
studies (printed books) can still be valuable for background information or foundational
theories, recent online research offers the most up-to-date and actionable insights.

In a world with information from countless sources, being able to differentiate

evidence-based claims from opinion is crucial. By reading scientific articles, students
learn to value and prioritize information that is rigorously tested and peer-reviewed,
supporting an evidence-based approach to learning and professional practice

Typical structure of a scientific article:

1. Title page ▪ Author's name and surname / details

▪ Date
▪ Title of the report

2. Abstract A brief overview of the entire report, summarizing the main points,
findings, and recommendations. This is also sometimes called the
executive summary. It gives readers a quick insight into what the
report is about and highlights key takeaways.

3. Introduction ▪ Background information (context / theory on the topic)

▪ Research question or hypothesis (the problem or issue being
addressed or studied)
▪ Purpose or objective of the report

4. Methodology ▪ Data collection procedure

▪ Sampling (size, method, type)
▪ Research tools

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 5. Discussion ▪ Data analysis
▪ Findings / results
▪ Explanation of findings / implications
▪ Comparisons with other studies

6. Conclusion ▪ Summary of the key findings

▪ Significance of the results
▪ Recommendations

7. References This section should contain alphabetical list of all published

sources referred to in your research report

8. Appendices This might include detailed or extra tables, graphs,

questionnaires, surveys or transcripts used in the research.

Let’s look at this in more detail through some real examples.

Task 3: Research article: Ecological restoration

Consider the full end of text reference for this article.

Ruwanza, S. Gaertner, M., Esler, K.J., Richardson, D.M. 2018. Medium-term

vegetation recovery after removal of invasive Eucalyptus camaldulensis stands along
a South African river. South African Journal of Botany, Volume 119, Pages 63-68,
ISSN 0254-6299. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2018.08.002

How many authors are there? Write the in-text citation for this reference.

What is the date of when this article was published?

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Where was this article published?

Now read the whole article and prepare to answer the following questions:

• What is the article about?

• What research questions / hypotheses were investigated?
• What are important key vocabulary concepts that keep repeating?

While you read, make notes. Underline and highlight key ideas.

Abstract:

Effective ecological restoration requires detailed monitoring to determine the

success achieved through different interventions in achieving objectives. In 2017,
we resurveyed riparian sites along the Berg River in the Western Cape, South Africa,
that have been cleared of invasive stands of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in 2010
using two clearing methods (fell-and-stack burn and fell-and-remove) and two
restoration approaches: passive (where vegetation was allowed to recover without
intervention) and active (assisted recovery). A significant increase in vegetation
cover (P < .001) and diversity (P < .05) of native riparian species was recorded in
passive restoration plots, but an increase in the cover of woody invasive alien
plants was also observed. Only four of the nine native species that were planted
to fast-track restoration were still present in the active restoration plots, but the
abundance of these native species was significantly (P < .001) lower in 2017 than in
2011. We conclude that native vegetation recovery following E.camaldulensis
removal seven years ago is following a positive recovery trajectory in both passive
and active restoration sites, as shown by the increased occurrence of native trees
and shrubs, e.g. Maytenus oleoides, Melianthus major and Searsia angustifolia
which were not present before clearing. However, the reinvasion of cleared sites by
woody invasive alien plants has the potential to slow down and potentially halt the
recovery process. Further management interventions, e.g. removal of reinvading
woody invasive alien plants, are required, emphasizing the sustained engagement
to ensure restoration in these ecosystems.

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1. Introduction

Invasion of riparian ecosystems by alien plants causes major problems in many

parts of South Africa(Esler etal., 2008, Le Maitre et al., 2011). Massively increased
biomass in dense invasive tree stands leads to increased evapotranspiration and
decreased surface water runoff and ground water recharge (Görgens and Van
Wilgen, 2004), leading to reduced streamflow (Dye and Poulter, 1995, Le Maitre et
al., 2000). Native species are displaced in invaded sites (Richardson and Van
Wilgen, 2004), causing significant changes to vegetation composition, function and
structure (Vosse et al., 2008, Tererai et al., 2013). Invasive alien plants in South
African riparian systems also exacerbate problems with fire at the urban–wildland
interface (Gaertner et al., 2016). They also create ecosystem disservices, e.g. by
acting as disease vectors and causing allergies (Potgieter et al., 2017, Vaz et al.,
2017).

Given the many problems that invasive alien plants cause in riparian ecosystems in
South Africa, considerable resources have been devoted to managing these
invasions (Holmes et al., 2005). The Working for Water (WfW) programme, a
national poverty alleviation initiative aimed at protecting and maximizing water
resources in rivers, has been championing invasive alien plant control (Van Wilgen
et al., 2012). Although previous studies evaluating the efficacy of the WfW
programme have shown improvements in stream flow following alien clearing (Dye
and Poulter, 1995, Prinsloo and Scott, 1999), evaluations of vegetation recovery
have shown mixed results (Galatowitsch and Richardson, 2005, Blanchard and
Holmes, 2008, Reinecke et al., 2008, Ruwanza et al., 2013, Fill etal., 2018). Some
of the challenges associated with vegetation recovery failure following alien plant
removal by WfW include secondary invasions (Ruwanza et al., 2013, Fill et al.,
2018), low native seed germination (Pretorius et al., 2008), lack of native species in
the soil seed bank (Galatowitsch and Richardson, 2005) and harsh environmental
conditions (e.g., drought) that hinder native species establishment (Ruwanza et al.,
2013).

The assessment of invasive alien plant management initiatives requires monitoring

over timescales appropriate for gauging the effectiveness of interventions.
Unfortunately most restoration projects, including the WfW projects, have been
characterized by a lack of such monitoring (Van Wilgen and Wannenburgh,
2016, Fill et al., 2018). Monitoring of ecological restoration initiatives is essential for
investigating trajectories to recovery, thereby providing crucial information for
adaptive management to direct succession as required (Prach et al., 2007). This
paper presents results of vegetation recovery monitoring seven years after the initial
alien plant clearing, our aim being to document trajectory of recovery of native plant
species following Eucalyptus camaldulensis removal along the Berg River.

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2. Methods

The study area (between the towns of Wellington and Hermon) is part of the Berg
River in the Western Cape Province of South Africa (Fig.1). The river, which is
approximately 294 km long and covers a catchment area of nearly 7715 km2, flows
into the Atlantic Ocean at Velddrif (De Villiers, 2007). The vegetation type at the
study area is classified as renosterveld, an evergreen shrubland dominated by
Elytropappus rhinocerotis (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006). Although renosterveld is
fire prone (Cousins et al., 2018), vegetation along the Berg River rarely burns,
allowing the persistence of patches of natural vegetation dominated by fire-sensitive
species of riparian trees and shrubs such as Diospyros glabra, Kiggelaria africana,
Melianthus major, Podocarpus elongatus and Searsia angustifolia. Long sections of
the river are, however, invaded by E.camaldulensis and other invasive shrubs and
trees, notably Acacia mearnsii and Populus spp. (Forsyth et al., 2004, Tererai et al.,
2013). Eucalyptus camaldulensis invasion along the river is estimated to have
started about 50 years ago (Geldenhuys, 2008).

Fig.1. The study area in the Western Cape, South Africa, showing revisited sites
subjected to different treatments for removing invasive stands of Eucalyptus
camaldulensis along the Berg River, namely fell-and-stack burn (F&SB), fell-and-
remove (F&R), and natural sites (NS). Three replicate plots were enumerated at
each site.

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3. Experimental design

To assess vegetation recovery seven years after the initial clearing, fell-and-stack
burn, fell-and-remove and natural sites (dominated by thick riparian native trees and
shrubs, with an understory of grasses and herbs) were resurveyed in spring 2017.
Each of the above-mentioned sites were replicated three times. Prior to clearing in
2010, the fell-and-stack burn and fell-and-remove sites were heavily invaded (> 75
canopy cover) by E.camaldulensis. In the fell-and-stackburn sites,
cut E.camaldulensis biomass was stacked and burned on site, whereas in the fell-
and-remove sites, cut biomass were removed from the sites using harvesting
machines. The natural sites were dominated by natural vegetation and represented
the reference sites (Ruwanza et al., 2013). The 2011 experimental design in fell-
and-stack burn and fell-and-remove sites consisted of 12 permanently marked plots
per site, with each plot measuring 5 m × 5 m with a 5 m buffer zone. Four of the plots
were used to assess natural recovery of species (passive restoration) and the
remaining eight for active restoration (four for seed broadcasting and the other four
for planting cuttings) (see Ruwanza et al. (2013) for a list of species which were
used for seed broadcasting and the quantities of seeds used). In 2017, the four
passive restoration plots and four seed broadcast active restoration plots per site
were resurveyed. None of the plots planted with cuttings were resurveyed because
cuttings failed to establish in all treatments (Ruwanza et al., 2013). All four reference
plots per site were resurveyed to determine the presence of existing species in
natural sites.

3. Data collection
In spring (September) 2017, detailed vegetation surveys (following the same
methods as used in 2011; Ruwanza et al., 2013) were undertaken in all plots. Within
each 25 m2 plot, species richness and densities for all the trees and shrubs were
determined from counts of individual plant species. Species richness and densities
for all herbs and graminoids were determined in 1 m2 plots and placed at the edge
of the plot. Total vegetation cover for all the growth forms in the above-mentioned
plots was visually estimated to the nearest 5 or 1% when species occupied less than
5% cover. All the species were collected and visually identified in conjunction with
local plant books (Manning, 2007, Manning and Goldblatt, 2012) and the
PlantzAfrica online directory (South African National Biodiversity Institute, 2017).
The growth form classes used in this study are trees, shrubs, herbs and graminoids
(Goldblatt and Manning 2000). On active restoration plots, where seeds of native
species were broadcasted, the presence of these target species was monitored by
counting the total number of established plants and expressing these numbers as a
percentage of the total seeds introduced via broadcasting in 2010.

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4. Data analysis
The effects of different clearing treatments on species richness, Shannon-Wiener
diversity index (H′), Simpson's index of diversity (1-D), Evenness index (J),
vegetation cover and percentages from counts of introduced native plants were
compared using repeated measures ANOVA for comparisons between spring 2011
and 2017. Proof of normality was tested using Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests and proof
of homogeneity of variances was tested using the Levene test. Data were normally
distributed and where ANOVAs were significant, Tukey's HSD unequal n test was
used to determine differences between treatments at P < .05. Data were analyzed
using STATISTICA version 13 (StatSoft Inc., 2015).

5. Results
Seven years following E.camaldulensis clearing through fell-and-stack burn and fell-
and-removal, sites were dominated by trees and shrubs, in contrast to the
dominance of herbs and graminoids one year after clearing. The cover of native
trees and shrubs in both fell-and-stack burn and fell-and-remove sites was
significantly (P<.001) higher in 2017 than in 2011 (Table 1). The cover of alien trees
and shrubs in both fell-and-stack burn and fell-and-remove sites was significantly
(P < .001) higher in 2017 than in 2011 (Table 1). However, there were no significant
(P > .05) interactions in cover of both native and alien trees and shrubs between
clearing treatments and years (Table 1). Besides invasive alien trees of
Acacialongifolia (above 41% frequency of occurrence), A. mearnsii and
E.camaldulensis (above 81% frequency of occurrence, respectively) being present
in cleared sites, native species now appeared on most sites (Table 2).

Table 2. Fifteen frequently occurring trees and shrubs in fell-and-stack burn, fell-
and-remove, and natural sites in 2017 follow-up restoration study along the Berg
River in the Western Cape, South Africa.

The cover of native herbs and graminoids showed significant differences between
clearing treatments (P < .001) but not across years (P>.05). In contrast, the cover
of alien herbs and graminoids showed significant (P < .001) differences between
clearing treatments (P<.001) and across years (P < .01). These differences among
clearing treatments and years for alien herbs and graminoids were more visible in
fell-and-remove sites than in fell-and-stack burn sites (Table 1). In general, the
cover of alien herbs and graminoids was higher in 2011 than in 2017. Interactions
between clearing treatments and years in cover of both native and alien herbs and
graminoids showed no significant (P > .05) difference (Table 1).

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(*) Indicates that the species was present at the site and is based on calculated
species occupancy frequencies categorized as * (1–20%), ** (21–40%), *** (41–
60%), **** (61–80%) and ***** (81–100). (–) indicates that the species was not
present. (N) indicates native species and (A) indicates alien species

Species richness, as reflected in the Shannon-Wiener and Simpson's indices of

diversity and the Evenness index, differed significantly among the different clearing
treatments (P < .001), years (P < .05) and there was an interaction between clearing
treatments and years (P < .001: Fig.2). The fell-and-remove site had higher species
richness and Shannon-Wiener indices than the fell-and-stack burn and natural sites
(Fig.2). Similarly, the above-mentioned indices of diversity were lower in 2017 than
in 2011 (Fig.2), except for natural sites which showed insignificant changes.
Simpson's indices of diversity and evenness were significantly (P < .01) higher in
fell-and-remove and natural sites than in fell-and-stack burn sites in 2017 (Fig.2).
However, yearly comparison of the two above-mentioned indices of diversity
indicate that they both were significantly (P < .001) lower in 2017 than in 2011
(Fig.2).

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Fig.2. Indices of diversity in different clearing treatments, namely fell-and-stack
burn, fell-and-remove, and natural sites between 2011 and 2017. Bars are
mean ± SE and results of repeated ANOVAs are shown (*P < .05, **P < .01,
***P < .001). Bars with different letter superscripts are significantly different at
P < .05. NS = not significant at P > .05.

of the nine-native species that were broadcast in active restoration sites in 2011,
only four species (K.africana, Leonotis leonurus, M.major and S.angustifolia)
occurred in both fell-and-stack burn and fell-and-remove sites in 2017 (Table 3).
Comparisons of clearing treatments in 2017 indicate that K.africana, L. leonurus and
M.major had significantly (P < .001) higher percentage counts in fell-and-remove
than in fell-and-stack burn sites (Table 3). This contrasts with 2011 results which
showed that the above-mentioned species were significantly (P < .05) more
abundant in fell-and-stack burn than in fell-and-remove sites (Table 3). Comparison
across years indicates that species percentage counts for all the four-identified
species were significantly (P < .001) higher in 2011 than in 2017.

6. Discussion
Seven years after clearing of invasive E.camaldulensis stands, native trees and
shrubs are now present in passive restoration sites, indicating native species
recovery is taking place. No recruitment of native trees and shrubs was reported in
passive restoration sites one year after clearing (Ruwanza et al., 2013). Our recent
results concur with previous studies that have shown successful spontaneous native
species recovery years after alien plant removal (Reinecke et al., 2008). Similarly,
Ndou and Ruwanza (2016) showed that native species diversity was higher in 11-
and 15-year-old sites than in 6-year-old sites that were cleared of Acacia species.
Fill et al. (2018) reported an increase in the cover of native riparian shrubs after

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clearing A.mearnsii, Acacia melanoxylon and Eucalyptus grandis along the
Rondegat River, although dominance of weedy grass cover was also reported.

The presence of native trees and shrubs in passive restoration sites seven years
after initial clearing could be a result of several factors that are known to facilitate
vegetation recovery in cleared sites. Firstly, Galatowitsch and Richardson (2005)
suggested that seed dispersal from natural areas to cleared sites takes place if
patches of natural vegetation are sufficiently close to cleared sites, as is the case
with our sites. Secondly, the presence of remnant native species in cleared sites
can act as “recruitment foci” where seed dispersal and native plant recruitment can
take place (Zahawi and Augspurger, 2006). Remnant species are known to facilitate
seed dispersal by birds and to create microenvironments that favor seedling
dispersal, since they act as nurse plants (Ren et al., 2008). Thirdly, Fourie (2008)
indicated that the presence of a native soil-stored seed bank in cleared sites can
facilitate native species recovery several years after the initial clearing. In the last-
mentioned study, a soil-stored seed bank of native species was observed eight
years after Acacia clearing. In contrast, Vosse et al. (2008) showed that the seed
bank in riparian zones comprises mostly short-lived herbaceous species and that
long-lived trees and shrubs are lacking. Lastly, improvements in soil
physicochemical properties several years after initial clearing favour the
establishment of native tree and shrubs compared to alien herbs and grasses which
dominate in the first few years after clearing. These factors likely also explain the
higher diversity of herbs and grasses in 2011 than in 2017. Dominance of alien herbs
and grasses in recently cleared sites is a result of their ability to take advantage of
the high levels of soil nutrients deposited by the removed invader. Previous studies
have reported that native vegetation recovery on cleared sites increased with
gradual improvement in soil nutrients (Ndou and Ruwanza, 2016).

Comparisons between the two cleared sites indicate an increase in the cover of both
native and alien species in 2017 compared to 2011. This could be a result of the
presence of recruiting native trees and shrubs in fell-and-stack burn sites in 2017;
these were not present in 2011. Improved soil physical properties in fell-and-stack
burn sites could explain the presence of trees and shrubs in these sites. For
example, Madsen et al. (2012) reported that gradual decrease in soil repellency post
burning increases seedling emergence and survival because of improved
ecohydrological properties required for plant growth e.g. soil moisture and
compaction.

One year following clearing, we reported the dominance of alien herbs and
graminoids on cleared sites. In contrast, the most noticeable feature at our
restoration sites in 2017 was the presence of woody invasive alien plants, namely
A.longifolia, A.mearnsii, E.camaldulensis and Rubus cuneifolius. Our observation of
secondary invasion echoes the findings of Reinecke et al. (2008) who reported
presence and dominance of the invasive alien species A.mearnsii eight years after
the initial clearing. The reinvasion by woody invasive alien plants in cleared sites is

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at least partly due to the lack of effective follow-up treatments, which has allowed
continuous recruitment of invasive alien plants from the soil-stored seed bank. The
reinvasion of cleared sites can have strong negative effects on native species
recovery since the recruiting fast-growing invasive alien trees and shrubs can
outcompete native species for resources (e.g., water and soil nutrients) thereby
slowing the recovery process. The worst-case scenario is that the rapid growth rate
of these recruiting invasive alien trees and shrubs at restoration sites may initiate
the complete reinvasion of these sites (D'Antonio and Vitousek, 1992), negating
original clearing efforts.

Although the presence of some seeded native woody plant species in the active
restoration sites is a positive sign, suggesting progression towards substantial
ecological restoration, the decrease in total counts between 2011 and 2017 points
to poor germination and low recruitment success of sown species in these sites.
These results were also observed by Pretorius et al. (2008) who reported low
species presence in seeded sites eight years after Acacia removal. It is difficult to
pinpoint the cause of the decrease in numbers of sown plants, but we assume that
competition from recruiting woody invasive alien trees and shrubs played a role.
Besides competition, the reduction in the presence of sown native species in 2017
compared to 2011 could be a result of the severe drought that has prevailed in the
Western Cape since 2015. Low soil moisture content and high temperatures
associated with drought are known to decrease seed germination and seedling
survival.

7. Conclusions and recommendations

Although native species diversity has not been fully restored in our cleared sites, our
results show that vegetation recovery in both active and passive restoration sites is
progressing well, as evidenced by the increased diversity of native vegetation.
Before clearing there were a few remnant native species underneath the
E.camaldulensis stands. One year after clearing, we reported that the clearing of
E.camaldulensis had created conditions that favored the dominance of alien herbs
and graminoids (Ruwanza et al., 2013), but these components are now being
replaced by native trees and shrubs. The cover of alien trees and shrubs remains
high compared to that of native species. Indeed, recolonization by woody invasive
alien plants has the potential to slow down the observed vegetation recovery
process. If the key factor facilitating the reinvasion by woody invasive alien plants is
the lack of adequate follow-up measures, then interventions are needed to develop
effective monitoring and follow-up plans. Previous studies have emphasized the
need for WfW to effectively remove alien plants during follow-up and to collect data
during the post-clearing monitoring phase (Van Wilgen et al., 2012, Van Wilgen and
Wannenburgh, 2016, Fill et al., 2018). These studies also stressed the need to
include monitoring of cleared areas in project planning and to allocate sufficient
funds to long-term monitoring. We reported the importance of remnant native
species in facilitating vegetation recovery. A management recommendation

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regarding remnant native species is that clearing teams need to be aware of
remnant native species beneath invasive plants prior to clearing and should avoid
damaging these species during clearing operations (Holmes et al., 2008).

We reported low counts of sown native species in active restoration sites, an

indication that, where active restoration is considered, more needs to be done to
facilitate the germination and establishment of sown species. One way to enhance
germination in active restoration is to introduce native plants in stages after clearing.
For example, fast-growing and drought-resistant native pioneer species can be
introduced soon after clearing. Once these pioneer species are established, seeds
or seedlings of other native can then be introduced. Such staggered introduction of
native species has the potential to increase native species diversity years after the
initial clearing and could reduce problems with competition for resources from
recruiting invasive alien species.

References
Blanchard, R., Holmes, P.M., 2008. Riparian vegetation recovery after invasive alien tree clearance
in the fynbos biome. South African Journal of Botany 74, 421–431.

Cousins, S., Witkowski, E.T.F., Esler, K.J., 2018. Influence of fire on critically endangered
Swartland Shale Renosterveld in the Cape Floristic Region. Applied Vegetation Science 21, 144–
155.

D'Antonio, C.M., Vitousek, P.M., 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle,
and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23, 63–87.

De Villiers, S., 2007. The deteriorating nutrient status of the Berg River, South Africa. Water SA 33,
1–6.

Dye, P.J., Poulter, A.G., 1995. A field demonstration of the effect on stream flow of clearing
invasive pine and wattle trees from a riparian zone. South African Forestry Journal 173, 27–30.

Esler, K.J., Holmes, P.M., Richardson, D.M., Witkowski, E.T.F., 2008. Riparian vegetation
management in landscapes invaded by alien plants: insights from South Africa. South African
Journal of Botany 74, 397–400.

Fill, J.M., Kritzinger-Klopper, S., Van Wilgen, B.W., 2018. Short-term vegetation recovery after alien
plant clearing along the Rondegat River. South Africa. Restoration Ecology (in press)
https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12585.

Forsyth, G.G., Richardson, D.M., Brown, P.J., van Wilgen, B.W., 2004. A rapid assessment of the
invasive status of Eucalyptus species in two South African provinces. South African Journal of
Science 100, 75–77.

Fourie, S., 2008. Composition of the soil seed bank in alien invaded grassy fynbos: potential
recovery after alien clearing. South African Journal of Botany 74, 445–453.

Gaertner, M., Larson, B.M.H., Irlich, U.M., Holmes, P.M., Stafford, L., Van Wilgen, B.W.,
Richardson, D.M., 2016. Managing invasive species in cities: a framework from Cape Town, South
Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning 151, 1–9.

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 Galatowitsch, S., Richardson, D.M., 2005. Riparian scrub recovery after clearing of invasive alien
trees in headwater streams of the Western Cape, South Africa. Biological Conservation 122, 509–
521.

Geldenhuys, C.J., 2008. Practical guidelines for the rehabilitation of forest-related streambank
vegetation with removal of invader plant stands along the Berg River, Western Cape. Working for
Water Report (FW - 02/08), South Africa.

Goldblatt, P., Manning, J., 2000. Cape plants. A conspectus of the Cape Flora of South Africa.
Strelitzia 9. National Botanical Institute, Pretoria.

Görgens, A.H.M., Van Wilgen, B.W., 2004. Invasive alien plants and water resources: an
assessment of current understanding, predictive ability and research challenges. South African
Journal of Science 100, 27–34.

Holmes, P.M., Richardson, D.M., Esler, K.J., Witkowski, E.T.F., Fourie, S., 2005. A decisionmaking
framework for restoring riparian zones degraded by invasive alien plants in South Africa. South
African Journal of Science 101, 553–564.

A COMPELTE LIST OF REFRENCES ARE AVAILBLE IN THE ONLINE ARTICLE

Task 4: Critical reading reflection

What is the article’s main argument? What do you think the authors are trying to
prove?

What were the key theories or underlining research that the authors based their
research on?

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Do you think this study contributed significantly to the field or research? Explain.

Carefully examine how the research was conducted. Are the methods appropriate for
the research question? Look for potential biases or limitations, like sample size, data
collection methods.

Do the data, tables, or figures clearly support the authors’ claims and conclusions?

342 | P a g e
Does the conclusion accurately reflect the findings without overstating the results or
ignoring limitations?

How did the authors use evidence of previous research in their argument?

What did you notice about the language use and style of how the article was written?

What did you learn from reading this article?

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Task 5: Research article: Drones for conservation

Consider the full end of text reference for this article.

Ezat, M.A., Fritsch, C.J., Downs, C.T. 2018. Use of an unmanned aerial vehicle
(drone) to survey Nile crocodile populations: A case study at Lake Nyamithi, Ndumo
game reserve, South Africa. Biological Conservation (Vol) 223, Pages 76-81. Available
online: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320718301320

How many authors are there? Write the in-text citation for this reference.

What is the date of when this article was published?

Where was this article published?

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Now read the whole article and prepare to answer the following questions:

• What is the article about?

• What research questions / hypotheses were investigated?
• What are important key vocabulary concepts that keep repeating?

While you read, make notes. Underline and highlight key ideas.

Abstract:

Observer bias and inexperience are challenging aspects of crocodile survey methods
for determining population numbers and structure. Aerial surveys with either a
helicopter or a fixed winged aircraft are generally preferred methods to ground
surveys; however, the high cost of the former is a limiting factor. Recently unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones have been proposed for surveys because of their
potential of improving over traditional techniques of wildlife monitoring and as they
have relatively lower costs. We investigated of the suitability of a UAV to determine
numbers and structure of the Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus, population during
winter at Lake Nyamithi, Ndumo Game Reserve in South Africa. We used the UAV for
eight flights covering ~132 ha. We also conducted a diurnal ground survey of
crocodiles for comparison. Using the UAV, 287 crocodiles were identified and body
length measured accurately for size class allocation whereas only 211 crocodiles were
counted in the diurnal ground survey. Consequently, the UAV aerial survey recorded
26% more crocodiles. The potential of using UAVs to estimate crocodile population
size and measure the total length (TL) of individuals accurately and precisely at a
relatively low cost should improve management actions, enable monitoring of the
crocodile populations annually and importantly avoid observer bias. Implications of this
may facilitate improved crocodilian survey techniques.

1 Introduction

The Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus, as other crocodilian species, is considered a

keystone species in its aquatic habitat because of its essential ecological role as the
largest semi-aquatic predator representing the top of the food chain (Leslie and
Spotila, 2001; Ross, 1998). The Nile crocodile is widely distributed on the African
continent, and found in 42 different countries (Leslie and Spotila, 2001). Between the
1950s and 1960s Nile crocodile populations in Africa declined dramatically, and faced
a series of major threats such as the over-hunting for skin and habitat loss or
degradation (Botha, 2006; Champion and Downs, 2017; Combrink, 2004; Cott and
Pooley, 1972; Jacobsen, 1984; Pooley and Gans, 1976; Pooley, 1982; Warner et al.,
2016). According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red
List, the Nile crocodile population in much of Africa is still vulnerable and in South
Africa is classified as threatened (Marais, 2014). Currently, it is still necessary to
manage Nile crocodile populations in order to ensure its persistence.

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Although unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones have been used for military
purposes for decades, it is more recent that civilian applications were developed
(Linchant et al., 2015). UAVs are able to approach fixed or moving objects relatively
closely, which enables exploration of places that were previously difficult to reach
(Martin et al., 2012). UAVs are able to do the similar tasks as helicopters or fixed-wing
aircraft, often more reliably and at relatively lower cost (Ogden, 2013). Recently UAVs,
have become an important tool for conservation management because of their
potential of greatly improving traditional techniques of wildlife monitoring (Evans et al.,
2016; Hodgson et al., 2016, Hodgson et al., 2018). UAVs have been used for
monitoring the surface of particular habitats to generate 3D maps, and for animal
population censuses (Mukwazvure and Magadza, 2014; Koh and Wich, 2012). UAVs
have been used increasingly in anti-poaching programs for various species (Mulero-
Pázmány et al., 2014). Management objectives of crocodilian populations range in
emphasis from conservation to regulation of populations. Irrespective these objectives
require suitable survey methods to reliably determine the species' distribution and
abundance and monitor changes in these with time (Bayliss, 1987). Historically there
are generally two main techniques to count or estimate crocodile populations, namely
ground and aerial surveys. As crocodiles are more visible from above especially in
some habitats, this initiated and developed the aerial survey technique to count
crocodiles (Graham, 1987). Aerial surveys of crocodiles are generally considered
more accurate and precise than day-count or spotlight ground survey methods in the
same area (Graham, 1987; Jacobsen, 1984). However, aerial surveys have certain
prominent short comings. For example, it is almost impossible to reliably count
hatchlings and very small crocodiles from the air, and the relatively high cost of aerial
surveys is a limiting factor, especially for the long-term monitoring programs. Recently,
UAVs have been used to observe and map the nests of crocodilian species in North
America and Asia and examine behavioral aspects of their nesting (Elsey and Trosclair
III, 2016; Evans et al., 2015). In addition, UAVs have been successfully piloted to
identify and measure an individual American alligator Alligator mississippiensis in Lake
Okeechobee, USA (Martin et al., 2012). However, no studies appear to have used a
UAV to survey crocodile populations.

In Africa, surveys and population estimates of Nile crocodiles have a long history of
supporting management programs (Fergusson, 2010). Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR)
located in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, has one of the longest Nile crocodile
monitoring programs. It has been running since the early 1960s and is based on aerial
and/or ground surveys (Calverley and Downs, 2014a, Calverley and Downs, 2014b;
Pooley, 1982), however, the precision and accuracy of the estimates are affected by
fluctuating water levels and use of different observers (Calverley and Downs, 2014a).
Calverley and Downs (2014a) predicted a potential decline of the NGR Nile crocodile
population due to natural processes as well as the effects of anthropogenic crocodile
harvesting and destruction of nesting habitat. They recommended annual surveys of
Nile crocodiles in NGR during the austral winter when the crocodiles are more visible
due to their basking behaviour. Therefore, the present study was conducted in the

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winter. In this study, we assessed the possibility of using a UAV to conduct accurate
and precise aerial surveys and determine size and age classes of the Nile crocodile
population at Lake Nyamithi as a cost-effective alternative to the annual surveys
proposed by Calverley and Downs (2014a).

2 Methods

2.1. Study area

Our study was carried out at Lake Nyamithi (26°53′38.26″S, 32°17′33.50″E, WGS84)
in NGR, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, between April and June 2017. Lake
Nyamithi is the largest permanent lake in the Pongola floodplain and it has the highest
density of Nile crocodiles in NGR (Calverley and Downs, 2014a). Lake Nyamithi
extends about 4.2 km from east to west and about 700 m at its widest point along the
north-south axis (Calverley and Downs, 2014b). Water levels vary between ~5 m deep
during summer to <1 m deep during winter (Pooley, 1982).

2.2. Aerial survey using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)

Aerial surveys for this study were carried out using a DJI Phantom 3 Standard Drone
with 2.7 K Camera and 3-Axis Gimbal. This UAV was preferred because its camera
shoots 12 megapixel JPEG files and has a 1/2.3″ sensor, fast f/2.8 prime lens, and a
preset focus optimized for aerial images, and has a battery life of up to 22 min.

DroneDeploy (www.Dronedeploy.com) is a drone mapping software platform that

captures aerial data as images and processes those images into maps and 3D models.
In this study, DroneDeploy was used to create a predefined flight plan over the target
area and flights in autopilot mode were then deployed to capture aerial imagery of
Lake Nyamithi. A significant overlap between photographs is needed to create a geo-
referenced mosaic map of sufficient quality to allow objects on the ground to be
identified accurately (Koh and Wich, 2012). Increasing both the side-lap and front-lap
to >50% creates this significant overlap between the photographs. Side-lap represents
the percentage of the overlap between each leg of the flight and the front-lap
represents the percentage of overlap between one image and the next. Additionally,
the correct camera settings were vitally important to ensure the quality of each
captured image.

2.3. Experimental flights

Three pilot flights were conducted between 9:00 and 12:30 on 23 April 2017 in a grid
pattern over 12 ha of the study area. The UAV was programmed to fly at various test
altitudes (40, 55, 70 m) in each flight mission, taking into account that the overlaps
between the images were fixed (70% side-lap and 60% front-lap). The aim of these
flights was to determine the optimal altitude to fly the UAV at during surveys and to
allow coverage to be produced of the entire study area (Lake Nyamithi).

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On 16 June 2017, eight UAV flight missions were conducted between 9 h:00 to 13 h:00
with the total time required for the aerial survey being ~113 min for a grid flight path
that covered Lake Nyamithi (~132 ha). The total flight time excluded drone takeoff and
landing and ferrying back and forth between the starting point and the survey grid. The
drone was launched a distance from the lake in nearby bush to avoid possible
disturbance of the crocodiles.

2.4. Data processing

Despite the existing number of software or third-party platforms that can process UAV
data, it is critical to understand the flow of the processing via managing the aerial
imagery correctly when the output quality is essential for the purpose of the project.
Processing the data means stitching the geo-tagged images together, and this can be
summarized in three different stages: 1) Data calibration which refers to syncing up of
points on an aerial image with a geographical point on the ground; 2) Point cloud
replacement; A point cloud is a set of points in a coordinate system that visualizes the
geographical area (These data points correlate with the ground points) and 3) The
exported output is the final visual format, an ortho-mosaic, 3D Model, or Digital
Elevation Model etc. (https://pix4d.com/). This exported visual format was used to
study the objects (crocodiles). ArcMap 10.5 (ArcGIS, ESRI Redlands, California, USA)
was used to mark and measure the individual crocodiles in the ortho-mosaic (2D) geo-
referenced produced map. A free trial version of DroneDeploy, online platform, and
Pix4Dmapper Pro, desktop software, were used to process the generated data that
consisted of 3017 geo-tagged images captured from eight flights.

The pilot flight plan at 55 m altitude determined the area of the lake cover as ~12 ha
(Fig. 1). The flights were flown in a grid form that allowed for a predefined percentage
of image overlap (Fig. 1). Based on the experimental flights, an aerial survey plan
conducted to cover Lake Nyamithi and survey the crocodile population was developed.

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Fig. 1. An example of the UAV crocodile survey flight plan using the DroneDeploy
platform where (a) is the flight test plan using the DroneDeploy platform at 55 m
altitude (only a portion of the lake is shown in this example); and (b) the grid mission
at ~55 m above the ground at Lake Nyamithi, Ndumo Game Reserve.

We first attempted to design a predefined flight pathway in order to capture aerial geo-
referenced imagery at known altitude. These aerial images were stitched together to
produce a geo-referenced 2D map. The experimental flights were conducted
assessing a sub-area of Nyamithi Lake. Images were captured at 40, 55, and 70 m
altitude. In light of these flights, the total time required to cover the entire lake was
calculated for each altitude and the geo-tagged imagery was stitched to determine the
quality of the produced maps. Following the pilot flights, images captured at 55 m
altitude provided the most sufficient stitched collages in order to survey the crocodile
population in Lake Nyamithi (Fig. 2). The resulting geo-referenced 2D quality map was
2 cm/pix detail. An altitude of 55 m was also sufficient due to the total number of flights
needed to cover the target area, the resolution quality of the produced maps, the ability
to locate the individual crocodiles and measure their size. In addition, the total time
expected for flights corresponded to the expected time of the presence of crocodiles
on the shores of the lake (Fig. 1).

Fig. 2. Stitched image of 12 ha pilot flight flown at 55 m, where the produced 2D map
quality is 2 cm/pix. The total length (TL) of the individual crocodiles observed were
measured.

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Following the pilot aerial surveys, a complete aerial survey was conducted at 55 m
altitude in order to determine the numbers and size of Nile crocodiles in Lake Nyamithi
between 9 h:00 and 12 h:30. This UAV survey enabled high-resolution identification of
crocodile individuals (Fig. 2). Eight size categories were classified according to the
respective crocodile total lengths (TL) determined. These size categories ranged from
0.5 to 4 m TL. Additionally, an “eye only” (EO) class represented individuals not
measured because of an obstacle hindering a correct measurement (either hiding
behind a tree or totally/partly submerged).

2.5. Ground survey

A diurnal ground survey of Nile crocodiles was carried out after the aerial survey on
18 June 2017 at Lake Nyamithi. The ground survey was conducted at the same time
of the day as the UAV aerial survey and started at 9 h:00 until 12 h:45 where a vehicle
was driven at low speed (~10 km) around Lake Nyamithi while an observer counted
and sized the crocodiles observed using the size classes described above. Binoculars
(DENALI 10 × 42) were used to observe the crocodile individuals and estimate their
respective size classes.

2.6. Statistical analyses

Descriptive statistics and Chi2 for homogeneity test were conducted to evaluate the
equality of crocodile size classes among UAV and ground survey results. Our null
hypothesis was that a percentage of crocodile size classes was homogeneous or
equal with respect to the two methods (UAV and ground).

3. Results

The UAV data allowed precise mapping of Nile crocodile numbers and distribution in
Lake Nyamithi and each individual's TL to be measured. This was possible using the
extensive details in the ortho-mosaic together with the mapping tools to make accurate
measurements and to pinpoint all crocodiles in the image which could be further
double checked. This alleviated observer bias associated with ground surveys of the
crocodiles. Out of 3017 geo-tagged images stitched together, 287 crocodiles were
successfully identified and measured at Lake Nyamithi as shown in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3. An overall 2D map with a resolution of 2 cm/pix as a result of the aerial survey
using a drone showing the number and distribution of Nile crocodiles in Lake Nyamithi.

Our UAV survey enabled high-resolution accurate identification of individual crocodile

length (Fig. 2). After measurement and allocation to the respective size classes, the
highest number of crocodiles was in the 2.0–2.5 m TL size class. This represented
39% of the total crocodiles counted in the aerial survey using a UAV (Fig. 4). Based
on the ground survey 211 crocodiles were counted and their size classes estimated at
Lake Nyamithi. The highest number of crocodiles was in the range of 1.5–2.0 m and
2.0–2.5 m TL size classes respectively (Fig. 4). These represented 28% and 26%
respectively of the total number of Nile crocodiles counted using this method.

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Fig. 4. Percentages of Nile crocodiles in the respective size classes using the aerial
drone (dark bars) compared with ground surveys (hatched bars) at Lake Nyamithi.

Comparison of the two survey methods showed the total count using the aerial UAV
survey identified more crocodiles (287 individuals) compared with the ground survey
(211 individuals). Consequently, the aerial UAV survey recorded 26% more crocodiles.
In addition, a significant difference in the percentage of Nile crocodiles in the
respective size classes using the UAV aerial and ground survey methods was found
(Chi2 for homogeneity test, P < 0.001, Fig. 4). Size class estimation with the UAV
survey was more accurate than the estimation during the ground survey. The ground
survey result overestimated individuals in the size class ranges between 0.5 and 2 m
in TL and of individuals >2 m TL. Also, 16 crocodiles (5%) were classified in the EO
category with the UAV aerial survey compared with 24 crocodiles (11%) in the ground
survey. Therefore, using the aerial UAV survey gave a more accurate and precise
estimate of the crocodile population size class structure. In the UAV survey only one
individual TL was measured to be <1 m (hatchling) while six individuals from the same
size class were counted during the ground survey.

4. Discussion

We confirmed the suitability and ability of UAV technology to survey crocodile

populations accurately and precisely. It has the potential to become one of the
standard methods to determine crocodile population numbers. Furthermore, it is an
efficient method to measure the correct size of each individual crocodile observed,
allowing each to be correctly allocated to the appropriate size class. These
applications coupled with their relatively low cost enhances the further potential for
use in size determination and understanding of crocodile populations, especially with
repeated annual counts for long-term studies. In comparison, the high costs of aerial
surveys using helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft is a challenge for viable long-term
monitoring programs.

Our results showed that the UAV aerial survey yielded significantly (26%) more
crocodiles than the ground survey at Lake Nyamithi. However, as highlighted by

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Bayliss (1987) there are difficulties in identifying small crocodiles (hatchlings) during
aerial surveys. Lake Nyamithi is in the Phongola River floodplain where crocodiles will
move with changing water levels (Henein and Merriam, 1990; Taylor et al., 1993).
Higher crocodile numbers exist in Lake Nyamithi, especially during the winter
(Calverley and Downs, 2014a, Calverley and Downs, 2014b). The most recent
crocodile survey (diurnal ground) conducted at Lake Nyamithi between 2009 and 2012
found the number of Nile crocodiles reach a peak of 273 (SE ± 13.5) in August
(Calverley and Downs, 2014a, Calverley and Downs, 2014b) while our diurnal ground
survey counted 211 individuals in July 2017. Although our UAV survey confirmed a
minimum of 278 Nile crocodiles in Lake Nyamithi, further UAV surveys are
recommended to determine the status of the Nile crocodile population at Lake
Nyamithi. Although our ground survey results of Nile crocodiles in Lake Nyamithi
supported Calverley and Downs' (2014a) predicted decline in the NGR Nile crocodile
population, our UAV results showed little change in the population numbers with time
at Lake Nyamithi. Furthermore, our age class results continue to support that it is an
aging population.

Previous work has shown that estimating crocodile size is affected by observer bias
and experience (Combrink, 2004; Woodward and Moore, 1993). Aerial surveys using
UAVs may help reduce observer bias over the long-term annual monitoring program
of the Nile crocodile population at NGR. UAV based aerial surveys make accurate and
precise measurements of each individual Nile crocodile observed possible and
therefore improve the size class categorization of individual crocodiles. To launch
effective management of crocodilian habitat, it becomes important to understand the
spatial and temporal use of different habitats by crocodilians (Botha, 2006). Long-term
monitoring is essential to implement management actions to conserve Nile crocodile
populations. The use of UAVs to monitor crocodile populations can lead to better
informed management decisions based on accurate data instead of relying on
observer experience which in turn will contribute greatly to the conservation of
crocodilian species and their habitats. Further research is required to assess whether
UAV surveys will deliver the same positive results in open ended habitats like river
systems or large impoundments where the surface area can be in the thousands of
hectares instead of just over a 150 ha as in the present study.

UAV technology has the potential to survey crocodile populations accurately at

relatively low cost and over a much shorter time even in areas that are difficult to
access. Moreover, our UAV aerial survey has implications for future research and
management strategies for Nile crocodiles.

References

Bayliss, P., 1987. Survey methods and monitoring within crocodile management
programmes. In: Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators, pp. 157–175.

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Botha, P.J., 2006. The Ecology and Population Dynamics of the Nile Crocodile
Crocodylus niloticus in the Flag Boshielo Dam, Mpumalanga Province. University of
Pretoria, South Africa, South Africa. MSc thesis.

Calverley, P.M., Downs, C.T., 2014a. Population status of Nile crocodiles in Ndumo
game reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (1971–2012). Herpetologica 70, 417–425.

Calverley, P.M., Downs, C.T., 2014b. Habitat use by Nile crocodiles in Ndumo game
reserve, South Africa: a naturally patchy, environment. Herpetologica 70, 426–438.

Champion, G., Downs, C.T., 2017. Status of the Nile crocodile population in
Pongolapoort dam after river impoundment. Afr. Zool. 52, 55–63.

Combrink, A.S., 2004. Population Survey of Crocodylus niloticus (Nile crocodile) at

Lake Sibaya, Republic of South Africa. MSc Thesis. University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Pietermaritzburg.

Cott, H.B., Pooley, A.C., 1972. The Status of Crocodiles in Africa. 33 IUCN Pubs. New
Ser.

Elsey, R.M., Trosclair III, P.L., 2016. The use of an unmanned aerial vehicle to locate
alligator nests. Southeast. Nat. 15, 76–82.

Evans, I.J., Jones, T.H., Pang, K., Evans, M.N., Saimin, S., Goossens, B., 2015. Use
of drone technology as a tool for behavioral research: a case study of crocodilian
nesting. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 10, 90–98.

Evans, L.J., Jones, T.H., Pang, K., Saimin, S., Goossens, B., 2016. Spatial ecology of
estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) nesting in a fragmented landscape. Sensors
16, 1527.

Fergusson, R.A., 2010. In: Manolis, S.C., Stevenson, C. (Eds.), Nile Crocodile
Crocodylus niloticus. Pp. 84–89 in Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action
Plan, 3rd ed. Crocodile Specialist Group: Darwin.

A COMPELTE LIST OF REFRENCES ARE AVAILBLE IN THE ONLINE ARTICLE

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Task 6: Critical reading reflection

What is the article’s main argument? What do you think the authors are trying to
prove?

What were the key theories or underlining research that the authors based their
research on?

Do you think this study contributed significantly to the field or research? Explain.

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Carefully examine how the research was conducted. Are the methods appropriate for
the research question? Look for potential biases or limitations, like sample size, data
collection methods.

Do the data, tables, or figures clearly support the authors’ claims and conclusions?

Does the conclusion accurately reflect the findings without overstating the results or
ignoring limitations?

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How did the authors use evidence of previous research in their argument?

What did you notice about the language use and style of how the article was written?

What did you learn from reading this article?

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SECTION 13: WRITE A REPORT
Task 1: Topic and instructions
In the previous sections you started by conducting a field observation of the
biodiversity on your UFS campus. You were instructed to select a specific area on the
Bloemfontein, South, or QwaQwa campus to observe the biodiversity. You had to
identify and record ONE tree species and ONE shrub/bush species in a designated
area on campus. You also had to record at least ONE form of wildlife such as birds /
insects / reptiles / small mammals.

After conducting the field observation, you must write a scientific report. You will use
the IMRAD report structure - Introduction, Methodology, Results and Discussion.

1. Introduction:
a. Background information: Why is biodiversity important for maintaining
ecological balance? Why must we understand the importance of local
ecosystems and biodiversity on campus?
b. Research question or/and hypothesis
c. Report objective

2. Methodology:
a. Site selection - Why and where was your field observation conducted?
b. What observation methods, procedures, and instruments was used to
conduct the field observation?

3. Results:
a. Habitat description
b. Human activity in the area
c. One tree species
d. One shrub/bush species
e. One wildlife species

4. Discussion:
a. Review of research question or hypothesis
b. Explanation of the ecological significance of the observed species
c. Limitations of the research
d. Future implications

5. Reference list

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Task 2: Introduction
2.1 Background information

In the introduction of a report, background information plays a crucial role by providing

the reader with context. This can include aspects like the importance of the issue being
studied or how the research addresses any gaps in existing knowledge or practices
related to the problem. It explains the broader situation or issue that leads up to the
report’s main focus. The introduction can start by explaining the context of the
investigation or report. This can include any relevant scientific concepts, theories,
and previous research that is related to the topic of the investigation. It’s an essential
part of the report because it frames the entire investigation, giving the reader the
context needed to understand what you did, why you did it, and what you expected to
find.

▪ Key scientific concepts can be defined or introduced. For example: sustainability,

habitat loss, ecosystem services, climate change, ecology, green spaces,
pollution, urbanisation etc.
▪ In a chemistry lab report, the introduction might explain the chemical reactions or
principles that are central to the experiment.
▪ In a biology lab report, it might discuss the biological processes or organisms being
studied. It shows that the investigation is not happening in isolation but is
connected to established knowledge.

If you would like to include a definition, you can use any of these sentence structures:
• Throughout this report the term _____ will refer to…
• It is necessary here to clarify what is meant by _____
• While a variety of definitions of the term _____ have been suggested, this report
will use the definition suggested by _______ (in-text reference) who saw it as…
• The term _____ will be used in this report to describe the….

If you would like to include historical or scientific information, you can use any of these
sentence structures:
• The issue of _____ has received considerable attention
• Studies on _____ represent a growing field
• _____ is a major area of interest
• One of the most significant current discussions in the field of _____ is…
• _____ has received considerable scholarly attention in recent years
• There has been increasing interest in the topic of _____
• _____ has been studied widely

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In your report you have to consider the following questions. Think about each one and
make notes. These notes can become the rough draft for rewriting and editing later
when you type it up.

Why is biodiversity important for maintaining ecological balance?

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Why must we understand the importance of local ecosystems and biodiversity on the
UFS campus(es)?

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2.2 Research question or hypothesis

Both the research question and hypothesis help structure the entire report. They
determine what variables (any characteristic, trait, or condition that can change or
vary) are examined, how data is collected, and how results or findings are interpreted.
Formulating a research question and hypothesis is fundamental to the scientific
method of thinking. The results are measured by how well it addresses or answers the
research question and whether the hypothesis is supported or refuted.

A research question is a clear, focused question that the investigation aims to

answer. It identifies the specific issue or problem being analysed making it the core
reference point when interpreting results. A good research question should be narrow
enough to be manageable within the scope of the study or report. For example,

• What effect does temperature have on the rate of enzyme activity?

• How does the concentration of ______[a reactant] influence the rate of ______[a
chemical reaction]?
• Does light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis in plants?
• Does variation in ph-level significantly affect the presence of beneficial bacteria in
ponds?
• To what extent do invasive species dominate the university campus grounds?
• How many types of fungi grow on Searsia lancea trees?
• How do students use the green spaces on campus?
• How do different environmental factors (e.g., time of day, weather conditions)
influence species behaviour and visibility on campus?
• What are the dominant species in the observed area, and what roles do they play
in the campus ecosystem?
• How do human activities and infrastructure on the UFS campus impact local
biodiversity and species interactions?

It should specify the population, context, or conditions under which the research will
take place. The question should be answerable through empirical investigation,
meaning it can be studied using qualitative or quantitative research methods. It
should not be based on personal beliefs or opinions but on observable and
measurable data.

Write a possible research question for your report.

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A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the outcome of the experiment. It is
based on prior knowledge, observations, or scientific theories, and it suggests a
possible answer to the research question. The hypothesis provides a direction for the
experiment or investigation by proposing what the researcher expects to happen under
specific conditions.

Hypotheses can be written in various ways. These sentence structures help articulate
hypotheses clearly, making it easier to communicate the research focus and guiding
the study's design and analysis. Hypotheses are either confirmed or denied.

If-Then Structure If the introduction of native plant species occurs in urban

areas, then the local biodiversity of pollinators, such as bees
and butterflies, will increase.

Comparative Forested areas with a diverse undergrowth of native plants

Structure will have higher bird species richness compared to areas
dominated by invasive species.

Positive/Negative As the rate of urbanisation in a city increases, the

Relationship population density of urban wildlife, such as frogs and
Structure insects decrease.

Descriptive The establishment of marine protected areas will lead to an

Structure increase in fish populations and overall marine biodiversity
off the East Coast in in RSA.

Consider the following hypotheses related to field observations on campus.

• Areas on campus with higher vegetation density (such as gardens or wooded

areas) will have greater species diversity than areas with low vegetation (like
parking lots or pathways).
• Flowering plant areas on campus, such as gardens and landscaped areas, will
attract a higher abundance and diversity of pollinators (bees, butterflies, etc.)
compared to areas that have artificial grass or paving.
• Bird species will be more frequently observed in areas with mature trees and
water sources compared to open fields or manicured lawns.
• Species richness and abundance will be lower in high-traffic areas (e.g., near
buildings and walkways) than in quieter, undisturbed parts of campus.
• There will be significant seasonal variation in species diversity, with higher
species richness observed in spring and summer than in fall and winter.
• Invasive plant species will be more common in wild areas on campus compared
to landscaped and manicured areas, potentially impacting native biodiversity.

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Now try write a hypothesis for your report depending on your goal or purpose. Play
around with different sentence structures.

2.3 Purpose or objective of the report

Reports allow decision-makers (stakeholders) or readers to access and understand

critical information needed for further analysis or action. Reports are often written to
solve problems or investigate specific issues. These reports identify the problem,
examine possible causes, and propose solutions based on evidence.

The purpose or objective of the report can vary depending on the need:

• To document something (for record keeping, accountability, and transparency);

• To investigate something (identify the problem, examine possible causes, and
propose solutions based on evidence);
• To support research and knowledge sharing (contributing to the collective
knowledge of a discipline);
• To monitor or track the progress of something (critical information that helps
stakeholders make informed decisions regarding the progress and implementation
of something)

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Consider the objectives below. In each case, make notes of what you think the
underlined verbs refer to and how it will influence of the report contents and structure.

1 The objective of this report is to provide a

comprehensive overview of the current state of
renewable energy adoption in the Free State,
including key statistics, trends, and policy
developments.

2 The goal of this report is to analyze the impact

of remote working on employee productivity and
propose strategies for maintaining high
performance in virtual environments.

3 The goal of this report is to document the

experiment on enzyme activity under varying
temperatures and analyze the effects of
temperature changes on reaction rates.

4 The goal of this report is to investigate the

environmental impacts of urbanization in coastal
areas through a case study of mangrove forest
degradation in Southeast Asia.

5 The goal of this report is to evaluate the health

of a freshwater ecosystem by analyzing water
quality parameters, such as pH, dissolved
oxygen, and nutrient levels, over a six-month
period.

6 The goal of this report is to assess the impact of

sustainable materials in modern architectural
design and construction practices.

7 The goal of this report is to study the integration

of natural lighting in architectural design to
improve energy efficiency and occupant well-
being.

8 The goal of this report is to synthesize findings

from sediment analysis to determine past
climatic conditions in a specific region.

9 The goal of this report is to examine the

implications of mineral extraction on local
ecosystems and geological stability.

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Now consider the reasons why you would be asked to write a report about biodiversity
on your campus. Think about why would such a report be useful.

Which of these relate to your report? Add 2 more reasons to the list.

To catalogue various species present on campus.

To evaluate the biodiversity health of campus ecosystems and habitat

conditions.

To catalogue various invasive species present on campus for native

biodiversity protection.

To track biodiversity over time due to changes in climate, pollution,

human impact, or construction.

To provide hands-on experiences and awareness about local

ecosystems on campus.

Now write the purpose of your report below. Use the following sentence structure:

The goal of this report is to

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Task 3: Methodology

The methodology section of a report is a crucial component that details the materials,
procedures and techniques used to conduct the research or investigation for the
report. A clear methodology allows readers to understand how the research was
conducted. By detailing steps, techniques, and instruments used, the report enables
others to reproduce the study or verify its accuracy, which is essential for credibility
and scientific integrity. Transparency in methodology helps build trust by showing that
the findings are based on a sound scientific approach. This validation supports the
reliability of findings, as readers can see that the methods are suitable for answering
the research questions or meeting the objectives.

3.1 Materials / Instruments

This section describes the instruments or materials used to collect data. By detailing
the instruments used, the report shows that data was collected systematically and that
the tools were appropriate for capturing accurate data. There are various types of
instrumentation available depending on the research question and purpose. For
example:

• Instruments or equipment

Scientific equipment is essential in technical and laboratory research, allowing precise

measurement, experimentation, and analysis in controlled environments. Laboratory
equipment provides accurate, reliable, and reproducible measurements, essential for
experiments requiring high precision. This can include microscopes,
spectrophotometers, lab chemicals or substances, GPS devices, measuring
equipment, a camera, laptops, notebooks etc. For example, in a biology study on cell
behaviour, a microscope might be used to observe cell structure changes under
different conditions.

• Surveys or questionnaires

Surveys are commonly used to collect data from a large number of respondents on
opinions, behaviours, or characteristics. Surveys consist of a series of structured
questions, typically multiple-choice, Likert scales (strongly agree, agree, disagree etc),
or open-ended responses, which are distributed to participants to gather standardized
information from large groups. For example, a questionnaire might be used to assess
the demographic background (age, weight) of participants in a health study about
cholesterol.

• Software

Statistical software (SPSS or Excel) helps researchers analyze quantitative data,

conduct statistical tests, and create data visualizations. It reduces manual calculations,
increases accuracy, and offers a range of analytic tools to interpret data
comprehensively. Qualitative analysis software is used for coding and analyzing text-
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based data, such as interview transcripts, survey responses, or open-ended
questions. For a field observation on biodiversity, several apps and software tools can
be highly useful in identifying species.

For example, the iNaturalist app is a community-based app that helps with species
identification through crowdsourcing. Users can take photos of plants, animals, or
insects, and the app provides identification suggestions based on image recognition.

Another excellent online source is the South African National Biodiversity Institute
(SANBI) database. SANBI’s database offers a comprehensive record of South African
species, including information on distribution, habitat requirements, and conservation
status. The SANBI database assists with species identification such as detailed
descriptions, images, and sometimes taxonomic keys for identifying plants, animals,
fungi, and other species. This can be used to verify field identification of species by
comparing characteristics and checking for known geographic ranges in South Africa,
ensuring accurate species classification. This database helps to cross-reference field
data with existing distribution records, highlighting any new or unexpected patterns in
native and invasive species. SANBI also provides data on invasive species and their
impact on local ecosystems.

What instruments or data collection tools did you use in your field observations? Be
as specific as possible. Explain how and when you used each instrument.

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3.2 Data collection procedure

Data collection procedures outline the step-by-step process of systematically

gathering information or data. It must be a chronological description of how data was
collected (e.g., administering a survey, what observational methods were used). A
clear explanation of the data collection process ensures that others can understand
and potentially replicate the exact approach used for future studies. Documenting
procedures also includes maintaining detailed records of the raw data collected. Let’s
look at some examples:

Example 1: The objective of a chemistry report was to analyze the nutrient content
(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) in soil samples from multiple agricultural sites to
assess soil fertility. The data collection process included collecting soil samples from
the same depth (e.g., 10 cm) at various sites, and labelling each sample by location
and date. Then, the soil samples were brought to the lab, dried at a set temperature,
and grinded down into a fine powder for analysis. The samples were put into a
centrifuge to separate the soil particles, and then into the spectrophotometer for
nutrient analysis. How, when and where this happens was also carefully recorded for
verification and quality checking.

Example 2: The objective of an environmental report was to assess the biodiversity

status across different habitat types in the Free State. Various sites were chosen to
represent a variety of disturbance levels, including undisturbed natural habitats,
moderately disturbed agricultural zones, and highly disturbed urban areas. These sites
were selected based on prior research, accessibility, and the level of anthropogenic
influence. At each site, biomapping techniques (GPS tracking) was applied to
document the species present. The research team conducted systematic surveys (site
assessments) in designated quadrats within each habitat type. Species were identified
visually, and in cases of uncertainty, samples were collected for later identification
using the SANBI database. For consistency, site assessments were conducted at
similar times each day to minimize temporal variability. Using GPS coordinates
recorded at each site, spatial data on species presence and habitat types were
uploaded to ArcGIS. Maps were created to illustrate the distribution of both native and
invasive species across the Free State, providing visual insights into potential
biodiversity hotspots and areas with high invasive species concentrations. Once all
data was collected, biodiversity indices were calculated to compare species richness
and evenness across the different habitats. Statistical tests were used to evaluate the
relationship between species distribution and habitat disturbance level, and to test the
hypothesis that native species would be more prevalent in undisturbed habitats, while
invasive species would dominate disturbed areas.

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Think about what steps you followed during your data collection for the field
observation. Make notes on each question below.

How did you prepare for the data collection? Did you have all the necessary tools and
resources?

What criteria did you use to select the observation area on campus? How did you track
the locations of your observations?

How much time did you spend observing, and was it sufficient to capture meaningful
data?

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How did environmental conditions (e.g., weather, time of day) affect your
observations?

What specific methods did you use to record species and their behaviours?

Did you use any tools or apps for identifying species? How effective were they in
aiding your identification?

Were there any challenges in identifying species accurately? How did you address
them?

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How did you ensure that your data collection was consistent and reliable? Did you
follow the same procedures for all the observations?

What steps did you take to avoid disturbing the natural environment while collecting
data?

Were there any biases in your observation process (e.g., focusing more on larger or
more visible species)?

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Now write down the step-by-step process you followed when collecting the data for
your field report. Think about what you did first, then next, then thereafter etc.

10

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Task 4: Results

The results section is a critical component of a scientific report because it provides the
core data and findings derived from the study or observation. This section serves as
the foundation of the report, as it presents the objective evidence needed for later
analysis and interpretation. This section ensures readers receive a clear, accurate
presentation of what was observed, recorded, or measured. Without a comprehensive
and well-organized presentation of results, subsequent sections lack the foundation to
explain, analyze, or hypothesize meaningfully. Results can be displayed in various
formats.

a. Tables

Tables are essential tools for organizing, presenting, and simplifying complex data
sets into rows and columns. Tables can be used to present numeric data concisely
and make comparisons at a glance, which is particularly useful for examining trends
or patterns. For instance, a table showing plant species across different habitats allows
readers to quickly identify which habitats have the highest species diversity. Each table
should have a title and labels for columns and rows.

Species Location Population count Characteristics

Table 1: ___________________

b. Graphs and charts

Visual aids like bar graphs, pie charts, or line graphs are effective for showing data
distribution, comparisons, and trends over time. Well-designed graphs can make it
easier to spot outliers, gaps, or inconsistencies in the data, allowing for deeper
analysis. For instance, a pie chart could show the percentage distribution of species
groups, and a bar graph could compare species counts across different campus areas.

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 Recorded bird species on Bloemfontein campus in 2024

10%

10%
Rock Pigeon
Hadeda Ibis
Red-eyed Bulbul

65% Cape Sparrow

15%

Graph 1: Observed bird species on Bloemfontein campus

Keep graphs simple and focused and avoid cluttering them with unnecessary data
points, labels, or decorations. Only include the information that directly supports the
key findings you want to communicate. Every graph should have a descriptive title,
and each axis should be clearly labelled with both the variable name and unit of
measurement. If necessary, add a legend to explain different colours, lines, or symbols
used in the graph. Use colours that are distinct and meaningful. Make sure you choose
the right type of graph for your data. For example:

• Use bar charts for comparing categories.

• Use line graphs for trends over time.
• Use pie charts for proportions or parts of a whole.
• Use scatter plots for relationships between variables.

The results section in your report must also cover the following findings from your field
observation:

4.1 Habitat description

A habitat description is a detailed account of the natural environment where a

particular species (plant, bird, animal, insect) was observed. It provides information
about the physical, biological, and environmental conditions that characterize a
specific area, offering insight into how these elements support the organisms found
there. A habitat description helps in understanding the unique requirements of species,
interactions between organisms, and potential environmental impacts on the habitat.
You must give a detailed account of the physical and biological features of the selected

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environment or habitat of the area. Try explaining the are in as much detail as possible
to someone who has never seen it or been there before. Marks will be awarded to rich
descriptions rather than basic ones. Make use of descriptive language to record
specific information.

Were there any distinct geographical features in the area? (Elevation, slopes, hills,
plains, mountains) If so, describe it.

Were there any water sources nearby? This will affect surrounding vegetation and
animal life that might depend on water availability, food, shelter or breeding areas. If
so, describe it.

What were the environmental conditions around the site? Were there surrounding
trees and plants? Was it an open area? Describes the vegetation (if any) and plant
communities in the area.

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Students must also include a visual or photo of the area with a label or title. For
example.

Figure 1: The duck pond near a lecture hall

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4.2 Human activity

The presence of human activity directly and indirectly affects the natural environment
and the species that inhabit it. Buildings, roads, and infrastructure often results in the
destruction or fragmentation of natural habitats and green corridors for biotic life. Some
species are sensitive to human presence, and this can disrupt animal behaviours.
Urbanised areas also affect temperatures and weather conditions leading to shifts in
vegetation and species distribution (for example the overpopulation of pigeons in cities
and towns).

Was there any human activity in the observed area? (sport, leisure, study, relax,
groupwork, walking, listening to music, talking etc). If there was no observed human
activity it can be classified as wild or semi-wild.

Was the area near any form of transportation network? For example, near the bus /taxi
stop, near undercover or outdoor parking areas, near high traffic walking areas etc.
Note the intensity of traffic (if any) in the area. Highlight any sources of pollution, like
litter, water pollution or waste, or air pollution due to transportation etc.

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4.3 Tree species

Trees are perennial plants with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and
leaves in most species. Trees are among the longest-living and largest organisms on
Earth, and they play a crucial role in ecosystems by producing oxygen, providing
habitats for wildlife, and stabilizing the soil. Tree roots create channels in the soil as
they grow, promoting aeration and allowing water to penetrate more deeply. When
leaves, branches, and other organic materials from trees decompose, they return
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to the soil. This cycle enriches the
soil and benefits other plants. Trees have been integral to human life for thousands of
years, providing materials like wood, paper, and medicine, as well as offering shade,
recreation, and beauty in our landscapes. They are a fundamental part of both natural
landscapes and human-influenced environments, like parks and urban areas.

Include all of the following information in your report:

1. Tree species scientific name and common names:

Afrikaans

English

SeSotho

Zulu

2. Describe the plant:

GPS coordinates

Size (estimate in
meters)

Colour:

Canopy size
(estimate in radius)

Bark type (rough,

smooth, textured
etc)

Flowers / Seeds (if

any)

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 Leaf type

3. What do you think the ecological function of the tree is? (e.g., shade, habitat for
animals). What role do you think this tree plays in its environment?

4. Photo / image of the plant (for example)

Figure 2: Diospyros Mespiliformis (African ebony or jackal-berry) is a protected

(endangered) tree

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4.4 Shrub or bush species

A shrub, also known as a bush, is a woody plant distinguished by its multiple stems
and generally shorter height compared to trees. Scientifically, shrubs are classified
within the plant kingdom, with most belonging to the class Magnoliopsida
(dicotyledons), and are often members of the angiosperms (flowering plants). Unlike
trees, which typically have a single, dominant trunk, shrubs have multiple stems
branching from the ground or near it. Many shrubs are perennial, meaning they can
live for several years, regrowing their leaves annually in colder climates where they
may shed foliage in winter. Shrubs provide shelter and food for various animal species,
from insects to birds and mammals and their roots help stabilize soil, preventing
erosion, especially on slopes. By providing flowers, fruits, and shelter, shrubs support
a diverse range of species and contribute to the health of ecosystems.

Include all of the following information in your report:

1. Shrub species scientific name and common names:

Afrikaans

English

SeSotho

Zulu

2. Describe the plant:

GPS coordinates

Size (estimate in
meters)

Colour:

Canopy size
(estimate in radius)

Bark type (rough,

smooth, textured
etc)

Flowers / Seeds (if

any)

Leaf type

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3. What do you think is the ecological function of the plant? (e.g., shade, habitat for
animals). What role do you think this shrub or bush plays in its environment?

4. Photo / image of the plant (for example)

Figure 3: Plumbago auriculata “Royal Cape”

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4.5 Wildlife species

Wildlife, including birds, small reptiles, insects, and small animals, plays a vital role in
maintaining the balance and health of ecosystems. These organisms contribute to
processes like pollination, seed dispersal, pest control, soil health, and nutrient cycling,
all of which support biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. Many insects, such as
bees, butterflies, beetles, and flies, are primary pollinators. Birds and animals like
squirrels and mice help disperse seeds by consuming fruits and excreting the seeds
elsewhere, often far from the parent plant. This spread helps plants colonize new
areas, increasing their chances of survival. Predatory insects like ladybugs,
dragonflies, and spiders naturally manage pest populations by feeding on herbivorous
insects that damage plants.

Include all of the following information in your report:

5. Wildlife species scientific name and common names:

Afrikaans

English

SeSotho

Zulu

6. Describe the specie

GPS coordinates

Size

Colour:

Key characteristics

Conservation status

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7. What do you think is the ecological function of the species? What role do you
think this species plays in its environment?

8. Photo / image of the species (for example)

Figure 4: Rock hyrax more commonly known as “Dassie”

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Task 5: Discussion

The discussion section of a report is where you interpret, analyze, and contextualize
the findings of the research or in your case the field observation. Unlike the results
section, which simply presents data, the discussion goes further by explaining what
the results mean, how they relate to the research question or hypothesis, and what
implications they may have. It’s often one of the most challenging parts to write
because it requires critical thinking, synthesis of information, and a strong
understanding of the purpose of the report. In the discussion section, findings are
discussed in context with existing research and evidence (references) to highlight
similarities (trends or patterns), contradictions (unexpected results or gaps in
knowledge) or new insights. A good discussion also acknowledges any limitations,
such as sample size, methodological constraints, or potential biases during the data
collection phase. Finally, the discussion should conclude with any implications for
future research.

The discussion section is also heavily dependent on good paragraph structure and
organization. In other words, paragraph structure, with clear topic sentences,
supporting details (linked with transition words), and concluding sentences, organizes
information logically, guide readers from one point to the next. Structured paragraphs
help emphasize main ideas, making the argument stronger and more persuasive.

Let’s consider all the aspects that you must cover in the discussion section.

5.1 Review of research question and or hypothesis

What was the original research question or hypothesis that you made in the
Introduction section of the report? Write it down below.

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Do the findings or results from your field observation answer your research question?
If so, how? If not, why?

Do the findings or results from your field observation support or challenge your
hypothesis? If so, how? If not, why?

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5.2 Explanation of the ecological significance of the observed species

What is the ecological significance of the observed species? Are they common,
endangered or threatened with extinction? Discuss this answer in the form of a
paragraph.

What impact (role) do you think the observed species have on their environment?
What are the potential implications for the presence of these species on campus
biodiversity? Discuss this answer in the form of a paragraph.

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Explain why you selected these species and what you learned from the observation.
Discuss this answer in the form of a paragraph.

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5.3 Limitations of the research

Did you encounter any limitations whilst doing this research? In other words what
challenges did you face during your field observations that might impact the validity
of the data? Discuss this answer in the form of a paragraph.

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5.4 Future implications

What are the future implications of your findings? Discuss any practical implications
of your findings, any mention suggestions for future field observations on campus.
Discuss this answer in the form of a paragraph.

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Task 6: Complete your reference list

A reference list supports the credibility of your arguments by showing that they are
based on reliable sources. It demonstrates that your claims are backed by research
and not merely personal opinions. Readers can use your reference list to locate the
original sources of information, data, or quotations.

Citing sources in your reference list ensures that you give proper credit to the original
authors and researchers whose work you have used. This is crucial for maintaining
academic integrity and avoiding plagiarism.

Your reference list should appear at the end of your essay. The in-text citation is
located within the body of the assignment and is made up of the author’s surname
and the publication date. Each source you cite in the essay must appear in your
reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.
Your reference list must be in alphabetical order.

Which references did you use in your report?

Reference list

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Task 7: Revision and Editing

It is time for you to revise your report draft before you type, and submit the final version.
Revising, for most writers, is the most important thing to improving your writing, the
most crucial part of the writing process. You may think that a completed first draft
means little improvement is needed; you just need to fix errors. Even experienced
writers, however, need to improve their drafts.

Why do we revise and edit?

Revising and editing are the two tasks you undertake to significantly improve your
report. Both are very important elements of the writing process. You may think that a
completed first draft means little improvement is needed. However, even experienced
writers need to improve their drafts and rely on peers during revising and editing. You
may know that athletes miss catches, fumble balls, or overshoot goals. Dancers forget
steps, turn too slowly, or miss beats. For both athletes and dancers, the more they
practice, the stronger their performance will become. Writing has the same capacity
to profit from improvement and revision.

When you revise, you take a second look at your ideas. You might add, cut, move,
or change information in order to make your ideas clearer, more accurate, more
interesting, or more convincing.

When you edit, you take a second look at how you expressed your ideas.

You add or change words. You fix any problems in grammar, punctuation, and
sentence structure. You improve your writing style. You make your report into a
polished, mature piece of writing, the end product of your best efforts.

As a writer and a thinker, you need to learn to be critical of yourself in a positive way
and have high expectations for your work. You also need to train your eye and trust
your ability to fix what needs fixing. For this, you need to teach yourself where to look.

Make a list of the aspects that you need to revise for your draft.

Is your research question or hypothesis clear and focused?

Are the ideas for each body paragraph well developed and evidenced
(referenced)?

Have you provided sufficient and credible evidence to support your

arguments?

Is your report organized logically, with clear headings and subheadings?

Is your language clear and easy to understand?

Are you using appropriate vocabulary for your audience and purpose?

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 Are your sentences varied in length and structure, or are they repetitive?

Are there any grammatical errors, such as subject-verb agreement or

tense inconsistencies?

Are punctuation marks used correctly (commas, semicolons, quotation

marks, etc.)?

Are there any run-on sentences or fragments?

Do the ideas follow a logical order, guiding the reader through the essay?

Are all sources properly cited within the text?

Is the reference list complete and correctly formatted?

Task 8: Assessment: Report – 30 Marks

▪ Please go and type your report and submit the electronic version on Blackboard.

▪ Remember! No late submissions will be allowed. If you do not submit in time, you
will need valid proof such as a medical or death certificate.

▪ Do not wait until the last minute before midnight on the due day to submit. This is
irresponsible and unwise. Make sure that you submit your assessment at least 24
hours before the due date so that if something goes wrong, you lose connection
or Wi-Fi or your device gets stolen or anything else, you still have enough time to
resubmit. This remains your responsibility as the student.

▪ Remember that office communication closes at 16:30 each day. If you experience
any difficulties during submission, we can only help you during normal office
hours. Your email will not be answered at 11:59 PM because we are probably
sleeping.

▪ Your facilitator will mark this and give you feedback.

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 Report Scoring Rubric
0-1 2 3 4-5
Needs
Criteria Incomplete Good Excellent
development
Introduction: • Lacks • Background • Adequate • Detailed
Provides background information is background background
background information minimal information information
information, a • Lacks research • Research • Clear research relevant to the
clear research question or question or question/hypot report
question or hypothesis hypothesis is hesis • Clearly defined
hypothesis, and • Lacks report unclear or • Report research
defines the objective incomplete objective is question or
objective of the • Report objective reasonably hypothesis
report. lacks clarity stated • Well-articulated
objective that
guides the
report
Methodology: • Site selection • Basic site • Reasonable • Thorough
Observation not addressed selection explanation of explanation of
methods, or lacks rationale, but site selection site selection
procedures, and rationale lacks depth • Clear and with strong
instruments used. • Observation • Limited relevant justification
methods and explanation of description of • Comprehensive
instruments not observation observation detail on
described methods and methods and methods,
• instruments instruments procedures,
and
instruments
used
Results: • Results are • Partial results • Clear and • Comprehensive
Detailed minimal or with insufficient relevant results and detailed
observations on missing detail provided for all results with
habitat, human • Missing • Descriptions are elements insightful
activity, and 1 descriptions of limited • Each observed descriptions
tree, 1 shrub, and required • Some key species and • Thorough
wildlife species. elements information sets their observations
• Missing key are missing descriptions on habitat,
details have human activity,
reasonable and all required
detail species
• Irrelevant • Insufficient • Suitable • Excellent
Discussion: content content content content
Content and use • Lacks research • Limited research • Good research • Comprehensive
of sources refers • Little or no • Irrelevant • Relevant research
to the evaluation support sources sources • Multiple
of the depth, • Ideas lack • Few original • Good ideas sources
relevance, and originality ideas and arguments integrated
accuracy of the • Relies heavily • Relies on • Independent • Relevant and
ideas, information, on restating common or thinking credible
and arguments others' familiar • Challenges sources
presented in a thoughts perspectives. conventional • Highly original
student’s work • No personal views ideas
insight • Deep personal
insight

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 • Unique
perspectives.
• Clear, confident
student voice.
Referencing, • No in-text • Some in-text • Good in-text • Good in-text
paraphrasing referencing citations citations citations
and use of AI • No • Some • Good • Good
paraphrasing paraphrases paraphrases, paraphrases
The practice of • Plagiarism is • References are • References are • References are
referencing and blatant credited correctly credited credited
citing sources in a • Entire and accurately correctly and correctly and
systematic assignment is with major accurately with accurately
manner to ensure AI-generated transgressions. minor • No AI, all the
academic integrity • Submission will • Significant transgressions. students own
and avoid receive zero. portions are AI- • Minor portions work.
plagiarism. generated. of AI
• High suspicion of assistance.
AI use (e.g., a few
sentences or
phrases)
• Moderate
suspicion of AI
use
Language use • Language is • Language is • Language is • Language is
assesses various unclear or somewhat clear clear and good and clear
aspects such as confusing and vague appropriate • Good grammar,
clarity, accuracy, • Numerous • Major errors in • Minor errors in mechanics,
style, and errors in grammar, grammar, and/or spelling
vocabulary. grammar, mechanics, mechanics, • Consistent tone
mechanics, and/or spelling and/or spelling • Good
and/or spelling • Somewhat • Appropriate vocabulary
• Inconsistent inconsistent tone tone
tone • Limited • Appropriate
• Basic vocabulary vocabulary
vocabulary

Total: 30 marks

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Task 9: Reflect on what you have learned in this module

What were the main concepts you learned in this module?

How do you think the knowledge gained in this module will help you in future courses
or projects?

What is the most important thing you learned, and how can you apply it in your
studies or career?

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Reflecting on your learning journey, what improvements can you make in your study
habits for future modules?

Congratulations on reaching the end of this course! As you turn this final page, I
want to thank you for your hard work, dedication, and curiosity throughout our time
together. Your commitment to learning and growth has been inspiring, and it has
been an honour to be part of your journey.

Thank you for bringing your unique perspectives, questions, and enthusiasm to the
class. Each of you has contributed something special, and together, you have made
this course a memorable experience.

As you move forward, remember to keep exploring, stay curious, and embrace the
challenges that come your way. You are equipped with new knowledge and skills,
and I am confident that you will continue to accomplish great things.

Best wishes for all that lies ahead!

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