www.nature.

com/scientificreports

OPEN Effect of biological shells aggregate

on the mechanical properties
and sustainability of concrete
Xianpeng Wang 1,4, Haoxuan Yu 1,4, Fulong Li 2*, Kovshar Sergey Nikolayevich 1, Haojue Yu 1,
Leonovich Sergey Nikolaevich 1* & Wenbing Fan 3

The recycling bio-waste shells problem has grown more and more serious in recent years and many
efforts have been made to solve this problem. One possible solution is to put these bio-shells into
concrete and recycle them as building materials using the aggregate matrix concrete approach. To
verify the engineering feasibility, the mechanical properties of bio-shells aggregated concrete were
invested via gradient substitution rates at 10%, 30%, and 50% with a total of 78 groups of specimens
in this paper. Our results show that the mechanical properties of the concrete were enhanced in
maximum flexural strength and maximum compressive. Economic performance was also analyzed
and found that the costs of frame-shear structure, frame structure, and tube-in-tube structure were
reduced by 10.2%, 10%, and 10.3%. The carbon environmental assessment also shows superiority in
the carbon reduction of a single specimen with various rates of the shell. In summary, compared with
ordinary concrete materials, it is very possible to use waste bio-shells as a substitute for aggregates to
develop the sustainable recycling development of concrete materials.

Keywords Aggregate concrete, Shell aggregate, Mechanical properties, Carbon emission, Economic analysis

In recent years, the treatment of garbage problems has become serious all over the world, large amounts of
garbage have caused serious air pollution and ecological damage, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. To solve this prob-
lem, separating useful material from waste and using it for developing new building materials is considered a
clean and economical approach to solving the waste problem. Therefore, relevant classification and composition
screenings of the collected waste are done in this paper and show that bio-shells, one of the kitchen waste, can be
good choices for replacing traditional concrete aggregates. As reported by previous researchers, nearly 10 million
metric tons of shells of oysters, clams, scallops, and mussels are discarded globally every ­year2. Furthermore, a
comprehensive survey was carried out to assess the situation of restaurants in selected provinces of China and
the Republic of Belarus, the collected data revealed that the Belarusian restaurant chain brand “Sea Food” alone
generates amounting to over 100 catties of discarded seashells per day. Correspondingly, approximately 5 tons
of seashells are discarded daily in the provinces of Guangdong and Fujian, C ­ hina3.
To address the pollution problem, analyzing the chemical composition and potential use of shells as build-
ing materials is necessary. The literature results have shown that shells contain calcium carbonate, glycoprotein,
proteoglycan, polysaccharide, and chitin. In the hydration process of cement, water reacts with four main clinker
minerals. At room temperature, tricalcium silicate hydrates form calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H gel) and
calcium hydroxide, while dicalcium silicate (β-C2S) hydrates produce similar products. Tricalcium aluminate
hydrates to form unstable calcium aluminate hydrate, which eventually transforms into hydrogarnet (C3AH6).
The hydration reaction of iron phase solid solution (C4AF) is like that of tricalcium a­ luminate4. Observing this
hydration reaction can lead to the conclusion that shells do not affect the hydration process of cement and thus
do not cause damage to the structure and strength of concrete. Therefore, shells can be used as part of concrete
aggregates to develop new building materials as a recycling solution.
In coastal regions, the primary source of construction sand is desalinated sea sand, containing typically a
shell content of 5–8%. From research on mortar, the incorporation of shells in place of river sand has a notable
influence on the overall compressive strength and dry shrinkage of cement-based materials, with an increase of

1
Department of Building Materials and Construction Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belarusian National
Technical University, 220013 Minsk, Belarus. 2Hainan College of Vocation and Technique, No.95 Nanhai Avenue,
Longhua District, Haikou 570105, Hainan, China. 3School of Energy and Mines, China University of Mining and
Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China. 4These authors contributed equally: Xianpeng Wang and Haoxuan
Yu. *email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 1

Vol.:(0123456789)
 www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Figure 1.  Air quality i­ ndicators1.

Figure 2.  Global waste generation.

8% in the proportion of ­shells5. Yang et al., have focused on studying shell aggregates as an alternative to natural
aggregates. They suggest that shell aggregates hold promising potential for practical applications, offering a
favorable solution to the growing shortage of natural aggregate resources. Research from MO’s group asserts
that there is a growing inclination towards sustainability in the field of concrete engineering, primarily driven
by the depletion of materials traditionally employed in the production of natural concrete. It is suggested that
utilizing shell waste in the production of concrete can enhance both its workability and strength, thereby offer-
ing a viable ­solution5. Kuo’s experiments proposed that replacing a portion of river sand with shells in cement
can lead to an increase in the proportion of shells. This substitution has had a notable impact on the overall
compressive strength and shrinkage of the base m ­ aterial6,7. Eziefula has found that shells can be used as a partial
or total substitute for fine and coarse aggregates in c­ oncrete8.
Some scholars in China used shells as aggregates to test concrete and found that the compressive strength
of concrete increased with the rise in shell replacement rate after 28 ­days9. Sergey’s study showed that shells
improved the strength, strain, modulus, and microstructure of concrete. The new concrete also reduced the
cost and defects of construction. This research has practical i­ mplications10. Belarus researchers tested to use of
agricultural waste (e.g., rice husk ash, peanut shells, oak wood chips, coconut shells, and corn cobs) as aggregate
substitutes. This can lower waste pollution to the environment and construction ­costs11,12. Many studies have
tested shells in concrete. From those tests, shells have more advantages over other agricultural wastes as concrete
aggregates. Martínez found that shells should not exceed 25% for fine aggregates and 12.5% for coarse aggregates
to improve concrete ­strength13. Malaysian researchers have suggested that Calcined shells improve concrete
strength and density. Future research should test different calcination levels and shell concrete ­durability14. In

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 2

Vol:.(1234567890)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/

addition, the research of Iraqi scholars reveals that crushed walnut shells(similar to shells) are an agricultural
waste material that can be used to produce environmental concrete that reduces the demand for natural aggre-
gates and the environmental impact of concrete p ­ roduction15–17.
After a thorough review of the above studies, it can be concluded that shells possess exceptional mechanical
­properties18, a significant specific surface area, and a lower density compared to stone. As a building material,
shells offer advantages like workability, strength, and reduced weight in ­concrete19. To prepare the shells, they
should be soaked in a concentrated solution of NaCl and a diluted solution of 10% ­H2O220, after removing
organisms and impurities, the material is crushed and screened to produce shells with a particle size of less than
0.5 mm. This not only helps save resources and energy but also reduces waste and decreases the consumption
of natural ­aggregates21,22. As a result, it creates greater economic and social ­benefits7,9,23. Additionally, the study
suggests that using the right amount of shell aggregate can enhance the strength of concrete, ensuring the safety
and stability of structures while promoting sustainable d ­ evelopment24.
Previous studies have shown that shells have adequate strength and some superior properties as ­aggregates13.
However, there is no consensus on the best way to use shells in construction, and few practical examples exist.
Herein, a research plan was proposed to test three levels of calcined shells (10%, 30%, and 50%) as aggregate
replacements and compare their mechanical, economic, and environmental performance with conventional
concrete. Our results confirmed that there’s an enhancement in maximum flexural strength and maximum
compressive from these three-level shell aggregated concrete.

Experimental program
This experiment uses different proportions of shells as concrete aggregate and prepares cement mortar according
to a certain mix ratio and curing conditions. Different test equipment and methods are performed to measure
the compressive strength, flexural strength, and water absorption rate with the purpose of studying the effect of
shell replacement of crushed stone on the performance of cement mortar.

Experimental materials and proportions

The performance of the shell
Shells are the hard protective coverings of various mollusks, such as oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops. They
are composed mainly of calcium carbonate, also known as limestone, which is a common ingredient in ­cement19.
Shells have a complex hierarchical structure, consisting of different layers of organic and inorganic materials,
arranged in various patterns and orientations. This gives them high strength and toughness, as well as resistance
to fracture and d ­ amage25.
The properties of seashell concrete depend on several factors, such as the type, size, shape, and proportion of
seashells, as well as the curing conditions, admixtures, and chemical treatments. Some of the effects of seashells
on concrete are:
Setting time: Seashells can increase the setting time of concrete, due to their alkaline nature and water absorp-
tion ­capacity25,26.
Workability: Seashells can decrease the workability of concrete, due to their irregular shape and rough
­surface25.
Density: Seashells can increase the density of concrete, due to their higher specific gravity than cement or
­sand25,26.
Compressive strength: Seashells can decrease the compressive strength of concrete, due to their lower bonding
strength with cement paste and higher porosity 234. However, adding admixtures or applying chemical treat-
ments can improve the compressive strength of seashell c­ oncrete26,27.
Tensile strength: Seashells can increase the tensile strength of concrete, due to their fibrous structure and
crack-bridging ­effect13,25.
Flexural strength: Seashells can increase the flexural strength of concrete, due to their higher modulus of
elasticity and t­ oughness26.
Modulus of elasticity: Seashells can decrease the modulus of elasticity of concrete, due to their lower stiffness
and higher ­deformation27.

Experimental materials
Cement: P·O R45 cement, the main chemical composition is presented in Table 1, while the physical and mechan-
ical properties are displayed in Table 2, which complies with the requirements of EN 197-1 for chemical composi-
tion, strength, setting time, soundness, and fineness.
Water: ordinary tap water.
Sand: natural river sand, in line with the construction sand standard, the bulk density is less than 1.5 g/m3,
the fineness modulus is 1.9, and the moisture content is less than 1%.
Stone: fine stone meets the requirements of EN 12620 for geometrical and physical properties, the bulk density
is not less than 2.6 g/m3, and the particle size is 5–7 mm.

CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 SO3 Na2O K2O MgO

64.12 22.31 6.42 4.37 1.1 0.75 0.56 0.37

Table 1.  The main component of cement %.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 3

Vol.:(0123456789)
 www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Compressive Flexural strength/

Coagulation time/min strength/MPa MPa
Standard consistency water
requirement/% Specific surface area/(m2/kg) Initial setting finalization 3 days 28 days 3 days 28 days
28 360 175 235 27.5 49.0 5.5 8.0

Table 2.  Physical and mechanical properties of cement.

Shell: According to the European Standards (EN-12620), the aggregates used in the production of concrete are
inert granular materials such as gravel, crushed stone, sand, slag, recycled concrete, and geosynthetic aggregates.
The aggregates may be natural, manufactured, or recycled, hence, the substitution of shells for aggregate meets
the standards. After calcination and crushing, the particle size is less than 0.5 mm, the bulk density is less than
2.9 g/m3, the fineness modulus is 2.9, and the moisture content is less than 1%, refer to Figs. 3 and 4 for details.
The compressive strength of the concrete samples was tested at 7 days and 28 days after casting, according to
EN 12390-3. The average compressive strength at 7 days was 25 MPa, 35 MPa on 28 days, which met the design
requirement of 30 MPa for the structural elements.
The slump test was performed on the fresh concrete mix, according to EN 12350-2. The slump value was
75 mm, which indicated a medium workability of the concrete, suitable for the casting and compaction methods
used in this project.

Material ratio and specimen design

According to the study’s conclusions and curve analysis, it is believed that, as the water-binder ratio increases,
the impact of coarse aggregate becomes more pronounced, resulting in lower dry s­ hrinkage28, referring to Fig. 5.
Previous studies also show an increasing the water-cement ratio results in higher porosity and lower strength
of the c­ oncrete29. After analyzing Figs. 5 and 6, and considering EU standard EN 206+A2 and Chinese stand-
ard GB 50010-2010, the water-cement ratio in the range of 0.45–0.6 is relatively a­ ppropriate30, to ensure suf-
ficient strength and reduce porosity, it is necessary to choose a smaller water-cement ­ratio31. So our team take
a water-cement ratio of 0.5 as optimal for ensuring the strength and preventing cracking of the concrete in the
­experiment31,32.
In this test, shells and other materials were used as a substitute for natural stone. The mix ratio (kg/m3) of
the cement mortar in the benchmark group was as follows: m (cement): m (sand): m (stone): m (water) = 500:

Figure 3.  Shell particle size.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 4

Vol:.(1234567890)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Figure 4.  Shell accumulation.

Figure 5.  Dry shrinkage curves of concrete under different water cement ­ratios9.

600: 900: 250, the mix ratio (kg/m3) of the cement mortar in the 10% shell replacement rate was as follows:
m (cement): m (sand): m (stone) : m(shell): m (water) = 500: 600: 810:90: 250, the mix ratio (kg/m3) of the
cement mortar in the 30% shell replacement rate was as follows: m (cement): m (sand): m (stone) : m(shell):
m (water) = 500: 600: 530: 270: 250, the mix ratio (kg/m3) of the cement mortar in the 50% shell replacement
rate was as follows: m (cement): m (sand): m (stone) : m(shell): m (water) = 500: 600: 450: 450: 250. All the
mixes conform to standard EN 206-1, the mixture is shown in Fig. 7. Additionally, the superplasticizer con-
tent was 0.2% of the cement mass. The gravel is replaced based on shell gradients of 10%, 30%, and 50%. The
mixture was evenly stirred and poured into a mold with dimensions of 400 mm × 400 mm × 1600 mm, the test
prisms is shown in Fig. 8, following standard EN 12,390–5:2009. Thirteen specimens are cast for each differ-
ent gradient, 39 specimens in total for bending experiments. The specimens for compressive experiments are
100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm, following the standard EN 12390-3:2019, with 13 specimens cast at each gradient,

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 5

Vol.:(0123456789)
 www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Figure 6.  Water cement ratio and strength relationship ­curve29.

Figure 7.  Mixture.

39 specimens in all. After segmental vibration compaction, the specimens were hardened at 23 °C, molded after
7 days, and cured at 20 °C with a relative humidity of 95% until the specified a­ ge33.

Experimental procedure
After curing for 28 days, the specimen underwent a test using the DS2-1000N compressive strength tester for
axial compressive resistance and three-point bending. The “Hydraulic Pressure Testing Machine-GB/T3722” was
used to conduct a uniaxial compressive test on the specimen, aligning the axis with the pressure center of the
testing machine’s pressure plate. The load was applied at a speed of 10–30 kN/s until the specimen failed, and
the failure load was recorded to determine the compressive and flexural s­ trengths33. The test block was soaked
in water for 2 days, taken out to dry completely, recorded the weight before and after. The water absorption rate
was calculated to evaluate the frost resistance strength.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 6

Vol:.(1234567890)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Figure 8.  Test block sample.

Experimental results and analysis

Flexural strength
The failure load of the specimen was obtained through a three-point bending test, testing followed the third-point
loading because it is simpler to perform and analyze than the fourth-point ­loading34. This testing was following
the standard ASTM C78/C78M and the flexural strength is presented in Table 3, and the flexural strength ff (MPa)
of the specimen is calculated according to the formula f f = bh Fl
2 , the testing is shown in Fig. 9, where ff is the
concrete flexural strength (MPa), F is the failure load of the specimen (N), L is the span between the supports
(mm), and b is the cross-sectional width of the specimen (mm), h is the cross-sectional height of the specimen
(mm); the scatter plot distribution of flexural strength is shown in Fig. 10.

Shell replacement rate/% Flexural strength ­ff (MPa)

0 (Standard Group) 6.5 6.25 5.25 6.5 6.5 5.75
10 7.5 9.5 14.25 7.75 8 7.5
30 9.75 9.75 9.75 8.5 9.25 9
50 9.75 10 10 10.25 10.5 10

Table 3.  Concrete flexural strength under different substitution rates.

Figure 9.  Flexural test.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 7

Vol.:(0123456789)
 www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Figure 10.  Scatter plot of flexural strength.

Compressive strength
Throughout the uniaxial compressive test, the uniaxial compressive failure load of the specimen is determined,
and the compressive strength f c (MPa) of the test cube can be calculated according to the formula f c = F/A,
where f c is the compressive strength, F is the failure load, and A is the bearing area. Intensity data is presented
in Table 4. The scatter plot distribution of compressive strength is shown in Figs. 11. The damage situation is
depicted in Fig. 12.

Shell replacement ratio/% Compressive strength fc (MPa)

0 (Standard Group) 20.4 19.5 20 20.6 20.3 18.8
10 23.4 21.3 22.4 22.2 21.6 22.8
30 22.5 22.9 22.8 20.3 22.4 22.5
50 21.8 22.6 21.9 22.3 23.3 22.9

Table 4.  Compressive strength of concrete under different replacement rates.

Figure 11.  Scatter plot of compressive strength.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 8

Vol:.(1234567890)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Replacement rate 0% Replacement rate 10% Replacement rate 30% Replacement rate

Figure 12.  Destruction tracking.

Figure 13.  Results of SEM tests.

Microstructure analysis
To carry out a more comprehensive analysis of the impact of shell aggregates on the mechanical properties of
concrete at a microscopic level, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed on shell aggregates with
varying replacement rates (0%, 10%, 30%, and 50%). This allowed us to observe the surface structure of the
concrete under different shell replacement conditions. Figure 13a depicts concrete without shell aggregate, and
Fig. 13b illustrates concrete with a 10% shell aggregate. In Fig. 13c, concrete with a 30% shell aggregate is shown,
and Fig. 13d displays concrete with a 50% shell replacement rate. Comparing these images, it is evident that the
inclusion of shell aggregate in concrete enhances the compactness of the joints between concrete structures,
resulting in improved stress performance and a reduced risk of compressive cracking. The overall working
performance of the concrete is enhanced.

Waters absorption ratio

After measuring the mass of the samples before and after, the water absorption rate can be calculated by the
formula W = (B − G)/G × 100%, G is the weight of the sample after drying, B is the weight of the sample satu-
rated with water, the testing method was according to EN 12390-8:2009, and the data is presented in Table 5.
The curve depicting the change in water absorption is shown in Fig. 14.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 9

Vol.:(0123456789)
 www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Shell replacement ratio/% Weight before tumbling/g Weight after drying/g Water absorption/%
0 (Standard Group) 634.5 614.4 3.27
10 607.1 576.8 5.25
30 609.8 582.9 4.61
50 601.2 573.7 4.79

Table 5.  Concrete moisture content under different substitution rates.

Figure 14.  Water absorption rate.

Prediction of the mechanical strengths

Based on the analysis of the data obtained from the three-point flexural test (Table 3), the following conclusions
can be drawn:

When the shell replacement rate is 10%, the flexural strength of the specimen increases by 31.4% and
1.925 MPa compared to the benchmark group.
When the shell replacement rate is 30%, the flexural strength of the specimen increases by 52.4% and
3.208 MPa compared to the benchmark group.
The flexural strength of the specimen increases by 64.6% and 3.958 MPa, respectively, when the shell replace-
ment rate is 50%.

According to the mechanical curve shown in Fig. 10, it is evident that the addition of the shell significantly
enhances the flexural strength of the prism when compared to traditional aggregate. This indicates that the
inclusion of shell aggregate reduces the concrete’s susceptibility to bending and fracturing. Consistent with the
experimental phenomenon, previous research has shown that the addition of shells improves post-cracking
behavior, reduces the opening of cracks, and counteracts their expansion, as well as increases the toughness
of concrete owing to their deboning and internal stress m ­ echanisms35,36. Furthermore, due to the adsorption
37
capacity of ­shells , if the shell is aligned with the tensile direction, it is capable of bearing the tensile force and
impeding crack p ­ ropagation38. Therefore, the shells with higher content have a wider and more uniform distribu-
tion in the concrete, as the cement does not have a significant effect on the shells during the hydration process,
and no settlement or floating occurs, which also improves the tensile strength of the concrete. These findings
are supported by the available data, when the shell replacement rates were 10%, 20%, and 30% respectively, the
mixing ratio increased by 10% each time, and the 90 d tensile strength of the concrete with traditional aggregate
increased by 11.8%, 15.1%, and 17.6% r­ espectively6,8,25,35.
In the uniaxial compressive test (Table 4), it was observed that the compressive strength of the specimen
increased by 10.7% and 2.727 MPa when the shell replacement rate was 10% compared to the benchmark group.
Similarly, when the shell replacement rate was 30%, the compressive strength of the specimen increased by
16.6% and 3.207 MPa compared to the benchmark group. The compressive strength of the specimen increased
by 17.8% and 3.442 MPa compared to the benchmark group when the shell replacement rate was 50%. The curve
depicted in Fig. 11 shows that the inclusion of shell aggregates leads to a significant enhancement in compressive
strength. This observation suggests that the addition of shell aggregates improves the concrete’s resistance to
compression-induced damage and enhances its load-bearing capacity. Upon comparing the curves depicted in the

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 10

Vol:.(1234567890)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Figs. 10 and 11, it is evident that the curve exhibits a rapid rise in the range of 0–30% replacement rate. However,
the rate of increase slows down between 30 and 50% and eventually reaches a plateau when it approaches 50%.
This observation suggests that shells can be substituted at a rate as high as 50% while still providing satisfactory
strength as aggregates.
Figure 13 presents scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of shell concrete at a 28-day scale, depicting
various shell aggregates with distinct gradients in intensity. Based on the captured images of moral onlookers, a
further analysis was conducted on the impact of shell aggregates on the mechanical properties of natural aggre-
gates. It can be observed from the SEM diagram of the failed samples that the cracking in the shell aggregate
concrete with 0% content is more pronounced and the spacing between cracks is larger. In contrast, the shell
aggregate concrete with 10% content exhibits significantly smaller fracture spacing compared to the 0% content.
Moreover, the shell aggregate concrete with 30% and 50% content only shows a limited number of microcracks
and pores, which can be considered mechanically weak areas. Hence, it has been demonstrated that incorporating
crushed shells into concrete under identical pressure conditions can effectively enhance the mechanical proper-
ties of the concrete. Further examination of Fig. 13b–d reveals that the concrete structure exhibits a high level
of compactness, with no presence of a cementitious porous structure. This observation effectively demonstrates
the favorable workability of the concrete material when shell aggregate is added as a composite material. Addi-
tionally, the shell aggregate is capable of forming a dense matrix structure with the natural aggregate, resulting
in strong compactness and low porosity. This further enhances the bonding between the cement slurry and the
aggregate matrix. Therefore, the incorporation of shell aggregate as a partial replacement for natural aggregate
has been found to enhance the mechanical properties of concrete significantly.
Cong proposed that there was a positive correlation between the moisture content of concrete and its higher
frost ­resistance39. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the frost resistance of the test block may be influenced by its
water absorption capacity, it can be considered that the lower the water absorption rate, the more favorable the
frost resistance of the ­material40. It is expected that a lower water absorption rate would result in lower moisture
content within the test block, thereby enhancing its frost r­ esistance41. Based on the analysis of the curves pre-
sented in Table 5 and Fig. 8, it can be inferred that the replacement of traditional aggregate with shell leads to a
slight increase in the moisture content of the test block. It can be concluded that the frost resistance of the shell
aggregate is poor. With the gradual increase in the replacement rate of aggregate, there is minimal fluctuation in
the moisture content. It can be inferred that while the replacement rate of shell aggregate may decrease the frost
resistance, varying replacement rates have a negligible impact on the frost resistance of concrete.
Furthermore, in the process of the experiment, it was observed that the application of mechanical vibration in
the concrete exhibited a flow-like behavior, allowing it to fill the formwork evenly and densely. The destruction
section displayed a uniform distribution of shells, with no instances of delamination or segregation. Additionally,
it was noted that there were no significant issues with water leakage during the curing process. It can be inferred
that the use of shells as aggregates exhibits favorable workability and integrity.

Life cycle assessment

Economical assessment
The researchers believe that in the process of studying the replacement of traditional aggregates by shells, to
explore the application of aggregates in actual production, it is very important to analyze its economic perfor-
mance. Take the China Construction Project Budget Quota to calculate the cost of concrete: 180 yuan/m3 for
sand, 4.1 yuan/m3 for commercial water, 635 yuan/ton for cement, 220 yuan/m3 for stone, one cubic meter of
concrete weighs 2400 kg. The cost of commercial concrete is 635 yuan/m342. In addition, the researchers investi-
gated the garbage recycling plant and recycled the waste shells, found that the waste shells were biological waste,
and the recycling plant believes that they do not have recycling value, so they can be obtained free of charge,
and only need to issue relevant labor costs, and the cost of shells can be calculated according to the labor cost
of 10 yuan per ­m343.

Figure 15.  Frame-shear wall structure.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 11

Vol.:(0123456789)
 www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Economic performance analysis of buildings using frame shear structure

­ 2 in the East of China is taken as
Here, a significant high-rise building project covering a total area of 173,256.37 m
a sample. The structure of the building is depicted in Fig. 15. To assess the economic viability of shell aggregates,
all concrete materials were substituted with 50% shell aggregate concrete. Upon comparison with traditional
aggregates, it was found that the total concrete consumption amounted to 82,226.37 ­m3. Full analysis details are
given in Appendix 1.

Analysis of the economic performance of buildings using frame Structures

A nine-story frame structure in southern China serves as a sample with a total area of 12,055.52 ­m2 (Fig. 16)
to assess the economic performance of shell aggregates. An analysis was carried out by replacing all concrete
with 50% shell aggregate concrete compared to traditional aggregates. The total concrete consumption for this
structure amounted to 3389.92 ­m3. Full analysis details are given in Appendix 2.

Analysis of the economic performance of the building using the tube in the tube
A building with a tube structure in southern China was put as a sample, as depicted in Fig. 17, which has a
total area of 341,376.54 ­m2. To evaluate the economic performance of shell aggregate, an analysis is based on
replacing all concrete with 50% shell aggregate concrete. The total volume of concrete used in this structure was
263,124.38 ­m3. Full analysis details are given in Appendix 3.
Compare the cost of replacing traditional aggregates with shells in three building structures (Fig. 18), the
researchers calculated that the concrete costs of the frame-shear structure, frame structure, and tube-in-tube
structure are reduced by 10.2%, 10%, and 10.3% respectively. This suggests that shell aggregate can effectively
reduce building costs.

Environmental assessment
To assess the environmental impact of shell aggregates, it is important to consider carbon emissions. This includes
the carbon emissions from the production of raw materials ­(C1a), which refers to the ­CO2 generated during the
production and processing of raw materials. This includes energy consumption and  carbonemissions from the
material processing itself. The calculation formula for C
­ 1a is as follows:C 1a = aij K j mj + g 1 m1. In the
 
i j
formula, aij represents the energy consumption of j in the production process of i raw materials. mj represents
the amount of class I raw materials used in 1 m ­ 3 of recycled concrete. K j . is the carbon emission coefficient of
class J energy, which is the sum of the direct carbon emission coefficient K j . and the indirect carbon emission
coefficient K j. g 1 represents the carbon emission generated by the material itself in the process of cement produc-
tion, ­m1 represents the ount of cement in 1 m ­ 3 of recycled c­ oncrete44. The study will utilize the mixture ratio of
experimental test blocks to calculate parameters for carbon emissions. The calculation parameters for carbon
emissions are presented in Table 6, while Table 7 displays the carbon emissions resulting from energy consump-
tion. Full analysis details are given in Appendix 4.
The carbon emission curve of concrete at different shell replacement rates suggests that incorporating shells,
as shown in Fig. 19, can effectively reduce carbon emissions. This reduces energy consumption and minimizes
the environmental impact of buildings, protecting the ecological e­ nvironment46.

Conclusion
To solve the bio-waste recycling problem, the aggregate approach method is proposed and tested on the mechani-
cal properties of the concrete specimens with 10%, 30%, and 50% crushed bio-shell as a replacement aggregate.
Three different types of buildings are calculated the concrete cost as an example and the carbon environmental
impact of the specimens is evaluated using a carbon environmental protection formula.
Our result has shown that the substitution rate of shell can reach up to 50%, and the higher the substitution
rate within this range, the greater the enhancement in concrete strength. The maximum increase in flexural

Figure 16.  Frame structure.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 12

Vol:.(1234567890)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Figure 17.  Tube in tube structure.

Figure 18.  Cost comparison.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 13

Vol.:(0123456789)
 www.nature.com/scientificreports/

Unit material Power consumption/(kW h) Coal consumption/Kg Diesel consumption/L

1t cement 40 96
1t natural coarse aggregate 1.17 0.723
1t sand 1.5 0.8
1t water 0.29

Table 6.  Carbon emission calculation ­parameters44,45.

Unit energy Direct carbon emissions Indirect carbon emissions Total carbon emissions
1 kW h of electrical energy 0 1.195 1.195
1 kg of coal 2.53 0.088 2.618
1L diesel 2.73 0.448 3.178

Table 7.  Carbon emissions generated by energy /kg.

0.1558
0.1556
0.1554
Carbon emissions /kg

0.1552
0.155
0.1548
0.1546
0.1544
0.1542
0.154
0.1538
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Shell replacement rate

Figure 19.  Carbon emission curves of concrete under different replacement rates.

strength can reach 3.96 MPa, and the highest increase in compressive strength can reach 2.5 MPa. Calculation of
the project’s actual content found that using shell aggregate concrete can reduce material costs by approximately
10% for various structural projects. This significantly addresses the issue of excessive project costs. Utilizing a
formula focused on carbon environmental protection, it has been determined that shell aggregate demonstrates
notable environmental benefits. Moreover, this method significantly reduces kitchen waste, lowers energy usage,
curtails the ecological footprint of carbon dioxide emissions, improves the overall ecosystem, and consequently
delivers substantial societal advantages.
Overall, this work proves that aggregate concrete matrix can be a good method to reduce the waste of bio-
hazards. A few questions can be raised from data analysis like if we can optimize the structure of the concrete
or if we can find a better mix ratio when adding more types of bio-waste. Future research ideas will based on
these unanswered questions.

Data availability
Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files.

Received: 24 November 2023; Accepted: 3 May 2024

References
1. Mapия Heмцeвa. Boздyx в Oчaкoвe вce eщe тoкcичeн. Кaк дeпyтaты Mocгopдyмы бyдyт бopoтьcя co cвaлкaми и нeзaкoнным
cжигaниeм мycopa.daily storm. https://d ​ ailys​ torm.r​ u/o
​ bsche​ stvo/v​ ozduh-v​ -o
​ chako
​ ve-v​ se-e​ shche-t​ oksic​ hen-k​ ak-d
​ eputa​ ty-m
​ osgo​
rdumy-​budut-​borot​sya-​so-​svalk​ami-i-​nezak​onnym-​szhig​aniem-​musora (2019).
2. Topić-Popović, N. et al. Shell waste management and utilization: Mitigating organic pollution and enhancing sustainability. Appl.
Sci. 13(1), 623. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​app13​010623 (2023).
3. FAO. World Fisheries and Aquaculture Status, Rome, Italy (2014). https://​www.​fao.​org/3/​i3720c/​i3720c.​pdf.

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 14

Vol:.(1234567890)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/

4. Scrivener, K. et al. Advances in understanding cement hydration mechanisms. Cem. Concr. Res. 124, 105823. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​cemco​nres.​2019.​105823 (2019).
5. Miah, M. J. et al. Effect of different fibers on mechanical properties and dry shrinkage properties of shell mortar. Constr. Build.
Mater. 363, 129688 (2021).
6. Mo, K. H. et al. Recycling of seashell waste in concrete: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 162, 751–764. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
conbu​ildmat.​2017.​12.​009 (2018).
7. Kuo, W. T. et al. Engineering properties of controlled low-strength materials containing waste oyster shells. Constr. Build. Mater.
46, 128–133. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​conbu​ildmat.​2013.​04.​020 (2013).
8. Eziefula, U. G., Ezeh, J. C. & Eziefula, B. I. Properties of seashell aggregate concrete: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 192, 287–300.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​conbu​ildmat.​2018.​10.​096 (2018).
9. Hailong, He. Analysis of the influence of sand and stone rockiness on the anti permeability and dry shrinkage performance of
concrete. Municipal Technol. 41(7), 110–115 (2023).
10. Stelmakh, S. A. et al. Composition, technological, and microstructural aspects of concrete modified with finely ground mussel
shell powder. Materials 16(1), 82. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ma160​10082 (2022).
11. Wei, M., Kovshar, S. N. & Leonovich, S. N. Effect of fiber type and volume fraction on the mechanical properties of structural
concrete (2023). https://​doi.​org/​10.​21203/​rs.3.​rs-​25441​21/​v1.
12. Sokolova, L. N. S., Ermakova, E. V. & Rynkovskaya, M. A review of agro-waste materials as partial replacement of fine aggregate
in concrete. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 371(1), 012012. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1088/​1757-​899X/​371/1/​012012 (2018).
13. Martínez-García, C. et al. Performance of mussel shell as aggregate in plain concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 139, 570–583. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​conbu​ildmat.​2016.​09.​091 (2017).
14. Kassim, U. & Ong, B. P. Performance of concrete incorporating of clam shell as partially replacement of ordinary Portland cement
(OPC). J. Adv. Res. Appl. Mech. 55(1), 12–21 (2019).
15. Hilal, N., Taghreed, K. M. A. & Bassam, A. T. Properties of environmental concrete that contains crushed walnut shell as partial
replacement for aggregates. Arab. J. Geosci. 13, 1–9. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s12517-​020-​05733-9 (2020).
16. Mohammed, A. S. et al. An investigation of the effect of walnut shell as sand replacement on the performance of cement mortar
subjected to elevated temperatures. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1973, 1. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1088/​1742-​6596/​1973/1/​012034 (2021).
17. Hilal, N. N., Mohammed, F. S. & Taghreed, K. M. A. Fresh and hardened properties of lightweight self-compacting concrete
containing walnut shells as coarse aggregate. J. King Saud Univ.-Eng. Sci. 33(5), 364–372. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jksues.​2020.​01.​
002 (2021).
18. Fakayode, O. A. Size-based physical properties of hard-shell clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) shell relevant to the design of mechani-
cal processing equipment. Aquac. Eng. 89, 102056. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​aquae​ng.​2020.​102056 (2020).
19. Tayeh, B. A. et al. Durability and mechanical properties of seashell partially-replaced cement. J. Build. Eng. 31, 101328. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jobe.​2020.​101328 (2020).
20. Hui, Z. H. A. O. et al. Research progress on recycling technology of waste shells. J. Jinling Univ. Sci. Technol. 35(1), 34–39 (2019).
21. Martínez-García, C. et al. Mussel shell mortars durability: Study of aggregate replacement limit. J. Build. Eng. 82, 108239. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jobe.​2023.​108239 (2024).
22. Sabău, M., Dan, V. B. & Luis, F. O. S. Comparative carbon emission assessments of recycled and natural aggregate concrete: Envi-
ronmental influence of cement content. Geosci. Front. 12(6), 101235. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​gsf.​2021.​101235 (2021).
23. Darko, A. et al. A scientometric analysis and visualization of global green building research. Build. Env. 149, 501–511. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1016/j.​build​env.​2018.​12.​059 (2019).
24. Rachmawati, S., Siti, H., Zakaria, H. & Jim, S. Shear strength of soil by using clam shell waste as recycle aggregate. J. Agric. Eng.
51(3), 155–160. https://​doi.​org/​10.​4081/​jae.​2020.​1043 (2020).
25. Hasan, K. et al. A review of the mechanical properties and durability of concrete containing recycled seashells as a partial cement
replacement. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manage. 25(6), 3192–3216. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10163-​023-​01795-5 (2023).
26. Maglad, A. M. et al. Assessing the mechanical, durability, thermal and microstructural properties of sea shell ash based lightweight
foamed concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 402, 133018. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​conbu​ildmat.​2023.​133018 (2023).
27. Elliott Richardson, A. & Fuller, T. Sea shells used as partial aggregate replacement in concrete. Struct. Surv. 31(5), 347–354. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1108/​SS-​12-​2012-​0041 (2013).
28. Shen, W. et al. Influence of manufactured sand’s characteristics on its concrete performance. Constr. Build. Mater. 172, 574–583.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​conbu​ildmat.​2018.​03.​139 (2018).
29. Vu, X. H. et al. Effect of the water/cement ratio on concrete behavior under extreme loading. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech.
33(17), 1867–1888. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​nag.​796 (2009).
30. Wang, X., Saifullah, H. A., Nishikawa, H. & Nakarai, K. Effect of water–cement ratio, aggregate type, and curing temperature on
the fracture energy of concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 259, 119646 (2020).
31. Wang, F., Li, K. & Liu, Y. Optimal water-cement ratio of cement-stabilized soil. Constr. Build. Mater. 320, 126211. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​conbu​ildmat.​2021.​126211 (2022).
32. Li, X. et al. Effect of water-cement ratio and size on tensile damage in hardened cement paste: Insight from peridynamic simula-
tions. Constr. Build. Mater. 356, 129256. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​conbu​ildmat.​2022.​129256 (2022).
33. Li, B. et al. Effect of recycled aggregate and steel fiber contents on the mechanical properties and sustainability aspects of alkali-
activated slag-based concrete. J. Build. Eng. 66, 105939. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jobe.​2023.​105939 (2023).
34. Farrokhabadi, A. et al. Experimental and numerical analysis of novel multi-layer sandwich panels under three point bending load.
Compos. Struct. 250, 112631. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​comps​truct.​2020.​112631 (2020).
35. Yuan, Q. et al. New insight into the toughening mechanisms of seashell: From arch shape to multilayer structure. J. Nanomater.
2016, 785. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1155/​2016/​38179​85 (2016).
36. Carberry, D. Mechanics of Seashell Growth: Examining the relationship between incompatibility, shape, and internal stress. In
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2023). https://​hdl.​handle.​net/​1721.1/​151869.
37. Li, T. et al. Research progress on the applications of seashell adsorption behaviors in cement-based materials. Buildings 13(5),
1289. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​build​ings1​30512​89 (2023).
38. Sun, L. et al. Mix design optimization of seawater sea sand coral aggregate concrete. Sci. China Technol. Sci. 66(2), 378–389. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11431-​022-​2242-3 (2023).
39. Cong, X. et al. Water absorptivity and frost resistance performance of self-ignition coal gangue autoclaved aerated concrete. J.
Infrastruct. Preserv. Resilience 2(1), 1–10. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​s43065-​021-​00031-4 (2021).
40. Li, Y. et al. Influence of aeolian sand on capillary water absorption of concrete under freeze-thaw conditions. Int. J. Concrete Struct.
Mater. 17(1), 16. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​s40069-​022-​00577-x (2023).
41. Zhao, H. et al. Experimental analysis on the relationship between pore structure and capillary water absorption characteristics of
cement-based materials. Struct. Concrete 20(5), 1750–1762. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​suco.​20190​0184 (2019).
42. GB50500-2013 Specifications for Valuation of Bill of Quantities for Construction Projects (2023).
43. Zhang, C., Ma, B. & Du, Q. Public acceptability and its determinants of unit pricing for municipal solid waste disposal: Evidence
from a household survey in Beijing. J. Environ. Manage. 346, 118966. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jenvm​an.​2023.​118966 (2023).
44. Xiao, J., Li, W. & Ding, T. Life cycle CO2 emission evaluation of recycled concrete. J. Southeast Univ. Nat. Sci. Ed. 46(5), 1088–1092.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​3969/j.​issn.​1001-​0505.​2016.​05.​032 (2016).

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 15

Vol.:(0123456789)
 www.nature.com/scientificreports/

45. Adesina, A. Recent advances in the concrete industry to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions. Environ. Challenges 1, 100004. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​envc.​2020.​100004 (2020).
46. Nie, H., Wang, L. & Tian, M. Analysis on determinants of carbon emissions from plaza ground paving during the construction
stage based on life cycle assessment. Sci. Rep. 14, 136. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41598-​023-​47933-9 (2024).

Acknowledgements
The first corresponding author, Ph.D student Xianpeng Wang, thanked the China Scholarship Council for the
self-help in life.

Author contributions
Xianpeng Wang: experiment, investigation, data management, methodology, formal analysis, conceptualization,
writing-original draft, project administration. Haoxuan Yu: experimentation, investigation, data validation,
writing, review and editing. Fulong Li : Professor Li helped with the revision comments of the peer reviewers,
reviewed the final version, and provided a lot of support for subsequent research materials. Kovshar Sergey
Nikolayevich: provide experimental materials, provide experimental help, review the final manuscript and edit
comments, and supervise the entire experimental process. Haojue Yu, My colleague Yu Haojue has excellent
English proficiency and has rigorously proofread the English grammar and civil engineering English vocabulary
of the full text. Leonovich Sergey Nikolaevich: review, comment and edit, supervise, and verify data. Wenbing
F:He made detailed revisions to the abstract and conclusion sections and provided great help in solving the
reviewers’ questions.

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1038/​s41598-​024-​61301-1.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to F.L. or L.S.N.
Reprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or
format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.

© The Author(s) 2024

Scientific Reports | (2024) 14:10615 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61301-1 16

Vol:.(1234567890)