2

3
4
To our special mothers and special brothers.

And to our children, who make our lives so very special.

5
Teaching Students With Special Needs in
Inclusive Classrooms

Diane P. Bryant
The University of Texas at Austin, USA

Brian R. Bryant
The University of Texas at Austin, USA

Deborah D. Smith
Claremont Graduate University

6
FOR INFORMATION:

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8
Brief Contents
1. Preface
2. About the Authors
3. PART I: Foundations of Inclusive Education
1. Chapter 1. Inclusive Teaching as Responsive Education
2. Chapter 2. Understanding Learners With Special Needs: High-Incidence
Disabilities or Conditions
3. Chapter 3. Understanding Learners With Special Needs: Low-Incidence
Disabilities or Conditions
4. Chapter 4. Other Students With Special Learning Needs
4. PART II: Planning for Exceptional Learners
1. Chapter 5. Developing Collaborative Partnerships in Schools and With
Families
2. Chapter 6. Delivery of Appropriate Services to Students With Special Needs
3. Chapter 7. Promoting Access to the Curriculum
4. Chapter 8. Assessment and Data-Based Decision Making
5. PART III: Adaptations to Meet Individual Learner Needs
1. Chapter 9. Promoting Positive Behavior and Facilitating Social Skills
2. Chapter 10. Teaching Literacy
3. Chapter 11. Teaching Mathematics
4. Chapter 12. Facilitating Content-Area Instruction and Study Skills
6. Appendix: Professional Standards and Licensure and Common Core State Standards
7. Glossary
8. References
9. Index

9
Detailed Contents
Preface
About the Authors
PART I: Foundations of Inclusive Education
Chapter 1. Inclusive Teaching as Responsive Education
What Is the Adapt Framework and How Do I Use It?
What Is a Disability?
The Deficit Perspective on Disabilities
The Cultural Perspective on Disabilities
The Sociological Perspective on Disabilities
People With Disabilities as Members of a Minority Group
What Are Some Reasons for Disabilities?
Biological Causes of Disability
Environmental Causes of Disability
What Are the Characteristics of Students With Disabilities?
What Are the Origins of Special Education?
Inconsistent Opportunities
Court Cases: A Backdrop for National Legislation
What Laws and Court Decisions Protect Students With Disabilities?
Section 504
Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Court Decisions Defining IDEA
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
Assistive Technology Act of 2004 (ATA)
What Is Special Education?
Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Systematic Identification Procedures
Individualized Education Programs (IEPs)
Family Involvement
Related Services
Access to the General Education Curriculum
Evidence-Based Practices
Frequent Monitoring of Progress
What Is Inclusive Education?
Origins of Inclusion
Inclusive Education Practices
The Inclusion Debate
Chapter 2. Understanding Learners With Special Needs: High-Incidence

10
Disabilities or Conditions
What Are the Categories for Students With Disabilities?
How Are Disabilities Organized for Special Education?
Special Education Categories
Severity of Disability
Prevalence of Disability
What Are the Attributes of Students With Learning Disabilities?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Speech or Language
Impairments?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Attention
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Emotional or Behavioral
Disorders?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
Chapter 3. Understanding Learners With Special Needs: Low-Incidence
Disabilities or Conditions
What Are the Attributes of Students With Low-Incidence Disabilities?
What Are the Attributes of Students With Health Impairments or
Special Health Care Needs?
Definition
Types

11
 Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Multiple-Severe Disabilities?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Developmental Delay?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Physical Disabilities?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students Who Are Deaf and Hard of
Hearing?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Visual Disabilities?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Traumatic Brain Injury?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
What Are the Attributes of Students With Deaf-Blindness?
Definition
Types
Characteristics

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 Prevalence
Chapter 4. Other Students With Special Learning Needs
How Are Students With Physical and Cognitive Needs Protected Under
Section 504?
Qualifying for Services Under Section 504
Providing Educational Services Under Section 504
How Can We Best Meet the Needs of Students in Our Culturally and
Linguistically Diverse Classroom?
Definition of Culture
Multicultural Education
English Language Learners
Disproportionate Representation of Culturally and Linguistically
Diverse Students in Special Education
Multicultural Special Education
Effective Multicultural Special Education Programs
Linguistic Support
Validated Instructional Practices
Curricular Modifications
Who Are Students “At Risk” and What Should We Know and Do to
Help Them Achieve Their Full Potential?
Definition of “At Risk”
Some Conditions That Contribute to Risk
Poverty
Homelessness
Migrant Status
Lack of Health Care
At-Risk Schools
Prevention of Risk
Health Care
Educational Practices
What Are the Attributes of Students With Gifts and Talents?
Definition
Types
Characteristics
Prevalence
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Gifted Students
Gifted Students With Disabilities
Gifted Females
Teaching Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
Acceleration
Enrichment
PART II: Planning for Exceptional Learners

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Chapter 5. Developing Collaborative Partnerships in Schools and with Families
What Are the Characteristics of Collaboration?
Shared Problem Solving
Shared Responsibility
Voluntary Involvement
What Are Critical Prerequisite Skills for Effective Collaboration?
Communication Skills
Conflict Resolution Skills
Awareness of Multicultural and Linguistic Diversity
How Can Professionals Work Together Collaboratively?
The Need for Collaborative Partnerships With Professionals
Models of Collaborative Partnerships With Professionals
Collaboration-Consultation
Coteaching
Collaboration Considerations for English Language Learners
How Can Professionals Collaborate With Paraprofessionals?
Roles and Responsibilities of Paraprofessionals in Collaborative
Partnerships
Supervision and Training of Paraprofessionals
How Can Professionals Collaborate With Families?
The Need for Collaborative Partnerships With Families
Models of Collaborative Partnerships With Families
Family Systems Approach
Parent-Teacher Conference
Home-School Communication
Chapter 6. Delivery of Appropriate Services to Students With Special Needs
What Is Response to Intervention?
Tier 1 (Primary)
Evidence-Based Instruction
Differentiating Instruction
Tier 2 (Secondary) and Tier 3 (Tertiary)
What Is the Evaluation and Identification Process?
Step 1: Prereferral
Step 2: Referral
Step 3: Identification
Step 4: Eligibility
Step 5: Development of the IEP
Step 6: Implementation of the IEP
Step 7: Evaluation and Reviews
Who Are the Members of The IEP Team?
Roles of Education Professionals
Roles of Families

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 Roles of Students
How Do Special Education Multidisciplinary Teams and Services Meet
the Needs of Students With Disabilities?
Highly Qualified Special Educators
Related Services and Providers
What Plans Guarantee Students With Disabilities an Appropriate
Education?
Individualized Family Service Plans (IFSPs)
Individualized Education Programs (IEPs)
Transition Components of IEPs
Behavior Intervention Plans
When and How Are Existing Individualized Plans Evaluated?
Change in Services or Supports
What Does Idea ’04 Require During the IEP Process?
Chapter 7. Promoting Access to the Curriculum
What Is Universal Design for Learning?
What Is the Adapt Framework?
Adapt Steps
What Are Effective Instructional Practices?
Planning for Instruction
Types of Knowledge and Critical Thinking
Discrimination
Factual Knowledge
Procedural Knowledge
Conceptual Knowledge
Metacognitive Knowledge
Instructional Techniques
Clustering
Elaboration
Mnemonic Devices
Critical Thinking
Stages of Learning
Instructional Components
Delivering Instruction
Advance Organizer
Presentation of Subject Matter
Practice
Closure
Progress Monitoring
How Can Instructional Grouping Practices Promote Effective
Instruction?
Instructional Grouping Practices

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 Whole Group Instruction
Flexible Small Groups
Same-Ability Groups
Mixed-Ability Groups
One-to-One Teaching
Peer Tutoring
Cooperative Learning
What Guidelines Should Be Followed for Textbooks and Instructional
Materials?
Textbooks
Instructional Materials
Student
Instructional Content and Methodology
Adaptations for Curricular Materials
What Are Assistive Technology Devices and Services for Promoting
Access to the General Education Curriculum?
Assistive Technology Devices
Assistive Technology Services
Assistive Technology Integration
Chapter 8. Assessment and Data-Based Decision Making
Why Do We Assess Students?
Purposes of Assessment
Identifying Strengths and Weaknesses
Determining Relative Standing
Informing Instruction
Determining Program Eligibility
Grading
Determining Annual Yearly Progress
Documenting Progress
Legislative Protection Related to Assessment
How Do We Assess Students With Special Needs?
Technical Adequacy
Norm-Referenced Tests
Progress Monitoring Tests
Criterion-Referenced Tests
Testing for Students’ Strategies
Screening Tests
Diagnostic Assessments
Observations
Interviews
Rating Scales and Checklists
Rubrics

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 Work Samples
School Records
Portfolio Assessments
Behavioral Assessments
Curriculum-Based Measures
Designing Curriculum-Based Measures
How Do We Adapt and Modify Assessments for Students With Special
Needs?
Universal Design for Assessment
Parental Involvement
Adaptation Categories
Input Adaptations
Output Adaptations
Time and/or Schedule Adaptations
Location Adaptations
Academic Qualifications
Adaptations for High-Stakes Testing
Curricular Content
Assessment Issues
Adaptation Issues
Alternate Assessments
PART III: Adaptations to Meet Individual Learner Needs
Chapter 9. Promoting Positive Behavior and Facilitating Social Skills
What Practices Can Be Used to Foster Student Relationships and
Communication?
Get to Know Your Students
Use Motivational Practices
Be Responsive to Cultural Differences
Conduct Student Meetings
What Ways Can Be Used to Communicate Effectively With Students?
Communicate Clear and Consistent Messages
Explain the Rules and Consequences
Explain the Daily Schedule
Provide Good Directions
Describe Transition Procedures
Use Specific Praise Judiciously
What Are Effective Classroom Arrangement Practices?
Physical Arrangements
Traffic Patterns
Seating Arrangements
With-It-Ness
Classroom Observation

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 What Are the Goals of Misbehavior?
How Can Problem Behaviors Be Assessed?
Behavior Identification
Observational Techniques
What Instructional Strategies Are Available for Behavior Problems?
Planned Ignoring
Redirect Inappropriate Behavior
Contingent Observation
Criterion-Specific Rewards
Contracting
Interdependent Group Contingencies
Self-Regulation
Time-Out and Seclusion Time-Out
In-School Supervision
Functional Behavior Assessment
Behavior Intervention Plan
What Is Social Competence?
Curriculum
Sociometric Survey
Sociogram
Role-Playing
Coaching
Problem Solving and Decision Making
How Can Safer Schools Be Promoted?
Guidelines for Safer Schools
Bullying
Chapter 10. Teaching Literacy
What Issues Are Related to Written Communication Instruction?
What Are the Five Components of Reading?
Phonological Awareness
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Phonological
Awareness
Strategies for Teaching Phonological Awareness
Phonics and Word Study
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Phonics and
Word Study
Strategies for Teaching Phonics and Word Study
Reading Fluency
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Reading
Fluency
Strategies for Teaching Reading Fluency
Reading Vocabulary

18
 Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Reading
Vocabulary
Reading Comprehension
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Reading
Comprehension
Strategies for Teaching Reading Comprehension
What Are the Stages of the Writing Process?
Instructional Design Features That Promote Success
Develop and Activate Background Knowledge
Discuss It
Model It
Memorize It
Support It
Perform Independently
Engage in Writing Conferences
Prewriting Stage of Writing
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Prewriting
Strategies for Teaching Prewriting
Drafting Stage of Writing
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Drafting
Strategies for Teaching Drafting
Revising Stage of Writing
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Revising
Strategies for Teaching Revising
Editing Stage of Writing
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Editing
Strategies for Teaching Editing
Publishing Stage of Writing
Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Publishing
Strategies for Teaching Publishing
How Can Teachers Provide Effective Instruction and Adaptations
for Reading and Writing?
Chapter 11. Teaching Mathematics
What Are the Attributes of Students With Mathematics Difficulties?
Mathematics Difficulties and Disabilities
Learning Characteristics
Factors Contributing to Mathematics Difficulties
What Is Early Number Development and How Is It Taught?
Difficulties With Early Number Development
Teaching Early Number Development
Counting
Teen Numbers

19
 Magnitude Comparison
Numeral Recognition: Fast Numbers
Number Writing: Quick Write
Reversals
Part-Part-Whole Relationships
What Are Arithmetic Combinations and How Are They Taught?
Difficulties With Arithmetic Combinations
Teaching Arithmetic Combinations
What Is Place Value and How Is It Taught?
Difficulties With Place Value
Teaching Place Value
Teen Numbers
Need to Trade?
Are There Enough?
What Is Whole-Number Computation and How Is It Taught?
Difficulties With Whole-Number Computation
Teaching Whole-Number Computation
Rounding
Estimation: The Front-End Strategy
Estimation: The Clustering Strategy
Bean Stick Computation
Alternative Algorithms
Demonstration Plus Permanent Model
Key Questions
Sequence of Instruction
What Are Rational Numbers and How Are They Taught?
Difficulties With Rational Numbers
Teaching Rational Numbers
Sorting Fractions and Decimals
Fractions as Equal to or Greater Than 1
Comparisons
Arithmetic Combinations and Fractions
Money, Decimals, and Percentages
What Is Algebra and How Is It Taught?
Difficulties With Algebra
Teaching Algebraic Reasoning
Fact Families
Solving Algebraic Equations
Order of Operations
Graphic Organizers
What Is Problem Solving and How Is It Taught?
Difficulties With Problem Solving

20
 Types of Word Problems
Teaching Problem Solving
Chapter 12. Facilitating Content-Area Instruction and Study Skills
What Difficulties Do Students Demonstrate With Content-Area Instruction?
How Can Teachers Teach Content-Area Vocabulary and Concepts?
Teaching Technical Vocabulary and Concepts
Evidence-Based Instructional Strategies
How Can Teachers Teach Students to Monitor Their Reading
Comprehension?
Teaching Students to Monitor Their Reading Comprehension
Evidence-Based Instructional Strategies
How Can Students Learn From Textbook Instruction?
Teaching Students How to Learn From Textbooks
How Can Teachers Promote Student Participation?
Using Class Discussions to Engage Students
How Can Teachers Help Students With Difficulties in Study Skills?
Teaching Time Management Skills
Teaching Listening and Note-Taking Skills
What Are Ways to Facilitate Memorization and Test Taking?
Teaching Memorization and Test-Taking Skills
Appendix: Professional Standards and Licensure and Common Core State Standards
Glossary
References
Index

21
Preface

22
To Our Readers
We came together to write this text with one main purpose: to help teachers complete their
special education/inclusion course inspired to teach students with disabilities in inclusive
settings and equipped to do so effectively.

With the increased reliance on accountability systems and high-stakes testing, the number
of students who struggle and who are at risk for school failure has become increasingly
apparent to educators. Today, the vast majority of students with disabilities spend more
than 80% of their school day learning in general education classrooms. Unfortunately,
many classroom teachers working in inclusive settings believe they are unprepared to meet
the challenges these individual students bring to the learning environment. So we wrote
this text to fulfill what we see as our two critical responsibilities to our readers:

To increase knowledge of proven practices. A wealth of information exists about

instructional practices that are evidence-based and effective for students with special
needs who are learning in inclusive settings. We have worked to make this
information accessible to you by analyzing the body of research that exists, selecting
those practices that have proved to be most effective (and that will be of most help in
the teaching situations you will encounter most often), and presenting that
information in the context of real classrooms. To that end, our text discussion and
supporting features focus on what works.
To improve instructional decision making. The ADAPT framework that we have
integrated throughout this text will help you determine how, when, and with whom to
use the proven academic and behavioral interventions in your repertoire to obtain the
best outcomes. The ADAPT framework will help you develop the “habits of mind”
needed to respond thoughtfully and flexibly to the challenges you will meet in your
classroom long after your coursework is over.

We hope that by the time you have completed your reading of this text, we will have met
these responsibilities and you will have confidence in your ability to meet the needs of all
students in your classroom. We are confident that with the appropriate knowledge and
tools, all teachers can make a positive difference in the educational lives of students with
special needs.

23
Organization of This Text
The content of this text is organized in three parts. Chapters 1 through 4 comprise Part I:
Foundations of Inclusive Education. Chapters 5 through 8 are the focus of Part II:
Planning for Exceptional Learners. Chapters 9 through 12 cover Part III: Adaptations to
Meet Individual Learner Needs.

24
Part I: Foundations of Inclusive Education
The first four chapters of this text provide an overview of inclusive education and the
nature and characteristics of students with disabilities and special learning needs. Chapter 1
examines the meaning of the term disability, what is meant by inclusive education, and the
key legislation that has affected the development of inclusive classrooms: the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA), the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
(NCLB), and the Assistive Technology Act of 2004 (ATA or the Tech Act). Chapter 2
presents information about high-incidence disabilities—those that teachers are most likely
to encounter in classrooms—such as learning disabilities, attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), speech or language impairments, mental retardation or intellectual and
developmental disabilities, and emotional or behavioral disorders. Chapter 3 discusses low-
incidence disabilities: deafness and hard of hearing, physical disabilities, low vision and
blindness, autism spectrum disorders, developmental delay, and other conditions. Chapter
4 offers information about student learners whose needs are not specifically covered by
IDEA ’04 legislation, including students who are English language learners, students who
come from challenging living situations, and students who are gifted and talented.

25
Part II: Planning for Exceptional Learners
Chapter 5 focuses on the importance of collaborative relationships with professionals,
paraprofessionals, and families. In Chapter 6, we discuss individualized education programs
(IEPs) and other special services that help teachers meet the needs of their students.
Chapter 7 addresses differentiating instruction to promote access to the general education
curriculum. This chapter focuses on the steps of the ADAPT framework and the four
categories of adaptations and the universal design for learning (UDL), which are then
integrated into Chapters 9 through 12. Chapter 8 discusses the evaluation of students’
learning and how to modify and adapt assessments for students with special needs.

26
Part III: Adaptations to Meet Individual Learner Needs
Chapter 9 discusses the importance of creating a positive classroom environment by
communicating effectively with students, arranging your classroom, teaching social skills,
and addressing problem behaviors. In Chapters 10 through 12, we focus on specific content
areas: reading, writing, mathematics, and content-area reading and study skills. In these
chapters, we present practical, evidence-based strategies for adapting instruction to meet the
needs of all students.

27
Special Features
An Opening Challenge case study begins each chapter. It describes in some detail a
specific teaching challenge at the elementary and secondary level (middle school and
high school), which is then revisited throughout the chapter. Students are asked to
reflect on their knowledge of the subject matter before reading the chapter and are
encouraged to record their responses to Reflection Questions in a journal.
ADAPT in Action sections are integrated directly within the text discussion in
Chapters 5 through 12. This illustrative section applies the ADAPT framework, a
research-validated problem-solving approach, to the student and teacher introduced
in the Opening Challenge scenarios. In these features, the teacher “thinks out loud”
using the ADAPT framework, thus allowing the reader to go through the problem-
solving steps with him or her.
The ADAPT framework charts summarize the ADAPT model and apply it to
practical, oft-encountered teaching and learning topics.
The UDL approach to instruction is integrated in several chapters, through the UDL
in Action feature, with specific lesson activities as examples of how the principles of
UDL can be accounted for as part of instructional design.
Working Together features offer practical advice on how an idea or concept can be
taught using a collaborative approach that involves other school professionals and/or
family members. Questions are posed for deliberation of how professionals tackle
issues together.
Instructional Strategies feature key research-to-practice, classroom-based activities
that are relevant to topics in the chapter. Sample lessons for teaching the skills that
students need to succeed in each area include the instructional objective, instructional
content, instructional materials, a means to deliver the instruction, and methods to
monitor student progress.
Considering Diversity features examine various issues from a cultural or linguistic
perspective; they illustrate how the diversity of our school populations is related to
academic instruction and management.
Tech Notes features provide readers with information about assistive and
instructional technologies that can be employed with students who have learning or
behavior problems. Examples from classrooms are used to show practical
applications.
The Response to Intervention (RTI) model is described in Chapter 6. RTI is a model
for delivering scientifically based schoolwide, multitiered systems of support (MTSS),
which is designed to promote improved academic performance for all students and
minimize behavior problems.
Each chapter closes with a Summary section, followed by Review the Learning
Objectives with answers to help readers review material and assess their
understanding of key topics. Revisit the Opening Challenge questions return

28
readers to the scenarios presented in the Opening Challenge and monitor their
learning of key concepts in relation to the development of the teacher and student
scenarios. Examples of professional standards also are included at the end of each
chapter.
All chapters include Video Cases, with actual classroom footage to help illustrate
how the strategies are implemented, and follow-up questions.

29
Online Resources

30
Premium Video and SAGE Journal Articles
Each chapter is accompanied by original Video Cases featuring in-class footage and teacher
interviews, with follow-up reflection questions to promote student engagement with course
content. Students also have access to a robust assortment of supplementary video clips,
bonus instructional strategies, and exclusive full-text SAGE journal articles that have been
carefully chosen to promote mastery of learning objectives. These resources are available at
the open-access SAGE edge website, edge.sagepub.com/bryant, described in more detail
below.

The text can also be paired with an Interactive eBook that contains carefully placed links to
each of these study tools for a seamless learning experience. Look for the following icons
accompanied by labels in the margins of the print book that signal when you can visit the
SAGE edge website or Interactive eBook to access these online resources:

Watch an original Video Case to see teaching strategies in action.

Watch a supplementary clip for further context and enrichment.

Read a SAGE journal article to sharpen your comprehension skills.

Access a bonus instructional strategy for additional practice.

31
SAGE edge for Instructors
SAGE edge is a robust online environment featuring an impressive array of free tools and
resources. Instructors using this book can access customizable PowerPoint slides and an
extensive test bank built on Bloom’s taxonomy that features multiple-choice, true/false,
essay, and short answer questions for each chapter. Lecture notes, discussion questions, and
class activities are provided along with sample syllabi for semester and quarter courses.

32
SAGE edge for Students
At edge.sagepub.com/bryant students can access a complete online action plan that
includes tips and feedback on progress through the course and materials that allow students
to enhance their learning experience. Chapter summaries with learning objectives reinforce
the most important material, while multimedia resources help further classroom-based
explorations of key topics.

Students can also practice with mobile-friendly eFlashcards and take the Web Quiz at
SAGE edge to find out what they’ve mastered.

33
Acknowledgments
Thanks to our colleagues who contributed their writing and expertise to Chapter 4, “Other
Students With Special Learning Needs”: the late Janette K. Klingner, University of
Colorado at Boulder, for her sections on culturally and linguistically diverse students,
multicultural education, bilingual education, and culturally and linguistically diverse
students and special education; and Margarita Bianco, University of Colorado at Denver
and Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado, for her section on students who are gifted
and talented.

Our gratitude goes out to the many reviewers, focus group attendees, and advisory council
members who have greatly enhanced this project over the years of its writing. Your
thoughtfulness and commitment to the project have made this a better book.

For the current edition:

Dona C. Bauman, University of Scranton

Nancy Beach, Ferrum College
Judy Bentley, State University of NY Cortland
Pamela Brillante, William Patterson University of New Jersey
Kimberly Boyd, Virginia Commonwealth University
Melinda Burchard, Messiah College
Nancy G. Burton, Concord University
EunMi Cho, California State University, Sacramento
Su-Je Cho, Fordham University
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34
 Shanon Taylor, University of Nevada Reno
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For the previous edition:

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35
 Michelle LaRocque, Florida Atlantic University
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Edward J. Sabornie, North Carolina State University
Bruce Saddler, State University of New York at Albany
Mary Schreiner, Alvernia College
Amy Staples, University of Northern Iowa
Qaisar Sultana, Eastern Kentucky University
Donna E. Wadsworth, University of Louisiana at Lafayette

We are deeply grateful for the expertise, support, and commitment of the SAGE team to
see this project to fruition. Their belief in us and in this project exceeded all reasonable
expectations. Many people comprised the team who worked on this book. Although we do
not know all of them by name, their expertise with their craft is truly evident; to this team
we express our gratitude. We thank Terri Accomazzo—editor—for her support, advice, and
wisdom as this writing journey unfolded. Terri inspired us to begin this project and
remained steadfast with her encouragement and support throughout challenging times. We
could not have finished this work without her continuing encouragement. To Jessica
Miller, our associate editor, we extend our thanks for keeping us on track and enduring the
evolution of this book. Jessica’s ideas and wisdom are found throughout the book; her
partnership was evident as the project evolved in scope and content. Elisa Adams, our
developmental editor, helped us through the numerous reviewers’ comments by providing
advice about important changes to ensure the high standards and excellence readers expect.
We would like to thank Olivia Weber-Stenis, our production editor, whose high standards
and expectations helped us throughout production; to her we are truly grateful. We greatly
appreciate Erica DeLuca and Amy Lammers’s work as marketing managers. Erica and Amy
helped us focus on ideas to make important personal connections with our colleagues. We
thoroughly enjoyed working with them! We would also like to thank Nick Pachelli and

36
Lucy Berbeo, eLearning editors, for expertly coordinating the book’s supplemental
resources, and to Georgia McLaughlin, editorial assistant, for her continued help
throughout the process.

We would also like to thank Tina Hardy, copyeditor, who did an excellent and thorough
job in making this book clear to read. Bringing closure to this project could not have
occurred without the hard work and attention to detail she demonstrated. Her keen eye,
efficiency, and professionalism were greatly appreciated to ensure a high quality product for
our readers. Tina was a joy to work with through the endless number of details that
required careful scrutiny. It is because of Tina that this text is easy to read. Thanks also to
Jessica Miller for her fine work in researching the photos that appear in the book. And,
finally, we greatly appreciate the work of Scott Van Atta, who created the beautiful cover
and interior design.

We would like to thank Dr. Kavita Rao, University of Hawaii, for helping us to create a
format for the UDL lessons. Her contributions (e.g., suggesting that we provide
information on UDL checkpoints rather than principles; editing our early work) have been
invaluable, and we appreciate her taking the time to provide excellent guidance.

We would also like to extend a special thanks to the teachers and administrators who
graciously allowed us to film their schools and classrooms: Principal Lou Lichtl and
instructors Jason Brown, Jeff McCann, Brinden Wohlstattar, and Melissa Wood-Glusac at
Thousand Oaks High School in Thousand Oaks, California; and instructors Jan Evans,
Tema Khieu, Lisa Sigafoos, and Mia Tannous at the University of Texas Elementary
School in Austin, Texas.

You have a textbook that we hope will inspire you as educators to reach out to all students.
You will hear the voices of many as you read and learn numerous, practical ways to work
with all students across the grades. We wish you the best!

D.P.B.

B.R.B.

D.D.S.

In the electronic edition of the book you have purchased, there are several icons that reference links (videos,
journal articles) to additional content. Though the electronic edition links are not live, all content referenced
may be accessed at edge.sagepub.com/bryant . This URL is referenced at several points throughout your
electronic edition.

37
About the Authors

Diane Pedrotty Bryant

is a professor in the Department of Special Education, College of Education, The
University of Texas at Austin. She is the graduate adviser for the Department of
Special Education. She holds the Mollie Villeret Davis Professorship in Learning
Disabilities (LD). She is a member of the board of directors for The Meadows Center
for Preventing Educational Risk, the project director for the Mathematics Institute
for Learning Disabilities and Difficulties, and the co-coordinator of the Assistive and
Instructional Technology Lab in the College of Education. Dr. Bryant is principal
investigator on a U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences
grant on algebra-readiness interventions for middle school students with mathematics
difficulties. Her line of research focuses on the development and validation of
intensive interventions, which can be utilized by mathematics interventionists to
teach students with mathematics learning disabilities and mathematics difficulties.
She has published numerous articles on technology and academic instructional
strategies and is the coauthor of textbooks on methods for teaching struggling
students. She is the co-editor-in-chief with Dr. Brian R. Bryant of the Learning
Disability Quarterly.
Brian R. Bryant
lives and works in Austin, Texas. He served as director of research for PRO-ED, Inc.,
for 10 years and has since served as director of the Office for Students with
Disabilities at Florida Atlantic University (where he also served as instructor in the
Department of Special Education), as project director of the Texas Assistive
Technology Partnership (Tech Act project), and as a private consultant. Brian held
an adjunct faculty lecturer appointment in the Department of Special Education at
The University of Texas at Austin for many years. For several years, he also had an
appointment as a research fellow and research professor with The Meadows Center
for Preventing Educational Risk at The University of Texas at Austin. In addition to
his book, Assistive Technology for People With Disabilities (Pearson, 2011) with Diane
Bryant, Brian is the author or coauthor of more than 100 psycho-educational tests,
articles, books, book chapters, professional development materials, and other
products dealing with remedial education, learning disabilities, intellectual disability,
assessment, and assistive technology. His primary research interests are assessment
and intervention in learning disabilities and intellectual disability and the exploration
of assistive technology applications across the life span. He is currently serving as
president of Psycho-Educational Services, an Austin-based publishing and consulting
company.
Deborah Deutsch Smith
is a professor of special education at the School of Educational Studies at Claremont

38
Graduate University. She currently is coproject director of the IRIS Center
(http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu or http://www.iriscenter.com), which is funded by
the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special Education Programs. The
national center is charged with developing modules and other resources about
students with disabilities. These enhancements are designed for use in coursework by
university faculty and in professional development activities for education
professionals working in inclusive school settings. She also directs IRIS@CGU, where
the national training and dissemination component for the IRIS Center is based. She
is the author of Introduction to Contemporary Special Education: New Horizons
(Pearson Publishing, 2014), was the recipient of the 2015 TED/Pearson Excellence
in Teacher Education Award, and was the lead researcher for the Special Education
Faculty Shortage Study.

39
Part I Foundations of Inclusive Education

40
1 Inclusive Teaching as Responsive Education

iStock/CEFutcher

41
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What is the ADAPT framework and how do I use it?

What is a disability?
What are some reasons for disabilities?
What are the characteristics of students with disabilities?
What are the origins of special education?
What laws and court decisions protect students with disabilities?
What is special education?
What is inclusive education?

42
OPENING challenge

43
New Beginnings
Elementary Grades It is the week before the first day of school. Ms. Smith, a first-year teacher, sits in her
empty fourth-grade classroom thinking about what it will be like to finally have her own students to teach,
her own classroom to organize, and a real paycheck! She remembers spending years in hard study, taking
many late-night classes, traveling across town to observe classroom after classroom, doing week after week of
student teaching, staying up late revising lesson plans one more time, and being so excited when she saw the
great scores she and her friends received on the state’s competency test for teachers. She feels well prepared
to assume the responsibility of educating a class of general education students. Ms. Smith has waited so long
for this day to arrive; she has wanted to be a teacher since she was in elementary school. She begins to
prepare for the school year with great excitement and anticipation.

But as she looks at her class list of 18 students, matching their names with their student files, she is worried.
“The range of their academic skills is so wide; their achievement test scores are all over the map. One of my
students has been identified for gifted education, two come to me with individualized education programs, and
three of my students are English language learners. Plus, I see a couple of the boys are due to continue receiving
speech therapy in a group session from the speech/language pathologist twice a week. I haven’t heard from any
other teachers or resource professionals about special schedules for any of my students. I wish I could go back and
take that inclusion course again!”

Secondary Grades Mr. Salazar is getting ready for the first day of school where he will be teaching ninth-
grade English I as a new teacher. His department has five English teachers, most of whom have had many
years of experience, and some have offered advice about how to prepare for the first week. He is nervous but
knows that his preparation in the subject matter is strong and his education classes provided lots of
information regarding pedagogy and management. Student teaching gave him experiences working with
students from diverse backgrounds, including students with learning disabilities (LDs). He learned about
adapting instruction but didn’t have many experiences with people who provided support services to
students. Now, he is reviewing the student folders. “I am glad for the student teaching experiences because now
I have five students with LD. I have one student who uses an assistive technology device for accessing print; who is
going to help me with this? I took an introduction to special education course but I am still concerned. I have 250
students each day; how am I going to meet the needs of all students?”

Ms. Smith and Mr. Salazar share similar concerns. They are first-year teachers and although their
preparation was strong, they must now apply what they have learned with diverse groups of students. Are
they ready for the challenge?

REFLECTION QUESTIONS In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. Do you think Ms. Smith and Mr. Salazar are overly concerned about their students’ varied needs?
Do you think they are just having first-year-teacher jitters? Why or why not?
2. What advice would you give them about planning for their students with disabilities and for those
with other special learning needs?
3. How can they learn more about the special education services their students should be receiving this
year?
4. In what ways can Ms. Smith and Mr. Salazar be responsive to all their students’ special needs?

Get the edge on your studies:edge.sagepub.com/bryant

Take a quiz to find out what you’ve learned.

44
Review key terms with eFlashcards.
Watch videos to see teachers in action.

45
Setting the Stage
Paul is 62 and lives in alternative housing responsive to his special needs. There are grab
bars in the bathroom, an alarm system in case he needs help, and a contact person to
answer questions. He has cerebral palsy, which affects his muscles. Writing and completing
tasks that require using his fingers (such as buttoning his shirt and tying his shoes) are
difficult for him. He walks with crutches, has good communication skills, and manages his
daily living needs. He takes special transportation to attend work and physical therapy and
to go shopping and visit the bank.

As a young child, Paul attended a state-funded school for children with physical and
cognitive disabilities. It was isolated from the public schools and Paul took a special bus to
get there. After school, he spent afternoons sitting at home or participating in physical
therapy at the Children’s Hospital. Paul’s mother believed the school system could do
better. She believed Paul was perfectly capable of attending public school with
neighborhood children. She also thought he should be able to graduate from high school
like other children. Paul’s mother spent years making her case to the local school board, city
officials, and state legislators. After her determined advocacy for her son’s right to a public
education, Paul started attending public school classes in the mid-1960s, when he was 10.

At that time, specialized instruction and services for students with special needs were not
available. In elementary school, Paul was carried up the stairs to class because there were no
elevators and he could not manage stairs with his leg braces. He learned basic school skills
and went on to graduate from high school with a special diploma and later from a two-year
vocational training school. He held various part-time jobs and to this day works at a special
workshop for individuals with disabilities. In essence, his work environment is a segregated
setting. His social world is restricted to telecommunications such as the Internet and cell
phone. But even so, Paul is determined to live independently.

We have come a long way since Paul started school in terms of society’s perspective on
disability, and we have dismantled many of the barriers to individuals’ living independent,
productive lives. We have laws to protect individuals in most aspects of life, and we have
public school systems that must include all students with special needs. We know a great
deal about appropriate instruction and services for students with special needs. Yet there is
still work to be done to ensure an appropriate education for all students with special needs
and to help them make successful transitions to the independent adulthood with
employment, social relationships, and living arrangements that all of us strive to achieve.

You might wonder how teaching can be responsive to the needs of students with special
learning needs such as Paul’s. The simple answer is that education becomes responsive
when an array of individualized educational interventions, which are monitored for the
student’s progress, are implemented to improve the outcomes of infants, toddlers, children,

46
and youth with disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Education is responsive
and, we believe, responsible, when teams of educators work together to address the unique
challenges each student brings to school.

You have the opportunity to be part of this work to ensure that all individuals with special
needs receive a quality education. However, if you find this opportunity a bit daunting, you
are not alone.

Have you had much personal interaction so far with persons with disabilities in your home,
school, or community life? If not, you are probably much like many of your colleagues
preparing to become classroom teachers. Do you begin this course about teaching students
with disabilities with some anxiety about your ability to meet the needs of these students? If
so, again, you are not alone. Although almost two-thirds of students with disabilities spend
more than 80% of their school day in general education classrooms, most recently
graduated general education teachers report they do not feel adequately prepared to teach
them. Their principals agree: New teachers are not doing as well as they should in
managing behavior or instructing “difficult-to-teach” students (Futernick, 2006; Gaetano,
2006). But rather than being daunted by these reports, we hope you’ll recognize in them
the great opportunity they present as you prepare to enter the teacher ranks. You can make
a tremendous difference in the lives of these students. And the mission of the course (and
the text) you are now beginning is to give you the tools to do just that.

Throughout this text, we describe proven practices that will equip you to teach students
with special needs in your classes. We focus on instructional strategies and provide video
exemplars so that you can readily incorporate these practices into your teaching with
confidence. We provide the ADAPT framework to help you develop the habits of mind to
respond thoughtfully and flexibly to the varied challenges you will face in your classroom
long after your brief university and in-service coursework is over. The ADAPT framework
we have integrated throughout this text will help you learn, remember, and know when to
apply proven practices in your classroom.

Our goal is for you to develop the confidence you need to teach all students in your classes.
Our many years working with preservice and K–12 teachers convince us that teachers want
to help their struggling students become successful learners but simply feel ill-equipped to
do so. In this text, we focus on those practices that have been proven to work and show you
how, when, and with whom to use each to the best effect. Nothing builds confidence better
than good preparation.

We write this text out of the mission we share with your course instructor: By the
conclusion of this course, you will leave wanting to teach students with disabilities and
other special learning needs in your classroom and feeling equipped to do so effectively.
You will find (and those of you who have been teaching have already discovered) that every
student in your classroom comes to you with his or her own areas of strength and struggle,

47
parts of the school day that she or he absolutely enjoys or does not exactly relish, and
personality traits that make you laugh, make you cry, or leave you scratching your head.

In this respect, the students in your classroom with identified disabilities are no different
from the rest of their peers: They’re just kids. But the nature and extent of their particular
struggles often require certain specialized teaching approaches to help them succeed.

The good news is that we know what those effective approaches are, research has proved
they work, and they can be done with a reasonable amount of preclass preparation and in a
reasonable amount of class time. (And, as a bonus, they usually benefit all the students in
your class, with and without disabilities.) You will learn that even students with the most
difficult challenges can overcome, compensate, and achieve remarkable outcomes when
your instruction is responsive to their learning needs. You will come to understand across
your teacher education program that as a teacher, you can make a real difference in the lives
of your students. To begin, we situate the content of this text in the importance of
understanding and appreciating the diversity of our society. The Considering Diversity
feature provides recommendations for your reflection. We then introduce the ADAPT
framework.

48
CONSIDERING diversity

49
Consider Human Diversity
Diversity in our society is evident in terms of disabilities; social, cultural, and linguistic differences;
economic backgrounds; gender differences; family structures; race and ethnicities; and religious beliefs. The
students who attend our schools and their families represent these many diverse differences in our society
that we embrace. Educators bring to schools their experiences with and understanding of human diversity
and its influence on families, cultures, schools, and the delivery of educational services. All children bring a
social, academic, economic, and cultural background to class with them, and these backgrounds are part of
the environment in which learning takes place. The cultural heritage of all students is an important factor to
consider when designing educational programs to meet the needs of exceptional students. Good teaching
practices will benefit all students, whatever their background.

50
What Is the ADAPT Framework and How Do I Use It?
The ADAPT framework we have devised is a tool for instruction and assessment of
struggling learners that reflects proven best practice in the field. It will help you develop a
mind-set for the selection of effective interventions and teaching practices. The framework,
discussed in detail in Chapter 7, reflects and underscores the mind-set we want you to take
away from your course. You can use its five steps to help you make informed decisions
about adapting your instruction based on individual students’ needs and the tasks all
students must complete in school. For now, here’s just a quick look in Table 1.1 at what
the ADAPT framework looks like. Along with this framework, we provide ADAPT in
Action, which is a scenario that describes an instructional situation. Then, the ADAPT
framework, as shown in Table 1.1, provides a quick reference for how to frame the ADAPT
in Action scenario. We suggest practicing the acronym by naming each letter and what it
represents until you can talk about the parts without visual reminders.

With the ADAPT framework in mind, let’s begin by first considering disabilities and the
special challenges they create.

51
What Is a Disability?
Some of you might have answered the question “What is a disability?” by expressing the
notion that disabilities are absolutes—something an individual simply does or doesn’t
have. You might have said the concept of disability is complex and that there are many
different perspectives on what it is and what it means to each individual, family, and
culture. You might have included in your answer that the intensity of a disability is the
result of different conditions or experiences and that the response to it—the intensity of
instruction, types of services, and community supports—depends on an individual’s unique
needs. These answers reflect the idea that individualized accommodations and assistance
can reduce the impact of the challenge presented by a disability.

Intellectual and Learning Disabilities

Why did we ask how disability is conceptualized? First, the concept of disability is not as
simple as it initially appears. Second, the way people, groups, and cultures think about what
it means to have a disability affects the way they interact with people with disabilities, and
those interactions in turn become events that influence individuals’ outcomes (Branson &
Miller, 2002; Winzer, 2007). For example, some responses—such as low or unreasonably
high expectations—can have long-term negative results (Harry, 2007). So let’s think
together about various ways to conceptualize “disability” and also about how attitudes
toward disability can influence students’ lives.

Different disciplines, cultures, and individuals disagree about what disabilities are or how to
explain them (Lynch & Hanson, 2004; Utley & Obiakor, 2001). For example, many
psychologists, education professionals, and medical professionals describe children and
youth in terms of various characteristics, such as intelligence, visual acuity, academic
achievement, or behavior. In its manual, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-5), the American Psychiatric Association (APA) describes many

52
characteristics that help to describe or define a condition or a disability because they set the
individual apart from “normal,” “typical,” or “average” (APA, 2013). In this common
approach, human characteristics or traits are described as a continuum; at one end very
little of the target behavior is observed, and at the other end an unusual amount of the trait
is expressed. Here’s an example. In the DSM-5, the APA (2013) describes hyperactivity and
impulsivity as including the following behaviors:

a. often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat.

b. often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is
expected.
c. often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate (in
adolescents or adults, may be limited to subjective feelings of restlessness).
d. often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly.
e. is often “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor.”
f. often talks excessively. (p. 60)

Note that all the behaviors described in the DSM-5 account of hyperactivity are expected
in children to some extent. What identifies hyperactivity is that an individual exhibits “too
many” of these behaviors. Now let’s look at the reverse situation, when displaying “not
enough” or “too few” of the behaviors of concern leads to the identification of a disability.

Some students exhibit problem behaviors and need exemplary teachers. How do
federal laws distinguish between students who exhibit problem behaviors and
students with attention issues or learning disabilities?

iStock/Creatas

53
Other perspectives can also provide a framework for understanding disabilities and special
needs. Let’s turn to four different ways of thinking about disabilities:

Deficit perspective
Cultural perspective
Sociological perspective
People with disabilities as members of a minority group

54
The Deficit Perspective on Disabilities
The deficit perspective reflects the idea that behavior and characteristics people share are
distributed along a continuum, with most people falling in the middle of the distribution,
where they make up the average. For example, some people are short and some tall, but
most people’s height falls somewhere in the middle; the average of everyone’s height is at
the center of the distribution. The scores from most human characteristics create such
patterns, forming what we call a normal curve, like the one shown in Figure 1.1. Because
of the way the distribution tends to fall, with the highest number of scores in the middle
and proportionally fewer as the distance from the average score increases, the distribution is
also referred to as the bell-shaped curve.

Suppose we plotted the number of students obtaining each academic achievement score on
the graph. Few students would obtain low scores, and their scores would be plotted at the
left-hand side of the graph. The number of students receiving higher scores increases as we
move to the right until we reach the average or mean score. Somewhere in the middle of
the distribution are typical learners, whose behaviors and characteristics represent the
average or majority of students. The progressively fewer students who obtain higher and
higher scores on the test complete the right-hand side of the distribution or curve. The
number of characteristics we can count in this way is infinite, and each individual student
probably falls at a different point on each dimension measured. Thus the unusually tall
student might have slightly below-average visual acuity and an average score on the distance
he or she can kick a ball. Clearly the hypothetical average student, or typical learner, does
not actually exist—or exists very rarely—because the possible combinations of human
characteristics are endless.

Regardless, in mainstream U.S. society, the most common way we describe individuals is by
quantifying their performance. Unfortunately, this way of thinking forces us to consider
everyone in terms of how different they are from the average, and half the members of any
group will be below average. The approach also contributes to the tendency to think about
students with disabilities as deficient or somehow less than their peers without disabilities.

Figure 1.1 A Hypothetical Distribution of Scores Creating a Normal or Bell-Shaped

Curve

55
56
The Cultural Perspective on Disabilities
A second way to think about disabilities and the people who might be affected does not use
a quantitative approach; rather, it reveals a cultural perspective that reflects the diversity of
our nation. Alfredo Artiles of Arizona State University aptly pointed out that the United
States today includes many different cultures, some of which embrace concepts and values
that differ greatly from mainstream ideas. Nonmajority cultures often hold different views
of disabilities, and many do not think about disabilities in terms of deficits or quantitative
judgments of individuals (Artiles, 2003). The beliefs of teachers and other professionals
who work with students are important to understand because different perspectives result
in different responses to a disability.

First, education professionals and the families with whom they work might not share the
same understanding of disability. Second, they might not have a common belief about what
causes disabilities. Knowing this helps us understand why different families approach
education professionals differently when told their child has a disability. Because disability
does not have a single orientation or fixed definition, it is not thought about uniformly or
universally (Harry, 2007; Lynch & Hanson, 2004). The same individual might be
considered “different,” or as having a disability, in one culture but not in another (Utley &
Obiakor, 2001). Or the degree of difference might not be considered uniformly across
cultures.

57
The Sociological Perspective on Disabilities
Instead of focusing on people’s strengths or deficits, the sociological perspective views
differences across people’s skills and traits as socially constructed (Longmore, 2003; Riddell,
2007). The way a society treats individuals, not a condition or set of traits the individual
exhibits, is what makes people different from each other. If people’s attitudes and the way
society treats groups of individuals change, the impact of being a member of a group
changes as well. In other words, according to this perspective, what makes a disability is the
way we treat individuals we think of as different.

Some scholars and advocates hold a radical view, suggesting that disabilities are a necessity
of U.S. society, structure, and values. Some scholars, such as Herb Grossman, believe that
when societies are stratified, variables such as disability, race, and ethnicity become
economic and political imperatives (Grossman, 2002). They are needed to maintain class
structure. Classifications result in restricted opportunities that force some groups of people
to fall to the bottom (Erevelles, 1996; Grossman, 2002). Clearly, this rationale or
explanation for disabilities is controversial, but let’s see how the sociological perspective
might apply to at least one disability. Using this perspective, intellectual disabilities
(referred to as mental retardation in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004;
see Rosa’s Law in Table 1.4) exist because society and people treat these individuals poorly.
If supporting services were available to help every individual when problems occur, then
people with intellectual disabilities would not be negatively treated and would be successful.
In other words, if individuals with significant differences are treated like everyone else,
problems associated with intellectual disabilities will disappear.

Serious issues have been raised about sociological perspectives on disabilities. Jim Kauffman
and Dan Hallahan, scholars at the University of Virginia, maintain that disabilities are real,
not just sociologically constructed, and significantly affect the people who have them no
matter how they are treated (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011). To these critics,
sociological perspectives arise from a need for “sameness,” in which everyone is truly alike.
They contend that this position is dangerous because it (a) minimizes people’s disabilities,
(b) suggests that individuals with disabilities do not need special services, and (c) implies
that needed services can be discontinued or reduced. All three scenarios leave individuals
with disabilities vulnerable to diminished outcomes. Whether or not you believe the
sociological perspective can be used to explain disabilities, it does explain why people with
disabilities feel they experience bias and discrimination, just like members of other minority
groups. Let’s turn our attention to these issues now.

58
People with Disabilities as Members of a Minority Group
Paul Longmore—a founder of the disabilities studies movement, director of the Disability
Studies Department at San Francisco State, and also a person with disabilities—maintains
that like other minority groups, individuals with disabilities receive negative treatment
because of discrimination (Longmore, 2003). The ways in which people are treated by
society and by other individuals erect real barriers that influence their outcomes. Many
individuals with disabilities believe their disabilities then handicap them by presenting
challenges and barriers. This belief leads many people to think of people with disabilities as
belonging to a minority group, much as the concepts of race and ethnicity have resulted in
African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Asian/Pacific Islanders1 being
considered part of historically underrepresented groups. Difficult situations occur not
because of a condition or disability but, rather, because people with disabilities are denied
full participation in society as a consequence of their minority status (Winzer, 2007). In
fact, the law that guarantees children with disabilities a right to a public education, the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004), is often referred to as a civil
rights law. This places IDEA in the same category as the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which
put an end to discriminatory practices that denied some citizens their right to vote in state
and national elections. Next, we discuss reasons for disabilities.

59
What Are Some Reasons for Disabilities?
We have just discussed four very different perspectives on disabilities. Let’s return to more
traditional views of disabilities and the conditions that cause them. (We discuss other
special learning needs that schools and society do not consider disabilities, including those
prompted by giftedness, social and economic inequities, and cultural and linguistic
differences, in Chapter 4.)

One way to organize the causes of disabilities is to divide them into three groups by time of
onset, whether before birth, during the birth process, or after birth. Prenatal or congenital
causes occur before birth and are often genetic or inherited. Heredity is responsible for
Down syndrome and congenital deafness. Diseases and infections in expectant mothers,
such as HIV/AIDS, can devastate an unborn baby, and such events are also considered
prenatal. Perinatal causes occur during the birthing process. They include low birth weight
and injuries due to oxygen deprivation, umbilical cord accidents, obstetrical trauma, and
head trauma. One common perinatal cause of disabilities is cerebral palsy (CP). Postnatal
causes occur after birth, and here the environment is a major factor. A few examples of
postnatal causes are child abuse and neglect, environmental toxins, and accidents.

Another way to consider why disabilities and special needs arise is to classify the reasons in
terms of biological causes, environmental causes, and other risk factors. Many of these
occur during all three periods of onset. Let’s briefly consider them.

60
Biological Causes of Disability
Heredity is a biological cause of disabilities, as are diseases and health conditions. Thus a
virus that results in a severe hearing loss is considered a biological cause. Seizure disorders
such as epilepsy are biological reasons for special health care needs, as are diseases such as
juvenile arthritis and polio. In Chapters 2 and 3, where we present information about
specific disabilities, we will have more to say about some types of conditions students bring
to school.

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Environmental Causes of Disability
In addition to biological factors, other situations can cause challenges that result in
educational difficulties. Some of these are environmentally based. Many are preventable,
but many others cannot be avoided.

Toxins abound in our environment. All kinds of hazardous wastes are hidden in
neighborhoods and communities. For example, one toxin that causes intellectual disabilities
is lead. We can pinpoint (and, you would think, eliminate) two major sources of lead
poisoning in the United States today: lead-based paint and leaded gasoline. Neither
product is sold today, but unfortunately lead has remained in the dirt children play in and
on the walls of older apartments and houses where they breathe it directly from the air and
household dust, eat paint chips, or put their fingers in their mouths after touching walls or
window sills. The Children’s Defense Fund (CDF) reports that some 16% of low-income
children in the United States have lead poisoning, compared with 4% of all U.S. children
(CDF, 2004). Lead is not the only source of environmental toxins government officials
worry about; other concerns include pesticides, industrial pollution from chemical waste,
and mercury found in fish (Keysor, 2006).

Other environmental issues can trigger problems for children as well. Asthma, a health
condition covered in our discussion of Section 504 later, is the leading cause of school
absenteeism. Teachers and schools can reduce problems with asthma through the use of
simple interventions. For example, asthma is often triggered by exposure to specific
allergens. For some students, the chance of an asthma attack is reduced when the classroom
is free of chalk dust, plants that generate pollen or mold, cold and dry air, smoke, paint
fumes, and chemical smells. For others, the fur of classroom pets can cause an episode.
Clearly, exposures to toxins are preventable, and the effect of a condition can be reduced.
Let’s learn now about students with disabilities.

Students With Disabilities

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What are the characteristics of students with disabilities?
Nationally, some 6.4 million children and youth ages 3 to 21, or about 13 percent of
students in public schools, are identified as having disabilities and are receiving special
education services from prekindergarten through 12th grade (U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Special Education Programs [OSEP], 2013). The federal government
describes 14 disability-specific categories that can be used to qualify infants, toddlers,
preschoolers, and young students eligible to receive special education services. Within these
categories are many conditions. For example, stuttering is included as a speech impairment,
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is included in the category of other health
impairments, and Tourette’s syndrome is included in the emotional disturbances category.

People think about these special education categories, or disabilities requiring specialized
educational responses, in different ways. First, the names for these categories differ slightly
from state to state, and parent and professional groups do not necessarily prefer the terms.
Second, some categories—such as deafness and hard of hearing—are often combined. And
they are often ordered and divided by prevalence, or the size of the category: high-
incidence disabilities occur in greater numbers and low-incidence disabilities occur less
often. Some people mistakenly think incidence or prevalence relates to the severity of the
disability. Remember, however, that all disabilities are serious, and mild to severe cases
occur within each range of incidence.

Table 1.2 shows an overview of the disabilities and the different ways they are referred to in
school settings. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004 requires
states to use these disability areas to qualify children and youth for special education
services. Note they are listed by whether the federal government considers them high or low
incidence. Check carefully to see how your state views these determinations about
prevalence. In Chapters 2 and 3, we discuss each of the disability categories, including their
prevalence rates. In the next section, we discuss the origins of special education.

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What Are the Origins of Special Education?
Although many people believe U.S. special education began in 1975 with the passage of the
national law we now call IDEA, it actually began more than 200 years ago. The legend of
special education’s beginnings is not only famous; it’s true. In 1799, farmers in southern
France found a young boy living in the woods, and they brought this “wild child” to a
doctor in Paris. Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, the doctor who now is recognized as the “father
of special education,” used many of the principles and procedures of explicit instruction
still implemented today to teach this boy, who was named Victor and who probably had
intellectual disabilities.

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In the early 1800s, Edouard Seguin, one of Itard’s students, came to the United States and
began efforts to educate students with disabilities. In fact, these early efforts were taking
root across Europe as well. For example, in Italy, Maria Montessori worked first with
children with cognitive disabilities and showed they could learn at young ages through
concrete experiences offered in environments rich in manipulative materials. Meanwhile,
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet began to develop deaf education, and Samuel Gridley Howe
founded the New England Asylum for the Blind (later the Perkins Institute). Elizabeth
Farrell initiated public school classes for students with disabilities in 1898. Although special
education and the idea of educating students with disabilities are not new, they were not
uniformly accepted. In the United States, it was another 75 years before education became
a right, something all students with disabilities were entitled to receive. You may be
surprised to learn, in the next section, that the guarantees in place today were adopted
rather recently.

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Inconsistent Opportunities
Although positive attitudes about the benefits of educating students with disabilities
emerged centuries ago, the delivery of programs remained inconsistent for almost 200
years. In 1948 only 12% of all children with disabilities received special education (Ballard,
Ramirez, & Weintraub, 1982). As late as 1962, only 16 states had laws that included
students with mild intellectual disabilities under mandatory school attendance requirements
(Roos, 1970). In most states, these children were not allowed to attend school, and those
with more severe disabilities were routinely excluded.

In the early 1970s, Congress studied the problem, and here’s what it found (20 U.S.C.
section 1400 [b]):

One million of the children with disabilities in the United States were excluded
entirely from the public school system.
More than half of the eight million children with disabilities were not receiving
appropriate educational services.
The special educational needs of these children were not being fully met because they
were not receiving necessary related services.
Services within the public school system were inadequate and forced families to go
outside the public school system, often traveling great distances from their residence
and at their own expense.
If given appropriate funding, state and local educational agencies could provide
effective special education and related services to meet the needs of children with
disabilities.

Congress realized that special education, with proper financial assistance and educational
support, was necessary to make a positive difference in the lives of these children and their
families.

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Court Cases: A Backdrop for National Legislation
The end of World War II ushered in a time of increased opportunities for all, eventually
leading to the civil rights movement of the 1960s and to advocacy for people with
disabilities during the 1970s. Before then, concerns about unfair treatment of children with
disabilities and their limited access to education were being brought to the courts and
legislatures state by state. Table 1.3 summarizes landmark state and local court cases that
prepared the way for national special education to be consistently offered to all children
with disabilities. After years of exclusion, segregation, and denial of basic educational
opportunities, consensus was growing that a national civil rights law, guaranteeing students
with disabilities access to the education system, was imperative. Next, we discuss laws and
court decisions regarding special education.

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What Laws and Court Decisions Protect Students with
Disabilities?
The nation’s policymakers reacted to injustices revealed in court case after court case by
passing federal laws to protect the civil rights of individuals with disabilities (Florian,
2007). Table 1.4 lists some of the important laws passed by Congress that affect individuals
with disabilities. As you study these, notice how one law set the stage for the next.

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69
Section 504
In 1973 Congress passed Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act, intended to
prevent discrimination against individuals with disabilities in programs that receive federal
funds. Section 504 required public buildings to provide accommodations, such as
wheelchair ramps, to allow or facilitate access by people with disabilities. This means public
schools must provide accommodations to students whose disabilities or health conditions
require some special attention in order to allow them to participate fully in school activities.
This law set the stage for both IDEA and the Americans with Disabilities Act, because it
included some protection of the rights of students with disabilities to public education and
many provisions for adults with disabilities and their participation in society and the
workplace. Let’s direct our attention now to the law that specifically targets schoolchildren
and their families.

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Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Congress first considered the civil rights of people with disabilities when it passed Section
504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. However, after almost 20 years, Congress became
convinced by advocates, many of whom were themselves adults with disabilities, that
Section 504 was not sufficient and did not end discrimination for adults with disabilities. It
took stronger measures by passing yet another law. On July 26, 1990, President George H.
W. Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which bars discrimination in
employment, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications. Bush said,
“Let the shameful walls of exclusion finally come tumbling down.” Senator Tom Harkin
(D-IA), the chief sponsor of the act, spoke of this law as the “emancipation proclamation”
for people with disabilities (West, 1994).

ADA guarantees people with disabilities access to all aspects of life—not just those
supported by federal funding—and implements the concept of normalization across all
aspects of U.S. life. Both Section 504 and ADA are considered civil rights and
antidiscrimination laws (deBettencourt, 2002). ADA supports and extends Section 504 and
ensures adults with disabilities greater access to employment and participation in everyday
activities that adults without disabilities enjoy. It requires employers not to discriminate
against qualified applicants or employees with disabilities and mandates new public
transportation (buses, trains, subways) and new or remodeled public accommodations
(hotels, stores, restaurants, banks, theaters) to be accessible to persons with disabilities.

ADA has had a substantial impact on the daily lives of people with disabilities. For
example, it requires telephone companies to provide relay services so deaf individuals and
people with speech impairments can use ordinary telephones. It is thanks to ADA that curb
cuts for wheelchairs also make it easier for everyone to use carts, strollers, and even roller
skates when crossing streets. For students making the transition from school to adult life,
improvements in access and nondiscrimination should allow genuine participation in their
communities.

Section 504 and ADA also affect the education system, but there are some important
differences between them and IDEA. Section 504 and ADA incorporate a broader
definition of disabilities than does IDEA, because they guarantee the right to
accommodations even to those who do not need special education services and to those
beyond school age. For example, it is under the authority of ADA that college students with
special needs are entitled to special testing situations (untimed tests, Braille versions,
someone to read the questions to them) and that schoolchildren with ADHD who do not
qualify for special education receive special accommodations.

Like IDEA, the ADA law has sparked controversy. On the one hand, some members of the
disability community are disappointed because they still cannot find jobs suited to their

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interests, training, or skills. On the other hand, many small-business owners claim that
ADA requires them to make accommodations that are expensive and rarely used.

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
We’ve seen that Congress found widespread patterns of exclusion, denial of services, and
discrimination (Knitzer, Steinberg, & Fleisch, 1990). Therefore, it decided that a universal,
national law guaranteeing the rights of students with disabilities to a free appropriate public
education was necessary. The first version of the special education law was passed in 1975
and was called Public Law (PL) 94-142, Education for All Handicapped Children Act
(EHA). (The first set of numbers refers to the session of Congress in which the law was
passed, the second set to the number of the law. Thus EHA was the 142nd law passed in
the 94th session of Congress.) Congress gave the states two years to get ready to implement
this new special education law, so it was actually initiated in 1977. It was to be in effect for
10 years, and for it to continue, a reauthorization process was required. After the first 10-
year period, the law was to be reauthorized every 3 years.

IDEA

EHA was reauthorized the first time in 1986. (Congress gives itself a couple of extra years
to reauthorize laws so they do not expire before the congressional committee can complete
the job of rewriting them.) Congress added services to infants, toddlers, and their families
in this version of the special education law. In its next reauthorization, Congress
(retroactively) changed the name of the law to PL 101-476, the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), added autism and traumatic brain injury as special
education categories, and strengthened transitional services for adolescents with disabilities.
In the 1997 reauthorization of IDEA, issues such as access to the general education
curriculum, participation in state and district-wide testing, and discipline assumed
prominence. When the law was passed again in 2004, many changes were made in the way
students with learning disabilities can be identified. This version of the law also encourages
states and school districts to help all young students who are struggling to read, in hopes of
preventing reading/learning disabilities and also getting help as early as possible to those
who need it (U.S. Department of Education, 2006).

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Federal legislation broadly defines disabilities and impairments that significantly limit
one or more major life activities, including walking, seeing, hearing, and learning.

iStock/vm

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Court Decisions Defining IDEA
It is the role of the courts to clarify laws passed by Congress and implemented by the
administration (implementation of IDEA is the responsibility of the U.S. Department of
Education). Although Congress thought it was clear in its intentions about the educational
guarantees it believed necessary for children with disabilities and their families, no legal
language is perfect. Since 1975, when PL 94-142 (IDEA) became law, a very small
percentage of the children served have been engaged in formal disputes about the
identification of students with disabilities, evaluations, educational placements, and the
provision of a free appropriate public education. Most disputes are resolved in noncourt
proceedings or due process hearings. Some, however, must be settled in courts of law—a
few even in the U.S. Supreme Court. Through such litigation, many different questions
about special education have been addressed and clarified. Table 1.5 highlights a few
important U.S. Supreme Court decisions.

The issues and complaints the courts deal with are significant, and the ramifications of
those decisions can be momentous. For example, a student named Garret F. was paralyzed
as the result of a motorcycle accident at the age of 4. Thereafter, he required an electric
ventilator (or someone manually pumping an air bag) to continue breathing and to stay
alive. When Garret was in middle school, his mother requested that the school pick up the
expenses of his physical care while he was in school. The district refused the request. Most
school district administrators believed providing “complex health services” to students was
not a related service (and hence not the district’s responsibility), but rather a medical service
(excluded under the IDEA regulations). In other words, across the country, districts had
interpreted the IDEA law and its regulations to mean that schools were not responsible for
the cost of health services.

The Supreme Court, however, disagreed and interpreted IDEA differently. The justices
decided that if a doctor is not necessary to provide the health service, and the service is
necessary to keep a student in an educational program, then it is the school’s obligation to
provide the “related service.” The implications of this decision are enormous (Katsiyannis
& Yell, 2000). Not only are the services of additional staff expensive—between $20,000
and $40,000 per school year—but to them must be added increased liability for schools,
additional considerations for individualized education program (IEP) teams, administrative
costs, and the complications of having yet another adult in a classroom.

Now let’s turn our attention to a law that addresses the education of all students, with and
without disabilities.

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No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
In the last reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, known as the
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), students with disabilities were included in
many ways. This law requires that 95% of all schoolchildren be full participants in state
and district testing. One major goal of NCLB is to raise academic achievement for all
students while closing the achievement gap between poor, inner-city schools and schools in
middle-class suburban areas. Here are a few of the main features of NCLB related to
students with disabilities (Browder & Cooper-Duffy, 2003):

Use of scientifically based programs and interventions

Access to the general education curriculum
Insistence on highly qualified teachers
Evaluation of students’ performance with appropriate accommodations

Special Education Law

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77
Assistive Technology Act of 2004 (ATA)
On October 25, 2004, President George W. Bush signed the reauthorization of the
Assistive Technology Act (ATA; PL 108-364), or the Tech Act as it is more commonly
known, into law. People with disabilities find this law of growing relevance because they are
confident that increased accessibility in the future depends, in part, on technology. The
following Tech Notes provide information from the Tech Act about assistive technology
(AT).

AT is critical to the participation of people with disabilities in the workplace, in the

community, and in school; it removes barriers that restrict their lives. For example, AT
allows people with hearing problems to go to their neighborhood theaters and hear the
movie’s dialog through listening devices or read it via captions. It allows people with
physical disabilities to join friends at a local coffeehouse by using a variety of mobility
options. It provides text-to-audio translations to those who cannot access printed passages
because they cannot see and provides immediate audio-to-text translations to those who
cannot hear lectures (Hitchcock & Stahl, 2003). The potential is limited only by our
creativity and innovation.

However, AT is expensive and far beyond many people’s budgets, particularly those who
are underemployed or unemployed. For both students and adults, the Tech Act offers
(through the states’ loan programs) training activities, demonstrations of new devices, and
other direct services. This law allows students to test equipment and other AT devices both
at school and at home before actually purchasing them.

Access to information technology is important and unfettering to all of us, and restricted
access to it results in barriers with considerable consequences. Here’s how the National
Council on Disability (NCD) advised the president of the United States about this issue:

For America’s 54 million people with disabilities, however, access to such

information and technology developments is a double-edged sword that can
release opportunities or sever essential connections. On the one hand, such
developments can be revolutionary in their ability to empower people with
seeing, hearing, manual, or cognitive impairments through alternative means of
input to and interaction with the World Wide Web, information transaction
machines, and kiosks. On the other hand, electronic information and
technological developments can present serious and sometimes insurmountable
obstacles when, for example, basic principles of accessibility or universal design
are not practiced in their deployment. (NCD, 2001 p. 1)

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Influential court cases, landmark legislation, and laws related to education and to the
greater society have paved the way for special education services as we know them today.
We now turn our attention to a discussion about what makes special education “special.”

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TECH notes

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Assistive Technology Legislation
The term assistive technology device was first defined in the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals
with Disabilities Act of 1988 (PL 100-407). In this legislation, AT devices were defined as “any item, piece
of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off-the-shelf, modified, or customized,
that is used to increase, maintain or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities” (Sec.
3). Individuals with disabilities can use technology, whether disability-specific (e.g., Braille printers, speech
synthesizers), specialized (e.g., devices such as “good grip” utensils, ergonomic seating), or general (e.g.,
organizing tools), to help them become more independent citizens (Carey, Friedman, & Bryan, 2005). The
Tech Act applies to the education system and the federal legislation, IDEA (2004), mandates that IEP teams
must consider whether the student needs AT to receive a free appropriate public education (FAPE). School
districts have become increasingly aware that IEP team members need knowledge and skills to make
informed AT decisions.

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What Is Special Education?
Special education is designed to meet the unique learning needs of each infant, toddler,
preschooler, and elementary through high school student with disabilities, and individuals
up to the age of 21. This instruction might be delivered in many different types of settings,
such as hospitals, separate facilities, and homes, but it is most commonly provided at the
student’s local school in the general education class with neighborhood friends. Special
education reflects a variety of instructional targets: Braille for students who are blind,
manual communication systems for students who are deaf, social skills training for students
with emotional or behavioral disorders, and so on.

General education and special education differ along some very important dimensions. First
and foremost, they are designed for students with different learning, behavioral, social,
communication, and basic functional needs (such as the need to learn daily living skills).
Second, some differences are based in law—what is stated in IDEA and its regulations—
and result in key components of special education. Third, general education tends to focus
on groups of learners, whereas the special education approach focuses on individuals.

One way to gain a better understanding of special education is to study some of its key
distinguishing features. Although we cannot put forth a single description because these
services must be designed for each individual to meet his or her unique learning needs,
some fundamental tenets provide the foundation:

Free appropriate public education

Least restrictive environment
Systematic identification procedures
Individualized education programs
Family involvement
Related services
Access to the general education curriculum
Evidence-based practices
Frequent monitoring of progress

Let’s examine each of these features that form the foundation of special education.

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Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
From the very beginning of IDEA, Congress stipulated that educational services for
students with disabilities are to be available to parents at no additional cost to them. These
students, despite the complexity of their educational needs, the accommodations or
additional services they require, and the cost to a school district, are entitled to a free
appropriate public education (FAPE). Note that Congress included the word appropriate
in its language. FAPE must be individually determined, because what is appropriate for one
student with a disability might not be appropriate for another.

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Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
The second key feature of special education is that students with disabilities must receive
their education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). In other words, special
education services are not automatically delivered in any particular place. Today, LRE is
often misinterpreted as meaning placement in general education classes. IDEA does not
mandate that students with disabilities receive all their education in the general education
setting. The U.S. Department of Education, in its 2006 regulations implementing IDEA
’04 (the most recent law), explains LRE in this way:

To the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities, including

children in public or private institutions or other care facilities, are educated with
children who are nondisabled; and that special classes, separate schooling or other
removal of children with disabilities from regular educational environment
occurs only if the nature or severity of the disability is such that education in
regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved
satisfactorily. (U.S. Department of Education, 2006, pp. 46764–46765)

The federal government identifies an array of placements, in addition to the general

education classroom, that are appropriate for some students with disabilities. These
placements include resource rooms, special classes, special schools, home instruction
settings, and hospitals. For some students, exclusive exposure to the general education
curriculum is not appropriate. For example, a secondary student with significant cognitive
disabilities might need to master functional or life skills essential for independent living as
an adult. That student might also need to receive concentrated instruction on skills
associated with holding a job successfully. To acquire and become proficient in skills
necessary to live in the community and be employed often require instruction outside the
general education curriculum, outside the general education classroom, and beyond the
actual school site. This instruction is often best conducted in the community, on actual job
sites, and in real situations. In fact, community-based instruction is a well-researched,
effective special education approach (Dymond & Orelove, 2001). Thus there is no single or
uniform interpretation of LRE. A balance must be achieved between inclusive instruction
and a curriculum that is appropriate and is delivered in the most effective setting.

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Systematic Identification Procedures
To decide which students qualify for special education—those who actually have disabilities
—and of what that education should consist requires systematic identification procedures.
Because current methods tend to overidentify culturally and linguistically diverse students
as having disabilities and to underidentify them as being gifted and talented, many
professionals conclude that the special education identification process is flawed and needs
a major overhaul (MacMillan & Siperstein, 2002). Educators must be careful not to
identify students without disabilities. New procedures are being developed to identify
students with disabilities and to qualify them for special education. We discuss these
procedures in greater detail later in the text, but know that the role of general education
teachers in the identification process is evolving and growing. Teachers have primary
responsibility for the prereferral process, which includes gathering the documentation
necessary to begin the special education referral process (Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012).

The first task is to ensure that difficulties are not being caused by a lack of appropriate
academic instruction. The next is to collect data about the target student’s performance,
showing that high-quality classroom procedures do not bring about improvements in
academic or social behavior for this particular student. Then, for those students who do not
make expected gains, further classroom evaluations are conducted. The ensuing classroom
assessments include comparisons with peers who are achieving as expected, careful
monitoring of the target student’s progress (through curriculum-based measurements), and
descriptions of interventions tried, accommodations implemented, types of errors made,
and levels of performance achieved (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2004; Fuchs & Vaughn,
2012). Students who continue not to profit from instruction in their general education
class are referred for formal evaluation and probable provision of special education services.

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Individualized Education Programs (IEPs)
At the heart of individualized programs are individualized education programs (IEPs) for
schoolchildren ages 3 to 21 and individualized family service plans (IFSPs) for infants and
toddlers (birth through age 2) with disabilities and their families. Each of these students is
entitled to an individually designed educational program complete with supportive (related)
services. In some states, the guarantee of an individualized education is extended to gifted
students as well, but because federal law does not protect gifted students’ special education,
this is not a requirement.

IEPs and IFSPs are the cornerstones that guarantee an appropriate education to each
student with a disability. The IEP is the communication tool that spells out what each
child’s individualized education should comprise. Therefore, every teacher working with a
special education student should have access to the student’s IEP. They should all be very
familiar with its contents because this document includes important information about the
required accommodations, the necessary special services, and the unique educational needs
of the student. We devote an entire chapter to IEPs (see Chapter 6).

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Family Involvement
Expectations of parent and family involvement are greater for students with disabilities than
for their peers without disabilities, and the strength of families and their engagement with
the school can make a real difference in the lives of their children (Garcia, 2001). For
example, parents are expected to participate in the development of their children’s IEPs and
become partners with teachers and schools. Families have the right to due process when
they do not agree with schools about the education planned for or being delivered to their
children. They are also entitled to services not usually offered to parents of typical learners.
For example, parents of infants and toddlers with disabilities (birth to 2 years of age) receive
intensive instruction through special education along with their children.

Recognizing the challenges parents often face in raising and educating their children with
special needs, advocacy groups and professional organizations have formed over the years to
support families and those who work with them. For example, the Learning Disabilities
Association of America has a long history of advocacy on behalf of individuals with learning
disabilities and the professionals and families who work with them. The ARC, formerly
known as the Association for Retarded Citizens of the United States, is another advocacy
group. Its focus includes ensuring that all students are provided appropriate public
education services. CHADD (Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder) is made up of hardworking volunteers who provide support and resources to
parents and professionals. The Federation of Families for Children’s Mental Health
(FFCMH) exists to provide national-level advocacy for the rights of children with
emotional, behavioral, and mental health challenges and their families. It works
collaboratively with a national network of family-run organizations.

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 Parents and family members of students with disabilities have important roles to play.
Linking home and school communities is the responsibility of both families and
teaching professionals.

thinkstock/Jack Hollingsworth

Leaders in these organizations, who often are parents, have succeeded in influencing
funding at the state and national levels for appropriate educational services for students
with disabilities. Parent advocacy groups are very powerful, as shown by their contribution
to key court cases resulting in legislation that now protects students with disabilities in all
aspects of the educational system.

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Related Services
Another important difference between general and special education is the array of services
the latter offers to help students with disabilities profit from instruction. Related services
are the multidisciplinary or transdisciplinary set of services many students with disabilities
require if their education is to be truly appropriate. They are specified in the student’s IEP
and can include adaptive physical education (PE), assistive technology, audiology, diagnosis
and evaluation, interpretation for the deaf, family therapy, occupational therapy (OT),
orientation and mobility, the assistance of paraprofessionals (paraeducators and teacher
aides), physical therapy (PT), psychological services, recreation and therapeutic-recreation
therapy, rehabilitative counseling, school counseling, school nursing, school social work,
speech/language pathology, special transportation, vocational education, and work study
(U.S. Department of Education, 2006). For example, in some cases a paraprofessional,
sometimes called a paraeducator, supports the special education program and works with a
special education student in the general education classroom (Allen & Ashbaker, 2004).
These professionals’ services often make inclusion possible because they provide
individualized assistance to students with disabilities for extended periods of the school day
(Trautman, 2004). Multidisciplinary teams of related services professionals go into action
to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities. The federal government considers
the cost of these professionals—such as school nurses and school counselors—to be covered
in part by funding from IDEA ’04 (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). You will learn
more about collaboration and how to work with students who exhibit special needs in
Chapter 5, and more about related services in Chapter 6. The following Working Together
feature provides an example of how professionals from different services work together to
benefit students, educators, and families.

Most related services specialists are itinerant, working at several schools during the same
day and at many different schools across the week. Scheduling their time can be
complicated, but it is vital to ensure no educational opportunity is missed.
Multidisciplinary teams of experts not only deliver critical services to students with
disabilities and their families but also serve as valuable resources to teachers as they strive to
meet the needs of each student. Despite the remoteness of a school, the distance a specialist
might have to travel, or the shortage of related services specialists, there is no excuse for not
making these experts available to teachers or their students with disabilities.

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WORKING together

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Collaboration for Supporting Student Learning
A school’s child study team, consisting of the classroom teacher, school counselor, assistant principal, and
special education teacher, was concerned about the behavior of a 6-year-old, first-grade boy. Information
from the classroom teacher indicated that the boy exhibited erratic, unpredictable behavior, throwing chairs
in the classroom and having temper tantrums when things did not go his way. The classroom teacher was
concerned about how to stop these behaviors, teach the student appropriate ways to behave, and keep all her
students safe. The child study team worked collaboratively with the school psychologist, district behavior
specialist, and parents to problem-solve the situation.

The team decided to collect further information to better understand the needs of the student and ways to
help the classroom teacher. The school psychologist was going to conduct an assessment to better
understand the emotional and social well-being of the student. The district behavior specialist was going to
conduct classroom observations to determine events that led up to or followed challenging behaviors. The
school counselor was going to interview the parents to hear their perspectives about the student and
challenging behavior. The team’s collective information would be used to determine a plan to help the
student and classroom teacher. In the meantime, the district behavior specialist worked with the classroom
teacher to address immediate behavior issues in the classroom.

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Questions
1. What information from the parents could help school professionals better understand the needs of
the student?
2. What information from the classroom teacher could help the child study team better understand
the student’s behavior in the classroom?
3. What questions might you ask the classroom teacher about the student’s behavior?

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Access to the General Education Curriculum
Another key feature of special education is access to the general education curriculum. In
response to the fact that only 54% of students with disabilities leave school with a standard
diploma, parents, policymakers, and advocates insist such students participate in the general
education curriculum and be assessed in the accountability measures (state and district-wide
tests) that monitor all students’ progress (OSEP, 2006). Advocates contend that students
who receive their education in inclusive general education classrooms are more likely to
have greater exposure to the standard curriculum and a better chance of graduating with a
standard high school diploma than those students who receive their education in more
restrictive environments, such as self-contained special education classrooms. Therefore,
when IDEA was reauthorized in 1997, it required that all students with disabilities have
access, to the fullest extent possible, to the general education curriculum and its
accountability systems.

The 2001 NCLB law strengthened such requirements and expectations by including most
students with disabilities in state and district-wide testing. IEPs must address students’
access and participation in the general education curriculum and justify limitations
(Wehmeyer, Lattin, Lapp-Rincker, & Agran, 2003). IDEA ’04 requires that when a
student is removed from the typical general education curriculum, the IEP must specifically
explain why the student cannot participate at this particular point in time (U.S.
Department of Education, 2006). One interpretation of this requirement is to define “least
restrictive environment” as meaning access to a curriculum, rather than to a place or
service.

Of course, access to the curriculum and to a specific place often go hand in hand, because
the general education classroom is the place where students have the greatest opportunity to
access the standard curriculum. The general education curriculum is not appropriate for all
students with disabilities, however. Some require an alternative curriculum, intensive
treatment, or supplemental instruction on topics not available or not suitable for
instruction in the general education classroom. Examples include orientation and mobility
training for students who are blind, job skills training in community placements, public
transportation instruction, social skills training, physical therapy, speech therapy for a
student who stutters, and phonics instruction for a third grader. Placement issues, LRE,
access to the general education curriculum, and alternative curricular options are not
mutually exclusive. Each can be in effect for part of the school day, school week, or school
year.

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Evidence-Based Practices
Passage of NCLB in 2001 and IDEA in 2004 emphasized teachers’ applying evidence-
based practices, sometimes referred to as scientifically based practices. These tactics have
been proven effective through systematic and rigorous research. In fact, according to IDEA
’04, documentation that evidence-based practices were implemented must exist before a
student believed to have a learning disability can be referred. The student’s responses to
these practices must also be documented as part of the process of identifying the disability.
This new process, promoted and endorsed in IDEA ’04, is known as response to
intervention (RTI).

We define special education, in part, by its practices, which are more intensive and
supportive than those for students without learning problems. Many of these proven
interventions share six common features (Coyne, Kame’enui, & Carnine, 2011; Swanson,
Hoskyn, & Lee, 1999):

1. Validated (using practices proved effective through research)

2. Individually determined (matching teaching procedures to individuals)
3. Explicit (directly applying interventions to content and skills)
4. Strategic (helping students apply methods to guide their learning)
5. Sequential (building on previous mastery)
6. Monitored (evaluating progress frequently and systematically)

Most students with disabilities and most of those with special needs do not require this
intensive instruction for all their education. But when their learning is not on a par with
that of their general education peers, it is time for action.

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Frequent Monitoring of Progress
Even when teachers carefully select validated practices, there is no guarantee the individual
student will respond positively or sufficiently. For this reason, teachers use progress
monitoring—a set of evaluation procedures that assess the effectiveness of instruction on
skills while they are being taught. The four key features of this approach are that students’
educational progress is measured (a) directly on skills of concern, (b) systematically, (c)
consistently, and (d) frequently.

The most effective means of implementing progress monitoring is curriculum-based

measurement (CBM). In this approach, the areas of most concern are measured directly to
check progress on the curricular tasks, skills, or behaviors to which interventions are being
directed (Deno, 2003; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Powell, 2004). These assessments occur often
(perhaps weekly) and provide educators with useful feedback, on the basis of which they
can quickly modify their instructional approaches (McMasters, Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton,
2000). Because it tailors the special education a student receives, by guiding the selection of
practices and monitoring their effectiveness, CBM must not be omitted. You will learn
more about monitoring student progress when specific curriculum targets (such as reading)
are discussed in Chapter 8. We turn our attention now to discussing inclusive education.

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What Is Inclusive Education?
The term inclusive education usually means that students with disabilities access the
standard curriculum in the general education classroom. Miscommunication can easily
occur when the term inclusion is used: Whereas one person might use the word to mean
that a student attends a neighborhood school and receives most instruction in the general
education classroom, to another it might mean all the student’s instruction is delivered in
the general education classroom. It is easy to assume everyone is truly communicating
about where a student should be educated, but it is wiser to be sure everyone is using the
same definition before having an in-depth discussion of students’ education. To understand
the concept of inclusive education better, let’s review how it emerged and developed.

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Origins of Inclusion
The basic concepts of inclusion and integration of students with disabilities into the public
education system have their roots in the original IDEA law passed in 1975. Remember that
before 1975, many children with disabilities were denied access to public education. To
those who were instrumental in developing the original IDEA law, inclusion probably
meant that children with disabilities had the right to go to public school and receive a free
education. Neither the type of school nor the location where the education was delivered
was the focus of advocacy efforts.

When education became mandatory for all students with disabilities, the nation saw a rise
in the number of separate schools built specifically for them. Real growth also occurred in
the number of special classes—sometimes on the grounds of neighborhood schools but
often in basements and portable buildings—for this newly included group of students. The
first model for inclusive education reflected the idea that whenever possible students with
disabilities should be included in the public education system and mainstreamed, or
educated together with peers without disabilities, such as in art, music, and physical
education.

Was the creation of segregated programs for these students contrary to the concept of
inclusion? Most likely, at that time, the answer to this question would have been a
resounding “no.” Special schools and special classes offered highly specialized programs to
students with disabilities and their families. Some special schools offered facilities and
services that are feasible to deliver only when students with similar needs are congregated.
For example, when all students with severe physical disabilities in one school district attend
the same school, the building can include a special therapy pool and the full-time services
of many related services professionals like physical therapists, occupational therapists, and
speech/language pathologists. When these students attended their neighborhood schools,
they were spread across many different buildings and large geographic areas, diluting the
intensity of services available to them. Many families believed the potentially negative
aspects of segregation were outweighed by the highly specialized services it made possible.

Inclusive Education

As time passed, however, dissatisfaction with segregated programs grew. Parents began to
question whether separating youngsters from their siblings and neighborhood friends was
the best strategy for their education. Professionals and policymakers were concerned about
the efficacy of special education programs and practices (Finn, Rotherham, & Hokanson,
2001; Gartner & Lipsky, 1987). Professionals and policymakers came to believe separate

97
programs were ethically and morally wrong (Sailor, 1991; Snell & Brown, 2006). In
particular, advocates for students with severe disabilities maintained that the benefits of
having “typical” role models (illustrating how children without disabilities behave and
interact with each other) outweighed intensive services that might be more readily available
when groups of youngsters needing a particular program were clustered together (Turnbull,
Turnbull, Wehmeyer, & Shogren, 2016). Across the years, thinking about special
education and the students it serves evolved. To many, LRE—that is, access to the general
education curriculum—has emerged as the more critical variable to be considered when
decisions about special education placement are made.

Of course, participation in the general education curriculum does not automatically result
just because students with disabilities are placed in typical classroom settings (Zigmond,
2003). Something special needs to happen. One approach, universal design for learning
(UDL), focuses on the curriculum so a broad range of students with very different learning
preferences can approach it and learn without an intervention being made especially for
them. A second approach focuses on helping students, via assistive technology, to
compensate for challenges they bring to the instructional situation. The third and most
commonly used approach focuses not on the curriculum but on making adaptations to the
instructional situation that match specific students’ needs (Fisher, Frey, & Thousand,
2003). In Chapter 7, you will learn about universal design for learning and assistive
technology. You will also learn about specific adaptations to help students access the general
education curriculum so they can learn alongside their peers without disabilities.

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Video case 1.1

Inclusive Education

1. The teachers in the video discuss inclusive education in their schools and classrooms. What
practices are used to support successful inclusion? What are the similarities and differences
between the elementary and high school levels?
2. What are the advantages of inclusive education? How do these advantages support teachers’
and students’ success within the inclusive classroom?

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Inclusive Education Practices
As you have read, inclusive education has many different interpretations. The range of
interpretations is the foundation for different inclusive education practices. For example,
one interpretation of inclusive education is called full inclusion using pull-in
programming, where students receive all educational services in the general education
classroom. With this practice, speech/language pathologists come to the general education
class to work with a student who needs speech therapy, rather than removing the student
for individualized work. Another interpretation is called coteaching, wherein special
education teachers come to general education classrooms to work with students needing
intervention or share instructional duties across academic content for all students in the
class (Friend, 2000; Villa, Thousand, & Nevin, 2004). You will learn more about
coteaching in Chapter 5.

Inclusion

The array of services, or what is often called the special education continuum of services
(an older term is cascade of services), offers additional practices for serving students with
disabilities when they are not receiving some or all of their education in the general
education classroom. Pullout programs include resource rooms, partially self-contained
special classes, self-contained special classes, and special education schools (center schools).
For the vast majority of students who receive most of their education in general education
classes, the resource room is the option for pullout special education services. Resource
room instruction often consists of small-group instruction focused on areas most in need of
intensive intervention. This instruction may occur for 30 to 60 minutes several days a
week. However, the number of these classes is shrinking because many students who attend
resource room settings now receive most if not all of their education in general education
classrooms (inclusive settings), thus leaving a reduced number of options available for even
short-term, intensive intervention (Moody, Vaughn, Hughes, & Fischer, 2000). For
example, in the 2005 school year, 79% of all students with disabilities—those with mild to
moderate disabilities as well as those with severe disabilities—received at least 60% of their
education at local public schools in general education classes (OSEP, 2006). The
participation rates for students with disabilities in general education classes have increased
consistently over the past 15 years, and only 4% of those students attend separate schools or
facilities today, down from 20% in 1993 (U.S. Department of Education, 1995). Clearly,
these data demonstrate a trend toward more inclusive education practices.

100
Video case 1.2

Challenges of Inclusive Education

1. What challenges do schools face when implementing inclusive education? How can these
challenges be even more significant for small school districts? What solutions does Mia
Tannous share?
2. Which challenges mentioned in the video are directly related to funding issues? How can
educational funding impact the quality of inclusive education?

101
The Inclusion Debate
At the heart of discussions about inclusive education, particularly full inclusion, is the
dynamic tension between FAPE and LRE: the delivery of an appropriate education and
participation in the least restrictive environment possible. Let’s think about how some of
these conversations might unfold.

For example, should full-time placement in a general education setting be a goal for every
student with a disability, even if some elements of an educational program that an
individual needs to achieve to his or her full potential have to be sacrificed? For a high
school student with severe disabilities, parents and educators might have to decide which is
more appropriate or more important: access to the standard high school curriculum leading
to a diploma (including science and foreign language requirements) or community-based
instruction where on-the-job training, independent transportation, and home management
are taught in real-life settings.

Some scholars argue that full inclusion, where students with disabilities receive all their
education in a general education setting, is not sufficient to support those with more severe
needs, whether academic, emotional, social, or physical. Other scholars believe all students
have a right to fully inclusive educational practices where they can benefit from being
integrated into a school setting with their peers and gain a sense of belonging and active
participation in the mainstream. Thus the role of special education services is to support all
students with special needs in general education classes by designing instruction and
applying adaptations that accommodate individual learning needs. The inclusion debate
more often includes perspectives and discussions that range along a continuum where
professionals and parents embrace the strengths of different inclusive practices and make
decisions based on individual student needs.

102
A dilemma for parents and educators of high school students with severe disabilities is
which is more appropriate or more important: access to the standard high school
curriculum leading to a diploma, or community-based instruction where on-the-job
training, independent transportation, and home management are taught in real-life

103
 settings.

iStock/nullplus

Some guidelines can help when challenging decisions are being made. First, special
education placement decisions must be individually determined, because services should be
tailored to the needs of each student with disabilities. Second, no single answer is possible
for all students with disabilities. Third, students with disabilities need an array of services
(and placements) available to them for the delivery of individualized education programs
that range in intensity and duration (Deshler, 2001; Vaughn, Elbaum, & Boardman,
2001). Few professionals or parents advocate either for fully inclusive settings or for fully
segregated settings. The guiding principle must be based not on placement alone but on
how students can best access the general education curriculum, master academic targets,
and develop life skills they need to succeed when they are adults.

104
Summary
You have now embarked on what we believe is an exciting course of study. You have begun
to learn about the challenges that exceptionalities and special needs present to the
individuals involved and to their families, teachers, and friends. You have already learned
that many of these challenges can be overcome when the educational system is responsive to
the individual needs of these students. You also know that responses to such challenges
must be rich with evidence-based practices that are supported by teams of professionals
working together in collaborative partnerships. For students with disabilities, the education
system should be inclusive but also flexible enough to strike an intelligent balance between
FAPE and LRE—types of education, services, and placement—for each individual. As you
are coming to learn, many provisions, requirements, and legal mandates guide your role as
an inclusive educator. Sometimes, these principles can seem overwhelming and confusing,
but when all of the hard work pays off, and students soar, the accomplishments are
everyone’s to share. As you read this text, the puzzle of inclusive education will come
together as you reach an understanding about how to teach and accommodate every
academic and social area where students with disabilities and special needs require
intervention.

105
REVIEW THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain about and cannot
talk through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the
text.

What is the ADAPT framework and how do I use it?

The ADAPT framework we have devised is a tool for instruction and assessment of
struggling learners that reflects proven best practice in the field. It will help you
develop a mind-set for the selection of effective interventions and teaching practices.
The framework, discussed in detail in Chapter 7, reflects and underscores the mind-
set we want you to take away from your course. You can use its five steps to help you
make informed decisions about adapting your instruction based on individual
students’ needs and the tasks all students must complete in school.
What is a disability?

The concept of disability is complex, is not absolute, and is influenced by individuals’

and groups’ orientations (psychological, medical, sociological). The way groups think
about what it means to have a disability affects the way they interact with people with
disabilities.
What are some reasons for disabilities?

One way to think about the reasons for disabilities is to divide them into three groups
by time of onset, whether before birth, during the birth process, or after birth. Three
other ways to consider the reasons include biological causes, environmental causes,
and other risk factors.
Who are students with disabilities?

Nationally, some 6.4 million children and youth ages 3 to 21, or about 13% of
students in public schools, are identified as having disabilities and are receiving
special education services in prekindergarten through 12th grade. The federal
government describes 14 disability-specific categories that can be used to qualify
infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and young students eligible to receive special
education services. These special education categories are often ordered and divided
by prevalence or the size of the category: high-incidence disabilities occur in greater
numbers and low-incidence disabilities occur less often.
What are the origins of special education?

Many people believe U.S. special education began in 1975 with the passage of the
national law we now call IDEA, but it actually began more than 200 years ago. In
1799, farmers in southern France found a young boy living in the woods, and they

106
brought this “wild child” to a doctor in Paris. Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, the doctor
who now is recognized as the “father of special education,” used many of the
principles and procedures of explicit instruction still implemented today to teach this
boy, who was named Victor and who probably had intellectual disabilities. In the
early 1800s, Edouard Seguin, one of Itard’s students, came to the United States and
began efforts to educate students with disabilities. In the United States, it was
another 75 years before education became a right, something all students with
disabilities were entitled to receive.
What laws and court decisions protect students with disabilities?

Section 504 requires public schools to provide accommodations to students whose

disabilities or health conditions necessitate some special attention in order to allow
them to participate fully in school activities. ADA bars discrimination in
employment, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications.
Public Law (PL) 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA),
was the first version of a universal, national special education law passed in 1975 that
guaranteed the rights of students with disabilities to a free appropriate public
education. The most recent reauthorization of this law, the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act of 2004, mandates participation of students with
disabilities in state and district-wide testing, offers more specific guidelines about
discipline, and helps explain how students with learning disabilities can be identified.
It encourages states and school districts to help all young students who are struggling
to read, in hopes of preventing reading/learning disabilities. Finally, it includes the
following key components: free appropriate public education, least restrictive
environment, systematic identification procedures, individualized education
programs, family involvement, related services, access to the general education
curriculum, evidence-based practices, and frequent monitoring of progress. The No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) requires that 95% of all schoolchildren be
full participants in state and district-wide testing. The Assistive Technology Act of
2004 applies to both the education system and community access, recognizing that
AT is critical to the participation of people with disabilities in the workplace, in the
community, and at school; it removes barriers that restrict people’s lives.
What is special education?

Special education is designed to meet the unique learning needs of each infant,
toddler, preschooler, and elementary through high school student with disabilities
and individuals up to the age of 21. This instruction might be delivered in many
different types of settings, such as hospitals, separate facilities, and homes, but it is
most commonly provided at the student’s local school in the general education class
with neighborhood friends. General education and special education differ along
some very important dimensions. First and foremost, they are designed for students
with different learning, behavioral, social, communication, and basic functional needs

107
(such as the need to learn daily living skills). Second, some differences are based in
law—what is stated in IDEA and its regulations—and result in key components of
special education. Third, general education tends to focus on groups of learners,
whereas the special education approach focuses on individuals.
What is inclusive education?

Inclusive education means integrating students with disabilities with peers who do
not have disabilities by using neighborhood schools, general education classrooms,
and age-appropriate peers to maximize LRE and increase students’ access to the
general education curriculum. Inclusive education practices include using universal
design, differentiating (adapting) instruction, and providing assistive technology.

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108
Revisit the Opening Challenge
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. Do you think Ms. Smith and Mr. Salazar are overly concerned about their students’
varied needs? Do you think they are just having first-year-teacher jitters? Why or why
not?
2. What advice would you give them about planning for their students with disabilities
and for those with other special learning needs?
3. How can they learn more about the special education services their students should
be receiving this year?
4. In what ways can Ms. Smith and Mr. Salazar be responsive to all their students’
special needs?

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Key Terms
accommodations, 19
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 19
array of services, 35
assistive technology, 24
Assistive Technology Act, 23
bell-shaped curve, 9
community-based instruction, 27
congenital, 12
continuum of services, 35
coteaching, 34
curriculum-based measurement (CBM), 32
disabilities, 7
due process hearings, 21
Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA), 21
evidence-based practices, 31
free appropriate public education (FAPE), 26
full inclusion, 34
functional, 27
handicap, 12
high-incidence disabilities, 14
inclusive education, 33
individualized education programs (IEPs), 28
individualized family service plans (IFSPs), 28
individuals with Disabilities Education Act (idea, 2004), 12
itinerant, 30
least restrictive environment (LRE), 26
life skills, 27
low-incidence disabilities, 14
mainstreamed, 33
multidisciplinary teams, 29
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), 22
normal curve, 9
paraeducator, 29
paraprofessional, 29
perinatal, 12
postnatal, 12
prenatal, 12
prereferral process, 27
prevalence, 14

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progress monitoring, 32
Public Law (PL) 94-142, 21
pull-in programming, 34
pullout programs, 35
related services, 29
response to intervention (RTI), 32
Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act, 19
special education, 25
special education categories, 14
typical learners, 9
universal design for learning (UDL), 34

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111
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

112
CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences

113
INTASC Core Principle
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences

114
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Basic concepts in special education
II. Legal and Societal Issues: Federal laws and legal issues
III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities: Background knowledge

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

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115
1Although regional and personal preferences about specific terms used to identify ethnic
and racial groups vary, these terms are the ones used by the federal government.
Throughout this text, we use a variety of terms in an attempt to achieve balance.

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2 Understanding Learners with Special Needs High-
Incidence Disabilities or Conditions

iStock/track5

117
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What are the categories for students with disabilities?

How are disabilities organized for special education?
What are the attributes of students with learning disabilities?
What are the attributes of students with speech or language impairments?
What are the attributes of students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
What are the attributes of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities?
What are the attributes of students with emotional or behavioral disorders?

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OPENING challenge

119
Working in Inclusive Classrooms
Elementary Grades Ms. Clarkson is several months into her second year of teaching and is so glad that she
was assigned to third grade both years. She loves working at Jackson Elementary School, and she has great
kids. The more experienced teachers are always there for her. They answer questions and help her navigate
the bureaucracy, figure out how to get paperwork through the system, and think through issues related to
her students’ programs and how to respond well to their learning challenges. The teachers and
administrators all work together as a team. When Ms. Clarkson received a note from Central Office asking
her to come to a meeting because the IEP team was considering a change of diagnosis for one of her
students, she went to some of the senior teachers at her school.

The IEP team was concerned about her student Darren, who has received special education services since
kindergarten. Ms. Clarkson knows Darren’s history well and has met with his parents on several occasions.
Darren didn’t begin talking until he was about 3 years old. As a kindergartner, he was unable to rhyme
words, couldn’t identify sound-letter relationships as well as his peers, was behind in language development,
and seemed to have difficulty keeping up with classmates. In kindergarten, Mr. Frank, Darren’s teacher,
referred him for speech and language services. Darren qualified for special education and was identified as
having language impairments. Now, the speech and language therapist thinks it’s important to reclassify
Darren as having learning disabilities. Ms. Clarkson can’t understand the concern. Darren is receiving
special education help, and he is improving. She wonders, “Why are we going to spend so much time on
changing a special education label for Darren? Do all these different special education categories make a difference
in the way we teach? Will all the professional time spent on reclassification actually benefit Darren?”

Secondary Grades Mr. Suarez is a 10th-grade history teacher at Jackson High School. He is getting ready
for his third year of teaching and is reviewing student record folders to learn about his class and their
individual needs. The special education teacher is meeting with him to review the IEPs of three students he
will have in his classes. One student has a learning disability (LD), another has attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and a third student has a mild emotional/behavioral disorder
(EBD). The students will be in his third-period class, and the special education teacher will work with him
in his class during that period. Reading is an issue for the student with the LD; the student with ADHD
needs assistance with paying attention, and the student with EBD is on a behavior plan. Mr. Suarez starts to
think about questions for the special education teacher. What are the learning characteristics of these three
students? How severe is their disability? How can the special education teacher help me?

REFLECTION QUESTIONS In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. Do you think identifying students by specific disability is useful?

2. Why do you think Darren’s special education label is being reconsidered at this point in his
schooling?
3. Is Darren’s situation unusual? Why or why not?
4. Will a change in category influence the way Ms. Clarkson teaches Darren?
5. Will it change the services Darren receives?
6. What do you think are some learning characteristics of the three students in Mr. Suarez’s class?
7. What help might he be looking for from the special education teacher for these three students?

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120
 Review key terms with eFlashcards.
Watch videos to see teachers in action.

About 6.4 million or 13% of U.S. public schoolchildren, ages 3 to 21, have a disability that
affects their educational performance to such a degree that they require special education
services (U.S. Department of Education, OSEP, 2013). Looking at the statistics by age-
groups shows the need to provide children and youth with special education services. About
2.8% of the population of infants and toddlers, birth through age 2, were served under
IDEA, Part C (Chapter 6 provides more information about this population), and for
children ages 3 through 5, about 5.9% of the general population were served under IDEA,
Part B. In 2011, approximately 68 million students ages 6 to 21 attended school in the 50
states and the District of Columbia. Of this group, about 8.4% were identified with
disabilities and were eligible for services under IDEA, Part B (U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special
Education Programs, 2014). Figure 2.1 illustrates the percentage of students ages 6 to 21
with disabilities across the special education categories identified in Chapter 1. Clearly, the
learning disabilities category and the speech or language impairments category together
account for more than half the percentage of students with disabilities.

The “other disabilities combined” category includes deaf-blindness (less than 0.03 percent),
developmental delay (2.1 percent), hearing impairments (1.2 percent), multiple disabilities
(2.2 percent), orthopedic impairments (0.9 percent), traumatic brain injury (0.4 percent),
and visual impairments (0.4 percent).

Disabilities create very special needs for individuals, their families, and the education
system. Teachers and other educators can help students achieve their potential by
addressing their special needs, by providing them with many opportunities for learning and
for success, and by ensuring they receive a high-quality educational experience in order to
succeed at school. Teachers who are well-prepared, use proven practices and instructional
procedures, and provide students with additional assistance or accommodations do make
real differences in the educational lives of these students (Futernick, 2006). In this text, we
provide you with tools that improve the results of all students. Before you learn about how
to teach these students effectively, let’s think more about students with disabilities and
specifically about the special education categories considered to be high-incidence
disabilities. More information about prevalence figures for students from diverse
backgrounds is provided in the Considering Diversity feature.

Figure 2.1 Percentage distribution of children ages 6 to 21 served under IDEA, Part
B, by disability type: Fall 2012

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 Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics
[NCES], Common Core of Data [CCD] (2012). These data are for the 50 states;
Washington, DC; Bureau of Indian Education schools; Puerto Rico; the four
outlying areas; and the three freely associated states. For actual data used, go to
http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

[NCES], Common Core of Data [CCD] (2012). These data are for the 50 states;
Washington, DC; Bureau of Indian Education schools; Puerto Rico; the four outlying
areas; and the three freely associated states. For actual data used, go to
http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep.

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CONSIDERING diversity

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Overrepresentation and Underrepresentation
Identification Issues
As we discuss in other chapters, the overrepresentation of schoolchildren from some racial and ethnic groups
has been an issue in the field of special education for many years (Yates & Ortiz, 2004). The
underrepresentation of schoolchildren from other racial and ethnic groups, for example, those of Asian
heritage, also has been an issue for different reasons. As you review the statistics that follow, think about
why children and youth from various racial and ethnic groups are identified for special education services
while others are identified to a lesser degree. The following statistics report information about special
education service under IDEA by ethnic and racial group for infants and toddlers birth through age 2,
children ages 3 to 5, and children and youth ages 6 to 21.

Infants and toddlers served under IDEA, Part C, in 2011:

White and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander children were somewhat more likely
to be served than children of other racial and ethnic groups combined.
Black or African American children were as likely as children of all other racial and ethnic
groups combined to be served.
American Indian or Alaska Native, Hispanic/Latino, Asian, and mixed races children were
by group somewhat less likely to be served than all other racial/ethnic groups combined.
Children ages 3 through 5 served under IDEA, Part B, in 2011:
American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and White
children were by group more likely to be served than all other racial and ethnic groups
combined.
Black or African American children were as likely to be served as children in all other racial
and ethnic groups combined.
Asian, Hispanic/Latino, and mixed races children were less likely to be served than all other
racial and ethnic groups combined.
Students ages 6 through 21 served under IDEA, Part B, in 2011:
American Indian or Alaska Native, Black or African American, and Native Hawaiian or
Other Pacific Islander were more likely to be served than all other racial and ethnic groups
combined.
Asian, Hispanic/Latino, White, and mixed races children were less likely to be served than
all other racial and ethnic groups combined.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of
Special Education Programs (2014).

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What are the categories for students with disabilities?
Only students with disabilities are eligible for special education services, but not all of them
actually require special education services to meet their special needs. For example, many
students with physical disabilities do not require special education services. They excel as
they learn the content of the general curriculum alongside their peers who do not
experience physical challenges. These students may or may not need assistance or
accommodations, such as special floor mats so their wheelchairs can glide easily into the
school building or the classroom. These are students who have a disability and special
needs, but they are not special education students because their disability does not
negatively affect their educational performance.

Some physical disabilities do result in the need for special education services—possibly
from a physical therapist and an assistive technologist—to reduce the impact of the
disability on learning. Other students may have special needs and are entitled to
accommodations as well as extra help, but they do not have a disability. For example, some
students may require help managing their own behavior so they do not disrupt the learning
environment and so they themselves profit maximally from instruction, but they do not
have an emotional or behavioral disorder. And, as in the case of ADHD, some students
with a specific condition qualify for special education services, but many do not. In this and
the next two chapters, you will learn about students who have special needs because of the
disabilities or special conditions they have. You will learn that some of them are eligible for
special education services and supports, whereas others need accommodations or
adaptations to overcome the learning challenges they face.

There are many types of disabilities, each requiring unique services, and they are not
equally distributed; some occur more often than others. For example, many more students
have learning disabilities than have vision or hearing problems that hinder their educational
performance. According to the federal government, of students ages 6 to 21 who are served
under IDEA, Part B, about 73% have a learning disability, a speech or language
impairment, a mild to moderate intellectual disability, or an emotional or behavioral
disorder. These frequently occurring disabilities are often referred to as high-incidence
disabilities and make up about 8% of the school-age population (U.S. Department of
Education, OSEP, 2013). The remaining disabilities recognized in IDEA ’04 (the national
special education law)—orthopedic and other health impairments, low vision and
blindness, hard of hearing and deafness, traumatic brain injury, deaf-blindness, autism
spectrum disorders, and multiple-severe disabilities—are sometimes grouped together and
called low-incidence disabilities because together they affect a very small proportion of
students with disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, OSEP, 2013). You will learn
about these disabilities and the individuals affected in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4 you will
learn about other groups of students who do not qualify for special education services and

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supports but still require accommodations or extra assistance to fulfill their potential. All
these students have special needs that must be addressed for them to succeed in school.

Students with identified or documented disabilities are eligible for additional services and
supports through special education. As you learned in Chapter 1, the vast majority of
students with disabilities receive nearly all their education in inclusive general education
settings alongside their classmates without disabilities. Although it is not common for
students with high-incidence disabilities to be grouped together by their identified special
education category (students with learning disabilities in one group and students with
intellectual disabilities in another group), the federal government does require that all
students older than age 8 be identified and counted in one of the 13 special education
categories called out in IDEA ’04 (see Chapter 1 for a review). As discussed in Chapter 1,
children between the ages of 3 and 8 may fall under the developmental delays category.

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Video case 2.1

Meeting the Needs of Students With Disabilities

1. What supports does Nicole Santana provide to illustrate the concept of “fair is not always
equal”? How do these supports assist the students with disabilities who are included in her
classroom?
2. What advice does April Jacobsen offer to new teachers to help them meet the needs of
students with disabilities who are included in their classrooms? How can teachers increase
the acceptance of students with disabilities in their general education classrooms?

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How Are Disabilities Organized for Special Education?
Three major schemes are used to group disabilities for the purposes of meeting educational
needs. One classification system uses disability types or special education categories
(learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities). Another groups students by the severity of the
disability (mild, moderate, severe). And the third considers disabilities in terms of how
often they occur (high incidence, low incidence). Let’s look at each organizational system in
turn.

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Special Education Categories
IDEA ’04 and many parent organizations (such as Learning Disabilities Association of
America and Autism Society of America) encourage the use of disability labels, which
translate into special education categories. When it comes to schoolchildren, the
government has elected to define disabilities by using a categorical approach, and states are
required each year to use these categories to report the numbers of students with disabilities
being served (U.S. Department of Education, OSEP, 2013). Although many states use
terms slightly different than those used by the federal government, the similarities are
obvious (Müller & Markowitz, 2004). Within each of the 14 categories defined as
disabilities in IDEA ’04 and listed in Chapter 1 of this text, many conditions are included.
For example, ADHD, asthma, sickle-cell anemia, and many other health conditions are
part of the “other health impairments” category, not separate categories of their own.
Notice that giftedness is not included in the prevalence figure because it is not part of
IDEA. Its prevalence rate is estimated to be about 3% to 5% and includes students who
can benefit from services to address their intellectual levels, talents, and creativity.

Possibly because it is so difficult to change federal and state laws, the names some
government agencies use for disabilities might not always be what parents and professionals
consider modern or up to date. In this text, we have tried to use terms preferred by
individuals who have each specific disability, parents of children with each disability, and
the respective professional organizations. Here are a few examples of how terms and
thinking about specific disabilities vary. Ideas and research about autism have been
developing rapidly. Today, this disability is considered a spectrum of at least five similar
disorders, of which autism is one (DSM-5, APA, 2013). Thus, although IDEA ’04 still uses
the term autism, the more current conceptualization of this disability is much broader, as
reflected by the name autism spectrum disorders or ASD. As another example, IDEA ’04 uses
the term specific learning disabilities, but parents, professionals, and individuals with the
condition use the term learning disabilities. And although IDEA ’04 separates deafness from
hearing impairments, it does not separate visual disabilities into two groups (blindness and
low vision).

Perspectives on Disability

Although not found in a separate disability category, asthma is a common chronic

illness among children and is classified in the “other health impairments” category.
ADHD is a more common condition and is also found in this category.

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 AP Photo/The Daily Times, James B. Hale

These categories developed because at one time, they related directly to how and where
students with specific disabilities were educated and what they were taught. For example,
years ago, the category called “mental retardation” signaled separate classrooms, separate
schools, even separate living and schooling in institutions, and strict adherence to a
curriculum of life and self-help skills and training for low-level jobs. Today, the public,
professional organizations, educators, and policymakers embrace the term “intellectual
disabilities” to replace an outdated view of this disability and believe alternate curricula
should not be matched to specific disabilities; rather, the general education curriculum
should be offered to all students. Different curricular options are then extended to
individuals who have demonstrated that they cannot successfully access the standard
curriculum offered in general education (McLaughlin & Nolet, 2004).

Also, instructional methods are not uniformly effective for all students labeled with a
specific disability. Knowing a student has learning disabilities does not help a teacher figure
out which reading method to use. Educational interventions must be matched to the
individual learner’s performance, not to a special education category (Fuchs, Fuchs, &
Vaughn, in press). Many interventions effective with one student with disabilities are also
powerful for classmates without disabilities who find learning a challenging situation. Thus,
although special education categories have proved not to offer precision in guiding
instructional decision making, they remain the primary way students are identified and
labeled and qualify for special education services.

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Severity of Disability
As we have just noted, many educators believe that special education categories and the
resulting labeling of individuals have little or no educational function (Fisher, Frey, &
Thousand, 2003; Gargiulo, 2003). These professionals prefer a noncategorical approach
that groups students by the severity of their problems, not by the type of disability they
have. How does this system work?

Instead of thinking about the specific disability, educators consider how the condition
influences an individual’s performance. Typically, they use four groupings: mild, moderate,
severe, and profound. This system reflects the types of supports the individual needs in life
and at school (Luckasson & Schalock, 2013). Individuals with mild disabilities require
some accommodations, and those with severe disabilities require intensive supports and
assistance for a long time. We must be very cautious, however, when thinking about
disabilities by level of severity. First, it is a mistake to assume that one disability, such as
intellectual disability, is more severe than another, such as stuttering. All disabilities are
serious, and the effects on the individuals and their families should never be minimized.
Second, each disability grouping takes in a continuum of severity from mild to severe. It is
incorrect, for instance, to think all learning disabilities are mild.

Today, both the categorical and noncategorical approaches are used in classrooms. Students
are identified and reported to the federal government by disability, but fewer and fewer
separate schools or classes are available for students with a specific disability (OSEP, 2006).
Some professionals and advocacy organizations (such as TASH, an organization
representing individuals with severe and profound disabilities) have advocated for the
closure of all segregated programs for students with disabilities (TASH, 2004). Thus,
although IDEA ’04 requires that students qualify for special education by being identified
as having a specific disability, schools typically serve these students according to their needs
and educational performance. In both general education classes and special education
classes, students with disabilities are classmates but do not always share the same disabilities.

Neither of these first two organizing systems—by category or by severity—is related to the
number of individuals affected. Another way to organize our thinking about disabilities is
thus to group them by how often they occur. For example, some disabilities (such as
learning disabilities) occur more frequently than others; more students have mild
disabilities than have severe disabilities. Let’s consider organizing by prevalence.

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Video case 2.2

Including Students With High-Incidence Disabilities

1. Students with a variety of disabilities are often included in general education classes.
Students with which high-incidence disabilities may be included in Tema Khieu’s class?
2. What strategies does Ms. Khieu use to support the students with disabilities who are
included in her general education class? Which of these practices are you already familiar
with?

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Prevalence of Disability
Figure 2.2 illustrates that disabilities are not equally distributed across special education
students. Almost half of all students with disabilities are identified as having learning
disabilities, and most other disabilities are very rare. Some believe educators’ response to
high-incidence disabilities should be different from their response to low-incidence
disabilities. The latter often require specialized services from a multidisciplinary team of
professionals, such as an orientation and mobility specialist, assistive technology specialist,
and vision teacher who knows Braille instruction. General education teachers work with
many students with high-incidence disabilities every school year, but across their entire
careers, they may never work with a student with a specific low-incidence disability such as
blindness or deafness. In this chapter, we discuss ADHD and those disabilities considered
high-incidence conditions. In Chapter 3, we discuss low-incidence disabilities.

Figure 2.2 Prevalence of High- and Low-Incidence Disabilities

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, 2012.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, 2012.

We decided to organize our discussions about students with disabilities and special needs by
prevalence. Although they are not comprehensive, several tables in this chapter provide
commonly adopted definitions for each high-incidence condition. Compare these
definitions and think about the different perspectives that contributed to each definition’s
development to gain a better understanding of the condition and the students affected.
Let’s start learning about high-incidence conditions by thinking about the one most
common among schoolchildren: learning disabilities. Clearly, educators encounter students

133
with this disability every school day in almost every classroom. Therefore, it is important
that educators and specialists work together to ensure that all students are receiving an
appropriate education. The Working Together feature illustrates how educators and
specialists can collaborate for educational planning and instruction.

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WORKING together

135
Understanding Students with Special Needs
Think back to the opening challenge where Ms. Clarkson and Mr. Suarez are preparing for their classes.
Both teachers understand that they will be teaching students with disabilities. They are encountering two
situations that are important to know. Ms. Clarkson is learning about the importance of assigning the
correct disability label to a student, and Mr. Suarez wonders how the special education teacher can help
him. Whether working in a team, as in Ms. Clarkson’s situation, or consulting with the special education
teacher, as in Mr. Suarez’s situation, classroom teachers must be informed about special education and
collaborative practices to promote student success. It is important for Ms. Clarkson to understand why
reclassifying a label (e.g., language impairment to learning disability) promotes appropriate services, such as
providing more academic support, for the student with a disability. Mr. Suarez needs to work with the
special education teacher to ensure that when they are teaching together, the needs of his three students
with disabilities are addressed according to the IEP requirements. Both situations necessitate conveying of
information to the classroom teachers to benefit their students with disabilities.

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Questions
1. What questions might Ms. Clarkson ask at the IEP team meeting?
2. How can the speech and language therapist help Ms. Clarkson understand why the label is being
changed?
3. What information should the special education teacher provide to Mr. Suarez?
4. How can the special education teacher work with the three students with disabilities in Mr. Suarez’s
class?

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What are the attributes of Students with Learning
Disabilities?
Often incorrectly considered a mild condition, learning disability (LD) is a serious
disability. It is a severe, pervasive, and chronic condition that requires intensive
intervention (Bender, 2007; Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2006). Over the years, debate has
focused on whether there is a difference between low achievers and students with learning
disabilities. Some still question the validity of classifying learning disabilities as an actual
disability (Fletcher et al., 2002). However, parents and researchers are confident that
having learning disabilities is a complex and lifelong condition (Goldberg, Higgins,
Raskind, & Herman, 2003; Lerner & Kline, 2006).

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Definition
Although definitions for learning disabilities differ across the states, the federal
government’s definition, the one included in IDEA ’04, is the basis for them. The IDEA
’04 definition, along with that of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the latest
version by the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013), is found in Table 2.1. Like
the NIH definition, many states’ definitions reflect a more modern approach that has less
of a medical orientation, acknowledge that learning disabilities is a general term referring to
a heterogeneous group of disorders, allow for other conditions such as visual disabilities to
coexist with learning disabilities, and recognize the problems many affected individuals
have with social skills (Müller & Markowitz, 2004).

Look at Figure 2.2 again to see the disproportionate percentage of students included in this
special education category. Clearly, parents, policymakers, and education professionals are
most concerned about the number of students included in the learning disabilities category.
Another concern stems from the way the identification process works. The traditional
process requires that a student’s achievement be two years behind the expected level. In
other words, a third grader reading at the first-grade level is a prime candidate for referral to
special education because of a reading/learning disability. However, this scenario also means
the student has struggled for at least two years and has not received specialized attention in
a timely fashion. Many maintain such students struggle without assistance unnecessarily.
They can be identified as demonstrating academic difficulties as early as kindergarten, and
for many, supplemental evidence-based reading and mathematics intervention prevents
years of failure (Bryant et al., 2011; Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012; Vaughn & Linan-Thompson,
2004).

Therefore, IDEA ’04 allows for a different way to intervene early and provides
systematically more intensive instruction to all students struggling with reading and
mathematics during their beginning school years. The law also allows for a new way to
identify students as having learning disabilities; no longer must there be a significant
discrepancy between their ability and their academic performance before they get the
individualized instruction they need to succeed in school (U.S. Department of Education,
2006). This system, called response to intervention (RTI), incorporates multitiered systems
of support before the devastating effects of school failure take their toll (Fuchs & Fuchs,
2006; Kukic, Tilly, & Michelson, 2005; The Consortium for Evidence-Based Early
Intervention Practices, 2010). This method is also referred to as early intervention because
it is applied as early as possible to every student who is struggling, particularly those having
difficulty learning basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills. According to the RTI
system, those who do not learn sufficiently with high-quality instruction, and those who do
not learn reading, writing, and mathematics skills well enough after supplemental,
intensive, evidence-based intervention, are referred for special education evaluation. The

139
outcome of this evaluation may be the identification of learning disabilities (The IRIS
Center, 2006). Once they are eligible for special education services, they receive intensive,
individualized intervention.

Learning Disability Definition

140
Types
To better understand the diversity—the heterogeneity—of students with learning
disabilities, let’s examine these common profiles or types of learning disabilities:

Overall underachievement
Reading disabilities
Mathematics disabilities
Written expression disabilities

Despite having normal intelligence, students with learning disabilities do not achieve
academically on a par with their classmates without disabilities. Some face challenges in
almost every academic area. Most experts are certain that cognitive problems, poor
motivation, and/or an insufficient instructional response to their learning disabilities can be
at the root of some of these students’ learning challenges (Compton, Fuchs, Fuchs,
Lambert, & Hamlett, 2012). Some experts have long thought learning disabilities reflect
deficits in the ability to process or remember information (Torgesen, 2002). What appears
quite certain is that learning disabilities are resistant to treatment or “resistant to
intervention” (Vaughn et al., 2011). Affected students do not learn at the same rate or in
the same ways as their classmates (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006; Vaughn, 2005). The instruction
or intervention typically used in general education programs is not sufficient and does not
help them improve; more intensive individualized intervention is necessary.

141
Problems associated with academic learning can be overcome with explicit instruction
and intensive efforts. What benefits might this student receive from individualized
instruction?

Thinkstock/Comstock Images

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Reading difficulties—very low reading abilities—are the most common reasons for referrals
to special education (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2001). Because reading and writing are related, most
students with reading learning disabilities (sometimes called dyslexia) have written
expression learning disabilities (Graham & Harris, 2011; Hammill, 2004). Reading and
writing, obviously, are important skills; in school, students must be able to read
information from a variety of texts (social studies, science, literature) and write in varying
formats (essays, reports, creative writing, notes). As the complexity of academic tasks
increases, students not proficient in reading and writing become unable to keep pace with
academic expectations (Jenkins & O’Connor, 2002). As they progress through school,
reading disabilities compound and make it almost impossible to perform well on other
academic tasks, contributing to overall underachievement.

Although reading problems are the most common reason for referral, more than 50% of
students with learning disabilities also have mathematics learning disabilities (Fuchs, Fuchs,
& Compton, 2013). Some seem to have difficulties with mathematics alone, but for most,
this difficulty is part of an overwhelming and pervasive underachievement (Bryant, Bryant,
Porterfield, et al., 2014). Even so, as you will learn later in this text (in Chapters 10, 11,
and 12), many of these problems associated with academic learning can be overcome with
explicit instruction and intensive efforts.

143
Characteristics
Unexpected underachievement is the defining characteristic of learning disabilities
(Vaughn, Elbaum, & Boardman, 2001), meaning affected students perform significantly
below their peers and below levels that teachers and parents would expect from children of
their ability. Although some students have problems in only one academic area, most have
pervasive problems that affect the entire range of academic and social domains (Bryant,
Bryant, & Hammill, 2000; Gregg & Mather, 2002). Teachers often cite this group’s
heterogeneity as challenging because it seems that each student requires a unique response
(Fletcher et al., 2002). For example, some students might demonstrate difficulties with
reading and writing, yet their mathematics abilities are in the average range. Other students
could have difficulties in reading, writing, and mathematics plus exhibit problems with
social interactions. The characteristics listed in Table 2.2 are usually evident to varying
degrees.

Compounding these general characteristics are frustrations with the difficulties of learning
academic tasks that classmates seem to easily understand and master. Students with learning
disabilities cannot see the relationship between effort and accomplishment. When teachers
and parents remind them that working hard, studying, and applying effective learning
strategies to their schoolwork pays off, youngsters also learn that their efforts can lead to
success.

Many of these students are said to be inattentive (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2006). Either they
do not focus on the task to be learned or they pay attention to the wrong features of the
task. They are said to be distractible, disorganized, and unable to approach learning
strategically (Bender, 2007). Most students with learning disabilities also have problems
with generalization; that is, they have difficulty transferring their learning to different skills
or situations (Vaughn & Bos, 2012). They might apply a newly learned study skill in
history class but not in English class. Teachers can encourage generalization by making
clear connections between familiar problems and those that are new or novel (Fuchs et al.,
2002). When teachers carefully broaden the categories—either the skill or the situation—
and point out similar features, students extend their learning more readily. Thus, if a
student knows how to solve subtraction problems that require regrouping without zeros in
the minuend, for example, the teacher should carefully point out the similarities between
problems that include zeros (500 − 354 = ?) and those that do not (467 − 189 = ?).

144
Another long-standing explanation for these students’ learning problems is that they have
trouble with information processing (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2015). A break
occurs somewhere along the processing chain that leads from gaining the information, or
input, to understanding the information, to finding an effective means of using new
knowledge, or output. The break may be attributed to memory difficulties and the way
students receive, organize, and store information to aid in recalling it. Many students with
learning disabilities benefit from being taught strategies to help them identify, organize,
understand, and remember important information in their textbook reading. For learning
arithmetic facts, students can be taught strategies for retrieving answers quickly and
correctly. Other students with learning disabilities may need to use alternative means or
assistive technology to do their schoolwork. For example, a student with severely impaired
writing abilities may find that the speech recognition system, a standard feature of personal
computers, is helpful when writing term papers. Another student who cannot read well
enough to keep up with classmates as they read their sixth-grade social studies textbook
might profit from using the digital version of the text and the speech output option. This
chapter’s Tech Notes feature provides information about the use of computer tablets as an
example of how technology can promote access to the curriculum and independence.

Finally, it is estimated that about three-fourths of individuals with learning disabilities have
problems with social skills, and the results are negative self-concepts, an inability to make
friends, ineffective approaches to schoolwork, and poor interactions with others (Bryan,
Burstein, & Ergul, 2004; Vaughn & Bos, 2012). For example, many students with learning
disabilities are naive and unable to judge other people’s intentions accurately. They cannot
understand nonverbal behaviors, such as facial expressions, and therefore they do not

145
comprehend other people’s emotional messages (Dimitrovsky, Spector, & Levy-Schiff,
2000). This inability puts them at a great disadvantage and results in low acceptance by
their peers and teachers. Difficulty with social skills, coupled with low achievement and
distracting classroom behavior, in turn influences the social status of children with learning
disabilities. Peers consider them overly dependent, less cooperative, and less socially adept
(Kuhne & Wiener, 2000). Consequently, they are less likely to become leaders—or even to
be included in groups. Teachers can play an instrumental role in reducing peer rejection.
One approach is to pair these students with classmates without disabilities in areas of
mutual interest (Harris & Graham, 1999). For example, teachers might assign students
with common interests like sports, music, or a hobby to work together on an academic task
such as a science report.

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TECH notes

147
Mobile Devices
The use of mobile devices rather than desktops or laptops has been gaining in popularity as a means for
delivering instruction and helping students to access the curriculum. Mobile devices, such as small and
handheld computing devices (e.g., smartphones, iPads), typically have a touch-screen display and allow for
Internet access. These devices have the potential for being useful tools for students with disabilities due to
the following reasons: (a) the availability of downloadable, inexpensive apps; (b) the touch-screen feature
that allows students with disabilities to use the device without having to operate a mouse or a touchpad; (c)
instant turn on/off ability; and (d) Internet access and built-in video, a camera, and audio hardware features.
Instructional applications, commonly called apps, have gained in popularity for use with mobile
technologies to help students acquire skills in various academic areas.

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Prevalence
Learning disabilities form the largest special education category (review Figure 2.2),
including about 5% of the total public school enrollment and about 40% of all students
identified as having a disability (U.S. Department of Education, OSEP, 2013). Although
prevalence has declined slightly, the rates of learning disabilities remain the highest of all
disability groups. Two-thirds of students identified with learning disabilities are male;
gender is evenly split in public school enrollment. Parents, educators, and policymakers are
concerned about this special education category for this and other reasons (Bradley,
Danielson, & Hallahan, 2002).

1. Prevalence: About 40% all students identified as having a disability are identified as
having learning disabilities.
2. Cost: Although variation exists across the nation and even between districts, every
student with a disability costs more to educate than a classmate without disabilities,
usually almost three times as much (Parrish & Esra, 2006).
3. Misidentification: Some experts have called the category of learning disabilities a
“dumping ground” where any student unsuccessful in the general education
curriculum can be placed (Reschly, 2002).

Not surprisingly, the field of learning disabilities has been in a state of transition. For
example, because of the RTI focus, students no longer must fail for years before receiving
specialized and intensive help. It is possible that the RTI multitiered systems of support
have contributed to the recent decline in the number of students identified as having
learning disabilities. These are exciting times, in particular for those concerned about
students who struggle with reading, writing, and mathematics, because many have great
confidence that ongoing changes will positively affect the lives of these students and their
families (Bradley et al., 2002; Kukic et al., 2005). However, more research is needed on the
long-term benefits of the RTI system as a valid model for early intervention and disability
(Compton et al., 2012).

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What are the attributes of Students with Speech or Language
Impairments?
Learning disabilities form the largest special education category, but the federal government
allows students with disabilities to be reported in only one special education category.
Thus, a fourth-grade student with reading/learning disabilities and also a speech problem
might well be included in the learning disabilities category but also receive services from a
speech/language pathologist (SLP) as a related service. Speech problems and language
impairments go hand in hand with learning disabilities; in fact, their rate of co-occurrence
is estimated to be 96% (Sunderland, 2004). Students with cognitive disabilities typically
face challenges in the area of language development (Taylor, Richards, & Brady, 2005).
Therefore, many students with disabilities receive services from both special education
teachers and SLPs. Also, because of the relationship between having language problems as a
preschooler and having later problems with reading and writing, as Figure 2.3 shows,
during the early school years speech and language impairment is clearly the larger special
education category. When we consider both primary and secondary disabilities, speech or
language impairments are clearly the most common disability among schoolchildren.
Speech and language are the foundations for many things we do as human beings. Let’s
briefly think about how problems in these areas affect learning.

Communication requires the receiver to use eyes, ears, and even tactile (touch) senses (as do
those who use Braille) to take messages to the brain where they are understood and to
interpret the sender’s code so it has meaning. If either the sender or the receiver has a
defective mechanism for sending or receiving the information, the communication process
is ineffective. We distinguish among three related terms: communication, language, and
speech.

Communication: the process of exchanging knowledge, ideas, opinions, and feelings

through the use of verbal or nonverbal language
Language: the rule-based method of communication relying on the comprehension
and use of the signs and symbols by which ideas are represented
Speech: the vocal production of language

Figure 2.3 Individuals with Speech or Language Impairments and with Learning
Disabilities Served Through IDEA ’04

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 Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics
[NCES], Common Core of Data [CCD] (2012). These data are for the 50 states;
Washington, DC; Bureau of Indian Education schools; Puerto Rico; the four
outlying areas; and the three freely associated states. For actual data used, go to
http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

[NCES], Common Core of Data [CCD] (2012). These data are for the 50 states;
Washington, DC; Bureau of Indian Education schools; Puerto Rico; the four outlying
areas; and the three freely associated states. For actual data used, go to
http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep.

Now let’s turn our attention to problems that can interfere with communication by
impeding either language or speech.

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Definition
Although they make up a single special education category, speech impairments and
language impairments are really two separate but related disabilities. A speech impairment
exists when a person’s production of speech sounds is unintelligible, is unpleasant, or
interferes with communication (Bernthal & Bankson, 2004; Hall, Oyer, & Haas, 2001).
Speech impairments are distracting to the listener and can negatively affect the
communication process. A language impairment disrupts communication and interferes
with accurate understanding of messages, the intent of communications, and interactions
among people. See Table 2.3 for the IDEA ’04 definition, as well as the one adopted many
years ago by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), the nation’s
largest organization representing professionals in the areas of speech, language, and
audiology.

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Types
Both types of communication disorders—speech impairments and language impairments—
can be further subdivided. The three types of speech impairments follow:

1. Articulation problems: The process of producing speech sounds is flawed, and

resulting speech sounds are incorrect. Table 2.4 describes each of the four articulation
problems.
2. Fluency problems: Hesitations or repetitions interrupt the flow of speech. Stuttering
is one type of fluency problem.
3. Voice problems: The voice is unusual in pitch or loudness given the age and gender
of the individual.

Some young children between 3 and 5 years of age demonstrate misarticulations and
dysfluencies (nonfluencies) in the course of normal speech development. These mistakes are
not usually indicative of a problem in need of therapy (Conture, 2001; Ramig & Shames,
2006).

Language impairments are not typically broken down into types, but we often discuss
problems with language in terms of the aspect of language where the problem exists.

Syntax: the rule system used for all language (oral, written, and sign)
Semantics: the intent and meaning of spoken and written statements
Pragmatics: the application of language based on the social content

Rules in each language govern the way vowels, consonants, their combinations, and words
are used (Small, 2005). The relationship between development of an awareness of sounds in
words (phonological awareness) during the preschool years and later ease of learning how to
read is now clear (Bishop, 2006). To prevent reading failure later during the school years,

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teachers should refer preschoolers who have problems mastering phonology to specialists
for early intervention.

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Characteristics
The ability to distinguish among these three language-related situations helps general
education teachers make prompt and correct referrals and avoid misidentifying students:

1. Language impairments
2. Language delays
3. Language differences

A typical child at the age of 3 can use some fairly sophisticated language. At the same age, a
child with language impairments might speak in only two-word combinations. We look
not just at how quickly or slowly a child develops language but also at how the child’s
language development is different from that of typical peers.

Children with language delays generally acquire language in the same sequence as their
peers but more slowly. Many do not have a disability and catch up with their peers.
However, some children who acquire language in the correct sequence do so very slowly
and never complete the acquisition of complex language structures. For example, most
children with intellectual disabilities have language delays, and their language development
is below the norm for their age (Wetherby, 2002).

What about children who are learning English as a second language? Many teachers have
difficulty determining whether a child who is not a native speaker of English is merely
language different or has a language impairment (Baca & Cervantes, 2004; Salend, 2005).
Truly mastering a second language takes a long time. Many English language learners
(ELLs), now beginning to be referred to as English learners (ELs), may appear to be fluent
because they converse with their classmates on the playground and express their basic needs
in the classroom, but even so, they may not yet have developed sufficient English fluency to
participate fully in academic instruction. Speaking English as a second language does not
result in a disability, but some ELs may be slow in mastering their second language,
particularly because of the impact of poverty, and some do have language impairments.

Dialects of American English are not impairments either (Payne & Taylor, 2006). They
result from historical, social, regional, and cultural influences on speech, but children who
speak them are sometimes perceived by educators as inferior or misidentified as having
language impairments. Teachers need to understand and be sensitive to the differences
between dialects and language impairments, but when in doubt, they should seek the
advice of specialists. SLPs who can distinguish between language differences and language
impairments are proficient in the rules of the particular child’s dialect and in the use of
nondiscriminatory testing procedures. It is equally a mistake to assume students have
disabilities simply because of their cultural or linguistic backgrounds and to fail to qualify
students for services they need for fear of being discriminatory. We discuss linguistically

155
diverse students again in Chapter 4.

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Prevalence
As we saw in Figure 2.1, speech or language impairments accounted for 18.2% of students
ages 6 to 21 with identified disabilities. In Figure 2.2, official reports show speech or
language impairments as the second-largest special education category, behind learning
disabilities. In 2013, nearly 1,373,000 school-age children were identified as having a
speech or language impairment, representing 2.8% of the school-age population. And
remember that when we consider both primary and secondary disabling conditions, speech
or language impairment is clearly the largest special education category.

During the 2013 school year, speech or language impairment was the most common label
used for children between the ages of 3 and 5.

Look again at Figure 2.3 to see how quickly the balance shifts: By third and fourth grade
more students are included in the learning disabilities category, while the size of the speech
or language impairment category declines. Clearly, the prevalence of speech or language
impairment is associated with the age of the student and the demands of the curriculum
(Bakken & Whedon, 2002). The data shown in Figure 2.3 also confirm what you learned
earlier about students with learning disabilities. They tend not to be identified early, at the
beginning of their school careers, when their struggle to succeed in the curriculum begins.
These data contributed to justifications found in IDEA ’04 for the application of early
intervening procedures and new ways to identify students with learning disabilities.

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What are the attributes of Students with Attention
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)?
The American Psychiatric Association places the percentage of children affected by ADHD
at about 5% (APA, 2013); ADHD falls under the Other Health Impairments special
education category (see Chapter 3). Here are some interesting facts about ADHD to help
you better understand this condition:

1. ADHD is not a separate category called out in IDEA ’04, so states do not report
ADHD students separately to the federal government. Not all students with ADHD
are eligible for special education services. If the condition does not adversely influence
their academic performance, they are not reported to any agency and instead receive
accommodations for their unique learning needs through Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act (see Chapter 1).
2. Few additional students are identified as having a disability because of ADHD. Many
were already being served in other categories, such as learning disabilities or
emotional or behavior disorders, before the condition was called out within the
“other health impairments” category.
3. Many ADHD symptoms overlap with those of other disabilities.
4. It is estimated that more than half of all students with ADHD do not qualify for
educational services because their condition does not seriously affect their educational
performance (CHADD, 2004).

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Definition
Table 2.5 gives the IDEA ’04 and DSM-5 definitions of ADHD. As you review this table,
think about what ADHD is and what it is not.

ADHD

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Types
ADHD is a complicated condition. Students with ADHD tend to fall into three main
groups:

1. Those who do not qualify for special education

2. Those who qualify for special education
3. Those who have coexisting disabilities

Most students with ADHD approach learning differently from typical learners. They can
have difficulty focusing intently on learning tasks, and many tend not to be motivated.
They also lack the persistence to make the extra effort to learn when it is difficult for them
(Carlson, Booth, Shin, & Canu, 2002). Teachers can make a real difference in the
educational experience for students with ADHD by

Providing structure to the classroom routine.

Teaching academic content directly.
Holding high expectations.
Encouraging appropriate academic and social performance.

Those students with ADHD whose educational functioning is seriously affected by the
condition do qualify for special education services. Many experience problems in both
academic achievement and social skills. These students’ poor academic performance is often
due to their distractibility and their inability to focus on assignments for long periods of
time. Hyperactivity and poor social skills often lead to rejection and bullying by their peers,

160
leaving these individuals lonely and without friends (Olmeda, Thomas, & Davis, 2003).
They come to judge themselves as social failures and tend to engage in solitary activities
such as playing computer games and watching television. This situation can contribute to
alienation and withdrawal.

ADHD often coexists with other disabilities (National Institute of Mental Health
[NIMH], 2005). For example, compare the characteristics of learning disabilities, found in
Table 2.2, with those of ADHD, found in Table 2.6. In some cases the characteristics of
ADHD are very similar to those of other disabilities, and in some cases the individuals
involved have more than one disability, or they have coexisting disabilities.

ADHD is likely to be identified in boys with externalizing emotional or behavioral

disorders (Reid et al., 2000). For example, a teenager who cannot control his reactions to
highly charged situations, or who may misread social interactions, might engage in hostile
and reactive behaviors. When ADHD and antisocial behaviors both occur, the combination
can be dangerous (Gresham, Lane, & Lambros, 2000). Violent behaviors tend to be
infrequent, so many of these students have not qualified for special services and therefore
did not receive interventions to prevent serious misbehavior. The end result of this
situation can be disastrous.

ADHD is now a separate condition included in the “other health impairments” category.
However, determining when it is separate, when it coexists with other disabilities, and
when its characteristics are merely similar to those found in other disabling conditions can
be challenging to professionals. Whether spending the time and effort to make true
distinctions matters for diagnosis and treatment is open to debate.

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Characteristics
The three main characteristics associated with ADHD follow:

1. Hyperactivity
2. Impulsivity
3. Inattention

The judgment about whether a certain level of a specific activity is too much, or “hyper,” is
often subjective, and this makes hyperactivity difficult to define. If, for example, we admire
the behavior, we might describe the child as energetic or enthusiastic rather than
hyperactive. Nevertheless, the DSM-5 gives some good examples about which there is
considerable consensus (APA, 2013, pp. 59–60). Hyperactivity can be manifested by

Fidgeting or squirming in a seat.

Not remaining seated when expected to do so.
Running or climbing excessively in situations where it is inappropriate.
Having difficulty playing or engaging quietly in leisure activities.
Appearing to be often “on the go” or as if “driven by a motor.”
Talking excessively.

Students with ADHD, and many with learning disabilities, are said to be impulsive.
Impulsivity may explain why they are unable to focus on the relevant components of
problems to be solved or tasks to be learned and why they often disrupt the learning
environment for an entire class. The third characteristic teachers and researchers commonly
observe is inattention (Mercer, 2004). Children who do not focus on the task to be learned
or who pay attention to the wrong features of the task are said to be distractible. Table 2.6
provides specific examples of characteristics of ADHD.

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Many students identified as having ADHD receive medication to control their behavior.
Ritalin, Dexedrine, and Concerta do help some children with ADHD focus their attention
on assigned tasks and reduce hyperactivity (Spencer, Biederman, & Wilens, 2010). They do
not seem to have a positive effect on academic performance, however (Gotsch, 2002).
Because of its time-release feature, which relieves school staff of the need to distribute and
monitor the use of prescription drugs, medication is not always necessary and should be
considered a last resort, used if behavioral techniques, direct and systematic instruction
evaluated on a frequent basis, and highly motivating instructional materials have proved
insufficient. In these cases, a combination of behavioral and medical intervention is most
powerful in the treatment of ADHD (Fabiano et al., 2009).

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Prevalence
As we have noted, obtaining precise indications of the number of students who are affected
by ADHD is impossible. First, because ADHD is not a separate disability category, the
federal government does not require separate reporting (students with ADHD are included
in the count of students with “other health impairments”). Second, the government does
not require a count of those students with ADHD who do not qualify for special education
services but receive accommodations through Section 504. Third, the government does not
require the states to report students’ secondary conditions or disabilities. When a student’s
primary disability is learning disabilities and that student’s secondary disability is ADHD,
the student is reported only in the learning disabilities category.

Studies have shown that 70% of children with ADHD also have a learning disability
(Mayes, Calhoun, & Crowell, 2000; Pierce, 2003). In another study, parents reported that
64% of students with emotional or behavioral disorders also had ADHD. Whether a
student’s ADHD is considered a primary or a secondary condition and whether it
negatively influences educational performance, ADHD does result in special needs that can
be met by perceptive and effective teachers.

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What are the attributes of Students with Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities?
As you will learn in the following sections, the field of intellectual and developmental
disabilities has been in a state of transition for over a decade. In 1992 and again in 2002,
two new definitions were developed. In 2007, the name of the disability was changed from
mental retardation to intellectual and developmental disabilities by the field’s oldest
professional organization, which also changed its own name to reflect the new term. The
American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) is now the American Association on
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD). In part, these changes seek to reduce
the stigma and bias often associated with this disability (Luckasson & Schalock, 2013).

For some years to come, these changes may be a bit confusing. The definition supported by
AAIDD was developed when this organization was called AAMR. IDEA ’04 uses the term
mental retardation, as do most states’ regulations and statues. In this text, when we discuss
this disability and its impact on the individuals and families involved, we use the term
intellectual and developmental disabilities.

People often make many incorrect assumptions about intellectual and developmental
disabilities. First, they assume the disability is infrequent and therefore a low-incidence
condition. Second, they assume it is always severe. Here’s what is true: Like all other
disabilities, intellectual and developmental disabilities occur along a continuum ranging
from mild to very severe conditions. In fact, the foundation for all of today’s special
education emanates from a likely case of intellectual and development disability. Recall the
famous story recounted in Chapter 1 about Victor, the young boy found in the forest of
southern France by farmers in 1799. That boy became known as the Wild Boy of Aveyron,
and the Parisian doctor who cared for Victor, Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, is acknowledged as
the father of the field of special education.

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Definition
In 2002, the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), as it was then known,
adopted the current definition of intellectual and developmental disabilities, the
organization’s 10th since 1921. That definition and its five assumptions are found in Table
2.7. How is this modern view different from previous orientations? Before 1992,
definitions followed a deficit model, describing the limitations of the individual, such as
“significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning.” Today, the disability is
conceptualized in terms of the adaptive behavior each individual possesses and the intensity
of supports needed for him or her to function in the community as independently as
possible (Luckasson & Schalock, 2013). “Adaptive behavior is the collection of conceptual,
social, and practical skills that have been learned by people in order to function in their
everyday lives” (AAMR, 2002, p. 73). Systems of supports enable us to function in
everyday life and address the demands that face us. The intensity or level of these supports
varies as a function of the needs and capabilities of each individual.

One defining feature of intellectual and developmental disabilities is that the individual has
problems with cognition or intellectual functioning. The 2002 definition includes a cautious
use of IQ scores, and caution is well-advised because relying on such scores leads to many
mistakes and erroneous assumptions about individuals’ abilities. These individuals have
cognitive abilities “significantly below average” or below levels attained by 97% of the
general population. When a standardized test is used, the individual must score at least two
standard deviations below the mean for that test. Recall our discussion of the normal curve
in Chapter 1. Intelligence is regarded as one of those traits distributed among people in a
predictable manner and reflected by a statistical distribution representing a bell-shaped
curve, also called the normal curve. The majority of the population falls in the middle of

166
the bell, at or around an intelligence quotient (IQ) score of 100, and fewer and fewer
people fall at either end of the distribution, having very low or very high intelligence. IQ
level is then determined by the distance a score is from the mean, or average, score. The
2002 definition uses a cutoff score of about 70 and below to designate intellectual and
developmental disabilities. This disability is also classified according to levels of severity that
can affect the individual’s performance:

Mild intellectual and developmental disabilities

Outcomes: learning difficulties, able to work, maintain good social relationships,

contribute to society
Moderate intellectual and developmental disabilities

Outcomes: marked developmental delays during childhood, some degree of

independence in self-care, adequate communication and academic skills, require
varying degrees of support to live and work in the community
Severe intellectual and developmental disabilities

Outcomes: continuous need of support

Profound intellectual and developmental disabilities

Outcomes: severe limitation in self-care, continence, communication, and mobility,

continuous need of supports

Another defining characteristic of intellectual and developmental disabilities is adaptive

behavior, which is what everyone uses to function in daily life, such as eating, dressing,
using the toilet, having mobility, preparing meals, using the telephone, managing money,
taking care of the house, and taking medication. People with intellectual and
developmental disabilities, as well as many people without disabilities, can have difficulties
with such skills that can impair their ability to function independently.

All of us also use systems of supports. We ask our friends for advice. We form study teams
before a difficult test. We expect help from city services when there is a crime or a fire. We
join together in a neighborhood crime watch group to help each other be safe. And we
share the excitement and joys of accomplishments with family, friends, and colleagues.

For individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities, systems of support are a
means for promoting independence and bridging the gap between classroom expectations
and the student’s current levels of functioning. Supports have been defined as “resources
and strategies that aim to promote the development, education, interests, and personal
well-being of a person and that enhance individual functioning” (Schalock et al., 2010, p.
105). Seven support needs areas associated with school-age students follow (Thompson et
al., 2008):

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 Home Life Activities: pertain to an individual’s personal care
Community and Neighborhood Activities: relate to participating in community
activities
School Participation Activities: involve being an active member of class and school
activities
School Learning Activities: focus on being successful with school tasks and
assignments
Health and Safety Activities: pertain to maintaining healthy habits and keeping
oneself safe
Social Activities: involve skills associated with interacting with others in various
settings
Protection and Advocacy Activities: focus on self-advocacy

The primary goal of supports is to help the person meet the demands of life’s various
contexts. Because support needs have only recently found their way into the special
education field, there are few support programs that have been proven effective by research.
However, there is a growing body of research that has demonstrated that a combination of
assistive technology services and assistive technology devices can help bridge the gaps
between functional limitations and independent functioning (e.g., Bryant, Seok, Ok, &
Bryant, 2012; Bryant, Shih, Bryant, & Seok, 2010; Fisher & Shogren, 2012; Wehmeyer,
Tassé, Davies, & Stock, 2012).

Supports also can be offered at different intensity levels—intermittent, limited, extensive,

pervasive—and can be of different types (Chadsey & Beyer, 2001; Kennedy & Horn,
2004):

Natural supports: the individual’s own resources, family, friends, and neighbors, as
well as coworkers on the job or peers at school
Nonpaid supports: neighborhood and community groups, such as clubs, recreational
leagues, and private organizations
Generic supports: public transportation, states’ human services systems, and other
agencies and services to which everyone has access
Specialized supports: disability-specific services such as special education, special early
intervention services, and vocational rehabilitation

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Types
One way to consider the types of this disability is to think about causes. Some of these
conditions are genetic in origin, others are environmental, and still others are caused by an
interaction of biology and the environment. Today, more than 500 genetic causes of
intellectual and developmental disabilities are known, and because of advances in medical
research, more are being identified (The Arc, 2005). A condition identified in 1991 and
now recognized as the most common inherited cause of intellectual and developmental
disabilities is fragile X syndrome, which affects about 1 in 4,000 males and results from a
mutation on the X chromosome (Taylor, Richards, & Brady, 2005). The associated
cognitive problems can be severe, and it is believed that some 86% of fragile-X-affected
males have intellectual disabilities and 6% have autism.

Another biological example caused by a chromosomal abnormality is Down syndrome.

Certain identifiable physical characteristics, such as an extra flap of skin over the innermost
corner of the eye, are usually present in cases of Down syndrome. The degree of cognitive
difficulty varies, depending in part on the speed with which the disability is identified, the
adequacy of the supporting medical care, and the timing of the early intervention (National
Down Syndrome Society, 2006). Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher
prevalence of obesity, despite typically consuming fewer than average calories (Roizen,
2001). Their reduced food consumption may explain why they are less active than their
brothers and sisters and less likely to spend time outdoors. In turn, their opportunities for
satisfying friendships, social outlets, and recreation are reduced. Teachers can help by
encouraging them to be more active and to play sports with their peers during recess.

In the hereditary condition phenylketonuria (PKU), a person is unable to metabolize

phenylalanine, an amino acid that then builds up in the body to toxic levels that damage
the brain. If untreated, PKU eventually causes intellectual disabilities. Changes in diet, such
as strictly eliminating certain foods that contain phenylalanine, such as milk, can control
PKU and reduce its devastating impact. Here, then, is a condition rooted in genetics but
brought on by the environment—by ingesting milk. Prompt diagnosis and parental
vigilance are crucial to minimizing the associated problems. Teachers can help by
monitoring these students’ diets and ensuring that snacks and treats provided by classmates’
parents for sharing do not include milk products that might be harmful. Now let’s look at
some toxins that do not have a hereditary link.

One well-recognized nonhereditary type of birth defect, considered by Congress to be the

most common and preventable cause of intellectual and developmental disabilities, is fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS; U.S. Senate Appropriations Committee, 2004). This condition
results from the mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy (The Arc, 2005). The average
IQ of people with FAS is 79, which is relatively close to the cutoff score (about 70) for

169
intellectual and developmental disability. These data explain why about 58% of individuals
with FAS have intellectual and developmental disabilities, and why about 94% have a
strong need for support assistance at school. Most also have problems in the areas of
attention, verbal learning, and self-control (Centers for Disease Control, 2004). Estimates
are that some 5,000 babies are born with FAS each year, and an additional 50,000 show
symptoms of the less serious condition fetal alcohol effects (FAE; Davis & Davis, 2003).

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Characteristics
According to AAIDD, the three defining characteristics of intellectual and developmental
disabilities follow:

1. Problems with cognition

2. Problems with adaptive behavior
3. Need for supports to sustain independence (Schalock et al., 2010)

Impaired cognitive ability has pervasive effects, whether the disability is mild or severe.
Learning new skills, storing and retrieving information from memory, and transferring
knowledge to either new or slightly different situations are challenges for these individuals.
Short- and long-term memory are often impaired, making it hard to remember events or
the proper sequence of events, particularly when the events are not clearly identified as
important. Even when something is remembered, it may be remembered incorrectly,
inefficiently, too slowly, or in inadequate detail. Teachers can help students with memory
problems develop memory strategies and learn to compensate by having them create picture
notebooks that lay out the sequence of steps in a task that needs to be performed, the
elements of a job that needs to be done, or a checklist of things to do before leaving the
house.

Through explicit, systematic instruction and the delivery of supports, adaptive behavior
can improve. However, for these gains to happen, it is sometimes necessary for students to
receive a separate curriculum that targets life skills, which are skills used to manage a home
and job and engage in activities in the community. When goals for independent living
become the target of instruction, students may then have reduced access to the general
education curriculum and typically learning classmates.

The making of friendships between people with and people without disabilities has received
considerable attention during the last decade, because friends are natural supports and
sources of social interactions (AAMR, 2002). Research findings show that children of
elementary school age with and without intellectual disabilities can become real friends who
play together, express positive feelings for each other, and respond to each other
reciprocally (Freeman & Kasari, 2002). However, as children get older, the odds of real
friendships developing between typical students and classmates with disabilities seem to
diminish (Hughes & Carter, 2006). During middle school, for example, children without
disabilities tend to form friendships with others of similar backgrounds, age, gender, and
interests.

Inclusion and friendships between individuals with and without disabilities have benefits
beyond those that help the people with disabilities, however. The attitudes of students who
attend school alongside students with disabilities are more positive and reflect a better

171
understanding of the challenges they will face throughout their lives (Hughes & Carter,
2006; Kennedy & Horn, 2004).

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Prevalence
According to the federal government, almost 1% (that is, not quite 1 of every 100) of U.S.
students are identified as having intellectual and developmental disabilities as their primary
disabling condition through IDEA ’04. Recent data show that some 434,586 children with
intellectual and developmental disabilities were served across the country. Most students
with intellectual and developmental disabilities function at high levels and need few
supports. In other words, most fall at the mild level.

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What are the attributes of Students with Emotional or
Behavioral Disorders?
The emotional or behavioral disorders category is the last of the high-incidence special
education categories. Emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) are very worrisome, because
the connections between this disability and the criminal justice system, the commission of
violence against self or others, and a life of unhappiness are well recognized (Walker,
Ramsey, & Gresham, 2004). There is clear evidence that early intervention makes a real
difference in the lives of these individuals. Unfortunately, such services are not delivered
often enough to those who exhibit signs of troubling behaviors (Lane, 2004). Let’s look
more closely at this last high-incidence condition.

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Definition
IDEA ’04 uses the term emotional disturbance to describe the characteristic of children to
whom we refer as having behavioral or emotional disorders. Remember that this condition
is expressed over a long period of time, is obvious to many observers, and adversely affects
educational performance. Table 2.8 gives the IDEA ’04 and National Mental Health and
Special Education Coalition definitions of emotional or behavioral disorders.

175
Types
Emotional or behavioral disorders can be divided into three groups:

1. Externalizing
2. Internalizing
3. Low incidence

Students who exhibit externalizing and internalizing behaviors are the two main groups of
students with emotional or behavioral disorders, but they do not account for all the
conditions that result in placement in this special education category. Externalizing
behaviors are characterized by an undercontrolled, acting-out style that includes behaviors
we could describe as aggressive, arguing, impulsive, coercive, and noncompliant. These
behaviors are expressed outwardly, usually toward other persons, and generally include
some form of hyperactivity, including persistent aggression and a high level of irritating
behavior that is impulsive and distractible. Many youngsters with this type of emotional or
behavioral disorder engage in bullying and victimize their classmates (Hartung & Scambler,
2006). Some examples of externalizing behavior problems follow:

Violates basic rights of others

Has tantrums
Is hostile or defiant, argues
Ignores teachers’ reprimands
Causes or threatens physical harm to people or animals
Intimidates, threatens
Violates societal norms or rules
Steals, causes property loss or damage
Uses lewd or obscene gestures
Is physically aggressive
Demonstrates obsessive compulsive behavior
Is hyperactive

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Young children who have serious challenging behaviors that persist are the most likely to be
referred for psychiatric services (Maag, 2000). A pattern of early aggressive acts, beginning
with annoying and bullying, followed by physical fighting, is a clear pathway to violence in
late adolescence, particularly for boys (Archwamety & Katsiyannis, 2000). While still in
high school, students with emotional or behavioral disorders are 13 times more likely to be
arrested than other students with disabilities (OSEP, 2001). Some 30% to 50% of youth in
correctional facilities are individuals with disabilities, and almost half of those have
emotional or behavioral disorders (IDEA Practices, 2002).

Internalizing behaviors, the second type of emotional or behavioral disorders, are

characterized by an overcontrolled and inhibited style that includes behaviors we would
describe as withdrawn, lonely, depressed, and anxious (Kauffman, 2005). Anorexia,
bulimia, depression, and anxiety are examples of internalizing behaviors. Anorexia and
bulimia are serious eating disorders that usually occur during students’ teenage years
(Manley, Rickson, & Standeven, 2000), typically among girls and often because of their
preoccupation with weight and body image, their drive for thinness, and their fear of
becoming fat.

Often hard to recognize in children, depression includes components such as guilt, self-
blame, feelings of rejection, lethargy, low self-esteem, and negative self-image. Children’s

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behavior when they are depressed may appear so different from the depressed behavior of
adults that teachers and parents may have difficulty recognizing it. Even so, a severely
depressed child might engage in self-harm. Anxiety disorders may be demonstrated as
intense response upon separation from family, friends, or a familiar environment, as
excessive shrinking from contact with strangers, or as unfocused, excessive worry and fear.

Additional low-incidence conditions are included in the category of emotional or

behavioral disorders. Some are very rare but are quite serious when they do occur. For
example, schizophrenia is extremely rare in children, although approximately 1% of the
general population over the age of 18 have been diagnosed as having the disorder. It usually
includes bizarre delusions (such as the belief that your thoughts are controlled by the
police), hallucinations (such as voices telling you what to think), “loosening” of associations
(disconnected thoughts), and incoherence. Schizophrenia places great demands on service
systems. Children with the disorder have serious difficulties with schoolwork and often
must live in special hospital and educational settings during part of their childhood. Keep
in mind that emotional or behavioral disorders are high-incidence disorders, but the
category includes many different specific conditions, including many that are themselves
low-incidence conditions.

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Characteristics
Social skills are the foundation for practically all human activities in all contexts—
academic, personal, vocational, and community—and we use them to interact with others
and to perform most daily tasks. Possibly more than any other group of children with
disabilities, students with emotional or behavioral disorders present problems with social
skills to themselves, their families, their peers, and their teachers (Kauffman, 2005). One
related characteristic, antisocial behavior, seems to be a prime reason for these students’
referrals to special education (OSEP, 2001). Antisocial behavior includes impulsivity and
poor interpersonal skills with both peers and adults. These students’ behavior patterns can
be self-defeating, impairing their interactions with others in many negative ways. Most
students with externalizing behavioral disorders exhibit at least some of the following
behaviors in excess:

Tantrums
Aggression
Noncompliance
Coercion
Poor academic performance

On the other hand, students with internalizing patterns tend to exhibit behaviors that
reflect the following:

Depression
Withdrawal
Anxiety

Fortunately, intervention can make a difference and improve the outcomes for students
with externalizing or internalizing behaviors. For example, instruction in social skills can
positively influence the development of social competence (Bullis, Walker, & Sprague,
2001). But such instruction and the use of positive behavioral instructional techniques
should be initiated no later than first grade (Frey, Hirschstein, & Guzzo, 2000). Effective
instruction is embedded within the general education curriculum and includes considerable
demonstration and practice. Peers learn to help and provide support for each other, but
getting peers to help these classmates can be challenging, because they tend to reject them
(Bullis et al., 2001).

At the beginning of this chapter, we noted that all students identified through IDEA ’04 as
having a disability have problems with their educational performance. Here, too, even
though emotional or behavioral disorders have their roots in social behaviors, the condition
negatively affects academic performance. Regardless of intellectual potential, students with
emotional or behavioral disorders typically do not perform well academically (Lane &

179
Wehby, 2002). Clearly, being in personal turmoil affects our ability to attend to school
tasks and to learn in general. Failure at academic tasks compounds the difficulties these
children face not only in school but also in life. Their frustration with the educational
system, along with its frustration with them, results in their having the highest dropout
rates of all students (National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 2005). The
outcomes of students who do not complete high school are not good. There is also evidence
that when students are engaged in academic work, their disruptive behaviors decrease
(Lane, 2004). Thus, in addition to helping these students with their behavior, it is
constructive for teachers to address their academic skills.

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Emotional/behavioral disorders are difficult to define. Important features of the
condition are that it is expressed over a long period of time, is obvious to many
observers, and adversely affects educational performance.

iStock/BartCo

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Prevalence
The federal government reports that slightly less than 1% of all schoolchildren have
emotional/behavioral disorders, with some 373,154 public school students identified with
this disability. Figure 2.1 shows that emotional disturbance accounts for 6.2% of all
students ages 6 to 21 with disabilities. However, it is likely that these figures substantially
underestimate the prevalence of these problems. Why might this be so? First, the definition
is unclear and subjective. Second, because the label is so stigmatizing, many educators and
school districts are reluctant to identify many children. Some believe the actual prevalence
should be approximately 3% to 6% of all school-age students (Kauffman, 2005; Walker,
Nishioka, Zeller, Bullis, & Sprague, 2001). Important factors in prevalence for this group
of learners are gender and race.

Most children identified as having emotional or behavioral disorders (about 74%) are male,
and this is the highest ratio of boys to girls in all special education categories. The reason
for this gender difference is not clear, but it is probably linked to boys’ higher propensity to
be troublesome and violate school rules, coupled with girls’ tendency toward less disruptive,
internalizing behaviors that are less likely to result in referral. Whereas Asian American and
Hispanic students tend to be underrepresented in this special education category, African
Americans are overrepresented: Twenty-nine percent of students identified as having
emotional or behavioral disorders are Black, even though Blacks represent only about 14%
of the student population (OSEP, 2006).

182
Summary
The notion that the vast majority of the nation’s students are typical learners is inaccurate.
The special needs that many students present to their teachers and schools are considerable
and varied. Students with disabilities are guaranteed an appropriate and individualized
education, tailored to each of their exceptional learning needs, through IDEA. Other
students with special needs are entitled to accommodations through Section 504. And
many others require a special response to their unique learning challenges so that they can
reach their potential and profit maximally from school.

Certainly, special needs arise from disabilities, but they come from a variety of other sources
as well. Special learning needs result from conditions that are not disabilities but that still
present considerable learning challenges and put students at risk for school failure,
dropping out, or underachievement. What you should now understand is that the majority
of America’s students present an exciting mixture of learning strengths to each classroom
situation.

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Review the Learning Objectives
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot talk
through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

What are the categories for students with disabilities?

Some students with a disability and special needs are not special education students
because their disability does not negatively affect their educational performance. For
students who do qualify for special education services, frequently occurring
disabilities are often referred to as high-incidence disabilities; low-incidence
disabilities affect a very small proportion of students with disabilities.
How are disabilities organized for special education?

Three major schemes are used to group disabilities for the purposes of meeting
educational needs. One classification system uses disability types or special education
categories (learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities). Another groups students by
the severity of the disability (mild, moderate, severe). And the third considers
disabilities in terms of how often they occur (high incidence, low incidence).
What are the attributes of students with learning disabilities?

The largest special education category is learning disabilities, which can be severe,
complex, pervasive, and lifelong. Learning disabilities are characterized as
“unexpected underachievement” and as resistant to treatment. Learning disabilities
are disorders that affect the ability to understand or use spoken or written expression,
perform mathematical calculations, coordinate movements, or direct attention.
Problems with reading and writing are the most common, yet a significant number of
students with learning disabilities may also have mathematics learning disabilities.
What are the attributes of students with speech or language impairments?

Although they make up a single special education category, speech impairments and
language impairments are really two separate but related disabilities. Speech or
language impairments result in problems with communication, language, and/or
speech. Speech impairments include articulation, fluency (stuttering), and voice
problems. Many students with disabilities receive services from both special education
teachers and SLPs. Language impairments are not the same as language differences,
and their prevalence changes by age (the number lessens across the school years).
Speaking English as a second language does not result in a disability, but some ELs
may be slow in mastering their second language. Dialects of American English are
also not impairments.
What are the attributes of students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
(ADHD)

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Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a condition included in the IDEA
’04 category of “other health impairments.” Behaviors associated with ADHD (such
as distractibility, hyperactivity) are also symptomatic of other disabilities, such as
learning disabilities and emotional or behavioral disorders. Most students with
ADHD approach learning differently from typical learners. About half of the
individuals with this condition are eligible for special education because their
educational performance is adversely affected by the condition; most of the other
students with ADHD receive supports and accommodations through Section 504. It
is estimated that more than half of all students with ADHD do not qualify for special
education services because their condition does not seriously affect their educational
performance.
What are the attributes of students with intellectual and developmental
disabilities?

Intellectual and developmental disabilities result in problems with intellectual

functioning, adaptive behavior, and independence. Individuals with intellectual and
developmental disabilities have problems with cognition or intellectual functioning and
demonstrate difficulties with adaptive behavior. Responses to intellectual and
developmental disabilities include different intensities of supports (intermittent,
limited, extensive, pervasive) and different types of supports (natural supports,
nonpaid supports, generic supports, specialized supports). Also, seven systems of
support needs areas should be focused on to promote success for individuals with
intellectual and developmental disabilities with the demands of life’s various contexts.
What are the attributes of students with emotional or behavioral disorders?

Emotional or behavioral disorders can be externalizing (aggressive, argumentative,

impulsive, coercive, noncompliant), internalizing (overcontrolled, inhibited,
withdrawn, lonely, depressed, anxious), or low incidence (such as schizophrenia).
Internalizing behaviors (such as anorexia, bulimia, depression, anxiety) are less
frequently identified early, and externalizing behavior disorders are highly associated
with delinquency. Problems with social skills cause issues for the students themselves,
their families, their peers, and their teachers. Evidence indicates that early
intervention can make a difference in the lives of these individuals.

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185
REVISIT THE OPENING CHALLENGE
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. Do you think identifying students by specific disability is useful?

2. Why do you think Darren’s special education label is being reconsidered at this point
in his schooling?
3. Is Darren’s situation unusual? Why or why not?
4. Will a change in category influence the way Ms. Clarkson teaches Darren?
5. Will it change the services Darren receives?
6. What do you think are some learning characteristics of the three students in Mr.
Suarez’s class?
7. What help might he be looking for from the special education teacher for these three
students?

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Key Terms
anorexia, 77
assistive technology devices, 72
assistive technology services, 72
bulimia, 77
coexisting disabilities, 66
English language learners (ELLs), 63
English learners (ELs), 63
explicit, systematic instruction, 74
externalizing behaviors, 75
high-incidence disabilities, 47
hyperactivity, 66
impulsivity, 67
inattention, 67
intelligence quotient (IQ), 70
intensity of supports, 69
internalizing behaviors, 77
language delays, 63
language different, 63
loudness, 61
low-incidence disabilities, 47
pitch, 61
pragmatics, 62
resistant to treatment, 55
semantics, 62
stuttering, 61
syntax, 62
unexpected underachievement, 55

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187
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

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CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences

189
INTASC Core Principle
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences

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Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Human development and behavior

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191
3 Understanding Learners with Special Needs Low-
Incidence Disabilities or Conditions

iStock/jarenwicklund

192
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What are the attributes of students with low-incidence disabilities?

What are the attributes of students with health impairments or special health care needs?
What are the attributes of students with autism spectrum disorders?
What are the attributes of students with multiple-severe disabilities?
What are the attributes of students with developmental delay?
What are the attributes of students with physical disabilities?
What are the attributes of students who are deaf and hard of hearing?
What are the attributes of students with visual disabilities?
What are the attributes of students with traumatic brain injury?
What are the attributes of students with deaf-blindness?

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OPENING challenge

194
Preparing for Students With Low-Incidence Disabilities
Elementary Grades Ms. Simpkin has been teaching general education classes for 10 years. She has
successfully included many students with disabilities in her classes and has had great experience working
with many special education teachers and related service experts, and she has team-taught with special
education teachers. Ms. Simpkin has had related service specialists work with students in her classroom so
they can better demonstrate effective techniques and also promote generalization.

She has just received a letter from the district office informing her that she is to receive a new student next
week. The letter described her new student, Josh, as having “low-incidence disabilities.” Her principal has
scheduled a meeting with her tomorrow afternoon to discuss this new student. Ms. Simpkin wants to make
sure she plans for Josh’s learning and behavioral needs, so she makes a list of questions to ask the principal
about Josh. She reflects on several: “What does low incidence mean? What services and supports will Josh need?
Am I prepared to work with Josh to address his needs? How can I help my other students accept Josh? What can I
do to help my other students in the class provide the respect and support Josh needs, both within the classroom and
on the playground? Does Josh use assistive technology, and, if so, what do I need to know about any devices he
uses?”

Secondary Grades Mr. Dehiya has been teaching high school for nine years. Two months into the school
year, one of his students, Abooksigun, was severely injured in an automobile accident. After months of
rehabilitation, Abooksigun, who now uses a wheelchair, is ready to return to class. Mr. Dehiya is concerned
that his classroom may not be sufficiently accessible to allow Abooksigun the freedom to move about as his
other students. He decided to go online to see what information might be available. After several entries
into his search engine proved worthless, Mr. Dehiya entered “classroom design for wheelchair.” Scrolling
down, he found a document titled “Considerations for Students Who Use Wheelchairs.” A simple click
revealed considerable information, some of which he had already thought of using common sense, but some
of which was new and would prove to be valuable as he reorganized his room. He decided to restructure his
classroom with the help of his students, many of whom had been friends with Abooksigun for years. Mr.
Dehiya knew there would be challenges ahead, but he felt confident that he, and Abooksigun’s fellow
students, would deal with them as they arose.

REFLECTION QUESTIONS In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. Do you think Ms. Simpkin will need to plan for her new student differently than she has for other
students with disabilities? If so, in what ways? If not, why not?
2. What learning characteristics might she have to consider as she makes initial plans for Josh?
3. How might her plans change after she learns what disabilities Josh has?
4. Provide Ms. Simpkin with five questions or issues she should discuss with her principal.
5. 5. What do you think Mr. Dehiya figured out, based on common sense, concerning classroom
accessibility?
6. 6. Why do you think Mr. Dehiya decided to have his students help restructure the classroom? Do
you think this was a good idea?
7. Before clicking on the link that Mr. Dehiya found (http://www.cmccd.edu/getdoc.cfm?id=1044),
what ideas do you think the information may include?

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195
 Watch videos to see teachers in action.

In Chapter 2, you learned about disabilities that are considered high incidence. Those are
the disabilities that are most common, and about 73% of all students with disabilities are
eligible for special education services through those categories (U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special
Education Programs [USDE], 2014). Low-incidence disabilities, by contrast, are just that:
disabilities that don’t occur very frequently. Although disabilities affect about 8.4% of all
students between the ages of 6 and 21, low-incidence disabilities affect slightly more than
1%. IDEA ’04 calls out nine special education categories the federal government defines as
low-incidence disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Figure 3.1 illustrates
prevalence rates across these special education categories. Note that only “other health
impairments,” which includes ADHD, affects more than 1% of all students.

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What are the attributes of Students with Low-Incidence
Disabilities?
Low-incidence disabilities share some common features. The most obvious is prevalence.
Not only are these disabilities as a group infrequent in their occurrence, but for seven of the
nine low-incidence categories, prevalence has remained fairly consistent across the years,
increasing much as the general student population does. The exceptions are other health
impairments and autism or autism spectrum disorders. We have more to say about specific
reasons for these increases in the following sections of this chapter, but some reflect
modifications to definitions and allowing more students to be included in the category.

Low-Incidence Disabilities

Figure 3.1 Prevalence of Each Low-Incidence Disability

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, 2012.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, 2012.

A second common feature of low-incidence disabilities is people’s typical, but inaccurate,

perceptions about them. Many people assume that if a condition or disability is not
common, it must automatically lead to severe problems. In fact, most of these disabilities
range in severity from mild to severe. Some individuals with low-incidence disabilities, like
those with some physical problems, do not even qualify for special education because their

197
disability does not negatively affect their educational performance. Of course, some low-
incidence disabilities, by their nature, always result in very serious challenges. The
conditions classified as multiple-severe disabilities are obvious examples.

No disability should be minimized—they are all serious—but many low-incidence

disabilities do tend to require an intensive response. When negative assumptions about
disabilities are not permitted but high expectations and effective interventions are the
norm, the outcomes can be remarkable. Let’s think about a few examples. Possibly the most
famous person to have struggled with deaf-blindness, a low-incidence disability, is Helen
Keller. Keller was a woman of many accomplishments, but none of her achievements,
which included graduating from Radcliffe with honors in 1904, would have occurred
without the intensive, pervasive, and sustained supports and interventions she received
from her teacher, Anne Sullivan, and her family (Keller, 1988).

Today, stories like Helen Keller’s are more commonplace. For example, Erik Weihenmayer,
a person who is blind and is a climbing enthusiast, scaled Mount Everest; Marla Runyan,
also blind, qualified for the 2004 Summer Olympics to compete in the 5,000-meter run in
Greece. Brooke Ellison, paralyzed from the neck down after a car accident, graduated with
honors from Harvard and thereafter earned a master’s degree in public policy (Ellison,
2002). And Mark Singer, a student with multiple-severe disabilities (cerebral palsy and
significant hearing problems), graduated from high school and passed his state’s
competency exams. These individuals aren’t heroes; they are people striving, like most of
us, to do the best they possibly can. The clear message from these and so many people with
low-incidence disabilities is that we must never make assumptions about what any
individual can accomplish, even if her or his aspirations seem unrealistic.

With the most recent reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, all
but 1% of students will be taking high-stakes exams to demonstrate they are functioning
academically at grade level. Now that the vast majority of states have adopted the Common
Core State Standards, instructional content has become more challenging for all students,
including those with low-incidence disabilities. Teachers such as Ms. Simpkin may be
nervous when they find that a student with a low-incidence disability, or perhaps a
combination of low-incidence disabilities, will be on their roster. Information provided in
this and later chapters will help address their concerns.

The third feature these disabilities share is that they tend to be more visible or readily
observed than high-incidence disabilities. Nonexperts can usually identify a middle school
student who is blind, and classmates know which of them has a physical disability almost
immediately.

The fourth common characteristic is that you will probably not teach many students with
these conditions during your career because of their nature and their relatively low
prevalence. Many children with these disabilities require substantial and intensive special

198
education services and supports outside the general education classroom. Although they
tend to be included in general education classes less frequently than students with high-
incidence disabilities, students with low-incidence disabilities are increasingly attending
classes in general education. Compare the rates of inclusion for those with high- and with
low-incidence disabilities by studying Figure 3.2. You will see that 65.1% of students with
learning disabilities (up from 54% seven years prior) received at least 80% of their
education in general education classes, but only 13% of students with multiple-severe
disabilities participated in general education classes at that level (USDE, 2014). As you
think about these rates of inclusion, remember that nearly all students with ADHD are
included in general education classes for much more than 80% of the school day.

Figure 3.2 Inclusion of Students with High- and Low-Incidence Disabilities

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

(2013).

Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics

(2013).

Each low-incidence disability is unique and presents an array of special needs. Teachers
who understand these conditions make important differences in the lives of affected
students and their families. Let’s think about these disabilities in their order of prevalence.

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Video case 3.1

Parent Perspective

1. Mary Murphy shares her experiences as the mother of two children with disabilities. What
types of special education services did Rob and Megan receive? What educational supports
does Ms. Murphy identify as being the most effective for her children and for other
students?
2. What practices does Ms. Murphy feel best supported the inclusion of her children in their
least restrictive environment? How did Rob’s and Megan’s academic needs, and their
educational environments, change throughout their school years?

200
What are the attributes of Students with Health Impairments
or Special Health Care Needs?
As we mentioned in Chapter 2, about 20 years ago the federal government, during one of
its reauthorizations of IDEA (typically done every five years), identified ADHD as one
condition in the other health impairments category. Before then, this category was very
small, representing some 2% of students with disabilities and less than 0.1% of all students
(U.S. Department of Education, 1996). We are confident that the disproportionately larger
size of this formerly low-incidence category is due to the inclusion of students with ADHD.
We have already discussed those students’ special needs; in this section, we talk about
students with other conditions in the other health impairments category. But first, let’s
identify several other general issues related to this special education category.

The other health impairments or special health care needs category has an interesting
history. It seems to be the birthplace of future special education categories. In 1990, autism
became its own special education category, but before then it was part of the health
impairments definition.

IDEA ’04 places health problems and physical problems into separate categories; however,
these two disabilities often overlap and occur in combination. For example, some
individuals with cerebral palsy also have fragile health. Also, like their counterparts with
physical disabilities, many students with other health impairments or special health care
needs do not need or qualify for special education services, yet they do require
accommodations because of their fragile situations. For a listing of illnesses and diseases
that often result in special health care needs, see Figure 3.3. And on a final general note,
IDEA ’04 calls this special education category “other health impairments,” but we prefer to
refer to it as “special health care needs.” Many parents and professionals use that term
because it better reflects these students’ situations.

Figure 3.3 An Organizational Scheme for Special Health Care Needs

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202
Definition
The federal government uses the term “other health impairments” to describe, collectively,
conditions and diseases that create special health care needs for children. The IDEA ’04
definition is given in Table 3.1. Note that many specific health conditions are called out in
this federal definition, but many other conditions—such as blood conditions, cancer, cystic
fibrosis, tuberculosis, and STORCH infections (syphilis, toxoplasmosis, rubella,
cytomegalovirus, Herpes)—are also included.

For many years the term medically fragile was used to describe all children with special
health care needs, but it is now more selectively applied. Medically fragile is a status; it is
not assigned to any specific condition but rather describes the individual’s health situation
noted in the aforementioned conditions. Because of advances in medical technology,
students can survive health crises and move in and out of fragile status. In the past, many
would have been too ill or not have lived long enough to go to school. Even though they
are now stable enough to attend, they require ongoing medical management. Teachers
must be familiar with emergency procedures for them; the “if, then” must be carefully
planned in collaboration with doctors and the school’s medical professional. Although steps
for “worst-case scenarios” must be arranged, in most cases the accommodations required for
these children are not terribly dramatic. (However, not having backup power for a child’s
ventilator could have disastrous results.)

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Types
In general, there are two major groups of students with special health care needs:

1. Those with chronic illness

2. Those with infectious diseases

Table 3.2 describes many of these conditions, some of which are very rarely seen in
children. All children have episodes of illness during childhood, but most are brief and not
very serious. For a small number of children, however, illnesses are chronic, lasting years or
even a lifetime. Children with chronic illnesses often do not feel well enough to focus their
attention on instruction. They are also absent often, causing them to miss a substantial part
of their education.

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Asthma is the most common chronic disorder of children. This pulmonary disease is the
leading cause of school absences among all the chronic diseases (Asthma and Allergy
Foundation of America, n.d.). A person with asthma usually has labored breathing that is
sometimes accompanied by shortness of breath, wheezing, and a cough. Years ago, many
people believed asthma was a psychological disorder. It is not; its origin is physical. Many
allergen-related factors, such as classroom pets, chalk dust, dirt in the environment, dust
mites, and pollen can trigger an asthma attack, as can nonallergen-related physical activity
or exertion. “Triggers” vary for each individual with asthma. Many students who have
asthma are unable to participate in sports or even in physical education activities. Few
actually need special education, but they do need special accommodations so their illness
does not hinder their learning.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a potentially fatal viral infection transmitted

primarily through exchange of bodily fluids in unprotected sex or by contaminated
hypodermic needles. It is the virus responsible for the deadly acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) and can be communicated to a child by an infected mother. Before
blood-screening procedures were instituted, the virus was also transmitted through blood
transfusions. The effects of the infection in children include central nervous system
damage, additional infections, developmental delay, motor problems, psychosocial stresses,
and death. HIV/AIDS is an infectious disease, but unlike most others, such as flu and the
common cold, it is serious and life threatening. The disease is very uncommon in young
children, but unfortunately it is more common in teenagers because of dangerous life
choices such as drug use and unprotected sex. For many years, parents and educators were
concerned that noninfected children could catch the disease from a classmate. It is now

205
clear that this is highly unlikely. With proper precautions (such as using latex gloves when
treating a child’s scrape and following normal sanitary procedures), everyone at school is
safe and will not catch this disease.

206
Characteristics
The health care needs of some children are so consuming, requiring special
accommodations and considerations, that everything else becomes secondary. The
treatment goals for these youngsters are to stay strong, healthy, and active and to lead a life
as normal as possible. Although education is a major part of their childhood, many face
barriers to efficient learning, such as the following:

Fatigue
Absences
Inconsistent ability to pay attention
Muscle weakness
Loss of physical coordination

Some symptoms are directly related to medications and treatment, and others are a
function of the disease, illness, or condition. For example, children who are receiving cancer
treatment go through periods of feeling too sick to profit from much of the instructional
day, and during this time they may have frequent absences or even some long periods
where they do not come to school. Instead they receive a special education option outlined
in IDEA ’04, home-bound/hospital instruction, in which an itinerant teacher helps them
maintain progress in the curriculum by coming to their home or to a hospital (USDE,
2014). Sometimes, technology helps students stay connected with their classmates. For
example, simple video options (e.g., Skype, FaceTime) now readily available through
computers allow a student who cannot come to school to join class discussions about a
social studies topic or watch a demonstration of a science experiment online. Clearly,
opportunities for students with health challenges are much greater today than they were
only a few years ago. Possibilities for participating in and accessing the general education
curriculum from a distance should be available to all students who face such challenges.

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For some students, their health situations require special accommodations and
considerations. Their treatment goals are to stay strong, healthy, and active and to
lead lives as normal as possible.

iStock/jarenwicklund

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Prevalence
Between 2002 and 2010, the size of this category increased from 291,850 to 371,617
(Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative, 2011). Why might this be so? As we
noted in Chapter 2, the most probable reason is the inclusion of ADHD in the other health
impairments federal special education category. ADHD, however, is not the only condition
contributing to the increase in this group of students. For example, asthma is the leading
cause of school absenteeism and the condition that affects the most schoolchildren. In the
United States, about 40 million people have asthma—13.3% are adults and 13.8% are
children (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [NIEHS], 2012). Most of
them do not require special education, but they do need special accommodations and
considerations.

Some other health conditions are not increasing because they are better controlled through
medication. For example, approximately 1% of the general population has epilepsy, but
substantially less than 1% of the school population has the condition; for some 70% of
those affected, medication ends the occurrence of seizures (Epilepsy Foundation of America
[EFA], 2014). The number of new cases of pediatric AIDS occurring in the United States
has dropped over the past 20 years (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2010). Considering Diversity features descriptive information about sickle-cell anemia and
prevalence rates, which are highest among African American and Hispanic American
individuals.

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What are the attributes of Students with Autism Spectrum
Disorders?
Autism has been receiving considerable attention in the media in recent years (e.g., Kohnle,
2014; Park, 2009). The reasons for all this public attention are understandable: The
condition is on the rise, the causes remain unknown, and it can be very severe.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

IDEA ’04 still refers to the single disorder of autism, but most parents and professionals
have adopted a revised conception of this disability. Rather than autism being a single
condition, it is thought that five related conditions make up a spectrum of disorders. The
umbrella term autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a fairly new way of thinking about similar,
but different, conditions or syndromes (see Figure 3.4). The previous conceptual
framework used the term autism as the name for different conditions or syndromes that
share “autistic-like” symptoms and characteristics. However, in today’s broader concept,
ASD is the larger category and autism is just one disorder within it.

Most experts agree that more children are diagnosed with autism today than in the past.
Why might this be so? There is probably no single answer to this question. One reason is
better diagnostic procedures. Another explanation is the use of broader and more inclusive
definitions of ASD and autism. Despite all the concern about the increased prevalence of
ASD, educators should keep in mind that it is a low-incidence disability, affecting 0.6% of
the school population (USDE, 2014). Most general education teachers are likely to have
little or no opportunity to meet or work with children who have the disorders or conditions
included in this spectrum. Let’s take a closer look at ASD and how it affects individuals.

210
Definition
The federal government has not yet acknowledged the five types of ASD in the IDEA law,
and IDEA ’04 describes only autism. However, thinking about autism as part of a spectrum
is clearly the trend. The DSM-5 (2013, pp. 50-51) definition of autism spectrum disorders
does this and appears in Table 3.3.

Figure 3.4 Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) Umbrella

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CONSIDERING diversity

212
Sickle-cell anemia
One health condition in particular disproportionately affects African Americans: Approximately 1 in 12 has
the trait. For Hispanic Americans, approximately 1 in 100 has the trait (National Human Genome
Research Institute, 2014). Sickle-cell anemia is a hereditary, life-threatening blood disorder that causes the
red blood cells to become rigid and take on a crescent, or sickle, shape. During what is called a “sickling
crisis,” this rigidity and the crescent shape of the cells do not allow blood to flow through the vessels,
depriving some tissues of oxygen and resulting in extreme pain, swollen joints, high fever, and even strokes.
Educators need to know that many of these children may be frequently absent from school. To reduce the
stress they experience when they return to school knowing they have missed assignments and instruction,
teachers should work together and develop strategies with the students and their families to compensate for
missed school days. For example, a neighborhood child could serve as a peer tutor who brings assignments
home to the student and explains important instructions provided during the school day.

213
Video case 3.2

Supporting Students With Autism

1. Kristen Lanning is a behavior analyst who works with students who have autism. What
services does a behavior analyst provide in order to support the academic and behavioral
success of these students?
2. What daily living skills does Ms. Lanning teach at home and in the community? How does
she support the family in addition to supporting the child with autism?

214
Types
Until the DSM-5 (APA, 2013) was published in 2013, ASD typically was considered a
broad category that groups together five types of specific disorders:

1. Autistic disorder, or autism

2. Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD)
3. Asperger’s syndrome
4. Rett syndrome
5. Pervasive developmental disorder—not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS)

DSM-5 changed the focus from types of ASD to three levels of severity, but many
professionals and advocates continue to use terms like Asperger’s syndrome and PDD-
NOS. Severity levels are based on support needs, which we discuss later in this chapter.
Table 3.4 lists and describes the DSM-5 categories of severity for ASD.

215
216
Characteristics
According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2014), all children with
ASD demonstrate the following:

Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple

contexts;
Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.

Further, NIMH specifies the following:

Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period (typically recognized in

the first two years of life); and,
Symptoms must cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or
other important areas of current functioning.
Source: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/autism-spectrum-disorders-
asd/index.shtml

Experts with NIMH report that most of these youngsters exhibit social challenges,
including problems with social communication and repetitive and stereotypic behaviors.
Social difficulties include making little eye contact, looking at and listening to people in
their environment less than most children or failing to respond to others, refusing to share
their toys or activities with other children, and responding differently when others are
angry, distressed, or affectionate. With regard to communication skills, children with ASD

Fail or are slow to respond to their name or other verbal attempts to gain their
attention.
Fail or are slow to develop gestures, such as pointing and showing things to others.
Coo and babble in the first year of life but then stop doing so.
Develop language at a delayed pace.
Learn to communicate using pictures or their own sign language.
Speak only in single words or repeat certain phrases over and over, seeming unable to
combine words into meaningful sentences.
Repeat words or phrases they hear, a condition called echolalia.
Use words that seem odd, out of place, or have a special meaning known only to
those familiar with the child’s way of communicating.
Source: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/autism-spectrum-disorders-
asd/index.shtml

217
All children with autism spectrum disorders have impairments in communication,
impairments in social skills, and restrictied and repetitive behavioral patterns or range
of interests. The skills of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders vary
greatly.

iStock/WallyBird

218
The skills of children diagnosed with ASD vary greatly. Those who have problems with
social interactions often appear to live in their own world and may not seek out the
company of peers or adults. Many are said to use people as tools. For example, a child may
lead an adult by the hand to the refrigerator and push the adult’s hand toward the juice the
child wants. In this way, the child with ASD is using the adult as a means to an end
(Heward, 2010). Children with autism do not generally initiate social situations and do not
engage in social turn-taking just for the pleasure of being part of a social interaction.

Individuals with ASD who have repetitive or odd patterns of behavior, stereotyped
behaviors, unusual interests, or strange responses to the environment exhibit a variety of
symptoms. For example, they may be attracted to specific aspects of a toy, tirelessly
spinning the wheel of a toy car or wiggling the string of a pull toy. Many have rigid
patterns of behavior. For example, one child might line up his or her toys in a specific way
and insist on following the same routine every day. If these patterns of behavior are
violated, a tantrum might result to protest the disruption.

We mentioned earlier that all students now face higher academic expectations, and all but
1% will be expected to pass a high-stakes test to demonstrate they are performing to grade-
level expectations. Many high-functioning students with ASD, such as those previously
labeled as having Asperger’s syndrome, can meet these expectations as they work in
inclusive settings. Lower-function students with ASD may be among the 1% who qualify
for an alternate assessment, but many may not. Regardless of the severity of the ASD,
collaborative partnerships between general and special educators can help students meet
their IEP goals.

219
Prevalence
Many different prevalence rates for autism and for ASD are cited. For example, the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2014) estimates the rate of occurrence of ASD
as 1 individual in 68, or about 1.5%. Also, the federal Office of Special Education
Programs (OSEP, 2006) reported that 455,349 schoolchildren between the ages of 6 and
17 received special education services in 2013 because of ASD—up from 181,758 in 2005
(USDE, 2014). This alarming growth is of great concern to parents, policymakers, and
professionals, and it is also confusing. Has there truly been a dramatic increase in ASD? Or
does the increase reflect a more inclusive definition? The answers to these questions are
elusive. Here’s what we do know today. In 2003, the CDC found that the rate of autism
was greater than it was during the 1980s and early 1990s; in 2014, the CDC reported an
even greater rise in the prevalence rate. But ASD remains a low-incidence disability
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2013).

220
What are the attributes of Students with Multiple-Severe
Disabilities?
Students with multiple-severe disabilities make up the largest group of those with low-
incidence disabilities. Why? Many states assign nearly all children and youths who have
more than one disability to this special education category. The combination of disabilities
present need not be specified. Thus some students have poor vision and also cognitive
disabilities, and others may have a severe hearing loss and substantial mobility issues.
Possessing more than one major disability presents unique challenges to the individual and
the family. For example, deaf children who also have another disability need teachers who
are specialists in more than one area and who also understand the special problems resulting
from a unique combination of disabilities.

Teachers need to avoid the temptation to describe these students in terms of deficits, rather
than in terms of what they can do through a variety of supports across many of life’s
dimensions. The emphasis for students with multiple-severe disabilities is on developing
skills that promote independence and community presence (Snell & Brown, 2010).
Ironically, in some cases, that means teaching individuals how to depend on others to gain
the supports they require to achieve maximal independence.

The current outlook for individuals with multiple-severe disabilities is very different from
what it was only a few decades ago. Not long ago, adults with severe disabilities spent their
lives in large residential institutions with no access to the community and no chance to
participate in mainstream society. Today, they have more opportunities than ever before.
Many live in group homes, community-based living arrangements with a small number of
adults, or in apartments, and they hold jobs in the community. Their educational
opportunities have also increased. Before IDEA was passed in 1975, many were excluded
from school and had no opportunity to benefit from a special education complete with the
related services they needed. For those who did find access to education, it was often in
segregated settings. And it was not until the 1960s and 1970s that researchers began to turn
their attention to developing and validating instructional procedures and services that are
especially effective for these learners. In addition to access to the general education
curriculum, their education now includes the following:

Expressions of choice
Self-determination
Functional skills training
Social skills training
Community-based instruction
Supports and planning for the transition to adult life

221
These individuals’ inclusion in school and in the community is relatively recent.
Knowledge about best practices and services is still being developed, so the outcomes for
the next generations of these students will be even greater.

222
Definition
The definition of multiple-severe disabilities is included in Table 3.5. Combinations of
disabilities and conditions lead to unique special needs. For example, an individual with a
cognitive disability might need supports to pay bills and manage a budget. If that
individual also has a moderate hearing loss, she or he might need an assistant to facilitate
communication at the doctor’s office but might function at work with only natural
supports from coworkers. Let’s consider further how different conditions can occur
together.

Low-Incidence Practices

223
Types
Each individual with multiple-severe disabilities is unique. The possible combinations of
conditions are numerous, and the ways in which the symptoms associated with these
conditions can manifest themselves make it impossible to group these students by type. So
instead, let’s spend a little time thinking about common characteristics they present to
themselves, their families, and their teachers.

224
Characteristics
Individuals with multiple-severe disabilities display a wide range of skills and abilities, as
well as a wide range of problem areas in need of intensive instruction. According to the
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY, 2012), this
group of individuals shares some common characteristics:

Limited speech or communication

Difficulty in basic physical mobility
Tendency to forget skills through disuse
Trouble generalizing skills from one situation to another
A need for support in major life activities (e.g., domestic, leisure, community use,
vocational)

Many individuals with multiple-severe disabilities also face other challenges, including
medical problems such as seizure disorders, vision or hearing problems, heart disease, and
cerebral palsy. Consequently, they and their families deal with many professionals and
disciplines, all with different styles of interaction, terms and jargon, and approaches. Such
multiple interactions can complicate an already difficult situation.

One common characteristic of severe disabilities is the response to the challenges to gain
independence and participation in the community. Typically, in order for someone to
accomplish these goals, intensive and pervasive supports from a wide range of individuals
and systems must be in place. Technology is one of those supports (Bryant & Bryant,
2011). Technology can also help people with disabilities and their families address and
compensate for their disabilities (Bryant, Seok, Ok, & Bryant, 2012). The federal
government continues to make a considerable investment in technology, because it is clear
it has improved outcomes for students with disabilities (Bryant & Bryant, 2011). The data
on which the government bases these conclusions indicate that technology helps these
individuals

Communicate more effectively.

Increase their levels of independence.
Control their environments.
Have greater mobility.
Gain access to information.

225
 Technology has opened up avenues of communication for many students who are
unable to communicate with others through oral speech. What forms of alternative
and augmentative communication are available for students with disabilities?

Zentralbild/dpa/picture-alliance/Newscom

Technology has opened up avenues of communication for many students who are unable
to communicate with others through oral speech (Bryant & Bryant, 2011). Let’s look at
one example. Augmentative and alternative communication devices (AAC), which
include software and hardware devices for communicating, can be very beneficial to
individuals with low-incidence disabilities (Fisher & Shogren, 2012). Whether in the form
of simple devices, such as communication boards, or complicated speech synthesizers (see
http://www.tobiidynavox.com/ for an example of different AAC devices) that actually speak
for the individual, technology now allows individuals to make their needs known, express
their feelings, and interact with others (Bryant & Bryant, 2011). In the most
straightforward systems, words and/or pictures are placed on a flat surface or in books. The
student communicates by pointing to the appropriate symbols. Symbols are customized to
the individual; the words or symbols on the board reflect the individual and salient features
of the environments in which he or she operates. Some boards are simple homemade
projects; others use quite sophisticated technology. Your job as a teacher is to encourage the
use of these techniques and help shape them into a reliable system of communication for
the student. When your students have these communication tools, learning and social
interaction can take place.

226
Prevalence
Relatively few U.S. students—only 0.23%—are included in the federal special education
category of multiple disabilities, representing some 132,986 students ages 6 to 17 (USDE,
2014). Some states do not include in this category students who have learning disabilities
and also a hearing problem; other states do. Some states include in the intellectual and
developmental disabilities category students with a mild visual disability who also have
substantial cognitive disabilities; other states report these students to the federal
government as having multiple disabilities. Regardless, all students with severe problems are
served by special education, and the overall goal for their education usually focuses on
achieving independent living in the community.

227
What are the attributes of Students with Developmental
Delay?
A child who is not speaking by the age of 3 is likely to have a problem that could be a
significant disability. But which disability? It could be an intellectual and developmental
disability, ASD, a learning disability, or a speech or language impairment. Rather than
forcing a diagnosis that might be incorrect, IDEA ’04 allows preschoolers ages 3 to 5 and
children up to age 9 who show a general delay in development to receive special education
services under the nonspecific category developmental delay, created in 1991. Creating
this label was actually the federal government’s first move toward supporting a
noncategorical approach to special education. It means that, unlike their counterparts
without disabilities, some youngsters are entitled to a free appropriate education during the
preschool and early elementary years without being identified with a specific disability. The
main purpose of this special education category is to reduce the chances of misidentifying
children as having one disability when in fact they have another.

228
Definition
So as not to mislabel, or incorrectly identify, children with disabilities between the ages of 3
and 9, IDEA ’04 allows states to provide special services to those who exhibit general
developmental delays without also identifying them as having a specific disability. The
IDEA ’04 definition of this noncategorical identification, developmental delay, is found in
Table 3.6. Approximately 2.2% of students ages 6 through 21 have developmental delays
(USDE, 2014).

229
Types
Preschoolers with developmental delays have a wide range of disabilities, only some of
which can be specifically classified during their early years. Many states therefore use the
developmental delay option for qualifying these children for special education services
between the ages of 3 and 5, but some states may choose to identify children as being “at
risk” for developmental delays when they are infants or toddlers (National Infant &
Toddler Child Care Initiative, 2010), and some states include children younger than 3 and
older than 5 years. For example, while preschoolers with severe visual disabilities can be
readily identified, children with general delays in language and motor skills may receive
services but not be assigned a categorical identification (such as intellectual and
developmental disabilities).

230
Characteristics
The main characteristic of youngsters with developmental delays is that they have general
delays in their development. Professionals use this designation for two main reasons: (1)
They are hesitant to assign a potentially incorrect disability label to the child, or (2) they
believe the child may just be developing slowly and will later catch up to peers on critical
developmental markers (such as speech, motor skills, and social skills). Although the federal
government allows noncategorical identification of students up to the age of 9, as children
get older, the percentage in this category decreases dramatically (U.S. Department of
Education, 2014).

231
Prevalence
The special education label developmental delay is most often applied to children between
the ages of 3 and 5. Of the 730,558 students ages 3 to 5 served by IDEA, Part B, 37%
(over 270,000) were identified as having developmental delays (USDE, 2014). At a young
age, data may be insufficient to make an eligibility determination associated with a different
disability (Virginia Department of Education, 2010).

232
What are the attributes of Students with Physical Disabilities?
Many adults with physical disabilities received a very different education than today’s
students who face physical challenges. Typically, they were not allowed to join their
brothers, sisters, and friends at their neighborhood school. They were bused to special
schools equipped with state-of-the-art equipment like therapy pools and staffed with related
services professionals such as physical and occupational therapists. But these facilities were
segregated, and only students with disabilities attended. When these individuals grew up,
many became disability advocates. They have fought hard to enlarge the educational
options available to students with disabilities, and specifically, they have sought the closure
of separate, center schools for schoolchildren with physical disabilities. The result of their
efforts is that students with physical disabilities attend school alongside typical learners in
inclusive school settings. Many receive therapy from related services professionals. For
some, their only teachers are general educators who provide accommodations guided by
special education professionals.

233
Definition
IDEA ’04 uses the term orthopedic impairments to refer to conditions that we call
physical disabilities and others call physical impairments. The definition used in the law is
found in Table 3.7. Individuals with these conditions have problems with the structure or
the functioning of their bodies. For such a student to be eligible for special education
services, the physical disability must adversely affect educational performance.

234
WORKING together

235
Promoting Accessibility
Earlier you met Mr. Dehiya, a high school teacher whose students helped restructure his classroom to make
it accessible for one of his students who had been injured in a car accident and who now used a wheelchair
to move about. Mr. Dehiya chose to go online and gain information about how to make his classroom
accessible and also to communicate with and help make Abooksigun as comfortable as possible in the
classroom. What we failed to mention earlier was that, after reading the information he found online and
making a “to-do” list, Mr. Dehiya contacted a friend of his, Ms. Tsabetsaya, a trained and licensed
occupational therapist. Ms. Tsabetsaya often acted as a consultant for the district, usually in the form of
serving on assistive technology (AT) team meetings to help with AT assessments designed to create a
student-technology match that would allow students to access the general education curriculum. But Ms.
Tsabetsaya was also trained in helping business associates develop accessible workplaces or help clients who
had sustained injuries access daily living activities. She was very familiar with the needs of wheelchair users
and had developed a keen eye for identifying what might or might not be the effective and efficient change
in a room to allow for maximum accessibility. This was especially useful in Mr. Dehiya’s classroom, where
students engaged in small group activities. The two met for about two hours, going over Mr. Dehiya’s list
and going through the classroom and discussing the feasibility of his suggestions. Although Ms. Tsabetsaya
found that the list contained many excellent suggestions, she offered a few more; Mr. Dehiya shook his head
a few times, wondering how he had not thought of “that.” There are many professionals employed by a
school district, some as full-time staff (speech-language pathologists, physical therapists, for example) or
some as consultants. Rural school districts in particular often hire itinerant specialists to travel from school
to school, serving the needs of perhaps only one or two students in a school with a small student
population, but needed as full-time employees to meet the needs of all students attending schools across a
wide geographical area. In this case, Mr. Dehiya and Ms. Tsabetsaya were friends, so he was able to contact
her directly. At other times, teachers may have to meet with someone from the district to set up a meeting
with a specialist.

236
Questions
1. You have a student in your classroom who has missed several days because of asthma. Who might
you meet with to identify challenges posed by lengthy absences and identify solutions to those
challenges?
2. As a class, brainstorm a list of professionals (areas, not necessarily individuals) who may have helpful
information concerning the numerous low-incidence areas discussed in this chapter. For low-
incidence categories where none are found, divide the list among small groups and go online to find
answers. What term(s) might you insert into a search engine to find these professionals?

237
Types
The two major groups of physical disabilities follow:

1. Neuromotor impairments
2. Muscular/skeletal conditions

Many conditions included in each group are listed in Figure 3.5 and described in Table
3.8. When the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and the spinal cord, is
damaged, the result is a neuromotor impairment that limits muscular control and
movement. Cerebral palsy (CP) and seizure disorders (such as epilepsy) are examples of
neuromotor impairments, as are muscular dystrophy, polio, and spina bifida. Individuals
with muscular/skeletal conditions usually have difficulty controlling their movements, but
the cause is not neurological. Juvenile arthritis and limb deficiencies are examples of
muscular/skeletal conditions. Regardless of the type of physical disability, some individuals
need special devices and technology even to do simple tasks—walking, eating, or writing—
that most of us take for granted. Let’s think about each of these types of physical disabilities
in turn.

Two specific neuromotor impairments teachers should know about because they are more
prevalent than other conditions are cerebral palsy and seizure disorders or epilepsy. Epilepsy
is the most common neuromotor impairment encountered at school. A person with
epilepsy often has recurrent seizures resulting from the sudden, excessive, spontaneous, and
abnormal discharge of neurons in the brain. The result can be loss of consciousness or
changes in the person’s motor or sensory functioning. The frequency of seizures may vary
from a single isolated incident to hundreds in a day. Some children actually anticipate their
seizures because they experience a preictal stage, or an aura, and have heightened sensory
signals of an impending seizure, such as a peculiar smell, taste, vision, sound, or action.
Others might experience a change in their behavior. Knowing about an aura pattern is
helpful, because it allows an individual to assume a safe position or warn teachers and
classmates before a seizure begins.

Figure 3.5 An Organizational Scheme for Physical Impairments

238
239
Cerebral palsy is a result of damage either before (prenatally), during (perinatally), or
immediately after (postnatally) the child’s birth, usually because of insufficient oxygen flow
to the brain (Stern Law Group, 2015). The condition can also be acquired during the first
three years of life. In these cases, it is usually caused by brain damage resulting from
accidents, brain infections, or child abuse. Cerebral palsy is not a disease but rather a
nonprogressive and noninfectious condition that results in severe motor impairments.
Regrettably, once it has been acquired, it cannot be cured (at least as of today).

One of the most common muscular/skeletal conditions seen in children, limb loss, results
from a missing arm or leg. Regardless of whether the impairment occurred before or after
birth, it is a major impediment to normal physical activity and functioning. Emerging
technology, particularly robotics or the use of robots, now provides much assistance to
those with missing limbs. Artificial limbs make possible movements that only a few years
ago were thought to be impossible.

A relatively common muscular/skeletal condition affecting joints and the function of

muscles is juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Although there are many different forms of this
disease, it is typically chronic and painful. Juvenile arthritis usually develops in early
childhood and can cause many absences from school. Children often need help keeping up
with their classmates because they miss so much class instruction. Teachers must
understand that their ability to move may be inconsistent (better or worse at different times
of the day) and that sitting for extended periods of time can cause them to become stiff and
experience considerable pain. These children need to be allowed to move around a lot.

240
Those who have a high rate of absences probably need tutoring and extra help to keep up
with their peers.

241
Characteristics
Physical disabilities range from mild to severe and in many cases are only one of multiple
conditions an individual must face. However, remember that physical disability and
cognitive disability do not go hand in hand. Let’s consider the characteristics of a few
physical disabilities.

Some seizures are characterized by short lapses in consciousness, and it may be difficult to
recognize that a student is experiencing anything out of the ordinary. Because some types of
seizures are not dramatic, a teacher might wrongly assume that the child is merely
daydreaming or not paying attention. In other types of seizures, the child may think the
environment has become distorted and strange and that inexplicable events and feelings
have occurred. Teachers might incorrectly believe the child is acting out, clowning around,
or exhibiting bizarre behavior patterns. Of course, the most serious type of seizure, the one
most of us think of first, is characterized by convulsions and loss of consciousness. The
behaviors associated with these seizures may at first be frightening to the teacher and to
other students in the class, but knowing what to expect and what to do in the event of a
seizure reduces the stress (and the danger to the individual student). The school nurse, the
student’s parents, or the special education teacher can be a great resource when planning for
the special needs of such students.

Individuals with cerebral palsy whose motor functioning is affected show the following
characteristics alone or in combination: jerky movements, spasms, involuntary movements,
and lack of muscle tone (refer back to Chapter 1 and reread the story about Paul who has
cerebral palsy to give you a “human” perspective of this condition). Many have impaired
mobility and poor muscle development. They may also need braces to help support the
affected limbs and make them more functional or to prevent more problems and
limitations on mobility. Proper positioning of the body also must be considered. Many
children need wedges, pillows, and individually designed chairs and work tables so they can
be comfortable, breathe more easily, avoid more problems, and participate in group
activities. Although some degree of intellectual and developmental disabilities is present in
about half these children, others are intellectually gifted. It is a tragic mistake to assume
that cerebral palsy and intellectual and developmental disabilities always occur together.

The challenges facing students with physical limitations and their teachers are great. All
schools must meet the special architectural codes required by the ADA law and must be
barrier-free. Regardless, these students’ worlds are often filled with physical barriers that
must be overcome before they can achieve independence and a “normal” life. Surprisingly,
students who use wheelchairs still face physical barriers at some schools. For example,
classes are scheduled on the second floor although no elevator is available, bathrooms are
not accessible, or passageways are too narrow to pass through (U.S. Department of State,

242
Bureau of International Information Programs, 2013). These facts may explain why many
individuals with a limb deficiency have difficulties adjusting to their situation. Eliminating
barriers, even obvious physical ones, can be more difficult than you might think. Often, it
is the student’s teacher who must advocate for improvements to the bathroom, the
lunchroom, the playground, the gymnasium, the music room, the library, and the bus.
Remember, too, that barriers are not only physical, and integration may necessitate
accommodations beyond the curb cuts, ramps, elevators, and bathroom alterations required
by law. Most children will respond warmly and proudly to your subtle reminders that
everyone enjoys being included in all aspects of school.

Some students with disabilities need to use special devices and technology to do basic
physical tasks such as walking, playing, eating, or writing.

iStock/SolStock

243
Prevalence
According to the USDE (2014), some 61,716 students, or about 0.12% of all
schoolchildren, have physical disabilities requiring special education or related services.
Let’s look at the prevalence rates of a few specific conditions. About 1% of the general
population has epilepsy, but substantially less than 1% of the school population has the
condition, and from 70% to 80% of all cases are controlled by medication or surgical
techniques (American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 2012). About 0.03% of all
children have cerebral palsy, and some do not require any special education services
(cerebralpalsy.org, 2014). The prevalence of many diseases and conditions that seriously
affect children continues to change across time. For example, some, like polio, are almost
eradicated in the United States. Other conditions, like cerebral palsy, have remained stable
for more than 40 years.

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What are the attributes of Students Who Are Deaf and Hard
of Hearing?
The words deaf and Deaf both refer to individuals with severe and profound hearing losses,
but they have very different implications. Possibly more than any other group of people
with disabilities, Deaf individuals unite as a community. Their separate language and
culture bind them together, and they feel much as people who live in different countries
feel about each other and about those who do not share the same language, history,
literature, and art (Hands and Voices, 2014). This group often interprets inclusion
differently from those with other disabilities, believing it is undesirable and restrictive. They
are also at the forefront of remarkable technological advances that will change many of their
lives. However, not all people who cannot hear consider themselves Deaf and members of
the Deaf community. The best indicator of how people think about themselves in this
regard is whether they capitalize the “D” in deaf.

Perspectives on deafness differ. Some people with average hearing consider deafness a
disability, a sad condition that isolates those affected from family and society. To many
Deaf people, however, deafness is one aspect binding them together as a minority group
rich in culture, history, and language (Hands and Voices, 2014). The language of the Deaf
community is American Sign Language (ASL), a language that uses signs, has all the
elements of other languages (grammar, syntax, idioms), and is not parallel to English in
either structure or word order. ASL is not a mere translation of oral speech or the English
language (as is signed English); it is a fully developed language. In fact, many states allow
ASL as an option to meet the high school foreign language requirement, and the same is
true at many colleges and universities. As the language of the Deaf community, ASL is used
in all aspects of Deaf culture. For example, plays are written in ASL and performed by deaf
theater groups around the world, and a base of folk literature has developed over the years.
This community unites in many ways by coming together socially and by advocating
against discrimination and for justice.

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Definition
There are two types of hearing problems that result in disabilities; these are identified in
Table 3.9. Deaf students have a hearing loss so severe that, with or without help from a
hearing aid or an assistive hearing device, it seriously affects their ability to process spoken
or auditory information by hearing. Clearly, these students’ educational performance, their
interactions with others, and their participation in the community are influenced by their
hearing problems.

Students With Hearing Impairments

Students with hearing problems that are less severe—those whose hearing falls into the
range considered hard of hearing—are also eligible for special education services. Most
states do not specify a specific level of hearing loss that serves as a guideline for which
students qualify for special education and which do not. Such states simply indicate that a
student’s hearing problems (whether permanent or fluctuating) must adversely affect
educational performance. Experts vary in their definitions of hearing loss and in the point
at which they believe it has educational significance. Although 18 states provide a cutoff
score, usually including at least a 20-decibel loss in the speech range in the better ear, even a
precise score on an audiogram cannot guide educators in assessing the significance of a
hearing loss because individuals respond differently. Whether a student qualifies in the
“deaf” or in the “hard of hearing” group, teachers should remember that all hearing losses
are serious. Of course, at some point, the level of severity substantially influences the way in
which students need to be taught and the degree to which they understand oral
communication.

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247
Types
The dimensions used to describe hearing problems follow:

Type of loss
Age of onset
Degree of loss

The two general types of hearing loss are conductive and sensorineural. Conductive hearing
loss is due to blockage or damage to the outer or middle ear that prevents sound waves
from traveling (being conducted) to the inner ear. Generally, someone with a conductive
hearing loss has a mild to moderate disability. Some conductive hearing losses are
temporary; in fact, we have all probably experienced a conductive hearing loss at some
point in our lives, for example, as a consequence of the change in air pressure when flying
in an airplane or driving through the mountains. Children often experience head colds and
ear infections that result in a temporary loss of conductive hearing. If the hearing loss was
caused by a head cold, once the infection clears up, the hearing difficulties also disappear.

Other causes of conductive hearing losses can usually be corrected through surgery or other
medical techniques. Damage to the inner ear or the auditory nerve results in a sensorineural
hearing loss and is more difficult to improve through technology or medicine. Some people
refer to this type of hearing loss as “nerve deafness.” Individuals affected by a sensorineural
loss are able to hear different frequencies at different intensity levels; their hearing losses are
not flat or even. Sensorineural losses are less common in young children than the
conductive types, but teachers need to understand that hearing aids can have mixed results
with sensorineural losses.

The age when the hearing loss occurs, or age of onset, is important. Individuals who are
born deaf or become deaf before they learn to speak and understand language are referred
to as prelingually deaf. Genetic factors are considered the cause of over half of the incidents
of congenital hearing loss in children (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
[ASHA], 2015). Their inability to hear language seriously affects their abilities to
communicate with others and to learn academic subjects taught later in school. One in ten
of those who are prelingually deaf has at least one deaf parent. Children in this group
typically learn to communicate during the normal developmental period. However, instead
of learning oral communication skills, many learn through a combination of manual
communication (sign language) and oral language. One such approach, called the bilingual-
bicultural approach, combines English as a second language (ESL) instructional methods
and bilingual education, so that some young deaf children are taught ASL as their native
language and learn English as their second language through reading and writing
(Hoffmeister & Caldwell-Harris, 2014).

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Those whose severe hearing loss occurs after they have learned to speak and understand
language are called postlingually deaf. Many are able to retain their abilities to use speech
and communicate with others orally.

Throughout this text, we have included notes about technology that can be used to help
individuals in the classroom. In many instances, the technology is referred to as an assistive
technology (AT) device. The Tech Notes feature that follows provides information about
the importance of identifying the proper student-technology match.

Although no precise cutoff exists to divide students with hearing problems into two groups,
we distinguish between being hard of hearing and being deaf. Intensity, or loudness, of
sound is measured in decibels (dB). Softer, quieter sounds have lower decibel
measurements; louder sounds have higher decibel numbers. Decibel levels ranging from 0
to 120 dB are used to test how well an individual can hear different frequencies; a child
with normal hearing should be able to perceive sounds at 0 dB. In the United States (other
countries may not use the same terms), we associate hearing loss with different decibels
levels. A mild hearing loss occurs at 26 to 45 dB. People with a mild hearing loss have some
difficulty hearing speech, and even what might be considered a mild hearing loss can be
serious for children who are still learning to talk. A moderate hearing loss occurs at 46 to 65
dB, which results in greater difficulty hearing speech. A severe loss (66–85 dB) results in
considerable difficulty hearing speech, and a person with this level of hearing loss is usually
considered “deaf” rather than hard of hearing. At 85 dB or more, a profound loss is evident,
and even the most effective hearing aids may not help a person hear speech. At the
profound level of loss, cochlear implants become an option for some.

For examples of what different decibel levels sound like, see Figure 3.6. Common sources
of loud sounds or noise in our environment are also noted in this figure. Many are
themselves dangerous and, with continued exposure, can cause hearing loss (American
Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2014). As a teacher, you can help your students
come to understand the importance of being careful with sound. For example, students
should know that listening to iPods and MP3 players with the volume turned up high will
eventually result in hearing problems.

The pitch, or frequency, of sounds is measured in a unit called the hertz (Hz). The normal
ear hears sounds that range from approximately 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz; speech sounds fall
about in the middle of the human hearing range (between 250 Hz and 4,000 Hz). An
audiogram is used to plot how well an individual hears at various combinations of hertz and
decibels and also at various bands of pitch and loudness. Typically, the accommodations for
and communication styles of these two groups of individuals differ. For example, students
who are hard of hearing may need to sit closer to the teacher or have a classmate assist with
note taking, whereas a student who is deaf may well need an interpreter to profit from
lectures.

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TECH notes

250
Finding the Right Assistive Technology Device
Special education law defined an assistive technology device as “Any item, piece of equipment or product
system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase,
maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of children with disabilities” (IDEA, 2004). Making a
student-technology match is usually the responsibility of an AT evaluation team, whose members may
include the student’s special education teacher, general education teacher, speech-language pathologist,
physical therapist, occupational therapist, the student’s family, the student, and/or whoever may be involved
in the student’s learning. In the case of students who are deaf or hard of hearing, the team convenes to
identify any AT device that may be needed to help provide the students with access to the general education
curriculum. As part of the process, a series of questions may be asked to better understand the students and
their needs:

How do the students utilize their residual hearing?

What types of hearing technology are the students using or have been used in the past?
Do they use sign language and/or an interpreter?
Can they access what the teacher says at the front of the room, while the teacher walks around, or
with the teacher’s back turned to the class while writing on the board?
Can they access what their peers say during class discussions or group activities or while in
challenging environments?
Do they have access to fire/tornado alarms? Announcements?
Do they have a way to contact home in an emergency? Community supports?
Are movies/videos shown in class? Do the students, families, and staff know how to access
captioning?
How do they communicate with others—family, peers, and community?
Are the students able to take notes and watch the teacher/interpreter effectively?
How do they access information during group activities—lectures, programs, or events?

Once these questions have been answered, the AT evaluation team can then consider the students and their
learning context to identify AT devices that may help enhance learning. As a teacher, you will likely be a
member of an AT evaluation team; it is best to attend the meeting knowing that your input is essential in
helping make a student-technology match.

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Characteristics
Deaf and hard of hearing students are individuals with different learning styles and abilities,
and teachers cannot make uniform judgments about the accommodations and services they
require based on information about an individual student’s amount or type of hearing loss.
One student with a moderate loss might not profit from typical instructional methods
(lectures, oral directions) alone, whereas another student with the same profile might
function well without supports.

Figure 3.6 Decibel Levels of Noise in American Environments

Another factor to consider is whether the individual has cognitive impairments along with
hearing loss. In some conditions, these disabilities go hand in hand, and estimates are that
nearly 25% of children with hearing loss have additional disabilities (U.S. Government
Accountability Office [GAO], 2011). These may include visual disabilities, intellectual and
developmental disabilities, learning disabilities, behavior disorders, and cerebral palsy and
are often caused by the same disease or accident that caused the hearing loss. Students
whose deafness is inherited, however, tend not to have multiple disabilities.

Two areas are of great concern to educators working with deaf students: academic
achievement and speech ability. A long-term problem for individuals who are deaf is their
academic achievement, particularly in the area of reading (Szymanski, Lutz, Shahan, &
Gala, 2013). For example, by age 20, half the students tested read below the mid-fourth-
grade level, leaving them unable to read most newspapers, which are written at least at the

252
fifth-grade level.

Technology has changed the lives of many individuals with hearing problems. Whereas
only 50 years ago students with mild to moderate hearing deficiencies could not hear
teachers’ instructions or classmates’ discussions, improvements in surgery and in hearing
aids and listening devices allow today’s students to profit from education alongside their
classmates without disabilities. Some do not even qualify for special education. More
improvements are on the horizon. Medical technology holds the promise of both
preventing and “curing” deafness at some point in the future. In 2000, deaf children as
young as a year old were allowed to receive cochlear implants, assistive hearing devices
designed to help those with sensorineural hearing loss gain useful hearing. By the end of
2012, about 38,000 children had received the implants (National Institute on Deafness and
Other Communication Disorders, 2014). Although not a cure for deafness, implants hold
great promise for many individuals with profound hearing loss. However, they remain
controversial in the Deaf community, where deafness is accepted and celebrated and ASL
remains the preferred communication mode for some.

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Prevalence
Although many people have hearing problems, almost half are over 65. Despite this fact,
hearing loss in children is one of the most common birth defects in the United States
(ASHA, 2014). Approximately 1 in every 1,000 babies is born profoundly deaf, and
another 2 to 3 have less severe hearing losses. Remember, estimates are that nearly 25% of
deaf and hard of hearing children have additional disabilities (GAO, 2011). Typically,
children who have multiple disabilities are not counted in the federal deafness or hard of
hearing category, so we do not know precisely how many students have hearing problems.
In 2014, the federal government reported 0.15% of the resident population, or 78,448
students, as those whose primary disability is related to their hearing (USDE, 2014). This
number does not include students who do not need special education because hearing aids
or assistive devices allow them to hear well enough to participate in typical classroom
activities.

254
What are the attributes of Students with Visual Disabilities?
Today, about 64% of students with visual disabilities spend over 80% of their school days
in general education classrooms, most likely at their neighborhood school, and receive
support from a resource specialist or itinerant teacher (USDE, 2014). These students
participate in the general education curriculum with their sighted classmates and, if they do
not also have multiple disabilities, tend to perform well academically. Most use aids, such as
glasses or technology, that enlarge type to enhance their vision for accessing information
and moving independently at school and in the community (Macular Degeneration
Foundation, 2012).

255
Definition
When people see normally, two important aspects of their vision are working well: acuity
and peripheral vision. Problems can occur in one or both of these aspects of vision,
resulting in a disability. Visual acuity measures how well a person can see at various
distances. We measure normal visual acuity by testing how accurately a person can see an
object or image 20 feet away. Normal vision is thus said to be 20/20. A person whose vision
is measured at 20/40 can see at 20 feet what people who do not need visual correction
(glasses or contact lenses) can see at 40 feet away. The width of a person’s field of vision, or
the ability to perceive objects outside the direct line of vision, is called peripheral vision.
This aspect of vision helps people move freely through their environment.

How much impairment results in a disability? Look at Table 3.10 and the definition of
blindess and loss of vision. Today, IDEA ’04 and most states have adopted eligibility
criteria that reflect a functional definition of visual disabilities, a concept initiated by
researcher and advocate Anne Corn about 25 years ago. The basic premise is that a student
has a visual disability when, even with correction, educational performance is adversely
affected. In other words, the issue is how much residual vision a person has or can use to
do well in school. States and school districts vary in the criteria they use to determine
eligibility for special services.

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Types
Many professionals talk about visual disabilities in four very different ways:

1. By identifying the reason for the visual loss

2. By considering the severity of the problem
3. By taking into account when the loss occurred
4. By determining whether the criteria for being considered legally blind are met

Numerous conditions can lead to visual loss that results in a disability. The conditions with
which most of us are familiar are myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), and
astigmatism (inability to focus), but many other conditions, only some of which can be
prevented or corrected, can damage the eye, compromise its structure, and undermine its
functioning.

Typically, persons with visual disabilities are divided into two subgroups:

1. Those with low vision

2. Those who are blind

Parents and professionals tend to employ functional definitions for these two subgroups. In
other words, children with low vision use their sight for many school activities, including
reading. Children who are blind do not have functional use of their vision and may
perceive only shadows or some movement. These youngsters must be educated through
tactile and other sensory channels.

Blindness can occur at any age, but its impact varies with age and with age of onset.
Individuals can be

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 Congenitally blind, with onset at birth or during infancy
Adventitiously blind, with onset after the age of 2

This distinction is important because people who lose their sight after age 2, and hence are
adventitiously blind, remember what some objects look like. Those who are congenitally
blind were too young when the loss occurred to remember what things look like. The later
the disability occurs, the more they remember. Visual memory is an important factor in
learning, for it can influence our development of concepts and other aspects important to
learning.

Although it is not related to how well a person can use his or her vision, another way to
categorize people with visual problems is in terms of whether they meet the definition of
legally blind. This designation allows individuals to receive special tax benefits and
materials from the federal government and private agencies. Because the definition does not
exclude people who have some functional use of sight, many individuals who are legally
blind use print, not Braille, to read.

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Characteristics
The way individuals with visual disabilities access information sets them apart as a group,
but the use of aids and technologies helps provide positive information outcomes (Macular
Degeneration Foundation, 2012). Contrary to popular belief, the vast majority use vision
as their primary method of learning and means of participating in the community. For
many students, the amount of vision they have left—their residual vision—can be further
developed through training and practice. The vision of some is static, remaining the same
from day to day, whereas others find that their ability to see varies with the day, time of
day, or setting (American Foundation for the Blind, 2014a). For some, higher or lower
levels of illumination, or changes in distance and contrast, affect how well they can see, but
for others, these make little difference. For most, optical aids such as glasses have a positive
effect.

Because of the importance of literacy and the ability to read, IDEA ’04 insists that
instruction in the use of Braille be considered for every student who has severe visual
loss.

© Amelie-Benoist/BSIP/Corbis

Literacy development has long been a major objective for students with visual impairments,
who need direct instruction in reading (American Foundation for the Blind, 2014b). Most

259
read print, usually via enlarged type. Others read via Braille, and many others access printed
materials by listening to books on tape or a personal reader, meaning someone who reads
for others. Because it is so important to be able to read, IDEA ’04 insists that instruction in
the use of Braille be considered for every student who has severe visual loss (Jackson, 2014).

Although students with visual disabilities participate in inclusive classrooms at a very high
rate, they must also learn skills related to being independent, such as accessing
transportation, moving freely in their environment, and acquiring life skills such as
cooking, doing laundry, cleaning the home, and so on. Therefore, orientation and mobility
are major curriculum targets. Orientation is the mental map people have of their
surroundings. Most of us learn landmarks and other cues to get from one place to another.
As a teacher, you can assist a student with severe visual loss by helping her or him
understand emergency evacuation procedures, recognize exit paths from the school
buildings, and learn how to move safely through the school environment, which he or she
should know well, both during normal school hours and in times of stress. Many schools
and districts have designed emergency preparedness plans for students with disabilities
(Marin County Office of Education, 2010). You can also make sure the student knows
landmarks in the classroom environment so he or she is free to move around
independently.

The ability to travel safely and efficiently from one place to another is called mobility. Most
adults who are blind use the long cane, also called the Hoover cane, which is named after
its developer, Richard Hoover. However, tapping the cane along a sidewalk or pavement of
the street does not always help the individual avoid the many obstacles in modern society.
For example, silent traffic signals, escalators, elevators, and public transportation, to say
nothing of protruding and overhanging objects that are undetectable with mobility canes,
can be very dangerous. Nor do canes tell users where they are or how to get to their next
location. Guide dogs or service animals are another option. Although there are no definitive
statistics available, the number of individuals who use guide dogs is relatively small. It has
been estimated that only about 2% of people who are blind and visually impaired work
with guide dogs (Guiding Eyes for the Blind, 2014). As a teacher, you can help students
who are assisted by a service animal by helping classmates understand that the animal is not
a pet and should be left to do the important job that took years of training for it to master.

Global positioning system (GPS) technology provides new orientation and mobility system
advances for people with severe visual loss and may well become “the” mobility system of
this century. Sometimes called “ambient technology” or “welfare technology” (Hill,
Raymond, & Yeung, 2013), the GPS technology used by the navigational devices in cars
and mobile devices can be used with long canes, and in some cases, with guide dogs as well
(Cook & Polgar, 2012).

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Prevalence
According to the World Health Organization (2014),

About 285 million people are visually impaired worldwide; 39 million of them are
blind.
Throughout the world, most people with visual impairment are age 50 or older.
About 90% of the world’s visually impaired live in developing countries.
The number of people blinded by infectious diseases has been greatly reduced by
recent public health efforts, but age-related impairment is increasing.
Cataracts remain the leading cause of blindness globally, except in the most
developed countries.
Correction of refractive errors could give normal vision to more than 12 million
children ages 5 to 15.
Globally about 80% of all visual impairment is avoidable.
Source: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/

Education Digest reports that 29,004 students with visual impairments are receiving special
education services. This accounts for about 0.5% of those receiving special education
services.

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What are the attributes of Students with Traumatic Brain
Injury?
The CDC (2014) noted that in 2010 in the United States, there were about 2.5
million emergency room visits, hospitalizations, or deaths associated with traumatic
brain injury (TBI), either by itself or combined with other injuries; TBI contributed
to the deaths of more than 50,000 people. A year earlier, almost 250,000 children
(age 19 or younger) were treated in U.S. emergency rooms for sport- and recreation-
related injuries that included a diagnosis of concussion or TBI.

Prior to the 1960s, most children whose brains were seriously hurt died soon after the
trauma. Today’s emergency procedures, imaging technology, surgical methods, and
pharmaceutical treatments routinely save children’s lives after serious accidents, although
some survivors need long-term or short-term special education or special accommodations
under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. At some time during your career, you will
probably work with at least one child with TBI.

262
Definition
TBI became a separate special education category when IDEA was reauthorized in 1990.
Because these students often exhibit memory deficits, attention problems, language
impairments, and reduced academic performance, many are educated alongside their
classmates with learning disabilities. Others, because of their head injuries, experience
seizures and receive many of the same accommodations as children with epilepsy. The
official IDEA ’04 definition of TBI is found in Table 3.11.

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Types
Like other disabilities, TBI ranges in severity from mild to severe (American Society of
Neuroradiology, 2012–2013). Those with more severe head injuries receive home
instruction, often for a year, before returning to school part time. In many cases the effects
eventually disappear, but in some cases they are lifelong.

264
Characteristics
Children with TBI and their families face great emotional turmoil during the time shortly
after the injury. Educators must be alert to student conditions associated with concussions
and TBI (e.g., appears dazed or stunned, is confused about events, answers questions
slowly) and also be prepared to talk with students about their conditions (e.g., difficulty
thinking clearly, difficulty concentrating or remembering, feeling more slowed down;
CDC, 2010).

Alert teachers can be very helpful in early diagnosis and treatment of TBI (CDC, 2010).
Many head injuries are the result of activities in which children commonly engage: riding a
bicycle, using playground equipment, or even tussling in the schoolyard. Often, youngsters
do not want to admit they fell or forgot to wear a protective helmet or were fighting on the
playground. But when a student acts differently, becomes unable to pay attention, or seems
unusually tired, seek help from the school nurse to be certain the child has not experienced
a head injury. Symptoms may include blurred vision, loss of vision, change in hearing
acuity, ringing in the ears, slurred speech, difficulty understanding spoken language,
difficulty processing sensory input (via touch, smell, hearing), personality changes, loss of
taste and/or smell, paralysis, lethargy, loss of bowel/bladder control, dizziness, inappropriate
emotional responses (irritability, frustration, crying, or laughing), and seizures. Many of
these conditions persist and can be mitigated somewhat by medications, but occasionally a
condition (e.g., lethargy, inattention) may be demonstrated in the classroom.

265
Prevalence
In recent years, more than 150,000 children annually have been hospitalized due to a head
injury; 1 in 10 of those children hospitalized will suffer moderate to severe impairments
(Center for Head Injury Services, 2014). Most of these disabilities are mild. According to
the federal government, 25,969 students with TBI were served by special education in the
2011 to 2012 school year (USDE, 2014).

266
What are the attributes of Students with Deaf-Blindness?
A great example of why we should not make assumptions about any person with a
disability, even those with the most severe and complex problems, is a well-known person
with deaf-blindness. Recall Helen Keller, mentioned earlier in the chapter, who graduated
from Radcliffe with honors when few people without disabilities went to college,
particularly women.

267
Definition
Although every state acknowledges deaf-blindness, many define it differently. The
definition of deaf-blindness is found in Table 3.12.

268
Types
When you hear the word deaf-blindness, you probably think of people who have no vision
and no hearing abilities, whose lives must be severely restricted. Although this is true for
some individuals with deaf-blindness, the majority do have some residual hearing and/or
vision. Almost half have enough residual vision to read enlarged print, see sign language,
move about in their environment, and recognize friends and family (Smith & Tyler, 2010).
Some have sufficient hearing to understand certain speech sounds or hear loud noises.
Some can even develop speech themselves. Others have such limited vision and hearing that
they profit little from either sense.

In addition to their visual and hearing losses, most individuals with deaf-blindness also have
other disabilities, such as intellectual and developmental disabilities, that further complicate
their education. Most need considerable supports for their worlds to be safe and accessible;
their educational programs must be carefully thought through and uniquely designed to
ensure that each student meets his or her potential.

269
Characteristics
The world for children with deaf-blindness can be exceptionally restricted. For those whose
hearing and vision losses are severe or profound, the immediate world may well end at their
fingertips (Miles, 2008). They, their family members, and their teachers must address
problems of isolation, communication, and mobility.

Possibly the greatest challenge facing individuals with deaf-blindness is learning to

communicate (Miles, 2008). Many adults with this disability have developed outstanding
communication skills, but this achievement does not typically come without considerable
effort. Others communicate through touch (Miles, 2008). They use various forms of
manual communication—sign language, body language, gestures—to express their needs
and “talk” to others. Some use a special kind of sign language called hand over hand, in
which two people use the palms of each other’s hands to sign through touches. Earlier we
mentioned Helen Keller; she and her teacher, Anne Sullivan, used this communication
technique.

270
Prevalence
According to the federal government, fewer than 1,600 students across the nation fall into
the deaf-blindness category (USDE, 2014). Why does such a large discrepancy exist? The
reason is that the federal government insists that states report students’ disabilities in only
one area, and many deaf-blind students are reported in other categories because they have
so many coexisting problems.

It is unlikely that you as a teacher will meet or work with a student with deaf-blindness.
According to the Deaf-Blind Census, only about 430 students with deaf-blindness receive
their education almost exclusively in the general education classroom (USDE, 2014).
Regardless of their special education placement, students with deaf-blindness are few, and
they need very special instruction and supports.

271
Summary
Although less than 2% of all students have low-incidence disabilities, these disabilities
include hundreds of discrete conditions. The federal government has designated eight
disabilities, plus the flexible, noncategorical grouping “developmental delay” for children
between the ages of 3 and 9, as being “low incidence.” In this chapter, you learned that
students with low-incidence disabilities exhibit complex and unique learning characteristics
that challenge themselves, their families, and their schools. Their conditions and disabilities
influence what they are taught and how they are taught to a greater degree than is true for
many of their peers with and without disabilities. These students often require unique
responses so that they can access the curriculum, participate fully in the school community,
and be successful students. The types of supports, accommodations, and instruction must
reflect the evidence-based practices you will learn about throughout this academic term.
Despite the challenges and barriers many of these students face, they hold great promise of
attaining remarkable accomplishments.

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REVIEW THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot talk
through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

What are the attributes of students with low-incidence disabilities?

Low-incidence disabilities have a low prevalence, so relatively few individuals and

families are affected, but they often require intensive and unique responses to their
very special needs. These unique responses include many, and sometimes complex,
accommodations, as well as long-term interventions, instruction not typically
included in the general education curriculum (such as Braille), and the inclusion of
many different related services professionals (such as assistive technologists, physical
therapists, and speech/language pathologists).
What are the attributes of students with health impairments or special health care
needs?

The key features of most health impairments or special health care needs are fatigue,
absences from school, inconsistent ability to pay attention, muscle weakness, and
problems with physical coordination. Examples of health impairments include
chronic illnesses (asthma, sickle-cell anemia) and infectious diseases.
What are the attributes of students with autism spectrum disorders?

The key features of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are social challenges, including
problems with social communication, and repetitive and stereotypic behaviors. There
are three levels of severity within ASD, dependent on support needs.
What are the attributes of students with multiple-severe disabilities?

The key features of multiple-severe disabilities include the presence of more than one
disability, goals that include independence and community presence, provision of
supports that are ongoing and intensive, and problems with generalization,
communication, memory, and life skills.
What are the attributes of students with developmental delay?

The key feature of developmental delay is that disability is noncategorically described

(no disability label required). This means qualifying students for special education
services is typically used for preschoolers between ages 3 and 5 but may include
children up to the age of 9.
What are the attributes of students with physical disabilities?

The key features of physical disabilities vary with the condition that caused the
physical disability. For example, orthopedic impairments, limb deficiencies, and

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juvenile arthritis result in problems with structure and functioning of the body;
cerebral palsy (CP) can have multiple outcomes; and seizure disorders (epilepsy) can
result in short episodes that briefly interrupt learning or major events that require
major intervention.
What are the attributes of students who are deaf and hard of hearing?

The key features of the category deaf and hard of hearing vary by type (conductive or
sensorineural), age of onset (prelingually or postlingually deaf), and degree of loss
(hard of hearing or deafness). All these conditions usually result in problems with
communication, academic achievement, and speech ability.
What are the attributes of students with visual disabilities?

Low vision and blindness is typically categorized in terms of functional use of sight,
age of onset (congenitally blind, adventitiously blind), and degree of loss (low vision,
legally blind). Key issues for these individuals are attaining literacy (Braille or print),
developing orientation and mobility skills, and developing maximal use of residual
vision and sight for daily functioning. Those with blindness use touch and hearing as
their primary means of accessing information; those with low vision use their sight.
What are the attributes of students with traumatic brain injury?

Traumatic brain injury can be temporary, lasting about a year. In these cases, the
symptoms are mild and are similar to those of learning disabilities. But in other cases,
the conditions are severe, and many individuals experience hospital or home
instruction for some period of time. For these people, the results can be long-lasting
and require medications to help alleviate the conditions. In some instances, some
conditions associated with TBI, such as inattention and lethargy, can be challenging
to the student and teachers.
What are the attributes of students with deaf-blindness?

Deaf-blindness is the occurrence of coexisting hearing and visual impairments; neither

disability has to be severe or profound in nature. This exceptionally low-incidence
disability results in problems with isolation, communication, and mobility.

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274
REVISIT THE OPENING CHALLENGE
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. Do you think Ms. Simpkin will need to plan for her new student differently than she
has for other students with disabilities? If so, in what ways? If not, why not?
2. What learning characteristics might she have to consider as she makes initial plans for
Josh?
3. How might her plans change after she learns what disabilities Josh has?
4. Provide Ms. Simpkin with five questions or issues she should discuss with her
principal.
5. What do you think Mr. Dehiya figured out on his own, based on common sense,
concerning classroom accessibility?
6. Why do you think Mr. Dehiya decided to have his students help restructure the
classroom? Do you think this was a good idea?
7. Before clicking on the link that Mr. Dehiya found
(http://www.cmccd.edu/getdoc.cfm?id=1044), what ideas do you think the
information may include?

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Key Terms
asthma, 93
audiogram, 115
augmentative and alternative communication devices (AAC), 104
aura, 111
chronic illnesses, 92
developmental delay, 105
echolalia, 100
group homes, 102
home-bound/hospital instruction, 94
limb loss, 112
medically fragile, 91
orthopedic impairments, 108
other health impairments, 90
peripheral vision, 121
preictal stage, 111
residual vision, 121
robotics, 112
sickle-cell anemia, 96
visual acuity, 121

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276
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

277
CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences

278
INTASC Core Principles
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences

279
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Human development and behavior

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280
4 Other Students with Special Learning Needs

With contributions by
The late
Janette K. Klingner
University of Colorado at Boulder
Margarita Bianco
University of Colorado at Denver, and Health Sciences Center, Denver,
Colorado

iStock/monkeybusinessimages

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Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

How are students with physical and cognitive needs protected under Section 504?
How can we best meet the needs of students in our culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms?
Who are students “at risk” and what should we know and do to help them achieve their full potential?
What are the attributes of students with gifts and talents?

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OPENING challenge

283
Helping Students With Other Special Learning Needs
Access the Curriculum
Elementary Grades Ms. Grelak has been teaching in the primary grades at Tyler Elementary School for 20
years, during which the school’s population has changed a great deal from mostly White and middle class to
a more culturally and linguistically diverse mix. This year she has 11 African American students and 19
Latino students, 9 of whom are English language learners at various levels of proficiency. She also has a new
student from Korea who knows very little English. Most of her students qualify for free or reduced-price
lunch. A resource teacher provides pullout English as a second language (ESL) support for Ms. Grelak’s
English language learners for 50 minutes a day, but it doesn’t seem to be enough. Ms. Grelak feels
frustrated about how best to meet her students’ needs. Many seem to be struggling to keep up with grade-
level material. She is especially concerned about Gabriel and Allen.

Gabriel’s family moved to the United States from Mexico about a year and a half ago, and Gabriel was
placed in a fourth-grade class. He knew very little English when he started school and is still at a beginning
proficiency level. During his second-grade year he missed almost a month of school, some when he was ill
and some when he and his family went to Mexico to visit relatives for Christmas. Now, in fifth grade, he
seems to have made little progress and is reading only at a beginning first-grade level. He has trouble
concentrating and appears to lack motivation. Ms. Grelak is unsure whether to recommend that he be
retained; she suspects he might have a learning disability.

Allen has attended Tyler since kindergarten. He was retained after first grade and is now in the fifth grade.
He is well-mannered, good-natured, and popular among his peers. Yet he struggles academically, and he is
about two years behind in reading as well as math. Allen’s mother is concerned about his lack of progress
and works with him at home on practice activities that Ms. Grelak sends home for this purpose. She told
Ms. Grelak that Allen is having much more difficulty than either of his older sisters, and Ms. Grelak has
decided to refer him for evaluation for possible placement in special education. She suspects he might have
developmental delays.

Ms. Grelak thinks, “I have so many students from diverse backgrounds, and many with special learning needs. I
want to meet all their needs while trying to teach the curriculum for my grade level and also meet the needs of the
other students in my class. I need to better understand how to help them all.”

Secondary Grades Mrs. O’Malley is in her first year of teaching, having recently gone through the
alternative certification program through her state’s education agency. After her recent marriage, she and
her husband moved from Maine to Arizona. She has a degree in chemistry but decided that, like her mother
and father before her, she wanted to be a high school teacher. She was assigned to teach the general science
class. As she looked at her student roster, she noticed that a high percentage of her students had Spanish
surnames. Even though her certification coursework included some information about English language
learners (ELLs), she was concerned that she might have difficulties meeting the needs of her Latino
students. She called her mother, who suggested that she make an appointment with the district’s ELL
specialist to identify resources and receive advice on teaching techniques.

During the meeting, the ELL specialist directed Mrs. O’Malley to Arizona’s Office of English Language
Acquisition Services’ website (http://www.azed.gov/ada-learners/eld_pd/), which contains a variety of
learning strategies; she also stated that there would be a session titled “Meeting the Needs of ELLs in
Content Classes” during the district’s professional development training before the start of school. Mrs.
O’Malley thanked the specialist after the meeting and went home and immediately looked up the
information on the state’s website. By the first day of school, Mrs. O’Malley felt that she had acquired
enough information to feel reasonably comfortable working with her students.

REFLECTION QUESTIONS In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After

284
 completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What should Ms. Grelak’s next steps be with Gabriel?

2. Do you agree that Ms. Grelak should refer Allen for a special education evaluation? Why or why
not?
3. In what ways does his level of English language proficiency seem to be affecting Gabriel?
4. What characteristics does Gabriel have that seem consistent with those of a gifted student? What
characteristics does Gabriel have that seem consistent with those of English language learners?
5. What advice would you give Ms. Grelak about instruction for English language learners with
learning problems?
6. Where might you go to look for information about teaching English language learners in your state?
What specific questions might you like to have answered?
7. Do you share some of the same concerns as Mrs. O’Malley? Find the website of your home city’s
school system. Is there information pertaining to culturally and linguistically diverse student
populations? What information is provided for parents and teachers?

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As we learned in Chapter 1, special education services are available for students with
identified disabilities according to criteria established in the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA). These students are entitled to the supports
and services they need to benefit from instruction and participate with their peers in the
least restrictive environment (LRE). Yet it is almost inevitable that you will have other
students with special learning needs in your classroom who may not be eligible for special
education services under IDEA but who require special attention in order to fully reach
their potential in school. They need academic and other supports to ensure that they can
benefit from instruction in the general education classroom. “Inclusive education” is a
means to meet the full range of student needs in the classroom by implementing validated
practices and providing support systems that help teachers reach all their students.

In this chapter, we discuss some of those other special needs that can affect educational
outcomes of students in our classrooms. Understanding that the types of needs and life
situations students bring with them are varied and numerous, we do not attempt to
approach comprehensiveness in this discussion. Rather, we discuss some of the more critical
and common needs and circumstances—health-related, cultural, linguistic, economic,
social, and academic—and hope you will recognize that those students, too, require and
deserve special attention in your instructional planning and implementation.

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How Are Students with Physical and Cognitive Needs
Protected Under Section 504?
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is a civil rights law that prohibits
discrimination against individuals with disabilities. It requires federal, state, and local
governments to provide access to buildings and other public spaces to people with
disabilities through such accommodations as alternatives to stairs (ramps and elevators) and
barrier-free sidewalks (via curb cuts that allow wheelchairs to roll from sidewalk to street).

Section 504 also requires that teachers in publicly funded schools make accommodations
and modifications for students with disabilities to ensure that they have equal access to an
education. Because some students who receive services under Section 504 may not be in
special education, it is the general education teacher’s responsibility to make those
accommodations and modifications for the nonspecial education students. Let’s review how
students qualify for services under Section 504 and the educational accommodations that
are available to them.

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Qualifying for Services Under Section 504
There are students with special learning needs who are not covered under IDEA. However,
they may qualify for services under Section 504 because the definition of disability is
broader under Section 504 and extends beyond school age. To be eligible for protections
under Section 504, the child must have a physical or mental impairment that substantially
limits at least one major life activity. Major life activities include walking, seeing, hearing,
speaking, breathing, learning, reading, writing, performing math calculations, working,
caring for yourself, and performing manual tasks. The key is whether a person “has a
physical or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more of such person’s
major life activities” (Yell, 2012, p. 96).

Tech Notes discusses AT needs for students and the range of available devices.

Special Education Law

If the student has a disability that adversely affects educational performance, the student is
eligible for special education services under IDEA and would also be automatically
protected from discrimination under Section 504. However, the opposite is not true: If a
student has a disability that does not adversely affect educational performance, the student
will not be eligible for special education services under IDEA, but the student will usually
be entitled to protections under Section 504. For example, a student with AIDS, a student
with ADHD, and a student with chronic asthma are all protected from discrimination
under Section 504. Each of these students may also be eligible for special education services
under IDEA (under the category “Other Health Impairments” described in Chapter 3), but
those decisions would be based on the specific educational needs of each student
(Wrightslaw, 2015). Students with conditions such as drug or alcohol addiction, temporary
disabilities resulting from accidents, attention problems, or chronic health issues can qualify
as having a disability under Section 504 (Vermont Department of Education, 2010).
Although no funding is attached to this legislation, school districts and general education
professionals are expected to implement measures to address any special conditions they
believe would jeopardize a student’s ability to learn.

287
TECH notes

288
High Tech Versus Low Tech
When making decisions regarding assistive technology (AT) needs for students who qualify under Section
504, it is important to recognize that AT ranges from low tech (sometimes called lite tech) to high tech. It is
often assumed that students require the latest, most advanced devices to meet their needs, but this is not
always the case. Let’s consider one example, for Allen, mentioned in the opening challenges. He struggles
with reading, and his teacher and test data indicate that he is reading about two years below his peers. A
high tech alternative could involve purchasing a scanning machine to scan his textbooks and also text-to-
speech computer software to have the computer read the text aloud, giving Allen access to the reading
material. A lite tech alternative might involve having a classmate or older student volunteer to read the
textbook into a digital recorder. Allen could take the digital information home each day to use when
completing his homework. There could be other AT solutions that fall between these two options, such as
purchasing digital textbooks that Allen can use in much the same way as the lower tech option. The point
is, if you, as a teacher, are asked to serve on an AT evaluation team for Section 504 students, come to the
evaluation meeting with the desire for the team to look at a continuum of AT options. Sometimes low tech
(lite tech) options are the most viable. If, in subsequent follow-up meetings, the AT device is not meeting
Allen’s needs, a more high tech solution can be recommended.

289
Providing Educational Services Under Section 504
Under Section 504, students who qualify as having a disability are assessed, and a 504 plan
is developed and monitored (see Figure 4.1 for an example). The plan includes
accommodations and adaptations, identifies the person(s) responsible for implementation,
and lists the procedures for monitoring the effectiveness of the plan. Accommodations and
adaptations might include changes to the physical environment (specialized lighting, a quiet
study place), adaptations to curriculum and instruction, accommodations in testing, and
assistance with organizing time and activities (Friend, 2008). In addition to instructional
programs, the plan can cover other academically related programs such as field trips and
summer programs.

Section 504

Figure 4.1 Section 504 Sample Plan

290
 Source: Adapted from
http://main.diabetes.org/dorg/PDFs/Advocacy/Discrimination/504-plan.pdf

Source: Adapted from

http://main.diabetes.org/dorg/PDFs/Advocacy/Discrimination/504-plan.pdf

Some students with disabilities who qualify for Section 504 accommodations and
adaptations may not be receiving special education services. For these nonspecial education
students, the general education teacher is responsible for providing needed
accommodations and adaptations.

291
How Can We Best Meet the Needs of Students in Our
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Classroom?
Every one of us has a culture (or cultures), just as we all speak a language (or languages). So
what do we mean when we say culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students? In the
United States, this term has come to mean students with cultural, ethnic, and linguistic
backgrounds different from the macroculture and language of the White majority
(Standard English). Sometimes the term people of color or students of color is used instead.
Any individual belongs not to just one culture or macroculture but to many microcultures
(Gollnick & Chinn, 2012). We can think of a macroculture as a society that embraces
overarching cultural factors. For example, democracy is one of those factors valued as part
of our macroculture. A microculture is a group whose members share similar backgrounds
such as age, class, geographic region, disability, ethnicity, occupation, and so forth
(Neuliep, 2015). Thus, students in our classrooms represent a variety of microcultures, each
with its own identity and perspectives. Our schools must be responsive to and respectful of
the richness of diversity as the CLD population continues to increase.

292
Dual language programs are increasingly popular models that strive to help native
English speakers develop proficiency in a second language, while helping students
who speak a language other than English develop English proficiency.

AP Photo/Charlie Riedel

293
We use numerous terms when discussing students whose primary language is other than
English. To understand the differences among the terms, see Table 4.1.

Diversity in the United States is growing, as evidenced by increases in the size of various
groups in the population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). And this increasing diversity in the
general population means more CLD students. Figure 4.2 shows population percentages
for racial and ethnic groups in the United States, beginning in 1980 with projected growth
to 2050. The U.S. Census Bureau projects that by 2050, the White population will
increase by 7% but at a lower rate than other ethnic groups and will therefore constitute an
estimated 50.1% of the population, compared with the 72.4% reported in 2010 (Nieto &
Bode, 2008; U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). The African American population is expected to
increase from 12.3% in 2010 to 14.6% in 2050 (Nieto & Bode, 2008; U.S. Census
Bureau, 2011). The Hispanic population will almost double, from 16.3% in 2010 to
24.4% in 2050 (Nieto & Bode, 2008; U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Finally, the Asian
population is expected to increase from 4.8% in 2010 to 8% in 2050 (Nieto & Bode,
2008; U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Certainly, the rise in legal immigration and in the
numbers of first-generation U.S. residents has contributed significantly to these figures.
More than half of these residents are from Latin America, and one-quarter are from Asia
(Nieto & Bode, 2008).

Changes in U.S. demographics are also reflected in our schools (Brown & Ortiz, 2014).
There are now more than 4.4 million children who are ELLs in U.S. schools, meaning they
are learning English as a second or even third language (National Center for Education

294
Statistics [NCES], 2014; Nieto & Bode, 2008). Among the more than 300 non-English
languages spoken in the United States by individuals 5 years and older, Spanish is the first
language of a little over 60% (Ryan, 2013).

Figure 4.2 Percentage of the Resident U.S. Population, by Minority Race/Ethnicity:

1980 to 2010 and Projections to 2060

Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2012).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2012).

Think back to the Opening Challenge. How are these changing demographic figures
reflected in Ms. Grelak’s classroom? Given the increasing diversity in our society and
schools, educators are challenged to learn more about culture and how it influences our
thinking, belief systems, values, and interactions. In other words, culture matters. Let’s turn
our attention to the definition of culture and to types of programs for CLD students.

295
Definition of Culture
What is culture? Culture is a way of perceiving the world and of interacting within it.
Gollnick and Chinn (2012) noted that cultural norms influence our thinking, language,
and behavior. Culture is shared; it includes the customs and values that bind us together.
These customs developed over centuries in response to environmental conditions. And yet
culture is not static; rather, it is dynamic, complex, and ever-changing. Our cultural
identities evolve throughout our lives in response to political, economic, educational, and
social experiences.

Cultural identity is learned as part of our ethnic group, but it is also developed as part of
our religion, socioeconomic status, geographic region, place of residence (urban or rural),
and gender, to name just a few microcultures. Our participation in some microcultural
groups may take on more importance at different times in our lives. The interaction of
these microcultures within the larger macroculture is also important. Schools and
classrooms themselves develop their own patterns of behavior and are said to have a culture.

Culture is involved in all learning (Klingner, Boelé, Linan-Thompson, & Rodriguez,

2014). From the time we are quite young, we are socialized to learn in different ways. For
example, in her classic study of children in three different communities, Shirley Brice
Heath (1983) noted that only the middle-class White children started school accustomed to
the ways of teaching and learning they encountered in their classrooms. They were not
surprised when they were asked questions to which their teachers already knew the answers.
They knew how to narrate stories in just the style expected by their teachers. Children from
different backgrounds, on the other hand, were not accustomed to being asked questions
designed to test their knowledge (“What shape is this?). Some children had learned in their
homes and communities to tell elaborate, complex stories that their schoolteachers did not
value because they did not get to the point quickly enough. In other words, there was a
mismatch between home and school cultures and between ways of teaching and learning.
All the children in the communities Heath studied started school ready to learn, but their
schools were not ready to teach all children. When Heath helped teachers understand these
differences, they were able to instruct their students in ways that better capitalized on
students’ strengths and built on the knowledge and skills they brought to school.

In another classic study, Kathryn Au (1980) observed lessons while school staff in Hawaii
implemented different reading programs that had been effective in other settings. It was not
until the discourse of reading lessons became more like the style of day-to-day Hawaiian
conversation that reading achievement improved. In other words, there had been a
mismatch between the children’s home culture and the culture of instruction in their
schools. When the match between home and school improved, so did students’ learning.

Teachers who are culturally responsive strive to match their instruction to their students.

296
They make connections with their students as individuals, while understanding that there
are many sociocultural influences on learning. What can teachers do to help CLD students
learn and achieve to their potential? What lessons can Ms. Grelak in our Opening
Challenge learn from the research we’ve discussed? Multicultural education is one approach
to working with CLD students, including English language learners.

297
Video case 4.1

Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students

1. Why was the University of Texas Elementary School created eleven years ago? What is its
purpose? How does Mia Tannous describe the efforts of her school to meet the needs of all
students?
2. What methods do the teachers use to meet the needs of their students who are culturally and
linguistically diverse? What advice does Lisa Sigafoos offer to new teachers to help them
meet the needs of all their students?

298
Multicultural Education
We sometimes think of multicultural education as something added on to the curriculum,
focusing on the holidays, traditions, and historical contributions of diverse ethnic groups.
But multicultural education is much more than that. It is about making sure that schools
are a place where all students feel welcomed, valued, and supported. Nieto and Bode
(2008) define multicultural education as

a process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students. It
challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and
society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious,
economic, and gender, among others) that students, their communities, and
teachers reflect. Multicultural education permeates the schools’ curriculum and
instructional strategies, as well as the interactions among teachers, students, and
families, and the very way that schools conceptualize the nature of teaching and
learning. Because it uses critical pedagogy as its underlying philosophy and
focuses on knowledge, reflections, and action as the basis for social change,
multicultural education promotes democratic principles of social justice. (p. 44)

Nieto and Bode emphasized that multicultural education should be a central part of
comprehensive school reform movements designed to improve schooling for all students
and to better prepare them for an increasingly diverse society.

Multicultural education is good for all students. All children benefit from “mirrors and
windows”—that is, from seeing themselves reflected in the curriculum as well as from
learning about others (Naidoo, 2014). All students benefit from learning there are multiple
perspectives on any issue and from learning how to think critically about these issues.
Instruction should build on students’ experiences as a basis for further learning and should
help them make connections with their own lives. Classrooms are a place of acceptance and
mutual respect where no one is devalued. For example, during sharing time or storytelling,
the teacher recognizes that students bring different ways of talking to school, and students
are secure and comfortable risk-takers (Klingner et al., 2014). Linking episodes loosely or
using a circular narrative structure is just as valid as relating a story in a more linear style.
And when a student looks down rather than makes eye contact while the teacher is talking
to her, the teacher considers that this might be a cultural norm and not a sign of disrespect.
These also are examples of culturally responsive instruction.

299
English Language Learners
Students who are not yet fully proficient in English are typically referred to as English
language learners (ELLs) to emphasize that they are in the process of acquiring English.
Limited English proficient (LEP) is another term used to mean the same thing and is the
label preferred by the government. ELLs are a very diverse group (Brown & Ortiz, 2014).
Although Spanish is the home language of the majority of ELLs, other languages (such as
Vietnamese, Hmong, Cantonese, Korean, Haitian Creole, Arabic, Russian, Tagalog, and
Navajo) are also well represented in U.S. classrooms. Subsets of ELLs are refugees or
immigrants, with their own sets of needs (NCES, 2014). ELLs also vary in other ways, such
as their socioeconomic status; nationality; generation in the United States; status as citizens,
legal residents, or undocumented immigrants; and level of education in their home
country, as well as the educational attainment of their parents (Hernández & Napierala,
2012). Some ELLs are already proficient readers in their native language; others are not.
Thus, even though ELLs share some needs, such as the need to have their home language
and culture valued and respected by their teachers, in other ways their needs vary. Each
child is an individual.

300
WORKING together
In the Opening Challenge, you met Mrs. O’Malley, a first-year teacher who was concerned that she may
not have had sufficient preservice training and experiences with ELLs to meet their needs in her science
class. She met with a consultant from her school district, who offered state resources and identified an
upcoming professional development session that might also provide useful information. Today, with
increasingly complex standards being developed and implemented with the Common Core State Standards
across the curriculum, it can be overwhelming for teachers to understand the standards and integrate them
within their daily lessons. Consulting teachers who specialize in students whose first language is other than
English are excellent resources who can assist teachers in areas such as (a) setting up the classroom, (b) being
ready to teach ELLs from the first day of class, and (c) dealing with classroom management
(https://www.heinemann.com/shared/onlineresources/E02682/Celic_websample.pdf). In addition, the
consulting teacher can help teachers with their lesson plans, model how to administer lessons, and provide
feedback after observing their teaching.

301
Questions
1. Before examining the website listed here
(https://www.heinemann.com/shared/onlineresources/E02682/Celic_websample.pdf), think about
ways in which your classroom can be designed to facilitate learning for ELLs. Review the
information found online and compare your ideas to those mentioned. What did you think of the
material and what did you identify that was not considered in the information presented?
2. Consider a lesson plan you have developed, either for a class in your program or to teach if you are a
practicing teacher. Highlight sections of the lesson plan that are “ELL friendly,” and underline
sections that may need to be altered to meet the needs of students who struggle with English. What
percentage of the lesson components were “ELL friendly,” when compared with those that were
not?

302
Disproportionate Representation of Culturally and
Linguistically Diverse Students in Special Education
CLD students are not any more likely than their peers to have true disabilities. Yet, despite
the best intentions of their teachers and other school staff, they are overrepresented in
special education programs relative to their percentages in the overall school-age population
(Sullivan & Bal, 2013). Notably, CLD students are overrepresented only in the high-
incidence disability categories (learning disabilities, intellectual and developmental
disabilities, and emotional or behavioral disorders), not in the low-incidence disability
categories (such as visual, auditory, or orthopedic impairment; U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special
Education Programs [USDE], 2014). Medical doctors diagnose these latter disabilities,
usually before a child starts school. On the other hand, school staff usually identify high-
incidence disabilities after the child has started school. These are referred to as the
judgmental categories, because the diagnosis relies so heavily on professional judgment
(Sullivan & Bal, 2013).

Overrepresentation is most apparent among African American students when we look at

nationally aggregated data (see Table 4.2), yet there are dramatic differences across states
(NCES, 2014). The federal government reports two ways of calculating students’
representation in special education categories: by risk indices and by risk ratios. We
calculate the risk index by dividing the number of students in a given racial or ethnic group
who are placed in a particular disability category by the total enrollment for that racial or
ethnic group in the school population. The risk ratio is the risk index of one racial or ethnic
group divided by the risk index of another racial or ethnic group. It provides a comparative
index of the risk of being placed in a particular disability category and is the indicator of
disproportionate representation preferred by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of
Special Education Programs (OSEP).

Given that special education provides students with extra resources and specialized services,
some researchers and educators wonder why so many people consider overrepresentation a
problem. There are several reasons. Students in special education may have limited access to
the general education curriculum. When students have been placed inappropriately, the
services they receive may not meet their needs. Also, disability labels stigmatize students as
inferior and abnormal; result in lowered expectations from their teachers, families, and even
themselves; potentially separate them from peers; and lead to diminished educational and
life outcomes (Hammer, 2012). Think back to the Opening Challenge. How does this
information about overrepresentation influence your thinking about what Ms. Grelak
should do about Allen?

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What can we do to address overrepresentation? Change starts with each of us examining
our own assumptions about how students learn and why they struggle and then considering
what we each can do to improve learning opportunities for students. Too often,
explanations for students’ underachievement and inappropriate placement in special
education have focused on perceived limitations in students’ homes and communities.
Ethnically diverse learners can and do excel in schools when culturally responsive and
relevant teaching (CRT) is in place (Shealey, McHatton, & Wilson, 2011). CRT occurs
when teachers utilize learners’ culture, prior experiences, and performance styles to provide
instruction that engages students intellectually, emotionally, socially, and politically.

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Multicultural Special Education
Regardless of questionable special education referral, assessment, and placement practices,
some CLD students do have disabilities and can benefit from appropriate services in special
education programs. The field of multicultural special education offers the research base
and expertise to guide educators in making well-informed decisions (Shealey et al., 2011).
The goals of multicultural special education are to reduce inappropriate referrals, improve
assessment procedures, and enhance instructional and support services.

The majority of ELLs with disabilities have learning disabilities; reading difficulties are the
primary ones. Yet compared with ELLs without disabilities, ELLs with disabilities are more
likely to receive fewer language support services and be instructed only in English. They
also face many misconceptions (and realities); teachers should be aware of the associated
implications (see Table 4.3).

One area that seems to be particularly problematic is distinguishing between learning

disabilities and the process of acquiring English as a second language. There are many
similarities, confusing even well-prepared experts. In Table 4.4, we compare and contrast
the characteristics associated with learning disabilities, the process of acquiring a second
language (L2), and cultural influences.

Whenever educators are trying to determine why a child is struggling, they should consider
the learning context and environmental factors that might be influencing learning. In the
Considering Diversity feature, we present questions for instruction, assessment, and the
learning environment as a means for thinking about whether children have had sufficient
opportunities to learn before being considered for special education referral, which is
discussed in Chapter 5.

Diverse Families

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Effective Multicultural Special Education Programs
CLD students with special needs should be taught with validated instructional practices in
culturally responsive, supportive learning environments (Shealey et al., 2011). This is a
theme that resonates throughout the chapters in this book, where you will read about many
validated practices to teach instructional content that supports the learning needs of CLD
students.

For example, Orosco and Klingner (2010) observed in Response to Intervention (RTI)
classrooms and noted the value of aligning assessment and interventions. They also noted
that one of the more successful teachers “provided direct and explicit native-language
instruction that was socially and linguistically meaningful by connecting it to students’
cultural and linguistic experiences” (p. 278). The most advantageous programs incorporate
students’ home cultures and include native-language instruction as well as a focus on
English language development. It is this deliberate and intensive focus on language that
makes bilingual special education distinct from generic special education (Klingner, 2014).

Linguistic Support
Language development should be an essential goal of instruction, whether in students’
native language, in English, or in both. Students benefit from explicit instruction in
vocabulary, through preteaching and ongoing reinforcement, using visuals and graphic
organizers to bring words to life and make them meaningful for students. Instruction
should also focus on developing students’ higher order thinking and active problem-solving
skills. Students should be provided with many and varied opportunities to practice and
apply what they are learning (Bryant et al., 2014).

Brown and Ortiz (2014) noted that language develops along a continuum. The
information found in Table 4.5 may be helpful as you develop linguistic supports for ELL
students.

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CONSIDERING diversity

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Equal Opportunity to Learn
Federal law stipulates that before children can be considered as having a disability, they must have received
an adequate opportunity to learn. Thus, if they have missed too much schooling, they have not received
enough instruction. Or, if they have attended school but the instruction has not been comprehensible or
appropriate for their needs, they have not received an adequate opportunity to learn. The following
questions can help make this determination:

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Instruction
Is the instruction at the appropriate level for the student—not too difficult or too easy?
Is the instruction comprehensible—either provided in the student’s native language or taught with
sufficient supports to be understood?
Is the instruction meaningful, motivating, and interesting for the student?
Does the instruction explicitly help the student make connections between what he or she already
knows and new learning?
Are culturally relevant materials and culturally appropriate instructional practices used?
When the student does not make progress, is he or she taught in different ways in a more intensive
manner?
Has the instructional model been validated with students who are similar to the student?
Is the teacher implementing the instructional model with fidelity? If adaptations are made, are they
consistent with research?
Is the student’s language acquisition supported?

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Assessment
Is the student’s learning of what he or she has been taught assessed?
Is the student allowed to demonstrate learning in multiple ways, including in his or her native
language if appropriate?
Does the assessment process inform instructional decisions?
How does the student’s rate of progress compare with the learning rates of his or her peers?
Is the student reaching benchmarks?

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 Learning Environment
Is the classroom learning environment a warm, supportive, and collaborative one, where students
help each other and all students’ contributions are valued?
Does the teacher build positive, supportive relationships with students?
Does the teacher work well with students’ families and the community?
Does the teacher help most culturally and linguistically diverse students succeed to high levels?

This last point deserves elaboration. In other words, if most of a student’s peers are doing well but he or she
is not, that is quite a different scenario from one in which most students in the class are struggling. If just
one or two children are struggling, this reaffirms that they need additional support. If almost everyone is
making little progress, the teacher should reexamine his or her instruction. Referring to the Opening
Challenge, how can Ms. Grelak use the answers these questions yield to think about Gabriel’s learning
problems?

Validated Instructional Practices

Several instructional practices show promise when used with ELLs with disabilities. Vaughn
and colleagues (2006) effectively provided ELLs with support in reading in their native
language. Helpful interventions in English have included focused reading interventions
coupled with language development activities, such as the use of repetitive language,
modeling, gesturing, visuals, and explicit instruction in English language usage (Vaughn,
Mathes, Linan-Thompson, & Francis, 2005).

Other instructional approaches promote students’ reading comprehension and/or content

learning. These include graphic organizers (Goldenberg, 2008) and collaborative strategic
reading (CSR; Klingner, Vaughn, Boardman, & Swanson, 2012). CSR includes
collaboration as an important instructional component, such as through peer tutoring and
cooperative learning. You will learn more about these approaches in later chapters.

Curricular Modifications
Goldenberg (2008) noted the importance of providing culturally and linguistically diverse
students with curricular modifications. Modifications might include the following:

Providing taped textbooks.

Highlighting textbooks and study guides.
Using supplementary materials.
Giving directions in small, distinct steps.
Using written backup for oral directions.
Using bilingual dictionaries.

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As much as possible, however, the curriculum should emphasize enrichment rather than
remedial activities.

CLD students with and without disabilities benefit from culturally responsive instruction in
positive, supportive learning environments. Students thrive when they are valued and cared
about, when their strengths are recognized and used in the service of their learning, when
their achievement is carefully monitored, and when they are provided with appropriate
instruction and effective, timely support when needed. For ELLs, instruction includes a
strong oral language component. Thinking back to Gabriel in the Opening Challenge, how
can Ms. Grelak improve instruction to meet Gabriel’s needs?

Next, we discuss students who are at risk for school difficulties and who deserve special
attention to ensure their learning needs are addressed.

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Who Are Students “At Risk” and What Should We Know and
Do To Help Them Achieve Their Full Potential?
Students are considered at risk for school failure or underachievement if their family
situations, personal conditions, and life events negatively affect their school lives. Although
educators may not be able to influence some of the many factors that place students at risk,
they can make a difference in these students’ education by carefully identifying academic,
behavioral, and social problems that can result from these factors and then implementing
and monitoring plans to address them. Here we discuss the types of students who are at
risk, possible conditions that contribute to risk, and ways to tackle the problems.

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Definition of “At Risk”
Students who are at risk have experiences, living conditions, or characteristics that
contribute to school failure. Informal experiences such as interactions with other children,
interactions with adults, and activities contribute to language and cognitive development in
the early years of a child’s life. Students who have limited life experiences, lower
expectations, and fewer academic opportunities because of family situations, family income,
and even geography lag behind their peers right from the start when entering school. Living
conditions such as poverty, neglect, homelessness, physically and/or verbally abusive
situations (including bullying), and drug or alcohol abuse contribute significantly to the
risk.

Students who struggle with depression, exhibit suicidal tendencies, are coping with the
death of a loved one, or are experiencing a divorce in their family may also have limited
capacity to cope with the demands of the educational setting. Careful coordination and
collaboration between the family and a team of professionals (such as social workers, school
counselors, medical professionals, psychologists, and educators) are needed to tackle the
challenges caused by these conditions. Students at risk benefit from academic and social
support services and often respond to the same instructional practices that help students
with high-incidence conditions learn the general education curriculum.

Many CLD students do well in school. However, some tend to underperform on measures
of academic achievement in the United States (NAEP, 2013). During the 1970s and
1980s, the achievement gaps between African American and White students and between
Hispanic and White students narrowed, but in the late 1980s and 1990s they widened
again and are still large (NAEP, 2013). These gaps remain even when analysts statistically
control for differences in parental income and housing value. A major educational goal is to
close the performance gaps between groups of students.

The achievement gap is often characterized by substandard performance in reading,

writing, and computing. Educational problems like these sometimes contribute to students’
giving up and dropping out of school. Hispanic students have higher dropout rates than
non-Hispanic students (NCES, 2014). Unfortunately, the economic and employment
picture is bleak for students who drop out of high school because they lack the education
and experience employers seek in the more competitive high-salary positions. Many
educators suggest we should address these challenges by ensuring that CLD students receive
an education more culturally and linguistically responsive to their needs (e.g., Shealey et al.,
2011). In upcoming chapters, you will read about many ways to ensure such education.

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Some Conditions That Contribute to Risk
Many conditions that contribute to risk affect students’ performance in schools. In this
section, we discuss several of these risk factors to help you better understand them as you
work with children in inclusive settings. They are poverty, homelessness, migrant family
factors, health influences, and the conditions of some schools.

Poverty
The link among childhood poverty, poor school outcomes, and disabilities is clear and well
documented (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, & Smith, 2012). The most important predictor of
student success in school is readiness to learn to read. Unfortunately, many children from
high-poverty homes enter school with limited readiness skills. Diverse students are
overrepresented in the poverty category compared with their representation in the general
population. Statistics for children under 18 living in poverty show that 39% of Black
children, 36% of Native American children, and 33% of Hispanic children are poor,
compared with only 13% of White children (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2013).

Homelessness
Not all children in poverty are homeless, but the relationship between homelessness and
poverty is obvious. Homeless children and children of immigrants and migrant workers
often experience disruption and dislocation—circumstances that can be challenging as they
try to cope with frequent transitions from school to school (United States Department of
Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, 2014). Children who
live in shelters may be embarrassed or afraid they will be judged or stigmatized because they
are homeless (National Center for Homeless Education [NCHE], 2014). These students
often change schools every few months, breaking the continuity of their education and
leaving gaps in their knowledge that result in reduced academic achievement. Educators
must understand that their low academic performance occurs because of many factors,
including fragmented education, absenteeism, and high risk for health problems.

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 More than any other factor, poverty accounts for poor school performance. However,
many school services available to students in poverty can make a real difference, such
as free or low-cost meals.

iStock/bonniej

On a positive note, between 2007 and 2013, unsheltered homelessness declined by 23%
(U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development [HUD], 2013). However, being
homeless is difficult for children (NCHE, 2014). In one study, researchers tested children
living in an urban shelter and found that 46% of them had a disability. The most common
disability, affecting some 30% of these children, was emotional or behavioral disorders.
Because of the lack of social services and shelters, being homeless in rural areas is also
challenging. Given the high percentage of homeless children who also have disabilities,
IDEA ’04 pays special attention to them and their unique needs (National Center for
Homeless Education, 2007).

Migrant Status
Being from a migrant worker’s family also places children at risk for poor school
performance. An estimated 50% of migrant and seasonal farm workers are U.S. citizens or
legal immigrants (Housing Assistance Council, 2011). These workers earn incomes below
the federal poverty level. Most live in Florida, Texas, or California between November and
April and move to find agricultural work the rest of the year. Approximately half a million
migrant students live in the United States, and about 75% of them are Hispanic.

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Lack of Health Care
The Children’s Defense Fund (CDF, 2014) gives us some additional and alarming facts to
consider when we think about the relationship between the conditions under which
children live in the United States and their incidence of disabilities:

More than one in five children, and almost one in four under age 5, were identified
as poor in 2012.
The median income of female-headed single-parent families was less than one-third
of the median income of married-couple families and less than one-half of the
median income of all families with children.
In each state and the District of Columbia, a full-time minimum-wage worker
cannot afford the monthly fair market rent (FMR) for a two-bedroom rental unit.
In Fiscal Year 2011, 37 states and the District of Columbia had more than one in five
children living in food-insecure households, which increases the risk of obesity. In 45
states and the District of Columbia, more than one in four children were overweight
or obese.
More than 21 million children received free or reduced-price school lunch in 2012,
but only 2.3 million of them received meals during the summer of that same year.
Despite substantial improvements in recent years, 1 in 11 (about 7.2 million)
children under 19 were uninsured in 2012.
The United States ranks 26th in immunization rates among industrialized countries.

There is no denying the lifelong impact of poor nutrition, limited or no access to health
care (through being uninsured), and lack of timely immunizations during childhood (CDF,
2014). During the school year, the effects can be seen in learning and behavior problems.
Across the life span, there are adverse effects on employment and life satisfaction.

At-Risk Schools
School environments can be rated as at risk for a number of reasons, including low
performance. These schools tend to need major renovations, and the classrooms are
crowded with too many students. Resources such as technology and instructional materials
are typically limited, which means students do not have the same learning opportunities
and experiences as their peers in better schools. Some teachers may be first-year instructors
unprepared to handle the issues in an at-risk school, such as limited classroom resources,
low standards and expectations for students, a high dropout rate, and discipline problems.
Other teachers may be burned out from grappling with these issues and trying to teach at
the same time (Starkes, 2013).

Although these issues are complex, they are not insurmountable. For example, the No
Child Left Behind Act (2001) requires states to align state assessments with state standards.

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States must establish annual progress goals for improvement so all students can achieve
proficiency. If goals are not achieved, schools must implement strategies to improve student
performance. Moreover, assessment data must be disaggregated by group to determine how
students with disabilities and CLD students are performing. Thus, the achievement gap is
visible and the schools are accountable. School leaders must work strategically to establish
appropriate interventions while keeping abreast of emerging research as they plan
instruction at the elementary and secondary levels, especially in low-performing schools
(Hassel & Hassel, 2010).

Students at Risk

Finally, well-prepared teachers and high-quality instruction are critical components in

student learning. More attention is now focused on what we as educators are doing to help
students learn. Research shows that activities such as providing explicit and systematic
instruction with multiple opportunities for practice, differentiating instruction based on
assessment results, adapting instruction to meet students’ needs, and monitoring student
progress improve students’ academic outcomes (Bryant, Bryant, et al., 2014). What James
M. Kauffman (1999) stated more than 20 years ago remains true today:

If we are going to help students... we are going to have to change course. We

cannot continue to avoid focusing on instruction! We cannot continue to
suppose that consultation and collaboration [and structural changes] will
somehow make up for the deficit in instruction. We cannot rely on substitutes
for... intensive, relentless instruction. (p. 247)

Although Kauffman was referring to special education instruction, his advice is applicable
to instruction for students at risk of school failure and for educators who teach in all
schools.

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Prevention of Risk
The best way to help ensure that students are not at high risk of school failure is to make
improvements in health care and educational practices.

Health Care
According to the Children’s Defense Fund, the most effective and efficient way to make an
enormous difference in the outcomes of children in poverty is to remove the risk variables
by

Improving these children and their families’ access to health care.

Removing bureaucratic barriers to existing health care options.
Working hard to ensure every child has the healthy start necessary to survive and
thrive in life (CDF, 2014).

Of course, effecting such sweeping social change is beyond any individual’s capabilities, but
alert educators can take certain actions to make a real difference in the lives of children. For
example, even without guarantees that all workers will be insured, many free services are
available to the poor and to people who live in urban centers. Unfortunately, however,
families are often afraid of or unaware of them. Being knowledgeable about resources in
your community and then increasing awareness of their availability is one way to help poor
parents gain access to medical services that prevent some disabilities from occurring.

Educational Practices
Differentiating instruction to address specific learning needs of students in response to the
tasks at hand is one example of an effective educational practice. Differentiating focuses on
the tasks students must perform, their learning needs, and the adaptations that can be made
to accommodate their individual needs. Thinking back to the ADAPT framework
introduced in Chapter 1, you can adapt the way you deliver instruction in small groups and
with extra instructional support. Specialized materials and adaptations in the content or
activity are all ways to make learning more appropriate and individualized.

Another effective educational practice is universal screening to identify students who are
performing in the risk category and then providing intervention to support the core or
regular class instruction. For example, early identification and intervention to help students
with learning and behavior difficulties in kindergarten through Grade 3 have received
national attention in legislation such as IDEA and No Child Left Behind. The intent of
early intervention is to prevent learning problems from escalating and to reduce
inappropriate referrals to special education as a result of inadequate or poor instruction.

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Screening and intervention are also necessary at the secondary level. Some students with
learning problems manage to perform well enough to get by in the elementary grades.
However, as the curriculum becomes more challenging, academic issues surface and require
intervention. For example, students with reading problems may not successfully read and
understand subject-area textbooks (history, science), or students with mathematics
difficulties may lack the arithmetic and problem-solving skills needed for more advanced
topics such as algebra. These are the students who are most at risk of dropping out of the
educational system because of academic frustration.

Working collaboratively with other professionals and family members is yet another
educational practice that responds to the special needs of students at risk. Multidisciplinary
teams can generate solutions to problems teachers are encountering in the classroom when
trying to work with a range of student needs. Team members can also provide in-class
support to implement screening and intervention practices. Finally, connecting to families
is critical to learning about their unique situations. The time spent in this endeavor will go
a long way in identifying solutions to the problems and challenges families face.

In the next section, we discuss another group of students with special needs. Those with
gifts and talents require specialized services to ensure their abilities are truly nurtured and
enriched.

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What are the attributes of Students with Gifts and Talents?
Gifted and talented students do not necessarily face the same kind of challenges as most
children who receive special education services. However, because of their unique needs,
they confront other obstacles. Many gifted and talented learners are frequently stifled by
educational approaches that do not challenge their cognitive abilities or help them achieve
to their full potential. For these reasons, many parents, policymakers, and education
professionals believe these students need special programs and services (National
Association for Gifted Children [NAGC], n.d.).

IDEA does not offer gifted and talented students protections and rights as it does for
students with disabilities. Although many states provide mandated services for gifted
students, relatively few have laws or regulations that offer educational protections for gifted
students similar to those found in IDEA for students with disabilities (NAGC, n.d.).
Education for gifted and talented students is addressed in the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and
Talented Students Education Act, initially enacted in 1988 (PL 100-297) and 2001. Let’s
examine the definition of giftedness, some traits that characterize it, the categories of
students who are eligible for this identification, and teaching practices that address their
unique needs.

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Definition
Why is it important to define giftedness? One reason is that the way a state or school
district defines “gifted and talented” influences the identification process that determines
who is eligible for special services. Many state departments of education rely on a federal
definition of gifted and talented to come up with their own definition. These state
definitions are then used as a guide to develop school district policies for identification and
eligibility criteria (NAGC, 2014). Table 4.6 provides several commonly used definitions.

Defining giftedness is a complicated and often controversial task. There is no one

universally accepted interpretation of what it means to be gifted and/or talented. Some
definitions and identification procedures are more restrictive than others and emphasize test
performance, including cutoff scores on intelligence and achievement tests. As a result,
access to services for the gifted continues to be limited for many students who, despite their
high abilities, may not perform well on these measures. Other definitions and identification
procedures reflect a multidimensional view of gifted abilities with less emphasis on
psychometric profiles. Adopting a broader perspective can “cast a wider net” and include
students typically overlooked for consideration as gifted (Webb, Gore, Amend, & DeVries,
2007).

Gifted Students

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Video case 4.2

Interview With a Parent of a Gifted Student

1. How does Anne Alvarez describe the characteristics of students who have gifts and talents?
How did she see these characteristics in her own son?
2. What advice does Ms. Alvarez give to support the social and academic successes of children
with gifts and talents? How can you incorporate these suggestions in the future, if you teach
students who are gifted and talented?

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Types
Howard Gardner’s (1983) theory of multiple intelligences provides an excellent example of
a broad perspective on intelligence and giftedness. In his book Frames of Mind, Gardner
proposed that multiple dimensions of intelligence exist. This theory challenged the more
traditional notion that giftedness can be defined, assessed, and identified only by
standardized tests, which actually measure just a small sample of an individual’s aptitude
and abilities. Individuals with outstanding or unusual performance in any one of nine
dimensions of intelligence—presented in Table 4.7—could be considered gifted under
Gardner’s scheme.

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Characteristics
What characteristics come to mind when you think of a gifted student? You may think of
someone who is a natural leader, is an avid reader, has great mathematical aptitude, and
excels in just about everything. Although some students can be considered “globally gifted,”
the majority of gifted students excel in some areas and not others. Students who are gifted
are a heterogeneous group who differ from each other in abilities, interests, motivation,
behavior, and needs. And yet they do share some characteristics. The National Society for
the Gifted and Talented identified these characteristics across six areas: creative thinking,
general intellectual ability, specific academic ability, leadership, psychomotor ability, and
visual/performing arts abilities (see Table 4.8).

Educators should be familiar with the characteristics of gifted learners for several reasons.
First, recognizing how they learn best can help create an environment conducive to their
success. For example, understanding that many students who are gifted learn quickly, have
advanced interests, and become bored with drill and practice activities, teachers can
differentiate instruction so that once students demonstrate mastery of the content being
studied, they can explore topics in greater depth and in more creative ways.

Although many characteristics in Table 4.8 influence students to become highly focused
and successful in and out of school, teachers need to understand how some traits, left
unattended, can have a negative impact. For instance, sometimes the sensitivity,
perfectionism, and intensity common among gifted students can become exaggerated and
paralyzing for students, which causes a great deal of stress and contributes to

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underachievement. Dysfunctional perfectionism can lead to an inability to tolerate
mistakes, avoidance of demanding tasks for fear of failure, and refusal to turn in
assignments that are less than perfect (Fletcherm & Speirs Neumeister, 2012). Gifted
students are also often extremely sensitive to criticism while striving for unrealistic
perfection. By understanding how these traits can manifest themselves in maladaptive ways,
teachers can provide a flexible learning environment that challenges intellectual curiosity
and is also safe for taking risks and accepting mistakes as a natural part of learning.

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Prevalence
Because special education for the gifted is not mandated or guaranteed funding by IDEA,
states are not required to report statistics about the prevalence of gifted students to the
federal government. We can only estimate how many gifted and talented students are
identified and receive special services.

Several subgroups of students are underidentified as gifted or talented, for several reasons.
These students require special attention to help ensure that bias and different perceptions
do not mask their giftedness and keep them from receiving an accelerated or enriched
education. Let’s turn our attention to three of these groups: culturally and linguistically
diverse students, students with disabilities, and females.

Students with gifts and talents require special attention to help ensure that bias and
incorrect perceptions do not keep them from receiving an accelerated or enriched
education.

iStock/michaeljung

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Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Gifted Students
Gifted and talented students can be found in every racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and
linguistic group; however, there is concern about the well-documented underrepresentation
of CLD students among those identified as gifted and talented (Boulder Valley School
District Office of Advanced Academic Services, 2010). As communities become more
diverse, the change in the number of students identified as gifted and talented should
mirror the demographic changes in the population, but that has not been the case. For
example, recent data indicate that Black and Latino students represent 26% of the students
enrolled in gifted and talented education programs, compared with their 40% enrollment
figure in schools that offer such programs (U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil
Rights, 2014).

The problem of underrepresentation is compounded for students who have not acquired
English language proficiency. Despite the fact that being able to speak two (or more)
languages requires keen cognitive ability, bilingualism is frequently treated as a handicap in
need of remedial efforts rather than as a strength that requires enrichment. Failure to
identify and cultivate giftedness among our diverse student population is unfair to these
students and to our society.

Several researchers and school systems have investigated characteristics associated with
giftedness that may be common among certain CLD students. One such effort was
conducted by the Boulder Valley School District Office of Advanced Academic Services
(2010), where eight areas were identified as having potential for identifying students as
gifted in the culturally, linguistically, and ethnically diverse student population. Some or all
of the characteristics shown in Table 4.9 may be sufficiently different from the dominant
culture to be perceived as negative.

Teachers can help their CLD gifted learners to be successful in many ways. First, they
should value students’ cultures, languages, and experiences. They can often do this easily by
building a connection among home, school, and community (such as inviting families to
share their history). Teachers should also maintain high expectations for all students by
providing rich content while incorporating multicultural education and instructional
strategies that take advantage of students’ strengths, such as problem solving, creativity, and
primary-language abilities (Shealey et al., 2011).

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Gifted Students with Disabilities
Gifted students with disabilities—or twice-exceptional students—also require special
attention. Students with disabilities are frequently overlooked when teachers are
considering which of their students are gifted (Trail, 2011). Some teachers may have
difficulty with the concept of a student both being gifted and having a disability.

Twice-exceptional students exhibit a complex array of abilities, weaknesses, and needs

(Trail, 2011). Sometimes their disabilities mask their giftedness, making it difficult for
teachers to recognize their strengths, or they may rarely show consistently high
achievement, so they remain unidentified as gifted.

More than 30 years ago, Tannenbaum and Baldwin (1983) described gifted students with
learning disabilities as “paradoxical learners.” For example, these students may have
advanced mathematical reasoning ability but have great difficulty with simple calculations;
they may be extremely knowledgeable about many topics but be unable to remember
simple facts; they may have excellent problem-solving skills but fail to master basic skills.
Does this sound like a student you know?

Twice-exceptional students can display high levels of creative potential, exceptional analytic
abilities, extraordinary spatial abilities, and superior vocabulary. They can be imaginative
and creative with an advanced sense of humor, but despite these documented strengths,
they have many characteristic behaviors that affect their learning and hamper their
identification as gifted. Even if already identified as gifted, they may exhibit learning
problems in school and be considered underachievers (Montgomery County Public
Schools, n.d.).

Frustration comes easily and quickly for students with disabilities who are gifted. Imagine
how frustrating it must be to have a deep understanding of complex issues and not be able
to express adequately or demonstrate this knowledge. Often these students give up on tasks
quickly. They are afraid of taking academic risks, have difficulty with fine and gross motor
skills, and have low self-esteem, frequently masked by inappropriate behaviors (Trail,
2011). As a consequence of the frustration caused by a unique combination of skills and
deficits, twice-exceptional students can be some of the most disruptive in class. Teachers
can make a real difference in their educational experience by making sure that their
strengths are recognized and nurtured.

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334
Gifted Females
You may be asking yourself why gifted females are being discussed as a separate group
requiring special attention. Simply put, girls and young women who are gifted face their
own set of challenges both in and out of school. A classic report more than 20 years ago
from the American Association of University Women (AAUW, 1992) challenged the
notion that girls and boys receive equitable treatment in our classrooms and outlined how
gender bias shortchanges our young women. This seems particularly true for gifted females.
For example, according to the AAUW report, teachers in all grade levels frequently select
classroom activities that appeal more to boys’ interests and are presented in formats in
which boys typically excel. Another interesting finding suggests that boys are consistently
given more instructional time, teacher attention, and praise and are called on more often
than girls. These interaction patterns appear to be even more pronounced when teachers are
dealing with high-achieving students (the top 10% to 20% of the school population) and
in science and math classes.

Educators need to develop strategies for recognizing and encouraging gifted girls and for
closing the gender gap that exists. One way teachers can help is by paying attention to their
own behaviors with students and making sure there is no gender bias in their interactions.
Other suggestions include using authentic learning, that is, applying science, math,
engineering, and technology to solving real-world problems.

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Teaching Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
All gifted students should have a differentiated curriculum that offers learning experiences
above and beyond those provided to typical learners through the general education
curriculum. Educators can devise a differentiated curriculum in many ways, such as by
modifying the standard curriculum’s content, the learning environment, or the instruction
provided. Gregory and Chapman (2013) provided a template for planning differentiated
instruction (see Figure 4.3).

Many different models and instructional techniques are put into practice across the nation
(Smith & Tyler, 2010). Services for students who are gifted and talented are delivered
through a variety of placement options: general education classrooms, resource rooms or
pullout programs, self-contained classes, and even special schools. Regardless of the method
used, these key features define differentiated instruction for gifted learners as including the
following:

Problem-based learning
Abstract thinking
Reasoning activities
Creative problem solving
Content mastery
Breadth and depth of topics
Independent study
Talent development

Figure 4.3 Template for Differentiated Instruction for Gifted and Talented Students

Source: Gregory and Chapman (2013).

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 Source: Gregory and Chapman (2013).

Acceleration and enrichment are two common educational approaches to teaching students
who are gifted and talented. Acceleration allows students to move through the curriculum
at faster rates than their peers who learn in more typical ways. Enrichment adds topics or
skills to the traditional curriculum.

In a recent report by the AAUW, Hill, Corbett, and Rose (2010) urged that teachers (and
administrators) in gifted and talented programs send the message that they value growth
and learning:

The danger of the “gifted” label is that it conveys the idea that a student has been
bestowed with a “gift” of great ability rather than a dynamic attribute that she or
he can develop. Talented and gifted programs should send the message that
students are in these programs because they are advanced in certain areas and
that the purpose of the programs is to challenge students in ways that will help
them further develop and bring their abilities to fruition. Consider changing the

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 name of talented and gifted programs to “challenge” programs or “advanced”
programs to emphasize more of a growth mindset and less of a fixed mindset. (p.
36)

A differentiated curriculum can be achieved in many different ways. A field trip is

one way to enrich the learning environment.

iStock/Leadinglights

Acceleration
Acceleration can take many different forms. One form has students skipping to a grade
ahead of their classmates of the same age. Grade skipping usually happens in the early
elementary years, often at or during kindergarten when a child’s giftedness is apparent
because he or she can already read books, write stories, or solve mathematics problems. It
also occurs with some frequency toward the end of high school, when students skip their
remaining years and attend college through early-entrance programs. Another form of
acceleration is advanced placement courses, which allow students to take classes that
provide more in-depth course content and earn college credit for them. In ability grouping,
another acceleration method, students of comparable abilities work together in courses or
activities in which they excel. Finally, many high schools provide honors sections of
academic courses as a form of ability grouping in which students must demonstrate

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superior academic performance for entrance.

Enrichment
One form of enrichment is independent study, through which a student studies a topic in
more depth or investigates a topic that is not part of the general education curriculum.
Independent study focuses on learning to be self-directed and to explore subjects in which
the individual has an interest. Another form is mentorships, which pair students who have
special interests with adults who have expertise in those areas. Mentorships need to be
carefully arranged by teachers, but the benefits are both immediate and long term. Finally,
internships are working assignments that allow gifted high school students who have
expressed interest in a particular career to gain experience within that profession (Smith &
Tyler, 2010). Effective programming, through educational approaches that are responsive
to each student’s unique needs, is possible and desirable for students who are gifted and
talented.

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Summary
Students with other special learning needs encompass a broad range of characteristics and
needs. We know that many of these students are protected under Section 504 and that
their needs are met through the Section 504 plan, which focuses on their instructional
program and on other academically related events such as field trips and summer programs.
Students with a wide range of needs that are not covered under IDEA may qualify for
services under Section 504.

The rapid demographic changes occurring in our nation are reflected in our culturally and
linguistically diverse student population. With the numbers of ethnically and racially
diverse students expected to grow significantly over the coming years, and with their strong
current representation, educators must ensure that the educational system is responsive to
the needs of all students. We must strive to understand linguistic and cultural differences so
that no students are misdiagnosed as having a disability. Multicultural programs, bilingual
programs, and bilingual special education programs are ways in which diverse students’
needs are addressed.

Of great concern is the group of students who are at risk for school failure. This group of
students is at risk because of experiences, living conditions, and/or specific characteristics
that put them in the high-risk category. Educators should understand that students are at
risk for many different reasons, such as poverty, homelessness, neglect, and abuse. They
may also be at risk because of their status as a migrant student, refugee, or teen parent.
Prevention via improved health care and educational practices can make a difference in the
lives of these students who are underachievers and are at high risk for dropping out of
school.

Finally, students who are gifted and talented are a unique group of students who have a
variety of special learning needs. Teachers should understand the characteristics of these
students and must ensure that students from all groups are considered for gifted and
talented identification. Specialized programs must be in place for these students to ensure
that they receive a rich educational experience to prepare them to maximize their potential.

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Reivew The Learning Objectives
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot “talk
through” the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

How are students with physical and cognitive needs protected under Section 504?

The definition of disability is broader under Section 504 and extends beyond school
age. For instance, any condition that greatly limits a major life activity, including the
ability to learn in school, is defined as a disability. Students who qualify as having a
disability under Section 504 are assessed, and a Section 504 plan is developed and
monitored. The plan includes the accommodations and adaptations chosen, the
person(s) responsible for implementing the plan, and the procedures for monitoring
its implementation.
How can we best meet the needs of students in our culturally and linguistically
diverse classrooms?

Multicultural education should be a part of the school’s curriculum, instructional

strategies, and interactions. Bilingual education is instruction in two languages. Some
programs help students maintain and develop full proficiency in their native language
as well as in English. Others provide instruction in students’ home language only
temporarily, as a bridge to English, and phase quickly into English-only instruction.
Dual-language programs help native English speakers develop proficiency in a second
language while helping students who speak a language other than English develop
English proficiency. Language support services and instruction in the native language
are needed for English language learners with reading disabilities. Bilingual special
education students require linguistic support, validated instructional practices, and
curricular modifications.
Who are students “at risk” and what should we know and do to help them achieve
their full potential?

Students who are at risk have experiences, living conditions, or characteristics that
contribute to school failure, such as poverty, homelessness, abuse, neglect, and poor
instruction. They require specialized services to prevent negative outcomes. Health
care services must be provided to reduce risk associated with a lack of regular medical
attention. Educational practices such as differentiated instruction, screening and
intervention, and collaborative partnerships can reduce risk and provide necessary
support for these students.

At-risk students consistently have difficulties with achievement compared with their
peer group; this condition is known as an achievement gap. They are also in the high-
risk category for dropping out of school. Students who are culturally and

341
linguistically diverse (CLD) tend to underperform on measures of academic
achievement in the United States.
What are the attributes of students with gifts and talents?

The majority of students with gifts and talents excel in some areas and not in others.
Gifted and talented students can be found in every racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and
linguistic group, but CLD students are underrepresented among those identified as
gifted or talented. Some students are twice-exceptional, that is, they have a disability
as well as a talent or gift. The key features of differentiated instruction for the gifted
and talented are problem-based learning, abstract thinking, reasoning activities,
creative problem solving, content mastery, breadth and depth of topics, independent
study, and talent development. Acceleration helps students move through the
curriculum more rapidly than their peers, whereas enrichment adds topics or skills to
the traditional curriculum.

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342
REVISIT THE OPENING CHALLENGE
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What should Ms. Grelak’s next steps be with Gabriel?

2. Do you agree that Ms. Grelak should refer Allen for a special education evaluation?
Why or why not?
3. In what ways does his level of English language proficiency seem to be affecting
Gabriel?
4. What characteristics does Gabriel have that seem consistent with those of a gifted
student? What characteristics does Gabriel have that seem consistent with those of
English language learners?
5. What advice would you give Ms. Grelak about instruction for English language
learners with learning problems?
6. Where might you go to look for information about teaching English language
learners in your state? What specific questions might you like to have answered?
7. Do you share some of the same concerns as Mrs. O’Malley? Find the website of your
home city’s school system. Is there information pertaining to culturally and
linguistically diverse student populations? What information is provided for parents
and teachers?

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KEY TERMS
acceleration, 168
at risk, 153
culture, 140
differentiated curriculum, 166
enrichment, 168
multicultural education, 142

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344
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

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CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences

346
INTASC
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences

347
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Human development and behavior
II. Legal and Societal Issues: Federal laws and legal issues
III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities: Background knowledge

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

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348
Part II Planning for Exceptional Learners

349
5 Developing Collaborative Partnerships in Schools
and with Families

iStock/kali9

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Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What are the characteristics of collaboration?

What are critical prerequisite skills for effective collaboration?
How can professionals work together collaboratively?
How can professionals collaborate with paraprofessionals?
How can professionals collaborate with families?

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OPENING challenge

352
Collaborative Partnerships to Meet the Needs of All
Students
Elementary Grades Ms. Warren’s inclusive fifth-grade classroom is made up of students with an array of
strengths and special needs that are addressed collaboratively with assistance from professionals, her
paraprofessional, and connections to the families of her students. Ms. Warren is committed to providing all
her students with an appropriate education that is responsive to their needs. In her classroom, she is
working with several students who are struggling with reading and mathematics. These students require
interventions that support typical classroom instruction. She also has several students with emotional
disturbance who need structured routines and management procedures so they will be ready to learn. Ms.
Warren has several students who are English language learners (ELLs) and need extra instructional support
in vocabulary development. One of her students receives services from the speech/language pathologist to
correct articulation problems. Ms. Warren thinks about the related services providers and other individuals
who work in the school community to help all students. “How can I work collaboratively with all the people
who are engaged with my students? I want to build strong partnerships with my colleagues and my students’
families.” Ms. Warren finds herself in a situation that is very common. Developing and nurturing
collaborative partnerships with many individuals, both families and service providers in inclusive
classrooms, require certain skills and practice. These partnerships enhance the learning of all students and
build helpful connections between students’ home and school environments.

Secondary Grades Ms. Bryant teaches 11th-grade English in a suburban high school. She has six classes
each day with one prep. Ms. Bryant has been teaching for 27 years and has seen many changes in the
services for students with disabilities and students who are gifted. This year she has a student who uses a
wheelchair because of the effects of cerebral palsy and a tablet for accessing the literature texts required for
class. The student also has a paraprofessional who assists him with assignments so that he can keep up with
the rest of the class. Ms. Bryant collaborates with the paraprofessional by providing lesson plans each week;
together they work with the special education teacher who visits the English class to ensure that the student
is being successful in the class. Ms. Bryant wonders about how to work effectively with the paraprofessional
besides providing lesson plans. I think there must be more that I can do to support the paraprofessional when she
is working with my student. I don’t have much time during instruction to talk to the paraprofessional. I need to
talk with the special education teacher about having a three-way meeting to be sure we are all together.

REFLECTION QUESTIONS In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What professional collaborative practices can Ms. Warren use to help her students with special
learning, behavior, and language needs succeed in the general education classroom?
2. How can Ms. Warren and Ms. Bryant collaborate effectively with their paraprofessional?
3. How can Ms. Warren effectively structure parent-teacher conferences and develop home-school
communication effectively?
4. What should be the focus of the three-way meeting with Ms. Bryant, the special education teacher,
and the paraprofessional?

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353
We know that many students with special needs receive most, if not all, of their education
in the general education classroom. For example, as you can see in Table 5.1, students with
disabilities as a whole spend about 80% or more of their day in the general education
classroom. Think about what you read in Chapters 1 and 5 about related services and the
value of working collaboratively with those who provide them to deliver the services
students with disabilities need to access the general education curriculum, such as assistive
technology and speech/language therapy.

It is important to establish collaborative partnerships among professionals,

paraprofessionals, and families to ensure that all students are receiving appropriate
educational services in inclusive settings. (We use the term families to denote various family
structures, such as extended families, children with guardians, single-parent families, and
“blended” families.) Collaboration is an interactive process whereby individuals with
diverse expertise choose to work together to provide high-quality services to all students in
inclusive classrooms and their families (Idol, Nevin, & Paolucci-Whitcomb, 2000). It can
be informal, as, for example, when two teachers meet to develop a plan together to help a
student with special needs, or it can be formalized through a team approach, including
related service providers. Collaboration also occurs when teachers work with
paraprofessionals who are important members of the educational team. Finally, educators
must utilize effective practices to collaborate with families, for they are the ones who know
the most about the students we serve. In Chapter 7 we discuss ways in which peers can
work collaboratively and teachers can help students build these collaborative relationships.

In this chapter, we provide information about the characteristics of collaboration and the
foundation skills that are critical for establishing effective, collaborative partnerships. We
also discuss models of professional collaboration and ways to develop collaborative
partnerships with paraprofessionals and families. We include multicultural considerations
when establishing collaborative partnerships and demonstrate how the ADAPT framework
can be used during collaborative activities.

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What Are the Characteristics of Collaboration?
Collaboration is a key ingredient of the efforts of inclusive schools to meet the needs of all
students in different settings and activities. For example, collaboration can occur when (a) a
teacher works with parents on ways to improve their child’s mathematics skills, (b) teachers
are conducting prereferral or RTI interventions to prevent inappropriate referrals to special
education, (c) service providers are delivering related services, (d) a bilingual instructor and
a special education teacher are developing a lesson plan together, (e) secondary school
teachers are coteaching a science lesson, (f) the speech/language pathologist and general
education teacher are team-teaching an instructional unit, or (g) general and special
educators are consulting about a student with behavior problems. According to Idol et al.
(2000), the collaborative process aims to successfully include all students in general
education activities, to identify adaptations of content and materials, and to develop and
implement specialized instruction as appropriate. The following characteristics of
collaboration can ensure that the process will be successful.

355
Collaboration in Education

356
Shared Problem Solving
Shared problem solving consists of identifying, implementing, and evaluating a plan to
solve a chosen problem by making decisions together. The process can be complex, because
different perspectives on how to address and resolve issues often arise and must be included
(Friend & Cook, 2010). It is best accomplished when participants in the collaborative
process (a) assess the current situation using specific criteria (such as behavior, time,
situational factors, achievement information, nonverbal signals, or verbal comments); (b)
identify together the specific behavior that is of concern (such as homework completion,
reading comprehension, lateness to collaboration meetings, or following through on
collaboration plans); (c) specify objectives for solving the problem; (d) develop a plan of
action, including tasks, persons responsible, and time lines; and (e) evaluate the plan
periodically (Idol et al., 2000).

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Video case 5.1

Collaboration and Coteaching

1. How do Jason Brown and Jeff McCann describe their cotaught, inclusive world history
class? How has it changed throughout the school year? What strategies do the coteachers
utilize to collaboratively support the needs of their students with disabilities?
2. In what ways is Mr. Brown and Mr. McCann’s inclusive class similar to the other general
education classes that Mr. McCann teaches? How is it different?

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Shared Responsibility
Each member of the collaborative team is equally responsible for ensuring that tasks are
accomplished during the process. This usually entails dividing up the work in ways that
promote parity among team members (Friend, Cook, Hurley-Chamberlain, & Shamberger,
2010). For instance, one person might be responsible for observing a student who is
misbehaving in class, and another team member might contact the family to talk about
how the student is performing in school. During coteaching, teachers assume shared
responsibility for teaching and promoting positive behavior in the classroom. Teachers also
share the function of grading assignments and planning instruction.

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Voluntary Involvement
Collaboration is a process that individuals should volunteer to engage in, rather than being
assigned by school or district-level administration. Research findings support the idea of
voluntary participation. According to Scruggs, Mastropieri, and McDuffie (2007), who
synthesized qualitative research on coteaching, educators believed coteaching should only
be voluntary, not an assignment forced on those who do not want to participate.
Collaboration will not naturally occur merely because someone is assigned to a team to
address a situation, issue, or lesson. Ideally, individuals should be collaborating because they
want to work together; however, in reality, situations will arise that warrant collaborative
partnerships among people who would rather not collaborate for a variety of purposes (e.g.,
a team member is difficult to work with, an individual would rather “go it alone”). We can
learn how to be more effective collaborators by developing important prerequisite skills to
ensure effective collaborative partnerships.

360
What Are Critical Prerequisite Skills for Effective
Collaboration?
Establishing collaborative partnerships with families, professionals, and paraprofessionals is
a necessary component of effective schools. Partnership means working with people, and to
do this well, teachers must be prepared in those critical prerequisite skills that foster
collaboration. In this section, we discuss communication skills, conflict resolution skills,
and multicultural and linguistic diversity considerations that can develop a foundation on
which effective collaborative relationships can be built.

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Communication Skills
Heron and Harris (2000) conceptualized the communication process as consisting of a
message that is encoded and transmitted, and a received message that is decoded and
comprehended. For this process to occur successfully, the speaker and listener must possess
effective listening skills, the ability to decode (or figure out) a message, and verbal encoding
skills to convey their thoughts. Communication partners have to be aware of and interpret
nonverbal signals in messages they send and receive.

Listening is an important skill to develop for decoding and improving communication. It

calls for more than just politely hearing what someone else is saying before you speak
(Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2013); it requires maintaining appropriate eye contact,
acknowledging the speaker’s message with verbal feedback, and maintaining appropriate
nonverbal signals. Deterrents to effective listening include being preoccupied and not
listening, talking more than listening, second-guessing what the speaker will say and
responding inappropriately, making judgments, being distrustful, using language not
appropriate to the situation (too technical, for instance, or unmindful of cultural and ethnic
values and perceptions), and giving way to fatigue or strong emotions (Friend et al., 2010).

One of the most effective types of listening is called active listening (Gordon, 1980). The
purpose of active listening is to engage the listener in the message being sent, to
demonstrate to the speaker that the listener is interested in the message, to enable the
speaker to convey specific concerns, and to provide feedback to the speaker to ensure that
the message was correctly received and perceived. Active listening can be used effectively in
many types of interactions and, particularly, during conversations that may be emotionally
charged. Although this type of listening was identified more than 30 years ago, it remains a
key prerequisite communication skill to foster effective collaboration. There are six types of
active listening:

1. Acknowledging tells the speaker you are listening and may include appropriate
nonverbal signals and verbal comments.
2. Paraphrasing provides feedback to the speaker about the received, perceived message.
The listener repeats to the speaker, in his or her own words, the message that was
conveyed.
3. Reflecting tells the speaker the feelings he or she is verbalizing.
4. Clarifying asks for more specific information to help the listener better understand
the message.
5. Elaboration asks the speaker to provide more information about an idea or about the
whole message to broaden the content conveyed to the listener.
6. Summarizing requires the listener to reiterate the main ideas of the conversation and
the actions that will be taken, if any. Summarizing gives closure to a conversation and

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 provides feedback for all members about the key points discussed.

Professional Collaboration

Besides having good listening skills, communication partners must be able to convey their
message orally or in writing so it is correctly understood. We can analyze messages
conveyed verbally in terms of the way the message is being received, what nonverbal
language the listener is conveying, and how the listener is signaling accurate interpretation
via feedback. Video technology has added another dimension to verbal communications
with families, professionals, and paraprofessionals that used to be handled only through
phone calls or face-to-face meetings. Through careful self-analysis and feedback from
speakers, listeners can improve their skills so that more effective communication occurs.
Idol et al. (2000) recommended the following procedures for facilitating effective verbal
communication:

Before speaking, organize your thoughts to be sure that they are relevant to the
conversation and can be stated succinctly.
Demonstrate good listening behaviors (discussed earlier) to show that you are indeed
interested in the speaker’s message.
Use feedback to show that you are listening and understanding the speaker’s message.
Avoid being judgmental and evaluative.
Be aware of extraneous factors (such as a receiver who doesn’t feel well or who has a
personal crisis, a parent who may be very angry at another professional yet
unconsciously projects the anger onto you, a paraprofessional who feels that the tasks
she or he is assigned are demeaning) that may interfere with the communication
process.
Avoid technical jargon that educators may use as convenient shorthand among
themselves. Be specific without using acronyms that the speaker may not be familiar
with.

Professionals communicate via social media such as Twitter and through e-mails, texts,
blogs, newsletters, and notes. Although written communication reduces the need for face-
to-face interactions, participants must be sure that written messages are conveyed
appropriately to ensure accurate interpretation. For example, written messages containing
spelling or syntactical errors make it clear the writer lacks some basic skills or has not
proofread his or her work. The auto-correct feature of some electronic communications can
be helpful or harmful and does not reduce the need to proofread carefully. Jargon should be
limited, and brevity is best. Long, detailed messages lose their effectiveness simply because
of their complexity and because recipients lack time to read them thoroughly.

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Finally, written communication should include a signature, date, and request for a response
(Idol et al., 2000). Reserve face-to-face or video technology for messages that could be
misinterpreted or require opportunities for discussion and questions. Following are a few
etiquette tips for various types of written communication:

Respond to e-mails received during business days within 24 hours, if possible.

Answer e-mails using the original thread. Avoid using “reply all” unless the response
really needs to go back to everyone in the message.
Even in a private text or e-mail, write only what is appropriate for multiple readers,
given that electronic communication can be forwarded to others.
Be concise.
Edit for grammar and spelling errors.
Avoid educational jargon and acronyms when communicating with families.
Use punctuation and capitalization correctly.

Nonverbal communication is another aspect of communication that requires careful

analysis to ensure that the speaker sends appropriate signals and that the listener
understands the intended message. According to Heron and Harris (2000), this category
includes facial expressions, body posturing and movement, use of space, and touch.
Nonverbal messages are a powerful form of communication because they tend to be quite
genuine, and they may be more easily conveyed than verbal messages that are emotionally
laden.

There are several types of nonverbal communication. For example, facial expressions can be
very informative about feelings, trust, and level of disdain or interest. Elevated eyebrows,
lack of or regular eye contact, smiles, and frowns convey specific messages to speakers.
Facing the speaker, crossing your arms, and sitting in a relaxed position all convey a
subliminal message. A distance between speakers and listeners of 2 to 4 feet is an acceptable
use of space when participants know each other and can interact comfortably. Touch is a
form of communication that needs to be monitored carefully. Some people prefer that
speakers or listeners not touch their arms or hug them, for instance.

The way we communicate with each other can enhance or impede successful collaborative
partnerships. When working in diverse settings, individuals should take into consideration
cultural and linguistic factors that are part of the communication process. For example, an
interpreter should be available if family members do not speak or understand English. In
some cultures, body posture such as nodding your head, smiling, and leaning forward
convey openness, interest, and attentive listening. Teachers should learn about the values,
perceptions, and culture of communication partners; this is especially true when working
with families from diverse cultures. This information can go a long way in enhancing
communication and establishing trust on which to build a collaborative partnership.
Regardless of how hard we might try to be good communicators, conflict may arise. Thus,
conflict resolution skills are another important prerequisite for collaboration. We now turn

364
our attention to this critical area.

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Conflict Resolution Skills
In most collaborative partnership endeavors, a plan is developed for the benefit of a
student. Very often professionals, paraprofessionals, and families are faced with complex
problems that require careful consideration and action to help children; often issues arise
that can lead to conflict. This conflict must be resolved so the partners can move forward
with their plans.

Conflict is defined as the disagreement of interests or ideas (Heron & Harris, 2000). In a
collaborative relationship, conflict may stem from differences in opinions about strategies,
facts, perspectives, or values. Conflict may arise from any of the following situations:

People perceive that they are forced into situations (working together, having
students with disabilities in their classrooms full time, implementing a strategy for
which no training occurred).
Roles (special education teacher as consultant) are not clearly defined.
Philosophies (humanistic, disciplinarian) clash.
Levels of expertise and professional development do not match the demands of the
situation (first-year teacher asked to chair a committee).
Interpersonal styles (introvert, extrovert, direct, indirect) vary significantly.
People are resistant to change (issues of “territory,” power, and interest arise in trying
new research-based ideas). (Heron & Harris, 2000)

For example, two professionals may be working on a plan they jointly developed for a
student; however, one member falls short in completing his or her agreed-on tasks. Conflict
could easily arise because the plan for the student is not being fully implemented. This issue
would need to be addressed in a constructive manner that would facilitate progress toward
implementing the plan. Because conflict is inevitable even in the best of circumstances,
conflict-resolution skills are helpful. Following are helpful guidelines for conflict resolution:

Do not expect the conflict to go away; it may diminish, but if problems and feelings
are not discussed, they will emerge again at another time.
Confront conflict when it occurs by stating your feelings using an “I-message” (refer
to Chapter 9 for more information about I-messages). For example, “I’m feeling
uncomfortable with this situation,” “I’m sensing that maybe we’re not on the same
wavelength,” or “What are your thoughts about how to proceed?” In essence, this is a
reality check—an effort to determine whether your perceptions are accurate. If not,
then promptly discussing the situation as you perceive it could prevent further
misperceptions and possible problems.
Avoid being judgmental or accusatory: “You’re not listening,” “You’re late again,”
“That idea didn’t work the last time and won’t work this time.”
Use self-disclosure if appropriate: “I’m feeling really unsure about how to handle this

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problem and could use some assistance.”
Maintain open, ongoing communication even if it is just notes to other members. A
major source of conflict is lack of communication between partners and the
perception (or observation) that one person is moving ahead without talking the plan
through with others.
Use active listening: send I-messages, paraphrase, summarize, and clarify. These
techniques can go a long way in developing a better understanding of how members
feel and how they perceive situations.
Discuss conflict at a time when members are not pressed to return to their classroom
and are not in the midst of a situation that might interfere with the process of
conflict resolution. Timing is an important consideration.
Use problem-solving steps to reach consensus and identify a plan of action. This
helps members to focus on a procedure that promotes communication, discussion,
and resolution.
Recognize that sometimes conflict may not be resolved and that partnerships may be
terminated for the time being. Many reasons (including lack of interest, power,
insecurity, bad timing, mistrust, and inability to establish congruent objectives)
account for the inability of members to resolve conflict. Focus on letting go and
finding an alternative, productive way to handle the situation if further action is
required.

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TECH notes

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Student Response Systems
Student response systems are educational tools that allow teachers to monitor their students’ learning in real
time using interactive software. Teachers can ask questions to check for student understanding and
determine possible difficulties with the material. Using PowerPoint presentations, teachers generate
questions about the content and students respond to interactive questions with devices such as “classroom
clickers.” The students’ responses are displayed in the PowerPoint presentation in a graphical form for
discussion where some students may need to rethink their answers. Teachers can monitor students’
understanding about the content and adjust their instruction accordingly based on the students’ responses.

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Awareness of Multicultural and Linguistic Diversity
The cultural, ethnic, racial, and linguistic composition of U.S. society is changing
dramatically, and this is reflected in our school-age population. Some students may qualify
for a range of services, including bilingual programs, ESL (English as a second language)
programs, and special education programs. Thus, it behooves educators to prepare for
working with diverse populations so they can successfully and appropriately meet individual
student needs, including special needs (Hoover, Eppolito, Klingner, & Baca, 2012).

We have already discussed several considerations for collaborating effectively with

individuals from diverse cultural, ethnic, and linguistic heritages, such as recognizing
diverse values and perceptions and communicating with people in their primary language.
We also mentioned the need to be aware of different communication styles of collaborative
partnerships.

Researchers (Garcia, 2002; Ortiz & Yates, 2001) have identified consultation competencies
for educators who work with culturally and linguistically diverse students having special
needs. These competencies include (a) reflecting on your own perspective—that is, your
beliefs and values about students with special needs who are from diverse backgrounds and
the professionals who work with them; (b) fully understanding the roles, values,
perceptions, and beliefs of your collaborative partners; (c) improving your interpersonal,
communicative, and problem-solving skills to promote successful collaboration; and (d)
adopting appropriate assessment and instructional strategies (such as language and cultural
considerations for assessment, specific strategies, and adapting curricula). For example,
Garcia (2002) recommended that educators must examine their own cultural self-awareness
and the influences of these cultural values on their behavior toward others. Understanding
the roles in the collaborative process is another critically important competency, because
conflict can arise when there are misunderstandings about roles and responsibilities.
Regarding assessment strategies, Figueroa (2002; Klingner, Edwards, & Dunsmore, 2010)
recommended that, when assessing ELLs, teachers should observe the student’s behavior
and performance across multiple contexts, observe over a period of time rather than
drawing conclusions on the basis of one or two observations, and draw on the expertise of
informed professionals in arriving at diagnostic decisions.

Finally, Nancy Cloud (2002) talked about culturally and linguistically responsive
instruction that focuses on language differences and identifies disability needs and cultural
characteristics, which are beliefs, norms, and customs that vary within and between
groups. Teachers can integrate culturally and linguistically responsive instruction in the
areas of curriculum and materials, classroom discourse (discussions), instructional
techniques, management, and parent involvement.

In any discussion of diversity, keep in mind that culture permeates all of society and all

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interactions. We all belong to some cultural group that is distinguishable by its customs,
traditions, beliefs, foods, and dress, as well as by a specific ethnicity, religious affiliation, or
racial background. In schools, policies and procedures are influenced by “beliefs, values,
and ideas about what our educational goals should be, and how schools should be organized
to achieve them. We acquire these worldviews as part of our preparation and socialization
into our profession as educators” (Garcia, 2014). Thus, educators must be aware of their
own cultural values, the way they have been socialized professionally, and the cultural
values of their collaborative partners (Garcia, 2002).

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Video case 5.2

Successful Collaboration

1. What elements of successful coteaching do Jason Brown and Jeff McCann identify? How are
these practices beneficial to students with and without disabilities?
2. Mr. Brown and Mr. McCann describe the ways they collaborate together, both inside and
outside of school. How do these collaborative experiences support their successful
coteaching?

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How Can Professionals Work Together Collaboratively?
Many professionals, such as general and special education teachers, school psychologists,
counselors, social workers, administrators, and speech/language, physical, or occupational
therapists, are part of the school community that is responsible for working together to
provide a quality education for all students. Because of the individual needs of students
with special needs, a variety of professionals work together to plan and implement
individualized education programs (IEPs). In Chapter 6 you will read about related services
and the professionals who provide them. For example, speech/language pathologists provide
services for the prevention and treatment of communication disorders. In this section, we
talk about the need for collaborative professional partnerships and models of collaboration
that promote inclusive practices.

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The Need for Collaborative Partnerships with Professionals
As you know from Chapter 1, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of
2004 requires that students with disabilities be educated to the greatest extent possible in
the general education setting. Moreover, general education teachers are required to be part
of the IEP team and are responsible for implementing the adaptations identified on the IEP
to help students access and master the curriculum. Thus, there is a need for collaborative
models among professionals to provide the support needed when educating all students in
inclusive classrooms.

Collaborative consultation is an interactive process that enables groups of people with

diverse expertise to generate creative solutions to mutually defined problems.

iStock/track5

Collaborative models are prevalent in classrooms across the nation where educators are
working together to ensure that all students can access the general education curriculum.
For example, the “class within a class” model, developed by Dr. Floyd Hudson, promotes
more academic interventions for students with learning problems in the context of the
general education setting. In this model, the general education teacher provides grade-level
curriculum knowledge and the special education teacher provides strategic adaptations and
presentation techniques to facilitate understanding of the instructional content. Together
these two professionals design lessons and activities to accommodate students with mild
and moderate disabilities so that these students have access to the curriculum.

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Collaboration-consultation and coteaching are other models described in the next section.
We also discuss collaboration considerations for ELLs.

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Models of Collaborative Partnerships with Professionals
There are several models of collaborative partnerships with professionals to help students
with special needs function more successfully in the general education classroom. We
provide an overview of collaboration-consultation and coteaching models.

Collaboration-Consultation
The collaboration-consultation model focuses on the partnership between the general
education and special education teachers, tapping the expertise of both to provide
appropriate services to students (Idol et al., 2000). In this model, collaboration includes
planning, implementing, and evaluating student programs wherein teachers work together
to meet the needs of all students. Intervention plans are developed that are typically
implemented by general education teachers with ongoing support from the special
education teacher. The expertise of both professionals, then, is applied in creating and
evaluating plans. The intervention plans could be part of prereferral activities to prevent
academic problems or could be developed to address the academic, behavioral, or social
skills of students in inclusive classrooms.

Idol and colleagues (2000) identified six stages of the collaboration-consultation process.

STAGE 1: Gaining Entry and Establishing Team Goals

This stage consists of establishing rapport between or among participants and identifying
specifically each member’s goals, agenda, and outcomes for the collaborative process. Here
it is important to ensure that each participant is clear about what he or she would like to see
occur during the collaborative process and to identify what each member is capable of
contributing to the partnership in terms of time, expertise, and commitment.

STAGE 2: Problem Identification

In this stage, participants engage in assessment practices (see Chapter 7 for information
about assessment techniques) to identify the student’s current level of academic
performance, behavioral considerations, and affective/emotional status. Assessment data
may be obtained from previously administered measures and behavioral rating scales,
teacher observation, and current informal assessment measures. On the basis of available
data, the participants develop a profile of the student’s strengths and weaknesses and
identify specific problems that may account for academic and/or behavior problems.

STAGE 3: Intervention Recommendations

Specific interventions are recommended for the problem(s) identified in Stage 2. An

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important aspect of this stage is identifying interventions that teachers can implement easily
and that accommodate the special needs of the student. Other students for whom the
intervention(s) may be appropriate and effective could be identified during this stage as
well.

STAGE 4: Implementation of Recommendations

At this point, the intervention is implemented for the targeted problem. The special
education teacher may be asked to model the intervention or provide feedback to the
classroom teacher about the implementation process. The general education teacher may
model an intervention for the special education teacher to learn, or both teachers may work
together to implement a behavior management plan. There is room for flexibility in the
way interventions are implemented and the way participants in the collaborative process
work together to facilitate the plan’s success.

STAGE 5: Evaluation

Monitoring student progress to determine the effectiveness of the intervention(s) is

extremely important. Classroom teachers can administer evaluation measures that help
participants in the collaborative process determine whether the intervention is effective.

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WORKING together

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An Example of the Collaboration-Consultation Process
Ms. Warren is concerned about how Felipe is progressing in developing oral reading fluency compared with
the other students in her general education class. She has tried working individually with Felipe to practice
reading, but she doesn’t have enough time during the school day to meet his needs. Ms. Warren has
collected and graphed data on Felipe’s oral reading weekly for six weeks, and it is clear that he is not
benefiting from instruction. She decides to initiate the collaboration-consultation process with Mr.
Gonzalez, the special education teacher, to identify the next steps to take. Chapter 8 offers suggestions for
data-based decision making, which is what Ms. Warren and Mr. Gonzalez are incorporating into the
collaborative-consultation process.

Stage 1: The teachers agree to develop a plan for Ms. Warren to implement in the general education
classroom to improve Felipe’s oral reading performance. Ms. Warren says she needs an intervention that
won’t take too much more of her time because she is already working with Felipe and a few other students
in a small group to improve their reading.

Stage 2: Ms. Warren shares Felipe’s reading data; she and Mr. Gonzalez agree that Felipe is not responding
sufficiently to small group reading instruction and that he needs an additional intervention to improve his
reading fluency. The graphed data show the number of words Felipe read correctly each week, but his
improvement is too slow for him to catch up to his classmates by the end of the school year. Ms. Warren
also decides to share the reading data with Felipe’s parents so they are aware of his progress and the need for
an intervention.

Stage 3: Mr. Gonzalez and Ms. Warren discuss the possibility of taped assisted reading for Felipe. This
intervention consists of taping reading passages and having Felipe practice the reading passages several times
each day before he works in a small group with the teacher. Ms. Warren agrees to have her paraprofessional
tape-record the passages, while she continues to collect weekly data on Felipe’s reading performance. The
taped reading practice along with the small group instruction are noted as a means of differentiating
instruction in Tier 1 core instruction.

Stage 4: Mr. Gonzalez models for Ms. Warren and Felipe how to implement the tape-assisted reading
practice. Ms. Warren continues the implementation process each day for four weeks. She has her
paraprofessional oversee the process.

Stage 5: Data collection occurs, which in this case means recording the number of words read correctly
during a one-minute timing each week. Ms. Warren collects the data to share at the follow-up meeting with
Mr. Gonzalez.

Stage 6: Ms. Warren, her paraprofessional, and Mr. Gonzalez meet four weeks after the intervention began
to review the data. At this time, they decide that Felipe’s reading performance is much stronger with the
tape-assisted intervention. They agree to continue the intervention and meet again in another four weeks. If
the data do not continue to show adequate improvement, they agree they will reconvene sooner.

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 Questions
1. What is the purpose of each stage?
2. What planning is necessary for this partnership to work effectively to support Felipe?
3. Why is data collection an integral part of the process?

STAGE 6: Follow-up

Essential to an effective collaborative partnership for promoting student success are

regularly scheduled meetings of participants to determine whether the intervention was
effective and to identify additional potential problem areas that could be addressed during
the collaborative process. During Stage 1, participants should commit to a meeting time
that is convenient to all for discussing student progress. The following case study shows
how collaboration-consultation might be successful where professionals work together to
identify solutions for students who are having academic, social, and emotional difficulties.

Coteaching
Marilyn Friend (2006), one of the leading authorities on educational collaboration, defined
coteaching as the following:

A service delivery model in which two educators, one typically a general

education teacher and one a special education teacher or another specialist,
combine their expertise to jointly teach a heterogeneous group of students, some
of whom have disabilities or other special needs, in a single classroom for part or
all of the school day. (p. 140)

Both professionals take part in planning, teaching, and evaluating student performance. For
example, in a coteaching situation that consists of a speech/language pathologist and a
special education teacher, the language expertise of the speech/language pathologist can be
combined with the special education teacher’s expertise in instructional content to produce
a lesson rich in language and content development. Or the special education and general
education teachers can work collaboratively to plan, coteach, and evaluate a lesson
presented in the general education classroom.

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 In a coteaching classroom, both teachers take part in planning, teaching, and
evaluating student performance.

© Jessica Miller/SAGE

Coteaching is based on specific underlying assumptions about teaching and professionals’

expertise. One assumption is that the coteaching team can bring to the classroom combined
knowledge and expertise, which will greatly enhance instruction. Another is that team
members can meet individual students’ needs more effectively than one teacher (Walther-
Thomas, Korinek, McLaughlin, & Williams, 2000).

There are many variations of coteaching partnerships, including teaming for one
instructional period or block of time, teaming for the entire day, and assigning a special
education and general education team to one class all year long (Villa, Thousand, & Nevin,
2008). Coteaching for one instructional period, especially at the middle and high school
level, is most common. Also, coteachers may be general education teachers, special
education teachers, counselors, bilingual/ELL teachers, and speech/language pathologists.
The IEP team determines the coteaching members, the instructional content to be taught,
and the student’s academic, behavioral, and social needs the coteaching members will
address. Friend et al. (2010) described six approaches for coteaching, which are noted in
the Instructional Strategy 5.1 feature.

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An example of how some of these coteaching approaches might work is presented in the
ADAPT Framework feature below. Refer to Ms. Warren’s opening challenge to see how she
could use station and alternative teaching to provide additional support in her classroom.

In ADAPT in Action, Ms. Warren uses the ADAPT framework for planning station and
alternative teaching time.

There are certain procedures that teachers should implement in a coteaching or teaming
arrangement (Salend, Gordon, & Lopez-Vona, 2002). First, they must mutually define
roles in the teaming relationship that pertain to instruction, behavior management, and
evaluation. By identifying role responsibilities, teachers can prevent ambiguities and
miscommunication. Second, team members need to spend time discussing instructional
philosophies to determine whether a mutual, collaborative relationship can be established.
This is important to the development of team rapport.

Third, teachers must explain what they hope to gain from a team effort instructionally and
for students. Such disclosure can promote effective communication right from the start of a
teaming relationship. Fourth, team members should convey to students the teachers’ roles
and explain how instruction and discipline will be handled in the classroom. Both teachers
should maintain a similar level of authority when working with students. Finally, teachers
need to meet regularly to work through problems, evaluate student progress, communicate
with families, and plan further instruction. The Working Together feature provides
examples for building and implementing the coteaching partnership.

Research on collaborative models suggests that teachers note many positive effects of
working together. For example, in a three-year study of effective coteaching teams,
Walther-Thomas (1997) found that general education and special education teachers
reported increases in the following:

1. Academic and social gains for students with disabilities

2. Opportunities for professional growth
3. Professional satisfaction
4. Personal support

Other studies have shown that special education teachers have felt subordinate to the
general education teacher and that time for planning was an issue (Murray, 2004). Careful
planning, communication about roles and philosophies, and regular meetings are
important. Weiss and Lloyd (2002) studied coteaching at the secondary level to discover
whether it is possible for students with disabilities to receive the specialized education they
need with this method. They also noted that building principals are responsible for
ensuring that enough resources, time, and training are provided for coteaching to be
successful. Finally, Murawski and Swanson (2001) conducted a review of literature on
coteaching research and concluded that coteaching demonstrated strong effects in language

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arts, moderate effects in mathematics, and negligible effects for social student outcomes.
They also noted that more research is needed to assess the effects of coteaching on
achievement outcomes of students with disabilities.

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INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 5.1

384
Coteaching Approaches

385
One Teaches, One Observes
One teacher leads the class in a lesson, and the other professional (school psychologist, special education
teacher, counselor) collects academic, behavioral, or social data for a student or the class.

386
Station Teaching
Three stations are created for small group student rotation. Two teachers teach parts of a lesson in their
respective stations. The third station is for students to work independently. Students rotate among the three
stations during a designated instructional block of time.

387
Parallel Teaching
Two teachers each instruct half the class on the same material. Student composition of each half is carefully
considered. Instruction is differentiated depending on the needs of students in each group. A smaller group
increases student participation opportunities.

388
Alternative Teaching
One teacher is responsible for teaching the class. The other teacher takes a small group for enrichment,
remediation, or assessment.

389
Teaming
Two teachers lead large group instruction by lecturing, debating, or individualizing for specific students’
needs.

390
One Teaches, One Assists
One teacher leads the lesson and the other teacher circulates to work with individual students as needed.

Tech Notes (p. 184) illustrates how teachers in a coteaching model of “One Teaches, One Observes” can
use real time to monitor students’ understanding of the class material.

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ADAPT in action

392
ADAPT framework: STATION AND ALTERNATIVE
TEACHING

393
WORKING together

394
Coteaching
Mr. Sanchez and Mrs. Voress will use coteaching as a way to provide more support for students with special
needs in Mr. Sanchez’s class. Teaming can help them address the academic needs of students with learning
disabilities and of other students who have similar academic difficulties. They decide to proceed by working
through the following steps:

1. Establish a coteaching partnership.

Identify goals and expectations of the partnership.
Share beliefs and values about teaching, discipline, and expectations of students for learning.
Identify how the partnership will be communicated to parents and the principal.
Designate a workspace within the classroom for each teacher.
Identify roles and responsibilities. Here are possible questions to consider:
How will discipline be handled?
Whose materials will we use to teach lessons?
How will we manage progress monitoring and grading?
How will we coordinate team instruction?
2. Identify students’ needs.
Identify each student’s strengths and weaknesses.
Discuss IEPs for students with disabilities.
Consider adaptations needed for each student to benefit from instruction.
3. Develop an instructional plan.
Find time to plan. Try to have at least 45 minutes a week to coplan. Time for planning is
the most frequently cited issue in coteaching. Work with your principal to establish time.
Identify a classroom and behavior management system together.
Identify student groupings. Group students on the basis of the specific goals and purpose of
a lesson and/or the needs of the students. Balance homogeneous grouping with other
grouping formats to implement flexible grouping.
Select a coteaching model to suit the instructional purpose and students’ needs.
Develop a plan.
4. Monitor student performance together.
Become familiar with standards and accountability for all students.
Measure student progress regularly.
Develop a record-keeping system.
Make instructional-based decisions.
Discuss and assign grades together.
Conduct teacher-parent conferences together whenever possible.

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Coteaching

396
Questions
1. How can teachers plan for coteaching to occur in inclusive classrooms?
2. What concerns might each of the teachers have about coteaching?
3. How can students benefit from coteaching?

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Collaboration Considerations for English Language Learners
Ortiz (2002) and Yates and Ortiz (2004) stressed the need for early intervention for
students who are ELLs experiencing learning problems in the general education classroom.
As soon as learning problems are identified, teachers should implement strategies to address
special learning needs. Classroom teachers can collaborate with bilingual specialists who can
provide assistance on effective instructional practices for ELLs. Ortiz and Yates and Ortiz
recommended four strategies that build on the concept of prereferral interventions: the
clinical teaching cycle, peer or expert consultation, the teacher assistance team process, and
alternative programs and services for early intervention for struggling students.

The clinical teaching cycle consists of sequenced instruction, reteaching if necessary, and
informal assessment procedures, including assessment of academic and conversational
language proficiency (Ortiz, 2002).

Peer or expert consultation can include teachers observing their peers and providing
interventions to ELLs who need supplemental instruction. Support can also be provided in
consultation with an ESL teacher who can furnish information on how to integrate ESL
strategies into academic instruction.

The teacher assistance team process (Chalfant & Van Dusen Pysh, 1989) can be another
option to assist teachers in providing appropriate instruction for ELLs. In this model, Ortiz
(2002) described a collaborative, team approach that discusses the problem, identifies
possible interventions, and assists the teacher as needed in implementing strategies.

Finally, Ortiz (2002) provided ideas for alternative programs and services that teachers can
implement in collaboration with colleagues and families.

Collaborative partnerships can provide services to students from diverse backgrounds. Ortiz
(2002) provided intervention strategies with implications for collaborative partnerships for
ELLs. Table 5.2 offers information about each of these strategies, which can also assist
students exhibiting learning and behavioral problems.

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Next we discuss developing collaborative partnerships with paraprofessionals. These
individuals are critical players in addressing the needs of students with special needs,
especially students with more severe disabilities.

399
How Can Professionals Collaborate with Paraprofessionals?
Paraprofessionals, or paraeducators, are individuals hired to work with teachers in a
supportive role under the supervision of licensed professionals (IDEA, 2004). Their titles
vary across schools and districts; paraprofessionals may be called paraeducators,
nonteaching assistants, classroom assistants, teaching assistants, or special support assistants,
among other titles. Whatever their title, they are members of the instructional team in
classrooms and other educational settings, and they often deliver direct services to students
and their families (Werts, Harris, Tillery, & Roark, 2004).

At one time paraprofessionals spent most of their time performing clerical duties;
monitoring the halls, playground, and cafeteria; and supervising students who were being
disciplined for behavior problems. However, their role has evolved with rising awareness of
the valuable contributions they can make in diverse and inclusive educational settings.
Increased training opportunities have helped many develop important skills that can benefit
educational teams. Paraeducators are increasingly being relied on to provide special
education services to students with more severe disabilities. In addition to performing
clerical tasks and providing student supervision, daily needs care, mobility support, and
behavior support (Downing, Ryndak, & Clark, 2000; Minondo, Meyer, & Xin, 2001),
they are often required to teach instructional lessons (Pickett & Gerlach, 2003).

Studies have shown that most paraprofessionals are women who live in the area served by
the school in which they work (French, 2004). In many cases, paraprofessionals can bridge
linguistic and cultural connections between the school and the community (Chopra et al.,
2004). Thus, they can make connections between their schools and the families and
community affiliated with their schools. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 indicates
that paraprofessionals must have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Those who
provide instructional support must also have

Completed two years of study at an institution of higher education,

Obtained an associate’s (or higher) degree, or
Demonstrated, through a formal state or local assessment, knowledge of, and ability
to assist in, reading, writing, and mathematics instruction.

These criteria aside, researchers have noted that paraeducators’ role has become one of
serving a more diverse student population and supporting the inclusion of students with
more significant disabilities in the general education classroom (Bernal & Aragon, 2004;
French, 2004).

Paraprofessionals account for more than half of the nonteaching staff who provide services
to students with special needs (White, 2004). Today, that demand continues as more
students with disabilities receive their instruction in general education settings and

400
sometimes require services beyond those that general educators can reasonably provide. In
addition to working in special education and general education classes, paraprofessionals are
needed to help implement community-based instruction for students with more severe
disabilities. They may take public transportation with students to their job sites, assist
students with disabilities in their job-site tasks, and participate with students and teachers
in community activities designed to promote recreational and social skills.

Paraprofessionals account for more than half of the nonteaching staff that provide
services to students with special needs.

iStock/ktaylorg

Yet Giangreco and Doyle (2007) noted that “at present, there is no international consensus
about the extent to which teacher assistants [paraeducators] should be utilized,
circumstances that warrant their involvement, the duties they should appropriately
perform, or what constitutes adequate training and supervision” (p. 437). Thus, as options
expand for providing services and effective instruction to students with special needs, the
need remains to establish roles and responsibilities and provide supervision and training.
The next two sections address these areas.

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Roles and Responsibilities of Paraprofessionals in
Collaborative Partnerships
According to IDEA (2004), teachers are responsible for ensuring the delivery of services
specified in the IEP. However, paraprofessionals have an important role to play in
supporting the delivery of these services. Communication about roles and responsibilities
helps everyone understand the expectations when providing services to students and their
families. Clear job descriptions, specifying roles and responsibilities, can enhance
communication between teachers and paraprofessionals and foster appropriate expectations.
Paraprofessionals and teachers should know about one another’s job descriptions so that
each is familiar with the requirements of the positions. Typically, job descriptions include a
definition of the job, general responsibilities, and specific hiring requirements (amount of
education, contractual duty day, and length of school year). Because of the guidelines
provided, reviewing job descriptions is a good place to begin a discussion about roles and
responsibilities. The job description usually provides information that school district
administrative personnel feel is important for particular roles; teachers and
paraprofessionals must abide by the established job guidelines (Pickett & Gerlach, 2003).

Once job descriptions have been reviewed, teachers and paraprofessionals can work
together to delineate specific roles and responsibilities, clarifying classroom roles and
responsibilities and establishing the authority of the teacher as supervisor and evaluator in
the paraprofessional-teacher relationship. For example, roles might include instruction,
administration, behavior management, assessment, and communication with families and
other professionals. Together, teachers and paraprofessionals can develop a responsibilities
list for each role and identify areas for training, philosophical discussion, and further
explanation. Teachers have the responsibility for developing, implementing, and evaluating
their students’ IEPs and for protecting the safety and well-being of the students. However,
paraprofessionals can greatly assist in a collaborative way to support these responsibilities
(Pickett & Gerlach, 2003). The following include examples of possible responsibilities for
paraprofessionals:

Assessment
Conducting curriculum-based assessments
Scoring curriculum-based assessments
Behavior Management
Implementing behavior management programs designed with the classroom
teacher
Awarding points to students for appropriate behavior
Monitoring of behavior in small or whole groups
Instruction
Providing instructional adaptations for lessons taught by teachers

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 Monitoring student work in learning centers
Providing small group instruction to students who require more assistance
Communication
Serving as a link between special education and general education teachers
Meeting regularly with the classroom teacher to discuss specific student needs,
instructional programs, successes, and concerns
Facilitating communication with parents for whom English is not their primary
language
Clerical Support
Conducting tasks to maintain classroom organization and management
Developing instructional materials
Student Support
Working with students in community job-related settings
Escorting students during hallway, recess, and lunch activities
Professionalism
Attending professional meetings with teachers or with other paraprofessionals

Often the paraprofessional is older than the teacher, has been at the school longer, and may
have strong community connections with families, businesses, and children. These
dynamics in the relationship between them must be respected; however, they should not
undermine the role of the teacher as supervisor and as the person contractually responsible
for the education of the students. Through effective communication techniques, teachers
can tap the valuable knowledge paraprofessionals possess through their connections with
the school and community. They should also be sensitive to the needs of younger
paraprofessionals who may lack experience and educational expertise.

It is important for teachers to invest time in establishing rapport and team-building

behaviors so a truly collaborative partnership can be nurtured. Table 5.3 provides examples
of possible barriers to the development of collaborative partnerships with paraeducators and
solutions for removing the barriers.

Experienced paraprofessionals contribute important information to relationships between

themselves and teachers. For example, Riggs (2005) presented a list of what
paraprofessionals identified as important tasks for beginning teachers:

Know the paraprofessional’s name, background, and interests.

Know about district policies for paraprofessionals.
View the paraprofessional as a member of the professional team.
Define roles and responsibilities.
Supervise the paraprofessional.
Communicate with the paraprofessional.
Acknowledge the paraprofessional’s experience and knowledge.
Be respectful of paraprofessionals.

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Assume “ownership” of all students.

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Supervision and Training of Paraprofessionals
Teachers are typically responsible for supervising and evaluating paraprofessionals with
whom they work. In some cases, principals may share in the supervisory and evaluative
process, but usually teachers assume the greater part of this responsibility.

Ongoing communication is vital to any supervisory situation. Paraprofessionals, like any

employee, should be given opportunities to work with their supervisors in choosing how
they will be supervised and evaluated. Teachers and paraprofessionals must review job
descriptions, roles, and responsibilities as a starting point in the supervisory process.
Specific tasks and expectations must be communicated effectively to reduce role ambiguity
and misinterpretations. At a minimum, weekly meetings are recommended to review the
paraprofessionals’ tasks and job performance. Paraprofessionals should be given feedback
about their performance, both positive and negative, on a regular basis.

Teachers should examine their supervisory style to ensure they adopt practices that foster
collegial relationships. An authoritarian style will not promote a spirit of collaboration, but
a sharing, direct approach, in which the teacher and paraprofessional have an equal
opportunity to reflect on situations, can facilitate a collaborative partnership.
Paraprofessionals also should have an opportunity to discuss practices of their supervisors
that either impede or foster communication and the fulfillment of role responsibilities
(Pickett & Gerlach, 2003). Teachers can ask the following questions to promote
communication and build a collaborative partnership:

How do you think we are doing working together as a team?

What can we do to make our team stronger, to help students more, or to work better
with each other?
What would you like to discuss with me about how our teaming is working?
What is important to you to make our teaming work well?
How would you describe our team to others?
What advice would you offer to another teacher-paraprofessional team just beginning
together?

Teacher training in effective supervisory practices and evaluation criteria makes it easier to
serve in the role of supervisor and evaluator. If training is not available, teachers should seek
assistance from their building principal and special education coordinators to identify ways
to become an effective supervisor and to conduct employee evaluations. Often, school
districts have career ladders for paraprofessionals in which promotion depends on positive
evaluations. Therefore, it is in everyone’s best interest for teachers to learn about (a)
evaluation criteria, (b) ways to conduct an evaluation (providing feedback, stating strengths
and weaknesses, encouraging problem solving and conflict resolution), and (c) techniques
to foster professional development in areas where improvement is needed.

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Training for paraprofessionals is a critical element of effective supervisory practices. It is not
enough to tell someone about weaknesses without offering options for improvement.
School district human resources offices could team with teachers to identify specific areas in
which paraprofessionals might benefit from in-service training. Paraprofessionals may have
effective interpersonal skills and a caring attitude but need to acquire skills specific to the
populations with whom they are working. Many may be working for the first time with
children who have disabilities; they may not possess the skills necessary to meet individual
students’ educational, health, medical, and/or language needs. School district
administrators should consider training options for these critical team members. For
instance, local community colleges can provide classes geared to developing skills that
paraprofessionals will need to work in the public schools. School district and community
college instructors could easily develop a curriculum to serve this training need. Also,
through informal modeling, prompting, and taking advantage of “think-aloud” situations,
teachers can instruct paraprofessionals in their classrooms as they work with children.
Third, school district and university staff can collaborate to offer a menu of in-service
training opportunities for paraprofessionals.

We now turn to collaborative partnerships with families.

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How Can Professionals Collaborate with Families?
Families are an integral part of the school community; they know their children better than
anyone and can provide critical information that can help teachers understand the students’
individual needs. For years, families have been influential in the development of special
education services; this influence continues as educational reform efforts at the elementary
and secondary level (such as NCLB and IDEA) contribute to the modification and/or
creation of service delivery options for students with special needs. In this section, we talk
about the importance of developing collaborative partnerships with families and about
situations in which this collaboration can be facilitated. Table 5.4 identifies potential
barriers and solutions for collaborative partnerships with family members.

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The Need for Collaborative Partnerships with Families
Families have been significant contributors to the establishment of special education as a
field. They have formed organizations, raised revenue, initiated litigation, pushed for
legislation, formed advocacy groups, and demanded a free appropriate public education in
the least restrictive environment for all students with disabilities. They have clout, and they
know their children. Collaboration with them is indispensable.

Collaboration with families should be a major goal of all schools. However, for it to be
achieved, educators must better understand families and their dynamics. As Pugach and
Johnson (1995) so aptly noted years ago, our “students are all members of families first and
students second” (p. 225). We must recognize the powerful effect families have on the
students with whom we work and nurture collaborative relationships with families and
family members. Like all students, students with special needs cannot be viewed in
isolation; they are members of the total school community, of the community at large, and
of their families (Smith & Tyler, 2014). We must come to know our students’ families and
understand their dynamics; only then can we begin the process of developing effective
collaborative partnerships.

Working With Families

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Models of Collaborative Partnerships with Families
Using the critical prerequisite skills for effective collaboration discussed earlier in this
chapter, teachers can nurture successful partnerships with families to build a strong, positive
relationship between families and the schools. In the following section we discuss the family
systems approach as a technique for focusing on school-home relationships within a
framework that is responsive to families’ needs. We offer tips for working with families
from diverse backgrounds, and we suggest ways to facilitate successful parent-teacher
conferences and home-school communication.

Family Systems Approach

Collaborative efforts with students’ families can be developed through a family systems
approach in which families’ needs and support are defined according to resources,
interactions, functions, and the life cycle (Turnbull, Turnbull, Wehmeyer, & Shogren,
2016). Families may have specific issues, such as reactions to a family member with a
disability, economic needs, and future planning. Collaborative efforts can be greatly
enhanced between home and school if teachers are aware of (a) the family unit (one- or
two-parent family, extended family); (b) resources families need to function; (c) family
interactions that may affect the children’s mental health and school success; (d) the
economic, vocational, and educational needs of families; and (e) the adult and child
development cycles that influence how individuals cope with and respond to their
environments.

As part of the family systems approach, educators must come to understand that families of
children with disabilities will probably need support systems that change as the children
mature. For example, children with learning problems may manage during the preschool
years, but when they enter school, issues related to learning may surface for families.
Teachers should be prepared to explain instructional programs and services. Some families
may wonder what the future holds for their child’s postsecondary education.

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 Families are important members of the school community. Home-school
communication can be greatly enhanced by making families part of a positive
communication network.

iStock/MarcelaC

For families of children with behavior problems, school may be just another arena in which
difficulties surface, misconduct occurs, and negative encounters with authorities result.
These families may not view the schools as partners in their child’s education if encounters
focus on what the child is doing wrong rather than on how we can help the child. For
families of children with severe disabilities, an array of services provided by various
professionals may be offered across the grade levels. However, as these children become
older, parents will want to know how their child’s specific needs will continue to be
addressed after high school. Aging parents will want to be assured that their child with
severe disabilities will be served.

Family Collaboration

410
A coordinated effort among professionals is necessary to ensure that communication with
families is seamless across services and that the families’ evolving issues and concerns are
addressed. By viewing collaborative partnerships through a family systems approach,
educators can tailor their interactions with families to each family’s unique configuration
and needs. For example, families may have difficulty finding transportation or childcare
services so that they can attend school meetings. They may be dealing with health or social
issues that preclude their participation in school activities. School staff should identify the
needs of their school community and provide necessary accommodations that promote
family participation in school activities. The Considering Diversity feature offers
suggestions for collaborating with families and the community.

Values and perceptions are additional areas of the family systems approach that
professionals and paraprofessionals must address as they work with students and family
members. A person’s value system and ways of perceiving information are important factors
that can impede or promote effective home-school communication and collaboration.
Values and perceptions are learned from significant adults, home environments, peers,
cultural and ethnic groups, and religious and social affiliations. Unfortunately, it is all too
easy to fall into the trap of assigning negative or positive opinions to another person’s value
system and perceptions on the basis of misconceptions, stereotypes, miscommunication,
and our own values and perceptions.

Students who represent a rich cultural and linguistic heritage attend today’s schools, and
like all students, they come from a spectrum of socioeconomic environments ranging from
homelessness to considerable affluence. The challenge for educators is to become more
sensitive to all types of diversity, to become better educated about differences in values and
perceptions, and to focus on ways to promote collaborative relationships that tap the
diverse ways of viewing home-school partnerships.

Teachers are challenged to build effective communication bridges that convey information
about school activities and to take the initiative in speaking with families to demonstrate an
interest in establishing collaboration. Collaborative partnerships can be developed with
parents and other family members through parent conferences and home-school
communication. Table 5.5 provides the stages and steps of parent-teacher conferences.
There are three stages of an effective parent-teacher conference: preconference, conference,
and postconference. Specific actions can occur during each stage to foster collaboration and
communication (Pugach & Johnson, 1995). Parent-teacher conferences are a critical
component of building collaborative relationships, and time must be invested in this
endeavor to ensure success.

411
412
413
CONSIDERING diversity

414
 Ways to involve the family and the community
Smith and Tyler (2014) offered a helpful list of suggestions for family and community involvement:

Develop an atmosphere of trust and respect.

Be sure families and communities feel welcome.
Select and involve community leaders to serve as representatives of both school and home.
Identify families’ preferred means of communication and use it effectively.
Communicate on a regular, ongoing basis (not just when there is a problem).
Use interpreters who are knowledgeable about schools and their programs for effective
communication and participation.
Incorporate materials that reflect the diversity of the community.
Seek meaningful ways (e.g., actively sharing culture, art, music, and recreational activities) to
involve families and communities (as they feel comfortable).
Treat families with individual respect, and avoid stereotyping on any basis (race, ethnicity, language,
or socioeconomic class).
Hold meetings with families at times and places that are manageable for them. (p. 100)

Parent-Teacher Conference
The parent-teacher conference is a regular forum for families and teachers to develop
collaborative, communicative partnerships (Pugach & Johnson, 1995). It can serve as a
time to establish rapport with family members, to convey information about class activities,
to identify individual students’ strengths and weaknesses for educational planning, and to
discover values and perceptions that can be nurtured to promote collaboration and
communication. According to Turnbull and colleagues (2016), there are four purposes for
the parent-teacher conference:

1. To jointly share information about the child’s educational progress

2. To work together in finding solutions to problems
3. To establish rapport and joint responsibility for the child’s educational program
4. To exchange information that might contribute to a better understanding of the
child’s progress and individual needs

Home-School Communication
Home-school communication can be greatly enhanced by making families part of a positive
communication network (Lavoie, 2008). Sometimes the initial contact with families
focuses on a problem, like a disciplinary concern, truancy, or missing homework, that
requires action. Teachers should therefore make attempts, at the beginning of the school
year and throughout the year, to focus on the positive by sending good news about class
activities, student progress, and behavior to build communication bridges that foster
collaboration. Then, if a contact must be made regarding concerns, a positive foundation

415
exists on which they can discuss current issues.

Lavoie (2008) and Turnbull et al. (2016) offered several suggestions for promoting
communication. For example, teachers can send home weekly or monthly newsletters
describing events, giving special student recognition, mentioning important dates, and so
forth. Keep in mind that some students in all grades, and secondary school students in
general, may not want to be singled out; recognizing groups of students might be one way
to address this issue. Students can participate in the design, layout, and production of the
newsletter as a language arts activity, especially with the many desktop publishing software
programs now available for students of all ages.

Notes recognizing a child’s accomplishments can be sent home periodically. This can be
done quietly with the student to minimize public display (especially important at the
secondary level). Experience has shown that many secondary school students do like special
recognition; the key point is how the teacher handles it. Elementary school students usually
can deal with public recognition.

Teachers can make telephone calls periodically to inform families of their child’s progress.
Calling families to say, “I just wanted to tell you the good news . . .” can help tremendously
in building communication and trust.

Weekly samples of work, including good work and work that needs improvement, as well
as improved work, can be collected by students and taken home to their families. These
samples inform family members about how their children are progressing with the skills
that were designated as areas to focus on for the semester or school year.

Teachers with several years’ experience may be ready to begin a parent group that focuses
on topics of concern for many families (finishing homework, establishing study skills,
building self-esteem, promoting reading at home). The school’s counselor can conduct the
groups, ensuring that another qualified professional addresses issues beyond the teacher’s
area of expertise. When childcare is provided for such after-hours events, more family
members can take advantage of parent group training and bonding.

Some teachers involve families in the classroom. There are many ways to do this. For
instance, families can come to class on a regular basis just to read with students during
reading time. They can share a special skill or information from a trip. Families can work as
individual tutors (be sure to provide some initial training and be specific about their tasks).
Holidays are a good time, in particular, to involve families who can bring cultural and
ethnic traditions and customs to share. Families can help teachers make bulletin board
displays and learning materials—have a designated night to explain these needs and see the
wonderful items you get!

Weekly report cards that require a signature are another way to keep families informed, to

416
signal areas of growth and concern, and to share a note about a special achievement. These
regular report cards also give children an opportunity to discuss their progress with their
families.

Developing communication bridges takes time and effort, and teachers must be aware of
cultural and linguistic factors to consider when working with families. Frequent positive
and informative communication, written in the parents’ primary language, is important. In
the long run, the benefits are usually great and promote the type of home-school
communication that contributes to the children’s progress.

417
Summary
A cornerstone of the federal laws ensuring all infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and students
with disabilities a free appropriate education in the least restrictive environment is the
individualized education created through the special education process. IDEA ’04
guarantees these individuals and their families a tailor-made education program, which is
guided by uniquely created planning documents: the individualized family service plan
(IFSP) and the individualized education program (IEP). The IEP is further supported,
when necessary, by behavior intervention plans and the statement of transitional services.
These plans bring together multidisciplinary teams of parents, general educators, special
educators, and related service providers for the purpose of helping young children and
students with disabilities reach their full potential and achieve community presence and
independence as adults.

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REVIEW THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot “talk
through” the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

What are the characteristics of collaboration?

Successful collaboration includes shared problem solving, shared responsibility, and

voluntary involvement. These characteristics imply that the individuals choose to
share expertise, decision making, and involvement to promote effective inclusive
practices for all students.

What are critical prerequisite skills for effective collaboration?

Communication and conflict resolution skills are important for promoting effective
collaborative partnerships. Professionals must also be aware of the cultural, linguistic,
and socioeconomic backgrounds of their students and must accommodate differences
in values and perceptions.

How can professionals work together collaboratively?

Effective practices include collaboration, consultation, coteaching, and strategies for

English language learners, such as the clinical teaching cycle, peer or expert
consultation, the teacher assistance team process, and alternative programs and
services.

How can teachers collaborate with paraprofessionals?

The establishment of roles, supervision and training, and teaming are some
approaches that promote effective partnerships between professionals and
paraprofessionals. Paraprofessionals should be given opportunities to express their
issues and concerns.

How can professionals collaborate with families?

Professionals should use a family systems approach when working with families. This
approach takes into consideration the range of needs that families have regarding
their child’s education and well-being. Professionals can also use parent-teacher
conferences and home-school communication as opportunities to develop
partnerships. Professionals should be mindful of cultural considerations as they work
with families.

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Test your understanding of chapter content. Take the practice quiz. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

420
REVISIT THE OPENING CHALLENGE
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions in the Opening Challenge and revise them
on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What professional collaborative practices can Ms. Warren use to help her students
with special learning, behavior, and language needs succeed in the general education
classroom?
2. How can Ms. Warren and Ms. Bryant collaborate effectively with their
paraprofessional?
3. How can Ms. Warren effectively structure parent-teacher conferences and develop
home-school communication effectively?
4. What should be the focus of the three-way meeting with Ms. Bryant, the special
education teacher, and the paraprofessional?

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Key Terms
active listening, 179
clinical teaching cycle, 195
collaboration, 176
conflict, 182
cultural characteristics, 185
family systems approach, 204
paraprofessionals, 197
peer or expert consultation, 195
teacher assistance team process, 195

Review key terms with eFlashcards. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

422
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

423
CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 2: Learning Environments
Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Standard 7: Collaboration

424
INTASC Core Principles
Standard 3: Learning Environments
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Standard 10: Leadership and Collaboration

425
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
II. Legal and Societal Issues: Federal laws and legal issues
III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities: Background knowledge

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

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426
6 Delivery of Appropriate Services to Students with
Special Needs

iStock/monkeybusinessimages

427
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What is response to intervention?

What is the evaluation and identification process?
Who are the members of the IEP team?
How do special education multidisciplinary teams and services meet the needs of students with
disabilities?
What plans guarantee students with disabilities an appropriate education?
When and how are existing individualized plans evaluated?
What does IDEA ’04 require during the IEP process?

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OPENING challenge

429
How All These Special Education Services Come
Together
Elementary Grades Mr. Hernandez has been teaching fourth grade for several years, but he had not taught
a student with complex disabilities in his general education program until now. All of his students with
disabilities have had mild to moderate learning challenges, and he has always worked well with the special
education teacher to meet those students’ needs. It is November, and the school year is well under way.
Students are now assigned to the right groups, and he has a good understanding of each student’s strengths
and struggles. A new student, Emily, joined his class several weeks ago. She just moved to River City from
another state, and her existing individualized education program (IEP) came with her. Because she has
complex learning needs, the school’s support team decided to implement the IEP process, create an IEP
team for Emily, and schedule an IEP meeting.

As Mr. Hernandez prepares materials and all the documents for the upcoming IEP meeting, he begins to
wonder, “How many education professionals will be assigned to Emily? Who will be at Emily’s IEP meeting?
How can I possibly meet all of her needs and still be sure that the rest of the students get the instruction they need?”

Secondary Grades Ms. Cohen is a 10th-grade history teacher at Independence High School. She has been
teaching for seven years and has worked with students with learning disabilities; in her class one year she
had a student who was blind. This year, Ms. Cohen has several students with learning disabilities and one
student who has a mild intellectual disability; the students with LD are in one of two inclusion classes she
teaches each day. All of these students have reading disabilities. Two of the students’ IEPs are up for
reevaluation, so Ms. Cohen will have to attend IEP meetings. She has not attended a reevaluation before so
she is unsure what to expect. She knows that the students’ assistive technology (AT) needs must be
considered in the meeting, but she is confused about what this actually means. She is also concerned about
the services her students might require and how this works in high school classes. As she plans her lessons
for the first month of school, she thinks about her inclusion classes; she plans to make an appointment with
the special education teacher to discuss her students’ needs and how their IEPs can be implemented in her
classes. She also needs guidance to prepare for the upcoming IEP reevaluation meetings. Ms. Cohen
wonders, “What is in each student’s IEP that I have to be mindful of for my instruction? What does an IEP
reevaluation meeting entail? How is AT “considered”? What services might be added to the IEPs and how will I
be able to work with various professionals and teach my history classes? How is the special education teacher going
to help me?”

REFLECTION QUESTIONS In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing this chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. Are Mr. Hernandez and Ms. Cohen overly concerned about being able to meet their students’
needs? Why or why not?
2. What advice would you give them about working with special education teachers regarding the
supports and services that may be specified in their students’ IEPs?
3. What kind of help and assistance should Mr. Hernandez and Ms. Cohen expect from the IEP team
members?
4. Is Mr. Hernandez justified in expressing concerns about the educational progress of Emily’s
classmates? Why or why not?
5. How can special education and related service professionals help Mr. Hernandez and Ms. Cohen
support their students’ needs and enable them to teach the rest of their class?
6. How does the response to intervention (RTI) model affect instruction in Mr. Hernandez’s and Ms.
Cohen’s classes?

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Take a quiz to find out what you’ve learned.

Review key terms with eFlashcards.
Watch videos to see teachers in action.

For an education program to be appropriate for each infant, toddler, and student with a
disability, it must be individualized. When education is appropriate, the results can be
astounding. It is clear to us that there is no single answer to the educational needs of all
students with disabilities: no standard program, no single service delivery option, no single
place where education is received, and no single curriculum. For these reasons, the
expression first applied to students with disabilities more than 20 years ago, “one size
doesn’t fit all,” has become a mantra of special education (Borthwick-Duffy, Palmer, &
Lane, 1996). This idea is verified and validated time and time again as the process enacted
to develop IEPs for each student with a disability is applied.

Let’s think first about how general education should be the strong foundation of the
educational experiences of all students, including students with disabilities, through the
RTI model.

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What Is Response to Intervention?
Response to intervention (RTI) is a model for delivering scientifically based, schoolwide,
multitiered systems of support (MTSS), which is designed to promote improved academic
performance for all students and minimize behavior problems. Through the RTI model,
students who are identified as at risk for poor academic achievement are eligible to receive
additional educational support. In terms of applying the RTI model to behavior, Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is commonly utilized in school districts to
prevent behavior problems and to provide intensive interventions for the small group of
students who require this support (Sugai, Horner, Fixen, & Blase, 2010; see Chapter 9 for
additional information about PBIS).

Response to Intervention

Scientifically based or evidence-based instruction means that instructional practices

employed in schools are based on findings from research studies that involved systematic,
rigorous procedures using experimental or quasiexperimental research designs. The
instructional practices should have been implemented with fidelity, which refers to
following the protocol or lesson steps as developed for the instructional practice, and the
research measures should have been valid and reliable. Also, experts should have examined
the findings for the instructional practices, for example, through the peer-reviewed process
for journals (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014).

RTI is also designed to provide evidence toward the evaluation for and identification of
learning disabilities in the event that a special education referral is necessary because of
continually low performance in spite of intensive instruction. According to IDEA ’04,
states must adopt criteria for determining the presence of a learning disability. As an
alternative to the criteria of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and
achievement, which was in vogue for many years as part of the identification process, states
must now permit the use of the RTI model as part of the disability identification process.

RTI involves four fundamental components: universal screening, progress monitoring,

data-based decision making, and high-quality, evidence-based, multitiered instructional
support in relation to students’ educational needs (http://www.rti4success.org). Universal
screening is the schoolwide process of identifying students who are at risk for poor
performance. Progress monitoring involves systematically monitoring student performance
in relation to the delivery of intensive interventions. Data-based decision making is used
to identify students who require additional instruction and to determine whether intensive
intervention supports are effective. Data can be used to determine movement within the

432
multitiered system and as part of the disability identification process (see Chapter 8 for a
discussion of these three components of RTI).

Multitiered instructional support involves tiered levels of increasingly intensive

intervention at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Tier 1, the primary level, consists
of high-quality, evidence-based core instruction for all students; approximately 80% of all
students can benefit from this typical, core instruction. Tier 2, or secondary intervention,
involves about 15% of students who have been identified through universal screening as at
risk and in need of intensified instructional support. Tier 3, the tertiary level, is more
intensified intervention and is appropriate for approximately 5% of students. This group of
students continues to demonstrate poor performance in spite of receiving evidence-based
instructional practices in Tiers 1 and 2. For some students who perform so poorly during
universal screening, the Tier 3 level of support may be immediately necessary.

Response to Intervention

Figure 6.1 shows the three levels of the RTI model. Many school districts employ a three-
tiered level of instructional support, although some districts offer four or more levels of
instructional intensity. In this chapter, we focus on the three-tiered model, which is used to
support reading and mathematics instruction at the elementary and secondary levels
(Bryant et al., 2011; Bryant et al., 2014; Denton, 2012; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2012;
Vaughn et al., 2010; Vaughn & Fletcher, 2012; Vaughn et al., 2009).

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Tier 1 (Primary)
Effective general education core instruction is the foundation for all students and is
typically aligned with state or national standards. High-quality core instruction for students
with disabilities incorporates individualized plans and interventions, which increase access
to the general education curriculum. Recall from Chapter 3 that about 66% of students
with learning disabilities receive at least 80% of their education in a general education
classroom. Therefore, high-quality core instruction must be responsive to the needs of all
students.

Figure 6.1 Levels of the RTI Model

Source: Center on Response to Intervention at American Institutes for Research,

http://www.rti4success.org.

Source: Center on Response to Intervention at American Institutes for Research,

http://www.rti4success.org.

Evidence-based effective practices, when integrated into the general education curriculum
and teaching process, can and do make real differences for every student—those with and
those without disabilities. We introduced many of these practices in Chapter 1, and we
discuss them in more detail throughout this text as we talk about specific curriculum areas
such as reading, writing, and mathematics. For now, we want to remind you about some
evidence-based practices and ways of differentiating instruction to improve access to the
general education curriculum for students with disabilities.

Evidence-Based Instruction
Evidence-based instruction offered to all students in the general education class is

434
important for many reasons. Education that uses instructional procedures that have been
validated through research is responsive to struggling students, prevents school failure, and
reduces the number of referrals to special education (Fuchs & Vaughn, 2012; McMaster,
Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2005). Because many believe that assignment to special
education includes low expectations and locking students into a curriculum that prohibits
them from achieving their real potential, prevention of inappropriate referrals is clearly an
important role of general education in the lives of many students, particularly those from
diverse backgrounds (Obiakor & Ford, 2002). However, when special education services
are needed, and when general educators and school leaders (e.g., principals) support those
services, the results for students with disabilities can be remarkable (Sataline, 2005).

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 Video case 1.1

What Is Response to Intervention?

1. How are multi-systems of support, such as response to intervention, used to meet the needs
of all students? In what ways are assessment data used in the planning process in order to
fully meet student needs?
2. How does Mia Tannous describe Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions? How are these levels of
support provided at her school?

Differentiating Instruction
For some instructional topics, students require an individualized change in how instruction
is delivered. Differentiated instruction is designed to improve access to the general
education curriculum by adapting instruction to each student’s learning needs (Haager &
Klingner, 2005; Hoover & Patton, 2004). In other words, instruction is adjusted in
response to the individual’s readiness, interests, strengths, and struggles (Tomlinson &
Moon, 2013).

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In Chapter 1, we introduced the mnemonic ADAPT to remind you about the five steps
involved in using that framework to make appropriate instructional adaptations for
differentiating instruction. The five steps in ADAPT are as follows: A—Ask, “What am I
requiring the student to do?” D—Determine the prerequisite skills of the task. A—Analyze
the student’s strengths and struggles. P—Propose and implement adaptations from the four
categories (instructional activity, instructional content, instructional delivery, and
instructional materials). T—Test to determine if adaptations helped the student accomplish
the task. Thus, different instructional methods might be employed for members of a class
who are all learning the same content.

How might instruction be differentiated? Differentiation can be accomplished through the

four categories of instructional adaptations. A different instructional activity might be
provided to a small group of students to teach a skill when the original activity, using
evidence-based practices, was not improving student learning. Sometimes, teachers need to
adapt the instructional content by teaching a portion of the content related to the lesson’s
objective. Focusing initially on a smaller amount of information may help students be more
successful in handling the quantity of information they need to learn. For example, if
teachers are teaching the multiplication facts, the “times 5” facts might be taught separately
and then combined with the “times 6” facts. Controlling the amount of instructional
content gives students opportunities to focus their practice and then increase the amount as
“chunks” of content are mastered.

Instructional delivery can be adapted by using flexible grouping practices to differentiate

instruction (Haager & Klingner, 2005). Flexible grouping practices include same-ability
groups and mixed-ability groups. Students with comparable abilities and achievement can
be grouped so the pace of instruction can be different from that of other groups
(Tomlinson & Moon, 2013). Or students can be assigned to heterogeneous groups where
students complement each other’s strengths and can help each other as they solve problems
or complete assignments. In this way, flexible grouping practices allow teachers to group
students based on the goals of the lesson. Instructional delivery can be adapted in terms of
how teachers present instruction and how students practice their learning.

Finally, by selecting different types of materials or making adjustments to current materials,

instructional materials can be adapted. For example, worksheets can be changed to include
fewer practice items or they can be formatted differently to emphasize instructional
information or directions. Technology can be used to support instruction, and
manipulatives can be used to make math concepts concrete.

Throughout this text, we continue discussions about the ADAPT framework and provide
specific examples of its implementation, because many students with disabilities require
even more changes to their instructional programs to succeed in the general education
program. The ADAPT in Action section and ADAPT Framework provide examples of how
the process works. Refer back to the Opening Challenge with Ms. Cohen; she has a student

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with an intellectual disability who has reading disabilities. She is seeking information from
the special education teacher about how to work with this student in her history class. In
Chapter 7, you will learn more about differentiating instruction by using the ADAPT
framework.

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ADAPT in action

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Tier 2 (Secondary) and Tier 3 (Tertiary)
Students who are identified as at risk for having low academic performance during
universal screening or through progress monitoring in the general education class qualify
for more intensive intervention support. For these students, instructional features such as
longer durations of instruction, smaller group size, adapted instruction (see the ADAPT
Framework in Chapter 7), and frequent progress monitoring are essential. It should also be
noted that in some states, Tier 3 means special education services, but this is not true for all
states. Whether Tier 3 is reserved for students with identified disabilities, students who
qualify for Tier 3 intervention demonstrate persistently low performance and require the
most intensive services and instructional support. These students typically perform below
the 10th percentile on academic curriculum-based measures (CBMs; see Chapter 8), which
suggests that their ability to respond proficiently is limited. Adjusting instructional features
and individualizing as needs dictate are critical for students in Tier 2 and particularly in
Tier 3. Table 6.1 presents the components and instructional features of an RTI three-tiered
model. Further discussion about instructional features occurs in Chapter 7.

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ADAPT framework: MS. COHEN SEEKS
INFORMATION

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What Is the Evaluation and Identification Process?
IDEA ’04 mandates that an individualized program be delivered to every infant, toddler,
and student who is identified as having a disability and is in need of special education. The
purposes of these individualized programs are to ensure that each of these individuals

Receives FAPE.
Is provided an education in the LRE.
Is specific to the student.
Is provided services with the expectation of outstanding results.

Students’ IEPs are the plans or road maps created to guide instruction and the delivery of
services that are the foundation for an appropriate education. Although some students with
special needs receive accommodations for their special conditions through Section 504 of
the Rehabilitation Act, only those with disabilities defined by IDEA ’04 are required to
have IEPs. Thus some students with a disability that does not require special education
services (such as a limb deficiency that does not affect educational performance) do not
require an IEP. Conversely, sometimes students without disabilities do have an IEP. For
example, in some states, students who are gifted or talented are included in special
education. Although education of these students is not included in the federal special
education law, those states often take their lead from IDEA ’04 and develop IEPs for
students who are gifted or talented.

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IEPs focus on students’ strengths and on their individual needs. Parents and school
districts’ education professionals must agree on these plans for the delivery of special
services. IDEA ’04 is very specific about the requirements of IEPs and the process to be
used in their development and implementation (U.S. Department of Education, 2006).
The law spells out the minimum process or steps that are to be used when developing
individualized programs offered under the auspices of special education. States often
impose further requirements in addition to those that are outlined in IDEA ’04 and
monitored by the federal government. Because there are many local variations on the rules
surrounding IEPs, we present here what the national law requires and do not address
specific regulations that various states expect school districts and teachers to follow.

The formation of an individualized program can be organized into seven steps (see Figure
6.2), beginning with prereferral and ending with evaluation of a student’s program:

1. Prereferral
2. Referral
3. Identification
4. Eligibility
5. Development of the IEP
6. Implementation of the IEP
7. Evaluation and reviews

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 Figure 6.2 The Seven Steps in the IEP Process

Now let’s look at these seven steps in more detail to get a better understanding of what each
means and how they form the IEP process.

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Step 1: Prereferral
At this step, the general education teacher and the school’s support team ensure that the
target student has received high-quality instruction and additional instructional assistance if
necessary. During this step, the school’s support team must become confident that neither
“poor teaching” (the application of practices that are not evidence based) nor a need to
learn the English language explains the student’s inadequate performance. The team may
be called a prereferral team, a multidisciplinary team, or an RTI team if the RTI model is
utilized, whose purpose is to

Document and explain how and when the student is struggling.

Determine the effectiveness of classroom adaptations and additional assistance.
Monitor the student’s progress during the application of high-quality instruction.

For schools that are implementing an RTI model of assessment and interventions,
prereferral activities include screening students for learning or behavioral difficulties,
implementing evidence-based practices, and documenting student responses to these
practices. In general, before any formal referral for special education services is made,
teachers, school-based education professionals, and family members work together to
determine whether the general education teacher alone can resolve a student’s educational
or behavioral difficulties. The assessments used during this step are intervention based and
conducted in the student’s general education class using direct measures of performance
(McNamara & Hollinger, 2003). Teachers implement different validated teaching
approaches and use assessment measures to document how students respond to this
instruction (Barnett, Daly, Jones, & Lentz, 2004). They also systematically differentiate
instruction more intensively to address individual learning or behavioral needs.

Prereferral activities are intended to address individual students’ learning or behavioral

needs through the use of effective practices to prevent unnecessary referrals to special
education, which are costly in time, money, and resources for formal assessments. You as a
teacher may receive both assistance and consultation from specialists during this phase of
the IEP process. Students whose learning remains challenged—those who continue to
struggle—are referred to special education and the next step of the IEP process.

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Teachers and families may be involved in the prereferral step. Prereferral activities are
intended to address individual students’ learning or behavior needs to prevent
unnecessary referrals to special education.

iStock/peepo

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Step 2: Referral
Some students come to school already identified as having a disability and needing special
education. Some of these students have already received special education services for many
years. Why is this so? For infants, toddlers, and preschoolers, IDEA ’04 stresses the
importance of an activity called child find, wherein those with disabilities are actively sought
(U.S. Department of Education, 2006). In these cases, referrals can come from parents, a
social service agency, public health nurses, day care professionals, or a doctor. Young
children who are at risk of having disabilities because of improper prenatal care, low birth
weight, accident or trauma during infancy, or child abuse are referred for special services.
Also, those with visible indications of a disability (such as a missing arm or leg or facial
differences resulting from Down syndrome) or other signals of significant developmental
delay (such as an 18-month-old child not walking independently or a 3-year-old not
talking) are usually identified early and receive early intervention services during infancy or
their preschool years. Typically, the referral process begins sooner for children with very
severe disabilities, because their disabilities are obvious at birth or during infancy. As
children grow older, other signs often trigger referrals. For example, a toddler who does not
respond to loud sounds and is not walking by age 2 and a preschooler who has excessive
tantrums are both candidates for early referrals. Such children and their families usually
come to school expecting an individualized education because they have received
multidisciplinary services during the preschool years.

Students identified as having disabilities during the elementary or secondary school years
present different reasons for referral. For example, students whose academic performance is
significantly behind that of their classmates are prime candidates for special education
referrals. Also, those students who continually misbehave and disrupt the learning
environment often draw the attention of their teachers and are targeted for intervention
and (ultimately) referral for special education services.

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Step 3: Identification
Assessment is one foundation of the identification process. The purpose of this step in the
IEP process is to determine whether a student has a disability, whether special education
services are required, and what types of services are needed. Evaluations are conducted by
multidisciplinary teams consisting of professionals who have expertise in each area of
concern. Each member helps to evaluate the student’s unique strengths and struggles. For
example, if a student is suspected of having a language impairment, a speech/language
pathologist (SLP) is a member of the team. If there may be a hearing problem, an
audiologist participates, and so on. For students who are 16 years old or older, evaluation
includes assessments related to the need for transition services for moving either from
school to work or from secondary to postsecondary education (Madaus & Shaw, 2006).

Information can come from a broad range of sources, including the student’s parents and
family members. The professional who actually coordinates the identification process varies
by state and district. In some states, the assessment team leader is a school psychologist, an
educational diagnostician, or a psychometrician. In other states, a teacher from the
student’s school leads the team’s efforts.

At this step, many different types of data are used to inform the team about the student’s
abilities. Medical history, information about social interactions at school and at home,
adaptive behavior in the community, educational performance, and other relevant factors
are considered. Evaluations include an array of assessment instruments and procedures.
Information should be collected from the student and family. Formal tests—tests of
intelligence, of academic achievement, and of acuity (vision and hearing)—are usually part
of the information used to make decisions about students and their potential special
education status.

Less formal assessments—assistive technology evaluations, school observations of classroom

and social behavior, examples of academic assignments, direct measurements of academic
performance, CBMs of reading and mathematics skills being taught, and portfolio samples
of classroom performance—are also important pieces of evidence used in this step of the
IEP process. Together, data from the formal and informal assessments are used to develop a
profile of the student. One result of the evaluation step of the IEP process can be a
determination that the individual does not have a disability. In these instances the IEP
process is discontinued. For those individuals who do have disabilities, this phase of the
process results in a baseline of performance data to guide the development of the
individualized education program and, later, help judge the program’s effectiveness.

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Step 4: Eligibility
The information from the assessment step is used to identify students who actually have a
disability and qualify for special education services. For those students, the IEP team then
determines what components of the full range of special education and related services are
needed so that an appropriate education can be planned and ultimately delivered. The
education of those students who do not meet the eligibility requirements remains the sole
responsibility of general educators; the education of those students with disabilities who are
eligible for special education services becomes the shared responsibility of general education
teachers and administrators, special education teachers and administrators, and the
appropriate related service professionals. The Considering Diversity feature provides
guidance about the issue of confusing linguistic diversity with a learning disability.

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CONSIDERING diversity

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Don’t Confuse Linguistic Diversity with Learning
Disability
Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students are disproportionately represented in special education
classes. Inappropriate placements of this sort often occur because educators may have limited preparation in
providing early interventions to remediate existing underachievement problems. Educators may also have
limited preparation in discerning the characteristics of linguistically diverse students from the characteristics
of students with language and learning disabilities. However, professionals must provide early intervention
to students who are exhibiting achievement difficulties. Documentation of the student’s response to this
intervention is also required. When these efforts are not successful with individual students, a referral to
special education for a comprehensive assessment may be appropriate. According to IDEA ’04, limited
English proficiency cannot be a reason for determining that a student has a disability. Educators may be
unfamiliar with questions that can be asked to help determine whether a referral for special education
assessment is appropriate. Yates and Ortiz (2004) provided guidelines that school-based teams can use as
part of the referral process and to eliminate factors besides a disability as the reason for academic
underachievement:

Have the difficulties been noted by a variety of professionals, such as the general education teacher,
parents, and the remedial teacher?
To what extent do the difficulties exist across contexts, such as in classrooms, in “specials or
electives” (art, music), and at home?
What are the student’s reading abilities in the native language and in English?
Are the difficulties evident in the native language as well as in English?
How is the student progressing compared with other students who had or have a similar level of
English language proficiency?
What concerns have family members expressed about language difficulties?
Has the student received consistent native language instruction?
What evidence suggests that difficulties can be explained by factors other than disability, such as
cultural differences, school attendance issues, teacher bias or expectations, and teachers not prepared
to teach CLD students?
What evidence suggests issues related to assessment, such as measures that are not normed for
English language learners (ELLs), language proficiency of the student that does not match the
language in which the assessment was conducted, and results that conflict with documentation
about response to intervention?
What efforts are being made to determine whether the student’s language characteristics, such as
pronunciation, oral language, and comprehension difficulties, are a result of learning a second
language or a language disability?

Professionals must ensure that CLD students who go through the disability identification process (a) have
received effective remedial interventions prior to referral and (b) have been thoroughly reviewed to rule out
limited English proficiency as the reason for the problem.

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Step 5: Development of the IEP
After thorough completion of the prereferral, referral, identification, and eligibility steps of
the IEP process, it is time to develop the actual individualized plan—an individualized
family service plan (IFSP) for infants and toddlers, an IEP for preschoolers and
schoolchildren, and a transition component of the IEP for those students with disabilities
who are 16 years old or older. If behavior is a concern, a behavior intervention plan will be
written for the individual student as well. We discuss the development of the IEP in more
detail later in this chapter, but for now, it is important for you to know that parents and
the education professionals who are all part of the student’s IEP team make important
decisions about what services and placements constitute an appropriate education for this
individual at this step of the IEP process. The assessment results are used to help make
these decisions. It is at this point that the IEP team begins its work to outline the
individualized education needed by the student. Collectively, the team members, who
include parents and the student (if appropriate), now use the knowledge they have gained
to identify resources needed for that student to access the general education curriculum,
determine the appropriate goals for improvement, and then craft a good education program
for the student. Of course, goals must include greater success with the general education
curriculum or independence and a community presence later in life. It is at this point that
the services and supports that become part of the student’s appropriate education are
specified.

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Step 6: Implementation of the IEP
Once the IEP is developed, the student’s services and individualized program begin. The
IEP has laid out what constitutes an appropriate education for the student, the extent to
which the student participates in the general education curriculum, the accommodations
the student receives both for instruction and for assessment, and the array of
multidisciplinary services from related service providers that supports the student’s
educational program. For students who are participating in a different curriculum or whose
goals differ from those of the general education curriculum, the IEP has specified alternate
assessment procedures as well.

Minor adjustments in students’ goals or in the benchmarks that indicate attainment of

those goals do not signal a need for a new IEP or another IEP meeting; services continue.
However, major changes in goals, services, or placement do require parents to be notified in
writing. Some changes, particularly if they involve a more restrictive placement, may
necessitate a meeting of the IEP team and the parent or guardian. Most often, this situation
arises when issues surrounding discipline are the reason for the change in placement or
services. Later in this chapter, you will learn more about behavior intervention plans, which
must be developed as part of students’ IEPs when serious behavioral infractions (such as
bringing guns or drugs to school, fighting, or being out of control) occur. Also, in Chapter
9, you will learn about effective interventions that should help resolve behavior issues that
affect both the individual and his or her classmates when rules are violated.

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Step 7: Evaluation and Reviews
IDEA ’04 requires accountability for each IEP developed. In most states, students’ IEPs are
reviewed annually. Under an IDEA ’04 pilot program, which is attempting to reduce
paperwork and administrative burdens on educators, 15 states conduct these reviews every
three years. The purpose of the IEP review meetings is to ensure that students are meeting
their goals and making educational progress. Because accountability measures determine
whether the student is making progress, educators are careful to describe expectations for
tasks and skills the student needs to learn in terms that can be evaluated. Whether the IEP
process is for an infant or toddler (an IFSP) or for a schoolchild (an IEP and possibly a
transition component), the expectation is that frequent assessments of the individual’s
performance will occur, even if major IEP reviews occur once a year or only every three
years.

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) and IDEA ’04 require that all students
participate in annual state or district-wide testing or in alternate assessments. Because of the
importance of these assessments and of each school’s collective adequate yearly progress
(AYP)—whereby all its students demonstrate their attainment of high levels of achievement
—we devote an entire chapter to assessment issues (see Chapter 8). For now, it is important
to understand that assessment adaptations are allowed for many students with disabilities
while taking these tests. For example, students who use enlarged print or Braille to read
classroom materials receive these assessment adaptations in the testing situation as well.

IEP Meetings

For some students, alternate assessments are made available. For example, students who are
learning English as their second language and students with disabilities whose IEP goals
focus less on accessing the general education curriculum and more on skills related to
independence, life skills, and community presence may participate in alternative
assessments if these are specified in the students’ IEP. Remember, in addition to annual
assessments, students with disabilities frequently receive less formal evaluations of their
progress. Sometimes these assessments are made weekly or even daily. The purpose of such
measurements of progress is to guide instruction and to ensure that scheduled interventions
are effective.

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Who Are the Members of the IEP Team?
IDEA ’04 is very clear about membership in IEP teams (Office of Special Education
Programs [OSEP], 2006a). The exact language of the regulations is found in Table 6.2, but
it is important for you as a teacher to remember that each IEP team is individually
determined according to the specific needs of the student and his or her disability.

As a teacher attending an IEP meeting for one of your students, you can be most helpful in
ensuring that the right people are participating and contributing to the development of a
meaningful IEP for your student. Review Table 6.2 and consider a student who faces motor
challenges resulting from cerebral palsy. Emily is a very bright fourth grader, but she has
difficulty engaging in class discussions because her speech is slow, deliberate, and difficult
to understand. She uses a walker and finds it challenging to hold a pencil, but she can use a
computer’s keyboard. IDEA ’04 is specific about the minimum representation of those
members who make up IEP teams for students with disabilities. Who are those essential
members? For Emily, IDEA ’04 also allows for the inclusion of more multidisciplinary
professionals. What additional members would be appropriate for Emily’s IEP team? To
answer these two important questions, it might be helpful to know more about the roles of
IEP team members. Some of those roles and responsibilities are highlighted next.

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Roles of Education Professionals
All education professionals working at every school are crucial to positive experiences for
students with disabilities. As we mentioned at the beginning of Chapter 1, it is surprising to
us that after some 30 years of including more and more students with disabilities in general
education classes, many teachers, principals, and other education professionals still report
that they feel ill-prepared to accept responsibilities associated with the education of these
students (Fisher, Frey, & Thousand, 2003; Futernick, 2006). Those who harbor such
attitudes (particularly if they are uneasy with, or even reject, students with disabilities) can
negatively influence outcomes for these students (Cook, 2001; Cook, Tankersley, Cook, &
Landrum, 2000). Such negative attitudes are often subtly expressed in the ways in which
inadequately prepared educators talk about students with disabilities and the adaptations
they need for successful participation in the general education curriculum (Salend, 2010).
We also know that well prepared educators can and do make a real difference in the lives
and the educational achievements of their students (Darling-Hammond, 2005, 2006a,
2006b). We are confident that you, as a teacher thoroughly prepared with knowledge about
effective interventions and the ADAPT framework, will positively influence the lives of
your students with disabilities.

The school principal is a key person in the collaborative effort at every school (Praisner,
2003; Rodríguez, Gentilucci, & Sims, 2005). Because principals often coordinate
management efforts at their site, they can be most helpful in developing and ensuring the
delivery of special education services (particularly for large-scale assessments), in monitoring
the array of services indicated on every student’s IEP, and in ensuring the coordination of
services throughout the school and across the district. Effective principals also set the tone

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for positive attitudes crucial to all students’ success. They welcome and facilitate the efforts
of the many different professionals who are itinerant, coming to their school to work with
individual students such as Emily, whom we described at the beginning of this section. For
example, students with challenges similar to Emily’s typically receive services from SLPs,
physical therapists, experts in assistive technology, and possibly occupational therapists.
These members of Emily’s multidisciplinary team are not permanent or full-time members
of the school staff. Their schedules are complicated and often hard to coordinate because
each of them travels from school to school, sometimes long distances, to work with
individual students and their teachers who need their services. Also, these professionals
often find themselves in crowded schools where they do not have sufficient space or
appropriate places to work with individual students or to store their equipment. Principals
can lead their school’s staff to solve complex coordination issues that itinerant
multidisciplinary team members often present, smoothing the way for efficient delivery of
related services.

Neither IDEA ’04, individual states’ regulations, nor school districts’ guidelines have
established definitive roles for each profession’s IEP team member. Teams must determine
each member’s role and responsibility when they collaborate as members of IEP teams and
work together to plan for the delivery of an effective and appropriate education for each
student with a disability. In part, this lack of uniformity exists because no single or uniform
action can reflect what special education services any particular student needs. Also,
government officials do not want to dictate how groups of professionals elect to work
together. For example, at one school, the principal and IEP teams might assign duties
differently than the principal and team members at another school (Praisner, 2003). At one
school, the school counselor coordinates the entire schedule; at another, a special education
teacher schedules related services for all students with disabilities, and the principal’s
assistant develops the other teachers’ and students’ schedules. In short, the way in which
these professionals collaborate is partially determined by how they are organized at each
school.

The IEP process, the development of responsive IEP teams, and the inclusion of students
with disabilities require true partnerships among those who share responsibilities for the
education of students with disabilities. Fisher and his colleagues (2003) help us think about
how both general and special education teachers could share responsibilities that typically
arise in providing an appropriate education to students with disabilities. Some of their ideas
are presented in Table 6.3.

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Video case 1.1

Roles of Special and General Education Teachers

1. How does a special education teacher support the needs of students with disabilities who are
included in the general education classroom? What types of services might a special
education teacher advocate for their students?
2. In what ways do general education teachers support the needs of all their students in an
inclusive classroom? How do they collaborate with other professionals to ensure that all their
students are successful?

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Roles of Families
IDEA ’04 stresses the importance of involving families of students with disabilities in the
IEP process and as members of their child’s IEP team (U.S. Department of Education,
2006). The IEP process can help develop partnerships among parents and extended family
members, schools, and professionals (Sopko, 2003). This purpose should be actively
fostered, for the importance of these partnerships cannot be overestimated (Dabkowski,
2004).

When parent involvement is high, student alienation is lower and student achievement is
increased (Brown, Paulsen, & Higgins, 2003; Dworetzky, 2004). Educators need to
recognize, however, that many parents believe schools control the special education process.
As a result, many families feel disenfranchised or confused about rules, regulations, and the
purpose of special education (Cartledge, Kea, & Ida, 2000). Most parents want to
participate in their children’s education, but sometimes they do not understand the
educational system.

Often, families need help to participate effectively in IEP meetings and in the resulting
individualized programs (Tornatzky, Pachon, & Torres, 2003). Here are some tips that

459
teachers can give parents to help them better prepare to participate in IEP meetings
(Buehler, 2004):

Make a list of important questions to ask IEP team members. Examples: What is my child’s
daily schedule? How is my child doing in school? Does my child have friends? How well
does my child behave? What problems is my child having?

Outline points to make about your child’s strengths.

Bring records regarding your child’s needs.
Ask for clarification.
Be assertive and proactive but not aggressive or reactive.
Listen and compromise.
Remain involved with the professionals on the IEP team.
Know about placement and service options, and explore each with the team.

For families who do not speak English well enough to understand the complicated language
used to talk about special education issues, participation may seem impossible (Hughes,
Valle-Riestra, & Arguelles, 2002). In such instances, schools must welcome family
members and people from the community who are fluent in the family’s native language
and also knowledgeable about the special education process and procedural safeguards
guaranteed to families through IDEA ’04. The law encourages the family’s maximal
participation, so it requires schools to find interpreters to the fullest extent possible.
Remember, it is the obligation of educators to include and inform parents and students
about the efforts that will be made on their behalf.

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Roles of Students
Review Table 6.2 and remember the importance that IDEA ’04 places on students
participating on their own IEP teams, particularly when adolescents are about to transition
out of high school. The law stresses student involvement because it has found that many
students are unfamiliar with their IEPs and do not know the goals established for them.
One result is a lack of “ownership” in the school program especially designed for them.
Involving students has many benefits (Test et al., 2004). Particularly if students are active
participants, they can learn important skills needed in life. Here are two examples. Self-
determination is the ability to identify and achieve goals for oneself. Self-advocacy consists
of the skills necessary to stand up and advocate for what one needs to achieve those goals.
These two skills are interrelated and can be fostered during the IEP process when students
are involved (Wood, Karvonen, Test, Browder, & Algozzine, 2004). Here are some ways in
which older students can contribute to their IEP meetings:

Describe personal strengths, weaknesses, and needs.

Evaluate personal progress toward accomplishing their goals.
Bring a list of adaptations and explain how each is helpful.
Communicate their preferences and interests.
Articulate their long-term goals and desires for life, work, and postsecondary
schooling.

IDEA law stresses the importance of student involvement in their IEPs because,

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surprisingly, many students are unfamiliar with the content and the goals established
for them within their IEPs. Involving students in the process has many benefits.

iStock/Terry J. Alcorn

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How Do Special Education Multidisciplinary Teams and
Services Meet the Needs of Students with Disabilities?
Although evidence-based instruction and differentiated instruction are important
components of general education’s foundation for individualized special education services,
students with disabilities typically need more intensive interventions and supports to
achieve independence and success. The multidisciplinary teams and the services they deliver
are what make special education truly special for students with disabilities and their
families. Let’s turn our attention to the professionals and services that can be specified for
students with disabilities through the individualized education guaranteed by IDEA ’04.

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Highly Qualified Special Educators
A special educator might be a resource specialist, an itinerant teacher, a special education
classroom teacher, a job coach, a home or hospital teacher, or an administrator. The skills
needed by special educators are many. They must have in-depth knowledge about
differentiating instruction, implementing practices validated through rigorous research,
monitoring students’ progress, understanding the requirements and expectations of IDEA
’04, and ensuring that every student with a disability receives an appropriate education and
achieves to the greatest degree possible. Special educators’ jobs are complex and require
skills that are honed by knowledge and practice.

NCLB, which is the reauthorization of the federal Elementary and Secondary Education
Act, requires all general education teachers to be “highly qualified.” NCLB expects teachers
to hold a credential, have a degree, or demonstrate competency in every content area in
which they teach. When IDEA was reauthorized in 2004, language was included affirming
that special education teachers also must be highly qualified. Because of these requirements,
coteaching is gaining in popularity, particularly at the middle and high school levels where
it is not possible for individual teachers to meet the requirements of every core subject area
that special educators teach. Blending the expertise of general education professionals (e.g.,
math, science, history, English) and special educators through coteaching arrangements can
make the education that students with disabilities receive truly special (Magiera, Smith,
Zigmond, & Gebauer, 2005). This new requirement for highly qualified special education
teachers creates many opportunities for middle and secondary teachers to work together, to
create wonderful learning opportunities, and to consider the special needs of all students,
not just those with disabilities. In Chapter 5, we discuss coteaching as one way to promote
effective collaborative professional partnerships between general and special educators.

Clearly, general educators and special educators are two of the important ingredients of an
effective education for students with special needs. But the recipe for success may also
include the expertise of professionals who come from different disciplines. It is the IEP
process that brings together experts who have unique skills to meet the individual needs of
students with disabilities. Let’s think about related services and the professionals who
provide them.

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Related Services and Providers
Many students with disabilities need help beyond that given through the partnership of
general and special education. As you learned in Chapter 1, related services are typically
beyond what general and special education teachers can provide (Etzel-Wise & Mears,
2004; Neal, Bigby, & Nicholson, 2004). Related services are definitely a unique feature of
special education, offering a wide range of services and expertise to students and their
families. These experts facilitate the attainment of LRE and FAPE.

The three most commonly used related services are speech therapy, physical therapy, and
assistive technology. IDEA ’04 does not provide a precise list of related services, because its
authors did not want to be too prescriptive; these services are to be determined by the exact
needs of the individual (Downing, 2004). As Table 6.4 shows, related service professionals
may include those who provide assistive technology, audiology, occupational therapy,
physical therapy, school health services, speech/language therapy, or other services needed
by the student. Unfortunately, particularly for students with high-incidence disabilities
(such as learning disabilities), IEP teams (educators who meet to develop the IEP) often fail
to fully consider students’ needs for related services (Mitch Yell, as quoted in Earles-
Vollrath, 2004). It is important for all teachers to understand that students, regardless of
their disabilities, are guaranteed needed related services by IDEA ’04.

With exceptions for very young children in some states, related services are provided at no
cost to the student’s family. However, in some cases, costs for related services are paid for
by agencies other than schools (such as Medicare or private insurance companies). Some
medical services are considered related services. Here’s a guideline to whether a medical
service is also a related service: If a school nurse can provide the medical services the student
needs, they are likely to be related services. If, however, the services need to be performed
by a physician, they are not (Bigby, 2004; National Association of School Nurses [NASN],
2004).

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Assistive technology is a unique and critical component of many effective programs (Bryant
& Bryant, 2003). For these reasons, we highlight such technology in the remaining
chapters of this text. For now, remember that assistive technology is both equipment and a
related service. Assistive technology is often what allows students with disabilities to access
general education, interact with their friends, participate in class discussions, and complete
their schoolwork more easily. Like evidence-based practices and differentiated instruction,
assistive technology often is an important component of general education’s foundation for
effective special education services.

As stipulated in IDEA ’04, the IEP team must consider a student’s need for assistive
technology and services so that the student can receive FAPE in the LRE (U.S. Department
of Education, 2006). The Tech Notes feature lists some of the questions that IEP team
members consider when specifying what AT services and devices are to be included in a
student’s IEP. When identified in a student’s IEP, a device or specific type of equipment
becomes part of the student’s educational program. However, not every device you can
think of is considered AT by IDEA ’04. For example, IDEA ’04 clarified for school districts
and families that cost for the maintenance of surgically implanted medical devices, such as
cochlear implants, are not the responsibility of the schools (Kravetz, 2005). The expertise of
assistive technologists can be critical to ensure that the latest in technology is available to
resolve challenges that some individuals face. In Chapter 7, we present additional
information about AT.

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You have learned that at the heart of special education are the professionals who join with
families to collaborate and provide multidisciplinary services and supports to students with
disabilities. These teams are unique because they are individually determined and their
membership reflects the individual needs of the student. These multidisciplinary teams of
experts not only deliver critical services to students with disabilities and their families but
also are valuable resources to teachers as they strive to meet the needs of each student. You
as a teacher should always remember that these professionals are available to help you as
well as your student. When everyone works together, IEP teams ensure more than the
protection of basic rights guaranteed by IDEA ’04: They orchestrate the best education
possible. When each individually arranged IEP team develops partnerships, so that
students’ programs are coordinated, the results are remarkable, allowing individuals to
overcome challenges caused by disabilities.

Many students with disabilities need help beyond that given through the partnership
of general and special education. This student requires physical therapy from a
related services provider.

iStock/CEFutcher

Now let’s think about the process and plans that guide everyone’s actions to make these
programs a reality.

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TECH notes

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Selection of Assistive Technology Devices and Services
Following are questions IEP team members ask themselves as they consider what AT services and devices to
include in a student’s IEP:

1. How can AT devices and services help the student receive a free appropriate public education?
2. How can AT devices and services help the student receive an education in the LRE?
3. How can AT devices and services help the student access the general education curriculum and
achieve IEP goals successfully?
4. How do the features of the AT device match the strengths and struggles of the student and the tasks
of the environment?
5. How will the use of AT devices and services be monitored to ensure successful implementation as
well as benefits to the student?

Source: Adapted from Chambers (1997).

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What Plans Guarantee Students with Disabilities an
Appropriate Education?
Four tools, or plans for individualized programs, serve to coordinate and document what
constitutes the appropriate education for each infant, toddler, and student with disabilities.
The tools that guarantee an appropriate education to those with disabilities follow:

1. The individualized family service plan (IFSP)—for infants and toddlers

2. The individualized education program (IEP)—for preschoolers through high school
students
3. An additional statement of transitional services—initiated at age 16 to help those
students who require special education services to make successful transitions to
independence, community living, and work
4. A behavior intervention plan—for those students with disabilities who commit
serious behavioral infractions

Let’s examine each of these plans in turn.

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Individualized Family Service Plans (IFSPs)
Infants or toddlers (birth through age 2) who have disabilities or who are at great risk for
disabilities were originally guaranteed the right to early intervention programs through PL
99-457, which was passed in 1986. That right continues today through IDEA ’04. (For a
review of IDEA legislation, see Chapter 1 and Table 1.3.) IFSPs are written documents that
ensure that special services are delivered to these young children and their families. The
IFSP is the management tool that guides professionals as they design and deliver these
children’s special education programs. Service managers are the professionals who provide
oversight and coordination of the services outlined in IFSPs. The key components of these
early education management plans follow:

The child’s current functioning levels in all relevant areas (physical development,
cognitive development, language and speech development, psychosocial
development, and self-help skills)
The family’s strengths and needs in regard to the development of their child
The major outcomes expected, expressed in terms of procedures, evaluation criteria,
and a time line
The services necessary and a schedule for their delivery
Projected dates for initiation of services
The name of the service coordinator
A biannual (every six months) review, with the child’s family, of progress made and
of any need for modifications in the IFSP
Indication of methods for transitioning the child to services available for children
ages 3 to 5

To many service coordinators and early childhood specialists, the IFSP is a working
document for an ongoing process in which parents and specialists work together,
continually modifying, expanding, and developing a child’s educational program. Children
and families who participate in early intervention programs often find these years to be an
intense period, with many professionals offering advice, training, guidance, and
personalized services, as well as care and concern. Also, the transition to preschool at the age
of 3 can be particularly difficult and frightening. One reason is that services that were
delivered primarily at the family’s home now will be delivered at a preschool. Therefore,
IFSPs include plans for these youngsters and their families to transition from very intensive
and individually delivered interventions to more traditional classrooms. IDEA ’04 allows
states to give families the option of delaying entrance into school-based preschool programs
by keeping their child in an early intervention program, but making this decision
sometimes results in the family having to pay for some or all of the services (U.S.
Department of Education, 2006).

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Individualized Education Programs (IEPs)
IEPs are the documents that describe the special education and related services appropriate
to the needs of students with disabilities who are 3 to 21 years of age. These management
tools are the cornerstones of every educational program planned for preschoolers (ages 3 to
5) and students (ages 6 to 21) with disabilities (OSEP, 2006a). IDEA ’04 delineated what
the IEP must contain at the very least, and it is important that every educator know these
key components:

Current performance: The student’s present levels of academic achievement and

information about how the student’s disability influences participation and progress
in the general education curriculum
Goals: Statement of measurable goals related to participation in the general education
curriculum or to meeting other educational needs resulting from the disability
Special education and related services: Specific educational services to be provided,
including accommodations, program modifications, or supports that allow
participation in the general education curriculum and in extracurricular activities
Participation with students without disabilities: Explanation about the extent to
which the student will not participate in general education classes and in
extracurricular activities alongside peers without disabilities
Participation in state and district-wide testing: Description of assessment
accommodations needed for these assessments, or, if the student will not be
participating, a statement listing reasons for nonparticipation and explaining how the
student will be alternately assessed
Dates and places: Projected dates for initiation of services, where services will be
delivered, and the expected duration of those services
Transition service needs: A transition component for those students (beginning at age
16) whose goals are related to community presence and independence that is
included in the IEP to identify postschool goals and to describe transitional
assessments and service needs
Age of majority: A requirement to inform students, beginning at least one year before
they reach the age of majority, of those rights that transfer to them
Measuring progress: Statement of how the student’s progress toward achieving IEP
goals will be measured and how parents will be informed about this progress

Individualized Education Program

To stress the importance of including all of these components in each student’s IEP, the

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federal government provided a template for school districts to use as a model (OSEP,
2006b). The IEP is a written document that is developed for each eligible child with a
disability. Part B regulations specify the procedures that school districts must follow to
develop, review, and revise the IEP for each child. Table 6.5 sets out the IEP content that
those regulations require.

IEPs must be written for each student with a disability, so each IEP will be different from
the next. Remember Emily, who was described earlier in this chapter? She needs services
from several related service professionals, such as a SLP, a physical therapist (PT), and an
assistive technologist. Some students, such as in Ms. Cohen’s classes, may need help only
from a special education teacher or a paraprofessional. Other students may require
assistance from many more members of a multidisciplinary team. Academic areas may be
reflected, but so may areas not typically part of educational programs for students without
disabilities (e.g., fine and gross motor skills and life skills). Services indicated on the IEP
must be provided, and they cannot be traded for other services, such as more time in the
general education classroom. Services not being readily available (including AT devices and
services) is no reason for omitting them from an IEP: If the student needs the service, it
must be delivered. In other words, if a student needs the services of an assistive technologist
and requires some special equipment, those services and devices must be made available. In
addition, any changes in placement, related services specified in the IEP, or annual goals
necessitate another IEP meeting and mutual approval by the family and the school district.

The contents of a student’s IEP must be available to all educators who work with the
student (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). IEPs are meant to be a communication
tool. Surprisingly, it is not uncommon for teachers to be unaware of the goals, objectives,
and services required by their students’ IEPs. This situation leads one to ask how an
appropriate education can be delivered when the educators who interact with students with
disabilities do not understand what the students’ education should comprise. The answer is
obvious: An appropriate education cannot be delivered under these circumstances.

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Transition Components of IEPs
When IDEA was reauthorized in 1997, plans to help students transition from school to
postsecondary experiences became a special education requirement. At that time, such a
plan was a separate document—a mini-IEP of its own—for students age 14 and older and
was called an individualized transition plan (ITP). Since the 1997 reauthorization of IDEA,
these plans for assessments and services to prepare for postschool life, or statements of
transitional services, are a part of the students’ IEPs; they are not stand-alone documents.
IDEA ’04 increased to 16 the age for initiation of the transition component of students’
IEPs. Transitional planning is very important for high school students with disabilities,
because these individuals’ postschool outcomes have much room for improvement.

Although more students with disabilities graduate from high school with a standard
diploma (about 64%), too many still drop out of school (OSEP, 2006c). Some 28% of
students with disabilities recently exited high school with no diploma or certificate of

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completion (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Levine, & Garza, 2006). Completion rates vary
greatly by type of disability. For example, 95% of students with visual or hearing disabilities
and 85% of those with autism and physical disabilities complete high school. However,
only 56% of those students identified as having emotional or behavioral disorders finish
high school. How do these statistics compare with those for students without disabilities?
Not well. Almost 90% of all students complete high school, and this average takes into
account the dismal completion rate of Latino/a students, only 75% of whom complete high
school (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2006).

Of course, high school completion rates influence participation rates in postsecondary

opportunities. Students with disabilities participate in postsecondary programs at about half
the rate of their peers without disabilities; about 20% of students with disabilities attend
community colleges or four-year colleges and universities (Sanford et al., 2011). All of these
reasons contribute to the fact that individuals with disabilities earn less than their
counterparts without disabilities and more often find themselves in jobs that do not provide
benefits such as health insurance.

It is also important for teachers who participate in transition planning to understand that as
adults, these individuals tend to engage in active leisure activities less than individuals
without disabilities. They participate in organized community groups at a rate much lower
than would be expected, and they also get in trouble with the law more often than their
typical peers (Wagner et al., 2006). Helping students set goals for themselves, gain work
experience, and develop skills needed for independent living can be critical to the life
satisfaction experienced by adults with disabilities (Neubert, 2003).

The transition component supplements and complements the IEP, and as you can tell, it
has the potential of being very important to the long-term results of your students. Whereas
the IEP describes the educational goals and objectives that a student should achieve during
a school year, the transitional services part of the IEP focuses on the academic and
functional achievement of the individual to prepare for adult living (National Center on
Secondary Education and Transition [NCSET], 2005). Transition components are
designed to facilitate the process of going from high school to any of several postschool
options: postsecondary education, vocational education, integrated employment (including
supported employment), adult services, or community participation (de Fur, 2003). The
last years of school can be critical to the achievement of special education outcomes and to
these learners’ smooth and successful transition to adulthood. Look back at Table 6.5 to
determine the components on the transition plan.

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Behavior Intervention Plans
When any student with a disability commits serious behavioral infractions, IDEA ’04
requires that a behavior intervention plan, which is like an IEP but addresses the behavioral
infraction, be developed (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Because inappropriate
behavior is so often at the root of special education referrals, of teachers’ dissatisfaction with
working with students who have disabilities, and of lifelong challenges, we devote an entire
chapter (see Chapter 9) to behavior management, development of good social skills, and
interventions for serious and persistent behavior issues. Here, we will introduce the plans
that IDEA ’04 requires for students who have an IEP and also engage in seriously
disruptive or violent behavior.

Why did behavioral plans for students who have major behavioral issues become part of
students’ IEPs? One reason reflects concerns of Congress and the public about violence,
discipline, and special education students. Although students without disabilities can be
expelled for breaking school rules (for bringing guns to school, for example, or engaging in
serious fighting), some students with disabilities cannot. These students can, however, be
removed from their current placement and receive their education away from their assigned
classroom(s) in what is called an interim alternative educational setting (IAES) for up to 45
school days. Continued progress toward the attainment of IEP goals must be one intention
of the IAES placement. Students who cannot be expelled are those whose disruptive
behavior was caused by their disability. Under the older versions of IDEA, this protection
was called the “stay put” provision. Through a process called manifestation determination,
educators figure out whether the disability caused the infraction. All students with
disabilities who are violent or “out of control” must have behavior intervention plans
developed for them. These plans focus not only on the control or elimination of future
serious behavioral infractions but also on the development of positive social skills.

To develop behavior intervention plans, educators use a process called functional behavioral
assessment (FBA), which clarifies the student’s preferences for specific academic tasks and
determines when the undesirable behavior is likely to occur (Kern, Delaney, Clarke,
Dunlap, & Childs, 2001). We discuss FBA in some detail in Chapter 9. This assessment
process was originally developed for students with severe disabilities. IDEA ’04 suggests a
broader application of the procedure and emphasizes its use when students with any
disability face disciplinary actions. The FBA process leads teachers directly to effective
interventions with socially validated outcomes (Barnhill, 2005; Ryan, Halsey, & Matthews,
2003). FBAs help determine the nature of the behavior of concern, the reason or
motivation for the behavior, and under what conditions the behavior does and does not
occur (Hanley, Iwata, & McCord, 2003).

The goal of the assessment is to determine what activities are associated with problem

476
behaviors and to identify the student’s interests and preferences (Shippen, Simpson, &
Crites, 2003). Instructional activities are then modified to incorporate the student’s “likes”
into activities where problems typically occur. Here’s how it works: Ethan’s behavior
during activities that require him to write is highly disruptive. However, he likes to use the
computer, so he is allowed to complete written assignments using a word processing
program on a computer. The double benefit is that his academic performance is improving
and his disruptive behavior has decreased. There is a major caution, however. These
assessments often miss behaviors that occur rarely, and this is a real problem because many
low-frequency infractions (hitting a teacher, setting a fire, breaking a window) are the most
dangerous and serious. Because of the propensity of students with emotional or behavioral
disorders to exhibit behavior problems, FBAs are used with most of these students.
Therefore, more details about FBA and effective interventions that address problem
behaviors are found in Chapter 9. As a teacher, you will need to become proficient in using
FBAs and understanding their results.

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When and How Are Existing Individualized Plans Evaluated?
Assessments of students’ performance have many different purposes. The first purpose of
assessments, identifying and qualifying students with disabilities, is an important part of the
initial IEP process. Those assessments are conducted before the IEP is developed. The data
gathered and judgments made are used to shape the IEP process and help the student’s IEP
team determine what services are necessary for an appropriate education. However, once an
IEP is developed, there are three primary purposes of evaluating the student’s performance:

Evaluate the student’s progress toward IEP goals.

Evaluate the effectiveness of services or supports.
Monitor progress.

Students with disabilities are tested and evaluated more than any other group of learners. As
we just mentioned, these individuals experience many different kinds of assessments during
the IEP process. In addition, students with disabilities participate in assessments

To determine whether the school is making AYP.

To monitor their individual progress toward academic and social targets.
To monitor the school’s progress toward AYP.

Like their classmates without disabilities, nearly all students with disabilities participate in
state and district-wide assessments (Ziegler, 2002). For improved school accountability,
NCLB and IDEA ’04 require all students to participate in annual assessments. Only a very
small percentage—some 2%—of all students with disabilities can be excused from these
tests, and they receive an alternate assessment. The other group excused from tests consists
of those students just learning English as their second language (U.S. Department of
Education, 2006). Because the overall results from individual schools—their AYP—are
used to “grade” a school’s effectiveness, affect student promotion, and sometimes impact
the school’s funding, these yearly assessments are often referred to as high-stakes testing.
The ultimate expectation is that all students will achieve proficiency in reading and math,
and if students’ test scores indicate they have not reached those levels, the schools they
attend will experience significant disincentives (penalties). All students with disabilities
must participate in their school district’s accountability system. Those who are participating
in the general education curriculum may take tests with accommodations, if such
accommodations are called for in the student’s IEP (Shriner & Destefano, 2003). Students
whose curriculum targets life skills and community presence most often participate in
alternate assessments, which evaluate students’ progress toward meeting benchmarks for
targeted achievement of skills that are not part of the general education curriculum (OSEP,
2006b; Thompson, Lazarus, Clapper, & Thurlow, 2004). Very few students with
disabilities receive alternate assessments, because IDEA ’04 allows states to give this option
to only 2% of all students with disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2006).

478
Although it is important to monitor the overall achievement of a school and how well its
students are mastering the general education curriculum, yearly tests do not provide
teachers with enough information about the progress of individual students to guide
instruction. Other types of assessments are better suited to monitoring students’ progress
and adapting instruction accordingly. Careful and consistent progress monitoring is
important to avoid wasting instructional time by using a tactic that is ineffective. Teachers
need to document these students’ improvement in academic achievement, behavior, or
attainment of life skills. They use results from these evaluations both to guide their
instruction and to communicate with the IEP team. We provide more details about direct
assessment systems in Chapter 8, but to put these procedures in context, we introduce them
here.

All students experience assessments of their classroom performance. Weekly spelling tests,
math tests, exams after the completion of social studies units, and history papers are all
examples of students’ classroom work that is graded. Such evaluations of students’ work are
authentic assessments, because they use the work that students generate in classroom
settings as the evaluation measurements (Layton & Lock, 2007). Results on students’ class
assignments, anecdotal records, writing samples, and observational data on behavior are
examples of authentic assessments. In other words, evaluation is made directly from the
curriculum and the students’ work. Teachers often collect more authentic assessments for
students with disabilities than they do for their students without disabilities (Fuchs, Fuchs,
Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001).

479
Authentic assessments use work that students generate in classroom settings as
evaluation measurements. Teachers often collect more authentic assessments for
students with disabilities than for their students without disabilities.

Thinkstock/Stockbyte

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Authentic assessments can be comprehensive and include ongoing, systematic evaluations
of students’ performance. Portfolio assessment is an example of authentic assessment that
includes samples of a student’s work, over a period of time, to show her or his growth and
development (Layton & Lock, 2007). This evaluation process involves students in both
instruction and assessment because they select the exhibits of their work to include. A
portfolio may include prizes, certificates of award, pictures, dictated work, photographs,
lists of books read, and selections from work done with others. It may also include reports,
written by the teacher or by others who work with the child, about challenging situations
or patterns of behavior that should be a focus of concern.

Considered both a self-correcting instructional method and an evaluation system,

curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a detailed data collection system that frequently
measures how well a student is learning specific instructional targets. With CBM, teachers
quickly know how well their students are learning and whether the chosen instructional
methods are effective (Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003). For example, a teacher instructing a
student in math keeps a record of the number or percentage of problems correctly solved
across time. Using this system, teachers can track the percentage of words spelled correctly,
the number of new arithmetic facts memorized, the number of words correctly read per
minute (reading fluency), or the number or percentage of topic sentences included in
writing assignments. These records help teachers judge whether the instructional methods
selected are both efficient and effective. CBM is often part of the evaluation system used
during the prereferral stage of the IEP process, particularly for students suspected of having
learning disabilities (Bradley, Danielson, & Hallahan, 2002; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Powell,
2004).

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Change in Services or Supports
Remember, IDEA ’04 guarantees students with disabilities and their families a continuum
of services. However, the intention is not for these services to be offered in a fixed sequence.
Rather, they are to be a flexible constellation, invoked when supports need to be increased
because a student’s progress has slowed, or phased down when they are no longer necessary.
In other words, the needs of individual students are not fixed but, rather, change across
time. A student with a reading disability might, for some period of time, need intensive
instruction outside of the general education classroom for some portion of the school day.
There, intensive instruction would be delivered to a very small group of learners, all
struggling with the task of learning how to read, and all receiving individualized
instruction. However, when the reading difficulty is resolved, that student may well move
immediately back to the general education setting, where continued progress in reading is
monitored every several weeks and then every month or so.

When changes in placement, either more or less restrictive, are considered, the IEP team,
including the family (and, in some cases, the student), must be in communication (U.S.
Department of Education, 2006). In some cases, the whole IEP team, which includes the
parents, holds a meeting. In other cases, only selected members of the team who have
expertise related to a particular portion of the student’s individualized program need to
meet. IDEA ’04 requires schools to notify parents in writing about changes being made to
the student’s program. Regardless, for correct decisions to be made about whether a
student’s services need to be more or less intensive, information must be current and
precise. Typically, authentic assessments are used for such decisions.

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What Does IDEA ’04 Require During the IEP Process?
IDEA ’04 includes many requirements for the IEP process and students’ IEPs. For
example, the law is very specific about these issues:

1. IEP team membership

2. Parent participation
3. Attendance of IEP team members at IEP meetings
4. When meetings must be held
5. Transition components of IEPs
6. Blending of IFSP and IEP content in plans for children between the ages of 2 and 3
7. Access to IEP content
8. Transfer of the IEP when a student relocates

As we have noted, states often add steps to the IEP process by expanding components or
features of IEPs as they are implemented at the state or district level. Such additional
requirements extend beyond what the federal government requires that school districts,
schools, and teachers provide to students with disabilities and their families. Federal
officials felt that each of the issues listed here needed to be addressed in IDEA ’04, so let’s
think about each of them in turn.

You have already learned about what IDEA ’04 says about who must serve on IEP teams
(review Table 6.2). You learned that each IEP team is a multidisciplinary team of experts
who come together to plan an individually designed program to meet the unique needs of
each student with a disability. IDEA ’04 requires that every team have members from the
following groups: the student’s parent(s) (or guardian), at least one general education
teacher, at least one special educator, a representative of the school district, someone (such
as a school psychologist) who can interpret the student’s test results, related service
providers in each area of need, and the student (when appropriate).

The participation of parents in the IEP process can be a key element in the success of each
student’s education. However, it can be difficult to schedule and coordinate everyone’s
time. Parents’ work schedules may conflict with the school’s schedule. Some parents may
not have transportation to get to and from school at specific times, or they may not be able
to arrange baby sitters, or they may feel uncomfortable with the education system. Every
effort must be made to assist parents and encourage their participation in the IEP process
and IEP team meetings. As a way to facilitate participation, IDEA ’04 now allows for these
meetings to be held through different means: conference calls, video conferences, and
possibly even e-mails. Many suggest that extended family members also be included, but
what is most important is that the schools welcome parents and families of all students with
disabilities (Smith, 2007).

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IDEA ’04 does not require that every member of the IEP team be present at each and every
meeting about the student’s educational program (OSEP, 2006a). For example, if an IEP
meeting is being held to discuss only the student’s speech or language problems, the school
psychologist on the team might not have much to contribute. However, that professional
may be excused only if both the parent(s) and the school district officially agree in writing.

Unless he or she is part of a pilot program operating in 15 states, every student with a
disability must have the IEP reviewed at least annually. However, if major changes are not
going to be made, the parents and school district can agree not to hold an official meeting.
The IEP team needs to meet more often than once a year if the student’s progress mastering
the general education curriculum is less than expected or if unanticipated needs surface.
Also, if a major change in the student’s services or placement is to occur, a meeting must be
called. For example, if the student violates school rules by bringing a gun to campus and a
change in placement is to occur, an IEP meeting must be called.

On another note, and addressing a common concern about IEPs, IDEA ’04 reaffirms that
IEPs are to be open to every education professional who works with the student. However,
special education records are confidential, and only those directly involved in administering
services described on the IEP have legal access to them. It is important that everyone who
works with the child benefit from the collaborative work of the team that developed the
IEP. For the same reason, IEPs move with the student. When a family moves to another
school, school district, or state, the new education team should benefit from all of the work
that went into development of the IEP. Therefore, IDEA ’04 stresses the importance of
quickly transferring records of students who are relocating.

The Working Together feature provides an example of how IEP team members come
together to ensure that Emily’s IEP is serving her needs as her education continues.

Finally, IDEA ’04 included language to help students who are transitioning from early
childhood programs to school-based programs. This transition period is a very difficult
time for many families. For example, for infants and toddlers under the age of 3, service
providers often work with both the child and the family at home and in “natural
environments,” such as community play groups. When children are age 3 or older,
education is typically provided at schools. Also, for children under the age of 3, goals and
benchmarks of programs planned through IFSPs are not comparable to the education
described in IEPs. IFSPs address targets such as school readiness, emerging language,
developing motor skills, and preliteracy. IEPs focus more on access to the general education
curriculum. To assist in the transition from early childhood programs to school-based
programs, the law mandates that the service manager or representative from the early
intervention program participate in the young child’s initial IEP meeting.

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WORKING together

485
Reviewing Emily’s Progress
Professionals representing related services in addition to the required IEP team members work together to
fine-tune Emily’s IEP. The focus of the meeting is to conduct an annual review of Emily’s performance in
school and to determine what changes to her IEP may be necessary to ensure an appropriate education. The
IEP team consists of Mr. Hernandez, Emily’s fourth-grade teacher, Emily’s art teacher, the special education
teacher, the principal, Emily’s parents, the special education coordinator, and the diagnostician. Also,
because of Emily’s speech/language and motor needs, the speech/language pathologist, recreational
therapist, assistive technologist, occupational therapist, and physical therapist participate on this IEP team.
Different members of the IEP team have obtained Emily’s input about her needs during an interview and
observations. All individuals involved in this process should be prepared to discuss Emily’s academic,
behavioral, social, motor, and language needs from their own perspective. The IEP team members will bring
their summaries about Emily’s progress and questions for the team to address. Based on their discussions,
Emily’s IEP can be adjusted to more appropriately address her needs to ensure successful inclusion in the
fourth-grade class.

Here are some tips that can help ensure the success of this collaborative process:

1. Mr. Hernandez should be prepared to discuss how Emily is performing compared with her peers
and what techniques he is using to make environmental and instructional adaptations for her. He
should also describe how well the computer works as an accommodation to help her do her work
and how well Emily is socializing in his class.
2. The art teacher should describe how Emily is progressing based on any adaptations that were made
to the materials or content.
3. The special education teacher should explain how she teams with Mr. Hernandez to support Emily
and how Emily’s learning needs are also being addressed during the twice-weekly pullout sessions
with the special education teacher.
4. The parents should have an opportunity to express their concerns at home with schoolwork and any
other issues that are important for the IEP team to discuss and resolve.
5. The speech/language pathologist can provide an update on therapy sessions to help Emily develop
her speech. A discussion about how Emily is doing with her oral language communication in class
should also occur.
6. The recreational therapist should update the IEP team on how Emily is performing in adaptive
physical education (PE) and provide guidance about how to include Emily in general PE classes.
7. The assistive technologist should work with the occupational therapist to reevaluate Emily’s use of
the computer as an alternative to using a pencil. Discussion about other assistive devices or
adaptations to the keyboard may be necessary.
8. The physical therapist should evaluate Emily’s use of the walker in various school environments and
bring this information to the meeting. Issues related to transportation and mobility should be
addressed. A discussion with Emily about how the walker helps her mobility can inform discussion
in the meeting as well.

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Questions
1. How can these services be coordinated to benefit Emily and to help Mr. Hernandez with his
teaching?
2. What advice can you offer Mr. Hernandez about collaborating with professionals from the content
in Chapter 5?

487
Summary
A cornerstone of the federal laws ensuring all infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and students
with disabilities a free appropriate education in the least restrictive environment is the
individualized education created through the special education process. IDEA ’04
guarantees these individuals and their families a tailor-made education program, which is
guided by uniquely created planning documents: the individualized family service plan
(IFSP) and the individualized education program (IEP). The IEP is further supported,
when necessary, by behavior intervention plans and the statement of transitional services.
These plans bring together multidisciplinary teams of parents, general educators, special
educators, and related service providers for the purpose of helping young children and
students with disabilities reach their full potential and achieve community presence and
independence as adults.

488
Review the Learning Objectives
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot talk
through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

What is response to intervention?

Response to intervention (RTI) is a model for delivering scientifically based,

schoolwide, multitiered systems of support (MTSS). Through the RTI model,
students who are identified as at risk for poor academic achievement are eligible to
receive additional educational support. RTI is also designed to provide evidence
toward the evaluation for and identification of learning disabilities in the event that a
special education referral is necessary because of continually low performance in spite
of intensive instruction. RTI involves four fundamental components: universal
screening, progress monitoring, data-based decision making, and high-quality,
evidence-based, multitiered instructional support in relation to students’ educational
needs.

What is the evaluation and identification process?

IDEA ’04 mandates that an individualized program be delivered to every infant,

toddler, and student who is identified as having a disability and is in need of special
education. The purposes of these individualized programs are to ensure that each of
these individuals receives FAPE, is provided an education in the LRE, is specific to
the student, and is provided services with the expectation of outstanding results.
IDEA ’04 requires that these steps, at a minimum, be included in the IEP process:

1. Prereferral, 2. Referral, 3. Identification, 4. Eligibility, 5. Development of the IEP,

6. Implementation of the IEP, and 7. Evaluation and reviews.

Who are the members of the IEP team?

IDEA ’04 is very clear about membership in IEP teams (OSEP, 2006a). The parents,
general education and special education teacher of the child, and a representative
from the public agency are members of the team, along with a person who can
interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results. In addition, the team
can include, at the discretion of the parent or the agency, other individuals who have
knowledge or expertise, such as related services professionals and, whenever possible,
the child with a disability.

How do special education multidisciplinary teams and services meet the needs of
students with disabilities?

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The multidisciplinary teams and the services they deliver are what make special
education truly special for students with disabilities and their families. A special
educator might be a resource specialist, an itinerant teacher, a special education
classroom teacher, a job coach, a home or hospital teacher, or an administrator.
Related services are definitely a unique feature of special education, offering a wide
range of services and expertise to students and their families. Related service
professionals may include those who provide assistive technology, audiology,
occupational therapy, physical therapy, school health services, speech/language
therapy, or other services needed by the student.

What plans guarantee students with disabilities an appropriate education?

The plan that guarantees an appropriate education to infants and toddlers (i.e.,
individuals from birth up to the age of 3) is called the Individualized Family Service
Plan (IFSP); the plan for preschoolers and schoolchildren is called the Individualized
Education Program (IEP). IEPs may have additional components, such as a
transition component for students age 16 or older and a behavior intervention plan
for students with disabilities who violate schools’ conduct codes.

When and how are existing individualized plans evaluated?

Once an IEP is developed, there are three primary purposes of evaluating the
student’s performance:
Evaluate the student’s progress toward IEP goals.
Evaluate the effectiveness of services or supports.
Monitor progress.

What does IDEA ’04 require during the IEP process?

IDEA ’04 mandates that an individualized program be delivered to every infant,

toddler, and student who is identified as having a disability and is in need of special
education. IDEA ’04 includes many requirements about the IEP process and
students’ IEPs.

For example, the law is very specific about these issues:

1. IEP team membership
2. Parent participation
3. Attendance of IEP team members at IEP meetings
4. When meetings must be held
5. Transition components of IEPs
6. Blending of IFSP and IEP content in plans for children between the ages of 2
and 3
7. Access to IEP content

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 8. Transfer of the IEP when a student relocates

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491
Revisit the Opening Challenge
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. Are Mr. Hernandez and Ms. Cohen overly concerned about being able to meet their
students’ needs? Why or why not?
2. What advice would you give them about working with special education teachers
regarding the supports and services that may be specified in their students’ IEPs?
3. What kind of help and assistance should Mr. Hernandez and Ms. Cohen expect from
the IEP team members?
4. Is Mr. Hernandez justified in expressing concerns about the educational progress of
Emily’s classmates? Why or why not?
5. How can special education and related service professionals help Mr. Hernandez and
Ms. Cohen support their students’ needs and enable them to teach the rest of their
class?
6. How does the response to intervention (RTI) model affect instruction in Mr.
Hernandez’s and Ms. Cohen’s classes?

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Key Terms
data-based decision making, 215
fidelity, 215
progress monitoring, 215
universal screening, 215

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493
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

494
CEC INITIAL PREPARATION STANDARDS
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 2: Learning Environments
Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge
Standard 4: Assessment
Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Standard 7: Collaboration

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INTASC CORE PRINCIPLES
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences
Standard 3: Learning Environments
Standard 4: Content Knowledge
Standard 6: Assessment
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Standard 10: Leadership and Collaboration

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Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Basic concepts in special education
II. Legal and Societal Issues: Federal laws and legal issues
III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities: Background knowledge

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497
498
7 Promoting Access to the Curriculum

iStock/EdStock

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What is universal design for learning?

What is the ADAPT framework?
What are effective instructional practices?
How can instructional grouping practices promote effective instruction?
What guidelines should be followed for textbooks and instructional materials?
What are assistive technology devices and services for promoting access to the general education
curriculum?

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OPENING challenge

501
Planning and Delivering Instruction
Elementary Grades Mrs. Bell is an experienced and effective fifth-grade teacher with 26 students in a large,
urban, public school district. In Mrs. Bell’s school, 72% of the students qualify for free or reduced-cost
lunch, and 25% are English language learners (ELLs). Mrs. Bell’s class includes two students with reading,
writing, and mathematics learning disabilities (LD), who are performing about two years below grade level.
Her four ELL students speak Spanish or Vietnamese and attended bilingual classes in the primary grades.
The Language Support Team (LST) in Mrs. Bell’s school agreed that the four were ready to move into
English instruction classes; however, one requires pullout services from an ELL specialist. Mrs. Bell also has
her first student, Paul, who has cerebral palsy (CP). Paul uses a wheelchair and has good communication
skills but struggles with motor tasks such as writing with a pencil. Mrs. Bell reflects about her class: “I have a
range of abilities and needs this year. In reviewing the fall academic assessment scores, I see that about one-third of
my class requires extra help with reading, writing, and mathematics. I also have to be sure that I am addressing
the needs of my students who are ELLs and students with LD and CP. Differentiating instruction is critical for
the success of all my students.”

Secondary Grades Ms. Mendez is a ninth-grade biology teacher at a high school in the same school district
as Mrs. Bell with similar demographics. Of her six class periods, three are “inclusion classes” with a larger
proportion of students with disabilities, including some with LD and a high-functioning student with
autism. The special education teacher now joins the weekly science teachers’ meetings to identify how best
to meet individual students’ needs. As she prepares for an upcoming team meeting, Ms. Mendez reflects on
her instructional practices: “The range of reading, writing, and mathematics abilities is challenging, particularly
when students read text in class and for homework. Judging from performance on science tests, some students have
not mastered the mathematical concepts and skills required for science instruction, and the writing skills of some
are also weak. I know I should make adaptations to differentiate instruction, but I am not sure where to begin.
My training is in the sciences, not in basic academics, so I will have to rely on the special education teacher, Ms.
Reid, to support the inclusion students and me.”

REFLECTION QUESTIONS In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. How can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Mendez implement the principles of universal design for learning into
their instructional practices?
2. How can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Mendez use the ADAPT framework to differentiate instruction for
their students?
3. How can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Mendez differentiate instruction for their multicultural and ELL
students?
4. What instructional and grouping practices might help them provide effective, differentiated
instruction for their students?
5. How can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Mendez ensure that the textbooks and instructional materials they use
are appropriate for all of their students?
6. How can assistive technology help Mrs. Bell’s students with disabilities access the general education
curriculum?

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Inclusive schools use a variety of practices to ensure that all students have opportunities to
learn and thrive in a supportive, responsive school environment and to have access to the
general education curriculum.

Having access to the general education curriculum means being able to (a) learn the
knowledge and skills we expect all students to learn; (b) benefit from evidence-based
instruction that is designed, delivered, and evaluated for effectiveness; and (c) use materials,
facilities, and labs that facilitate learning. For many at-risk students and students with
disabilities, mastering the critical academic knowledge and skills is difficult because of
learning challenges such as sensory, memory, communication, motor, behavioral, and
cognitive problems. Differentiating instruction, then, is critical to helping them become
successful learners.

Differentiating instruction is instruction that is responsive to the diverse needs of all

students, with a focus on curriculum, instructional adaptations, services, and instructional
intensity. Figure 7.1 illustrates how most of the student population can benefit from less
differentiation in order to successfully access and master the general education curriculum.
Some students require differentiation, however, and it can take various forms depending on
the student’s individual needs. For example, we can differentiate the intensity of instruction
by offering small groups increased time for more individualized or alternative instructional
intervention. Specialized staff, including special educators, can also deliver more intensive,
adapted instruction. Differentiation can occur in different settings, too, such as the general
education classroom, a resource room, or a self-contained classroom. In some cases, a
change in the curriculum emphasizing more life skills may be required. Student progress
with lesson objectives is also carefully monitored (National Center on Intensive
Intervention [NCII], 2014). Think back to Chapter 6 regarding the RTI model. It is easy
to see how the three levels in Figure 7.1 corresponds to a multi-tiered approach to
instruction and intensified intervention instruction for some students.

In this chapter, we discuss ways to differentiate instruction, including using the principles
of universal design for learning (UDL) and the ADAPT framework. We provide
information about multicultural and linguistic considerations when differentiating
instruction. We also discuss effective instructional practices that help students access and
master the curriculum, ways to adapt instructional materials, and assistive technology
devices and services.

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What is Universal Design for Learning?
Universal design for learning (UDL) is a means for differentiating instruction for all
students, including learners with disabilities. It is a framework that provides ways to remove
or minimize barriers to learning and promote accessibility to curricula and pedagogy, or
teaching practices, for all learners, including students with and without disabilities and
English language learners (CAST, 2011). The goal is to foster learners’ ability to achieve
mastery of the curricula within a flexible environment that features various ways content
can be conveyed to account for individual differences (CAST, 2011). According to the
Higher Education Opportunity Act (2008), universal design for learning

Figure 7.1 A Differentiating Instruction Continuum

(A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students
respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are
engaged; and

(B) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations,

supports, and challenges, and maintains high achievement expectations for all
students, including students with disabilities and students who are limited
English proficient.

UDL is an outgrowth of the concept of universal design (UD), which has its roots in the
field of architecture (King-Sears, 2009). Let’s take an example of UD as it relates to the
ADA law, which requires that the physical environment be made accessible for individuals
with disabilities. Curb cuts enable people who use wheelchairs to use sidewalks, cross

504
streets, and move independently as they shop or get from a parking lot to a restaurant. But
curb cuts also help parents with strollers and people with shopping carts as they walk
through neighborhoods or shopping centers. Removing barriers allows people with
disabilities to participate in daily life, but it also helps people without disabilities (see
http://www.ncsu.edu/ncsu/design/cud/about_us/usronmacespeech.htm for an inspirational
speech by Dr. Ron Mace, who coined the term universal design).

Now, let’s translate this concept of UD access to education. Universally designed curricula
and pedagogy reflect three principles (Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley, & Abarbanell,
2006). First, there are multiple means of representation; in other words, information is
presented in various formats to reduce sensory and cognitive barriers. For example, written
text can be accompanied by audio for students who are blind, and graphics can enhance the
content for students who are deaf or have learning problems. Closed captions on video are
another option.

The second principle, multiple means of action and expression, refers to the ability of
students to respond in a variety of ways. For example, voice recognition software, scanning
devices, and switches help students with physical disabilities access the computer to
complete computer-based activities. The third principle, multiple means of engagement,
consists of actively engaging students in activities and making available more than just a
single mode of representation and expression to address their needs and interests. Using the
computer is an example of providing different ways to engage students in the learning
process.

UDL and Its Applications

Each principle is comprised of three guidelines and several checkpoints. For example, in
Table 7.1, the principle “Provide Multiple Means of Representation” is comprised of
“Provide Options for Perceptions,” a guideline, and “Offer Ways of Customizing the
Display of Information,” a checkpoint for that guideline and principle.

505
The three principles of UDL are featured in the UDL guidelines (CAST, 2011). Applying
the principles of UDL to curricula and pedagogy means adapting goals, strategies,
materials, and tests to enable access for all and to remove or minimize barriers to learning.
The intent is to make the curriculum and instruction flexible enough to accommodate the
diverse learning needs evident in most classrooms (CAST, 2011; Rao, Ok, & Bryant,
2014). Table 7.1 provides a visual representation (see http://cast.org/udl/index.html for
additional information).

UDL is supported in the field of education and included in the IDEA legislation as a means
for promoting access to the curriculum and instruction for all learners. However, it’s
important to know about the evidence that supports these practices (Edyburn, 2010).
Fortunately, research studies on the effects of utilizing the principles of UDL on student
performance are emerging, and preliminary findings are promising (Hall, Cohen, Vue, &
Ganley, 2014; Kennedy, Thomas, Meyer, Alves, & Lloyd, 2014; King-Sears et al., 2014).
In Tech Notes on page 260, UDL examples are shown for how the UDL “Multiple Means
of Representation” principle can be operationalized in the classroom.

506
TECH notes

507
UDL Digital Media
Digital media offer an excellent example of how the universal design principle “Multiple Means of
Representation” can promote access for students with different needs, such as adaptations in learning,
seeing, hearing, moving, and/or understanding English (Rose et al., 2006). Current technology and
partnerships with textbook publishers now make electronic versions of texts readily available, so print is not
the only way to access books. For the student with CP and motor problems in Mrs. Bell’s class and the
student with LD in Ms. Mendez’s class who has difficulty reading, the computer can be used to
immediately provide auditory access by translating print to audio so a book can be heard instead of read,
facilitating access for both students. In another example, by using the same electronic version of the book,
the computer can convert print into Braille for tactile access by a student with severe visual disabilities.
These types of access to print should be noted in the IEP. UDL allows the broadest spectrum of learners to
access the curriculum: students with varying learning needs, those with disabilities, and those with other
special needs.

UDL guidelines can also be applied to teaching students from culturally and linguistically diverse
backgrounds. For example, for the “Provide Multiple Means of Representation” principle, teachers can
adjust their level of English vocabulary to the student’s level of understanding (UDL Checkpoint 2.1) and
support instructional language by repeating, rephrasing, and extending the student’s language (UDL
Checkpoint 2.4). They can use nonverbal cues such as gestures, pictures, objects, and other instructional
materials to facilitate understanding (UDL Checkpoint 2.5). Teachers can also preview new content by
teaching key vocabulary, asking questions to stimulate thinking about the new content, and making
linkages among students’ experiences (UDL Checkpoint 3.1).

The Considering Diversity feature offers ways to differentiate instruction for English language learners.
Then, we turn our attention to the ADAPT framework.

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CONSIDERING diversity

509
Strategies for differentiated instruction for English
Language Learners (ELLs)
Think about how the UDL guidelines connect with these strategies.

510
Scheduling Strategies
Chunk instruction into shorter segments to allow for time to check work.
Expand assignments over a longer period.
Extend wait time for oral responses.
Plan challenging tasks and subjects earlier in the day or period—or other best time for the student.

511
Setting Strategies
Seat ELLs close to speaker, screen, or reader.
Assign support staff to work with ELLs in addition to the classroom teacher.
Provide small-group instruction.
Pair or group ELLs with “buddies” who will assist with modeling and explaining tasks.
Work one-to-one with students.
Introduce and develop new vocabulary visually by using a picture dictionary and other visual aids.
Use bilingual dictionaries during reading and writing assignments in order to clarify meaning when
possible.
Adapt texts by shortening or simplifying language to make the content more accessible.
Use technology and multimedia (software such as Inspiration¯, books on tape) and graphic
organizers.

512
Presentation Strategies
Provide ample repetition of language: repeat, restate, rephrase, reread.
Keep language consistent when describing or explaining; synonyms, idioms, and metaphors may be
confusing at first; gradually introduce figurative language to expand language development.
Keep explanations and directions brief and concise—focus on key concepts and vocabulary.
Highlight and explicitly teach key vocabulary needed to accomplish the assigned task.
Enhance oral presentations with visual and written support, graphic organizers, and modeling.
Allow students time to check and discuss their understanding of directions and material with peers.
Present material through multiple modes, using audiovisual and other technology (books on tape,
instructional software, visuals on the overhead projector, presentation software).
Encourage and allow for nonverbal responses through the use of pictures, manipulatives, and
graphic organizers.

513
Response Strategies
Encourage and allow for nonverbal responses such as pointing, nodding, drawing pictures, using
manipulatives, and completing graphic organizers.
Adjust expectations for language output (e.g., student speaks in words and phrases, simple present-
tense statements).
Allow shortened responses.
Require fewer assignments (focus on the quality of a reduced number of instructional objectives).
Pair ELLs with strong speakers and writers (buddies).
Encourage “buddies” to take a dictated response during pair work where ELLs explain concepts.
Allow ELLs to dictate responses into a tape player as evidence of completion of assigned written
work.

Source: Adapted from Price and Nelson (2003).

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What Is the ADAPT Framework?
We can also differentiate instruction by adapting the activities used to teach objectives,
content being taught, procedures for delivering instruction, and materials that support
instruction. Adaptations share three characteristics. They are individualized, focusing on the
strengths of the individual; they are relevant to the objective being taught to all students;
and they must be effective to ensure that students learn the objectives. If our first attempt at
making an adaptation does not help the student benefit from instruction, then we continue
to make adaptations until performance improves. Student performance on tasks is a good
indicator of the effectiveness of the chosen adaptations. By using the ADAPT framework,
educators can make decisions about adaptations that are individualized for the student’s
strengths and needs and relevant to the task, such as reading and completing homework. It
should be noted that the ADAPT framework and the principles of UDL fit nicely together.
Think about UDL broadly as the principles apply to instruction for all students and benefit
students with various learning needs, whereas the ADAPT framework is intended for
students who are at risk or who have disabilities and require adaptations to instructional
delivery, materials, content, and activities. The UDL principles are the “bigger picture” for
all and the ADAPT framework is a “smaller picture” for some.

The ADAPT framework consists of five steps to guide your decision making about selecting
and evaluating the effects of the adaptations:

1. Ask, “What am I requiring the student to do?”

2. Determine the prerequisite skills of the task.
3. Analyze the student’s strengths and struggles.
4. Propose and implement adaptations from among the four instructional categories—
content, materials, delivery, and activity.
5. Test to determine whether the adaptations helped the student accomplish the task.

We examine each step to illustrate how to apply the ADAPT framework in your class with
students who have special learning needs. Throughout the remaining chapters, you will
read about specific ways to use ADAPT in academic, social, and behavioral areas.

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ADAPT Steps
The first step is Ask, “What am I requiring the student to do?” For example, in second grade,
students are expected to learn basic academic skills, demonstrate the ability to get along
with others, and listen to the teacher. In high school, students are required to take notes in
class, complete their homework, learn from textbooks, conduct and write about research,
and pass end-of-semester exams. These “setting-specific demands” are typical of the core
curriculum—content that is taught to all students in the general education setting (Lenz &
Deshler, 2004). Students who have difficulty with these requirements are opportunities for
teachers to use the ADAPT framework.

The second step is Determine the prerequisite skills of the task. This means identifying what
students must be able to do to meet teachers’ expectations, “pulling apart” the task to
identify those specific prerequisite skills. For example, to add two numbers (9 + 3 = ?),
students must be able to (a) identify and understand the numerical value of the numerals 9
and 3, (b) identify and know the meaning of + and = symbols, (c) use a strategy (such as
“Count on 3 from 9”) to arrive at the solution, and (d) write the numeral 12 correctly (not
21). All these steps should be performed rather quickly so students can keep up with
instruction.

Older students may be required to take notes in class. Think for a minute about yourself as
a learner in your college course. What prerequisite skills related to taking notes are
necessary for you to be successful? You understand the second step if you said any of the
following: listening, identifying important information, writing, summarizing the notes,
and studying them for a test. Identifying prerequisite skills is an important step in the
ADAPT framework because it forms the basis for addressing the remaining steps.

The third step, Analyze the student’s strengths and struggles, means identifying each
prerequisite skill of a task (from Step 2) as a strength or struggle for an individual student.
You can use assessment techniques or your knowledge of the student. For example, in
thinking about our addition problem (9 + 3 = ?), teachers can use active process
assessment, interviewing students as they solve the problem out loud (see Chapter 8) to see
they do it. By having the students “think aloud,” the teacher can figure out whether the
steps for arriving at the answer reflect strengths or struggles. For example, if a student reads
the numerals and symbols correctly, then these prerequisite skills can be listed as strengths
for this task. If a student starts with 1 and counts up to 12 rather than starting with 9 and
counting up 3 to get 12, the teacher suspects the “Start big and count on” strategy is a
struggle.

The teacher can also use observation to determine whether numerals are written correctly,
which is a strength. If 12 were written as 21, then writing numerals correctly is a struggle.
Referring to our note-taking task, teachers can ask for a copy of a student’s notes to analyze

516
them for the prerequisite skills of identifying and recording the important information and
summarizing the information.

In the fourth step, Propose and implement adaptations from among the four categories, the
teacher considers the student’s strengths and struggles to identify appropriate instructional
adaptations. In the ADAPT framework, there are four adaptation categories: (1)
instructional activity, (2) instructional content, (3) instructional delivery, and (4)
instructional material. Each is described here.

Returning to our addition problem example (9 + 3 = ?), the teacher identifies the need to
reteach the “Start big and count on” addition strategy. She decides to work with a small
group of students (instructional delivery), all of whom need to be retaught the strategy. She
uses easier facts (instructional content), such as 3 + 2, and then increases to more difficult
facts, such as 8 + 2 and 9 + 3; reviews the concept of greater than (instructional content) to
be sure students know which number in a problem is the larger of the two; and uses chips
(instructional material) so students can keep track of the “counting on” number (for 8 + 2,
there are two chips to move as the student starts big, at 8, and counts on 2 to get 10).

In our note-taking example, several adaptations come to mind. The teacher can provide a
skilled student with carbonless paper (instructional material) to take notes and then share a
copy of these notes with the student who struggles with the task. The student can record
the lecture (instructional material) and then record key ideas. Or a note-taking strategy
(instructional activity) such as Note Shrink, discussed in Chapter 12, can be taught to a
small group of students who can benefit (instructional delivery).

The fifth step, Test to determine whether the adaptations helped the student accomplish the
task, focuses on monitoring student progress. For example, returning to our addition
problem 9 + 3, during curriculum-based assessment or one-minute timed assessments, the
teacher can check to see whether problems that can be solved with “Start big and count on”
are answered correctly. In the note-taking example, a final copy of the notes can be graded,
and the exam on which the notes are based can be examined for evidence of the key
information in the student’s answers.

Bryant and Bryant (1998) originally identified four adaptation categories from which
educators can choose when selecting adaptations that are individualized for the student and
relevant to the task:

Instructional activity is the actual lesson used to teach and reinforce skills and
concepts. Sometimes, a different instructional activity is needed if students do not
benefit from the original lesson delivered by the teacher.
Instructional content consists of the skills and concepts that are the focus of teaching
and learning, the curriculum that state and local school districts require educators to
teach. Content can be located in standards, district documents, and the teachers’

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 guides that accompany textbooks and other materials. For example, the Common
Core State Standards (CCSS; National Governors Association Center for Best
Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010) provide information about
concepts and skills that should be part of each school district’s curriculum where the
CCSS have been adopted.
Instructional delivery describes the way the activity is taught, including grouping
practices, instructional steps, presentation techniques, practice techniques, and
student activities. Systematic, explicit instruction is included in instructional
delivery and includes the following: (a) modeling, in which teachers provide a
demonstration of steps and examples for solving a problem; (b) “thinking aloud,” in
which teachers make their thinking processes transparent to students by saying out
loud the steps they are taking while solving a problem; (c) prompts or cues, with
which teachers provide visual or verbal assistance to increase the likelihood of correct
responses; (d) error correction, or immediate feedback to correct error responses; (e)
guided practice, or multiple opportunities for students to respond and practice; and
pacing, in which teachers provide instruction at an appropriate rate to keep students
engaged in learning and understanding. These practices are well-grounded in the
literature as critical for struggling students (Bryant, Bryant, Porterfield, et al., 2014;
Coyne, Kame’enui, & Carnine, 2011; Gersten et al., 2009; Swanson, Hoskyn, &
Lee, 1999).
Instructional materials are aids such as textbooks, kits, hardware, software, and
manipulatives. In any subject area, there are multiple types of instructional materials
that teachers can use to address various learning needs. You will read about many
examples in later chapters.

Making Instructional Adaptations

Recall from the Opening Challenge that Ms. Mendez has students with learning
disabilities. She is concerned about their ability to read and understand the science text. She
knows adaptations are needed, so she uses the ADAPT framework in action to make
instructional decisions. As you read about how she does so, think back to the three
characteristics of adaptations and consider whether each adaptation is individualized for the
student, relevant for instruction, and effective.

In the remaining chapters, you will encounter many examples of the ADAPT framework in
action and you will see applications that illustrate quickly and simply how ADAPT can be
implemented. Look for these features as you read.

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What Are Effective Instructional Practices?
In this section, we discuss two important components related to instructional practices.
Planning instruction is considering what you will teach and how you will go about teaching
it so all students in your class can benefit from your instruction. Delivering instruction
means adopting specific practices for conveying information and ensuring appropriate
student responses.

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Planning for Instruction
We discuss four areas that teachers should plan as they prepare to teach lessons. For the
first, we provide information about types of knowledge and critical thinking and instructional
techniques for teaching this information. For the next, types of questions, we provide
examples of questioning techniques. Next is stages of learning, where we include
information about how students’ performance may be affected by their level of
acquaintance with the content being taught. How we teach students at different stages
varies. Finally, we discuss instructional components, including steps for delivering
instruction.

Types of Knowledge and Critical Thinking

Different types of knowledge and critical thinking for different content areas are applicable
across the grade levels. They include discrimination, factual knowledge, procedural
knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge. Critical thinking refers
to reasoning abilities (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014).

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ADAPT in action

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 ADAPT framework: FOR STUDENTS WITH
LEARNING DISABILITIES IN READING

Discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to distinguish one item (such as a letter, number, letter sound,
math sign, state, or piece of lab equipment) from another. It occurs during the early stages
of learning when students are first learning new information and requires the ability to
identify and pay attention to the relevant features of an item. Students with learning
difficulties may have problems discriminating among items. Teachers should teach the
relevant features of items and then present similar items among which discrimination is
necessary. For example, students can learn that 12 has a 1 and 2 where the 1 can be color-
coded or made larger to emphasize the relevant feature that 1 is first in 12. The same can be
done for 21. Once students can identify each number separately, teachers can present the
numbers together for them to name. Students should be given multiple opportunities to
practice discriminating among items such as similar letters (b, d, m, w, p, q) and numbers
(6, 9, 21, 20, 102, 120), words with similar sounds (pet, pit, pig, big), symbols (+, −, ´, =),
and concepts that are similar (types of plants). For older students, discrimination learning
occurs, for instance, when they are required to identify pieces of lab equipment before
instruction begins or mathematics tools such as a compass or protractor before a geometry
lesson.

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Factual Knowledge
The ability to memorize, retain, and recall information is factual knowledge, which is
fundamental to school. Examples include math facts, vocabulary definitions, historical
events and dates, parts of speech in English or a foreign language, parts of a plant, and parts
of the brain and their functions. Students with special learning needs may have difficulties
learning factual information because of problems with encoding, retaining, and recalling
the information. They benefit from strategies that teach them how to memorize and recall
information (Swanson, Cooney, & O’Shaughnessy, 1998). Students must learn numerous
facts across the content areas so they can apply information to their learning.

Procedural Knowledge
Learning a set of steps that must be followed to complete a task involves procedural
knowledge. Examples include the steps to solve an arithmetic problem, conduct a lab
experiment, develop a historical time line, and follow a strategy to read difficult words or to
comprehend text. Students with special learning needs may have difficulty with procedural
knowledge because it requires memorization of the steps in the correct sequence and the
ability to perform each step. It may also be necessary to teach prerequisite knowledge. For
example, if students are following a series of steps to multiply 32 ´ 64, they must know the
steps and the prerequisite knowledge of 4 ´ 2, 4 ´ 3, 6 ´ 2, regroup, and 6 ´ 3. Modeling,
practice, and error correction are examples of ways to teach procedural knowledge. Cue
cards containing the steps of the procedure can also be useful for students to refer to until
they learn the steps.

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 Video case 7.1

Planning Effective Instruction

1. The teachers in the video discuss a variety of instructional practices that they find to be
useful for planning effective instruction. Why do they find these practices to be highly
effective and how do they support student learning? Do you notice similarities and
differences between the practices used by teachers at the elementary and high school levels?
2. Which types of instructional grouping arrangements are shown within the video? What
strategies do the teachers use to plan cooperative groups that promote effective instruction?
What are the similarities and differences in how grouping practices are used to support
student learning at the elementary and secondary levels?

Conceptual Knowledge
Knowledge about principles, models, and classifications entails conceptual knowledge. In
essence, concepts are categories of knowledge. They range in level of abstractness. For
instance, the concept of a table is concrete and easy for most students to understand, and it

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can be easily represented. The concept of democracy, however, is very abstract and requires
multiple examples.

Visual displays can help students understand concepts. For instance, the concept table can
be described using the categories “dimensions,” “function,” and “types of construction.”
Students can create collections of words and pictures that represent a concept. For instance,
pictures of different types of tables can be assembled, and descriptive words can be
identified to describe the concept (claw-legged table). Price and Nelson (2003) recommend
that teachers conduct a concept analysis of content to be taught prior to instruction. The
concept analysis should include the following:

Identification of the critical concepts to be taught as part of a unit or chapter

Definitions of the concepts
List of attributes or characteristics of the concepts
List of noncritical attributes that are not essential for understanding the concept
List of examples
List of “nonexamples”
List of related concepts

Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognition is often described as thinking about the strategies we use to tackle tasks. It is
knowledge about how people learn and process information or tasks, such as the nature of
the task and the processing demands on the individual. Students need to understand how
they learn and process information so they can develop a plan for accomplishing a given
learning task, monitor their comprehension when reading text, and evaluate their progress
toward the completion of a task (Pintrich, 2002).

Instructional Techniques
For students to learn information from their content instruction, information must instead
be presented in a meaningful way to aid memory (Schumaker & Deshler, 2006).
Instructional techniques that promote meaningful associations of knowledge include
clustering, elaboration, and mnemonic devices (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014; Schumaker
& Deshler, 2006).

Clustering
Clustering involves categorizing information in a meaningful way. For example, when
teaching about states, cluster the states according to the category of geographic region (New
England states, West Coast states). Students have a better chance of learning the
information when you (or they) reduce the amount of information to learn all at once and

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organize it in a meaningful way. Information can also be organized and presented in visual
displays such as semantic maps and relationship displays (Vaughn & Bos, 2011). Examples
of semantic maps and relationship displays are provided in Chapters 10 and 12.

Elaboration
Adding more details to facts to aid in memorization, retention, and recall constitutes
elaboration. According to Mastropieri and Scruggs (2009), elaboration helps students
remember information. Students can identify what they know about a topic to help them
make elaborative sentences. Take the following list of animals: giraffe, elephant, lion, and
leopard. Students might create the elaborative sentence “The giraffe and elephant fear the
lion and leopard” to help them remember it.

Mnemonic Devices
These devices are techniques for aiding memory by forming meaningful associations and
linkages across information that appears to be unrelated (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014).
Mnemonic devices help students learn content-area vocabulary, memorize lists of factual
information, and read multisyllabic words (Bryant & Bryant, 2003; Schumaker & Deshler,
2006).

The keyword method is one type of mnemonic device. It links information, such as a
word, with response information, such as the word’s definition (Schumaker & Deshler,
2006; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2009). In Chapter 12, we discuss the keyword method as a
technique to assist students in learning vocabulary meanings.

Acronyms and acrostics are mnemonic devices that aid in recalling lists of information. An
acronym is a word made from the first letters of the words to be learned. For example, the
acronym HOMES refers to the Great Lakes (Heron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and
Superior). Students must learn and remember not only the acronym, HOMES, but also
what each letter represents. An acrostic is a sentence wherein the first letters of the words
stand for the items to be remembered and their correct order. For example, the first letters
in “Every good boy deserves fudge” stand for the notes represented by the lines on a
musical staff: E, G, B, D, F.

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 Mnemonic devices are techniques for aiding memory by forming meaningful
associations and linkages across information that appears to be unrelated. How could
mnemonic devices help these students memorize the planets in the solar system?

iStock/EdStock

Critical Thinking
Critical thinking involves reasoning to learn new concepts, ideas, or problem solutions
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2014). Examples of the use of critical thinking include reasoning
about how to resolve a social issue, explaining the ending of a novel, determining how to
solve a problem, and explaining historical events and their impact on society and the world.
Students with learning needs may experience difficulties with critical thinking because they
have not been taught how to think critically, they lack the prior knowledge and
background that would help them understand issues, and their earlier instruction may have
focused more on factual and procedural knowledge.

One way to ensure instruction is responsive to the need for critical thinking is to
incorporate activities that tap domains of cognitive taxonomies that foster critical thinking
(Anderson et al., 2001; Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). Table 7.2
provides helpful information about how to do so. It identifies and describes cognitive
domains in column 1 (remembering, understanding, applying) and provides examples of
verbs relevant to each domain in column 2. These can be translated into class assignments

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(column 3) and activities (column 4). Think about how you could design a lesson by
incorporating activities addressing the various cognitive domains that promote critical
thinking. It is easier to develop critical thinking skills by drawing from the higher order
domains (numbers 3–6) on the list. However, these domains encompass knowledge taught
through the lower order domains. So, there is a place in instruction for each domain.

Types of questions.

Posing various types of questions can help students think critically about what they are
learning. Students can demonstrate their knowledge about a topic by answering convergent
questions. Convergent, lower order questions usually have one answer and start with who,
what, or when. Answers to these questions are essential to show student understanding
about a topic. Divergent, higher order questions tap critical thinking skills because they
require students to make inferences, to analyze or synthesize information, and to evaluate
content. These questions may start with What could happen . . . ? What if . . . ? What do you
think caused . . . ? Why do you think . . . ? or ask How were the characters alike and different?
and How could events be changed to affect the outcome? Critical thinking must be developed
through divergent questioning strategies and coaching. Consider how these types of
questions relate to the cognitive domains. Table 7.3 provides examples of instructional
techniques for different types of knowledge and critical thinking.

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Stages of Learning
All learners experience stages of learning as they learn new skills. As an example, think
about a young student learning how to ride a bike. She gets on the bike and starts to pedal,
perhaps at first with a parent holding on to the seat to provide support and stability.
Shakily, she peddles. As she builds confidence and learns balance, she is able to peddle on
her own. She becomes a proficient bike rider, navigating tight areas and making turns with
ease. As you read about the stages of learning, think about how this youngster learned to
ride her bike.

Knowing about your students’ stage of learning can help you plan instruction and make
adaptations to accommodate all their learning needs. Researchers have shown that
knowledge of students’ stages of learning is important for selecting appropriate instructional
interventions. For example, in two classic studies, Ayllon and Azrin (1964) and Hopkins
(1968) learned that rewards are not always effective—there had to be some level of correct
response before reinforcement could take place. In another classic study about the stages of

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learning, Smith and Lovitt (1976) found that students had to learn how to solve
computational arithmetic problems before reinforcement was effective.

Acquisition stage of learning.

In this stage, the learner may not know how to perform the skill, so the aim is for the
individual to learn to perform it accurately. After a period of instruction, some learners
demonstrate that they can perform the task or skill with 90% to 100% accuracy; at this
point, they have passed through the acquisition stage of learning. Other students, such as
those with special learning needs, may require further instruction and adaptations.

Proficiency stage of learning.

In this stage, the aim is for the learner to perform the skills fluently; the focus is on accuracy
and speed of responding. Examples of skills that should be learned proficiently are
answering basic arithmetic facts, saying the letters of the alphabet, writing letters, and
identifying instruments used in a science lab.

There are some very important reasons why proficient levels of performance are necessary
goals. If students can write the letters of the alphabet correctly but too slowly, they will not
be able to complete writing tasks in a timely manner and keep up with their peers. Writing
a report and taking a spelling test are examples of skills that require proficiency in forming
letters.

Computing basic facts accurately and quickly is another example; here, proficiency is
important for more difficult skills such as multiplying multidigit problems. Students need
to be able to perform many tasks fluently so they can work as proficiently but also as
quickly as their peers. Students should be able to perform lower-level cognitive skills
automatically so that more emphasis can be placed on those higher level skills (such as
problem solving, comprehending text, and writing reports) that extend knowledge and
learning.

Maintenance stage of learning.

The goal for the maintenance stage is for the mastered skills to remain at the same
performance level as during the proficiency stage. Retention of learning is important. For
some students with special learning needs, this is a challenging stage because they may
forget factual knowledge, rules, or procedures for solving different types of problems. When
students do not retain information at the desired levels of performance, teachers must
include in their planning instructional time for reviewing and evaluating what has been
taught to promote maintenance of learning. An example is to teach multiplying by factors
of 9 (9 × 3, 9 × 2) to mastery, such as computing 20 facts correctly in a minute, and then
building into mathematics instruction 10 minutes every Friday to review all the mastered

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multiplication facts.

Generalization stage of learning.

This stage means that the mastered skills should occur across all appropriate situations. For
many students, skills learned in the classroom do not automatically occur in other settings,
with other people, or with various materials without explicit instruction. For example, a
student may learn a strategy in English class that helps in the writing process but does not
apply the strategy in history class when asked to write a report. Another student may have
demonstrated the ability to regroup when subtracting two digits minus one digit but may
not be able to regroup when subtracting two digits minus two digits. For these students,
generalization must be taught (see the classic paper by Stokes & Baer, 1977, for more
information about teaching for generalization). In fact, some researchers (Schumaker &
Deshler, 2006) recommend that the concept of generalization be introduced to students
during the acquisition stage and specifically promoted following demonstration of skill
mastery (when students have passed a quiz, for example). A good way to promote
generalization during the acquisition stage is to ask students where they can use the new
strategy in other classes. For instance, if they are going to be taught a writing strategy in
English, they can identify other classes and situations in which they can use it.

Application stage of learning.

The application stage requires the student to use learning and extend it to new situations.
For example, students learn strategies for solving word problems. They then apply these
strategies to real-life situations in which they have to solve problems such as determining
how much money to take when going to a movie. Students need to be flexible as they apply
their learning to new situations. Table 7.4 provides examples of teaching techniques for the
stages of learning. Instructional Strategy 7.1 offers an illustration of how students progress
through the stages of learning and how teaching techniques vary accordingly.

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Instructional Components
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Research findings have identified specific instructional components that produce positive
learning outcomes for students with special learning needs (Coyne, Kame’enui, & Carnine,
2011; Swanson & Deshler, 2003). These components are based on direct instruction and
strategy instruction. Direct instruction is teacher directed and focuses on the teaching of
skills using explicit, systematic procedures such as modeling, practice opportunities, pacing,
error correction, and progress monitoring. Strategy instruction focuses on the process of
learning by using cognitive strategies (steps for facilitating the learning process) and
metacognitive (self-regulatory) cues (Wong, 1993). For example, cognitive strategies for
comprehending material from a textbook include activating background knowledge,
predicting, and paraphrasing; metacognitive strategies include asking, “Can I make
connections between my background knowledge and what I am reading?” “Were my
predictions accurate?” and “Does my paraphrase contain the most important information
and is it in my own words?”

In a major classic study on the effectiveness of interventions to teach students with learning
disabilities, Swanson et al. (1999) found using instructional components from direct and
strategic instruction were the most effective. They labeled these instructional components
as the combined model and suggested using the following instructional components when
planning instruction.

Sequencing: breaking down the task, providing step-by-step prompts

Drill-repetition-practice: daily testing of skills, repeated practice
Segmentation: breaking down skills into parts and then synthesizing the parts into a
whole
Directed questioning and responses: asking process or content questions of students
Control of task difficulty: sequencing tasks from easy to difficult, teaching
prerequisite skills
Technology: delivering instruction via computer or presentation software
Teacher-modeled problem solving: demonstrating processes or steps to solve a
problem or explaining how to do a task
Small group instruction: delivering instruction to a small group
Strategy cues: reminding students to use strategies, modeling the “think aloud”
technique
Instructional Strategy 7.1 illustrates the different stages of learning for Marcus, who
is learning how to solve word problems.

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Delivering Instruction
Here we review several instructional steps and techniques designed to help all students
access and master the curriculum. They include use of an advance organizer, presentation
of information, practice, closure, and progress monitoring.

Advance Organizer
An advance organizer consists of activities to prepare students for the lesson’s content
(Lenz & Deshler, 2004; Schumaker & Deshler, 2006). Advance organizers tell students the
purpose of the lesson (objectives), motivate students by sparking their interest, and activate
background knowledge by reviewing related information. Such a review helps students
“warm up” for the lesson, promotes active responding, and provides teachers with
information about students’ current levels of understanding before new material is
introduced. In planning advance organizers, teachers should consider their students’
background knowledge, experience, and ability with prerequisite skills for the new task, the
vocabulary to be learned, and the level of abstraction of the new learning (Price & Nelson,
2003). Examples of advance organizers include the following:

Writing the objective on the board and explaining how it will be taught.
Explaining the importance of learning the objective and asking students to provide
examples of how they can use the new information.
Providing an active technique such as role-playing, seeing a video clip, or taking a
field trip before instruction.
Having students map or tell what they know about the content to be studied.
Providing a review of related information for students to make connections.

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An advance organizer consists of activities to prepare students for the lesson’s content.
Here, students prepare for a lesson by watching an overview of the topic on a video.

AP Photo/LNP Media Group, Blaine Shahan

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INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 7.1

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 Stages of Learning
Marcus is a fifth-grade student in Mrs. Bell’s class identified as having a learning disability in mathematics.
His IEP specified annual goals in mathematics, including solving word problems. Mrs. Bell gives a
curriculum-based assessment to determine which types of word problems Marcus can solve and which types
require instruction. Assessment data show zero percent accuracy for solving two-step word problems using
whole-number computation. That is, Marcus is in the acquisition stage of learning for this skill. He can
solve one-step word problems but does not generalize his knowledge to two-step problems.

Mrs. Bell uses explicit instruction to teach Marcus a strategy for solving two-step word problems. She
discusses with him the importance of solving two-step problems, pointing out that problem solving is used
in many daily activities (promoting the occurrence of generalization). Marcus continues to build fluency
with basic facts because facts are part of the word problem calculations (proficiency stage for facts). It takes
Marcus four days to reach mastery (90% accuracy) for learning how to solve two-step word problems using
the strategy Mrs. Bell taught him. Mrs. Bell has Marcus work in a cooperative learning group with his peers
to solve one-step (maintenance stage) and two-step (generalization stage) word problems. The group works
together for a week, at which point she determines through curriculum-based assessment that the students
can solve two-step problems proficiently. Mrs. Bell then has student groups write their own problems based
on situations in the school, at home, or in the community (application stage). The groups share their
problems so that different groups solve all the problems. She plans to provide periodic reviews (maintenance
stage) of one- and two-step word problems to ensure continued mastery of the skills required for solving
them.

Presentation of Subject Matter

In this step, teachers present instructional content related to the instructional objective,
such as rules (spelling, phonics, mathematics), strategies (reading strategy, paragraph-
writing strategy), and concepts (place value, science vocabulary, health). When presenting
facts, rules, and procedures, teachers should model, or demonstrate, the correct responses
and the appropriate thinking processes by using “think aloud.” Students can imitate the
modeled responses orally, in written form, or motorically (by manipulating objects). If
students are in the acquisition stage of learning, modeling is particularly important.

Teachers can ask questions to promote discussion and engage students in the lesson. They
should ask different types of questions (what, why, how) and provide sufficient wait time (3
or 4 seconds) between asking a question and calling on a student to answer it. Asking a
question and then calling on a student by name maintains a moderate level of concern,
which is student interest in the instruction, and promotes on-task behavior, which means
students are working on the task that is assigned. Calling on a student by name first and
then asking a question allows other students to tune out, so the level of concern and on-
task time may be diminished.

Examples should be provided to illustrate new information, and nonexamples can help too.
For instance, an example of democracy is the right to vote; a nonexample of democracy is
being told who will control the government.

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Finally, teachers should keep the instruction moving along so that students remain engaged
in learning and to promote on-task behavior. Ideal pacing is demonstrated when the
amount of content does not overwhelm and frustrate students (Coyne et al., 2011).
Keeping up with other students is often a problem for students with special learning needs.
Teachers can provide them with extra practice on chunks or smaller segments of
information. For example, math facts can be chunked into segments (×6 facts, ×7 facts),
vocabulary word lists can be segmented, and the number of questions to answer can be
reduced.

Practice
We can think of practice in several ways. First, there is guided practice, which engages
students in practicing what they have learned, usually under the teacher’s direction, and
checking their understanding. There are several techniques.

Students with special learning needs benefit from multiple opportunities to practice, or
massed practice; active-participation activities can provide these opportunities. Active
participation also promotes engaged time and on-task behavior. Engaged time is the
amount of time students are actively learning. Students are making some type of response
(oral, written, constructing) or exhibiting behavior (demonstrating eye contact, paying
attention) that suggests they are paying attention, listening, and engaged. Figure 7.2
provides examples of active-participation activities for guided practice.

Checking for understanding (CFU) means periodically determining whether students are
learning the content. For instance, CFU can be conducted after subject matter is presented
or during guided practice. It is necessary to ensure that all students respond. Teachers can
use the following techniques to check for student understanding (Price & Nelson, 2003):

Present information that was taught (factual, rule, procedure) and ask students to
show, by signaling thumbs up or thumbs down, whether the information is correct.
Use response cards for students to indicate their response to the teacher’s statement
or question.
Have students show their responses using materials such as manipulatives in math.
Have students write their responses to be turned in for checking.
Have students write their responses on white boards.

Error-correction procedures should be implemented to correct mistakes and to provide

feedback, ensuring that students do not practice mistakes or learn information incorrectly.
Error-correction procedures include stopping the student if an error is made, modeling the
correct response, and having the student repeat the correct response.

Figure 7.2 Examples of Active-Participation Activities

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Questioning continues to be an important instructional technique to monitor student
comprehension of the instructional objectives. Teachers can also use the Response-
Dependent Questioning Strategy, which has remained viable for years, shown in Table 7.5,
to help students arrive at the correct answer to a question.

Independent practice is a type of practice that occurs in the classroom or as homework and
implies that students have demonstrated a good understanding of the skill (as determined
during progress monitoring) and are ready for activities that do not require direct teacher
supervision or guidance. For example, students can practice in small groups or
independently at their desks. They can also be assigned homework as another opportunity
for practice. Independent practice activities should be related directly to the instructional
objective introduced during the presentation of information, and students can be capable of
high levels of success working independently. Distributive practice, which is practice
opportunities presented over time on skills that have been taught, ensures that students
continue to get some level of practice (in the maintenance stage of learning, for example) so
their learning of new skills remains intact. Distributive practice on taught skills can be done
during independent practice and as part of homework.

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Closure
During closure, which occurs at the end of a lesson and may take only a few minutes,
teachers and students review the instructional objective, review the lesson’s activity, relate
learning to other contexts, and discuss follow-up plans. Closure activities can be brief, but
they are an important part of the lesson and need to be considered when time is allotted for
instructional planning.

Progress Monitoring
In progress monitoring, teachers must evaluate students’ understanding of the lesson and
their ability to perform the skill. We discuss progress monitoring in Chapter 8 and provide
examples of this important instructional step throughout the remaining chapters.

The instructional steps are illustrated in Instructional Strategy 7.2 with an example
regarding Ms. Mendez’s science instruction.

Table 7.6 offers questions to help teachers reflect on their practices during the steps.

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541
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 7.2

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Instructional Steps
Ms. Mendez is teaching a new unit on global warming. She spent several days one week probing her
students’ knowledge about the concept to determine what they already know from media coverage. She
determines her students’ stage of learning by assessing overall student performance on key vocabulary and
important ideas pertaining to causes and effects and solutions to problems. On the basis of her assessment
information, Ms. Mendez decides to use explicit instruction to teach key vocabulary as the beginning of her
unit on global warming.

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ADVANCE ORGANIZER
Ms. Mendez tells the students the purpose of instruction. She has them work with a partner to write down
their ideas about the meaning of global warming. After several partner pairs share their ideas, which she puts
on the chalkboard, she presents five key vocabulary words and explains that to learn more about global
warming, they must understand the meanings of these words.

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PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION
Ms. Mendez reads the list of five words and their definitions, which are presented in two columns and
projected for the entire class to see. She covers up one column (the definitions column). She reads one of
the words and asks students to state the definition. She reveals the definitions column and covers up the
other column (vocabulary words). She has a student read one of the definitions and asks another student to
state the word. Next, she uses one word in a sentence and then asks students for examples of the other
words in sentences.

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PRACTICE
Ms. Mendez has the students stand. With the list of words and definitions concealed, she says a word and
gently tosses a Koosh ball to one student, who must define the word. Having defined the word, the student
returns the Koosh ball to Ms. Mendez, who repeats this process with the remaining words and different
students. She provides error correction for any student who is unable to define the word by showing the
definition. She also uses this procedure for saying a definition and asking students to supply the word.

Next, she has students work with a partner to match the words and definitions. She gives each pair two
envelopes, one with the words and another with the definitions, for them to match. After the timer sounds,
each pair turns to a neighboring pair to share their matches.

Finally, Ms. Mendez gives the students a passage about global warming that contains the new words. She
asks them to underline the words and to explain how the words are used in the sentences.

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CLOSURE
At the end of the lesson, Ms. Mendez asks students to explain the purpose of the lesson and what they
learned. She describes the activities in the unit on global warming that the students will complete over the
next few weeks.

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PROGRESS MONITORING
Ms. Mendez gives the students a matching exercise to check their accuracy in selecting the definitions. She
also has them use the new words in sentences.

548
How Can Instructional Grouping Practices Promote Effective
Instruction?
There are a variety of instructional grouping practices, including whole group instruction,
flexible small groups, and one-to-one teaching. Peer tutoring is another grouping practice
that supports students who can benefit from more opportunities to practice their skills.
Finally, teachers have used cooperative learning structures for years to enrich practice in
student-centered instruction. Consider how to use these practices when planning and
delivering instruction.

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Instructional Grouping Practices

Whole Group Instruction

In whole group instruction, the teacher presents a lesson to the entire class. This grouping
practice works well where common instructional objectives are identified, the teacher
delivers the lesson, and students respond orally or in writing. Whole group instruction is
often chosen to teach content-area subjects, such as science, social studies, and health, and
it is common at the secondary level. Examples of activities for whole groups include direct,
explicit instruction on new information (vocabulary, rules, concepts), read-alouds, and
presentations.

Researchers have shown that whole group instruction can be effective for students of
varying abilities (Gersten, Carnine, & Woodward, 1987). It allows them to hear responses
from peers, and it also lets the teacher pace instruction to maintain academic engaged time
and work individually with students following instruction. The disadvantages include
limited error correction, which is problematic for students with special learning needs, a
pace that may be too fast for some, and the use of instructional objectives that may not be
appropriate for everyone. Teachers must be sure the objectives are appropriate for most of
the students and allocate time for those who require further individualized instruction.

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 Video case 7.2

Working in Groups

1. What instructional grouping practices do the teachers in the video suggest in order to
promote effective instruction? What practices help older and younger students to work
collaboratively in small groups or pairs? How are these practices used to support student
learning throughout the video?
2. What are the benefits of having older students assist younger students? What are the benefits
of having students of the same age work cooperatively together? Describe how both of these
effective instructional practices are used within the video.

Flexible Small Groups

Flexible small groups consist of three to five students and can include those of the same or
different abilities. The purpose varies according to instructional level and students’
individual needs.

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Same-Ability Groups
Identified through assessment, all the students in same-ability groups are performing
comparably on a particular skill and require extra or accelerated instruction. For struggling
students, extra practice on curricular objectives is often necessary. For students who are
high achieving, gifted, or talented, same-ability groups can provide enrichment activities.

Research supports the efficacy of this grouping practice. Small group instruction yields
better academic outcomes for students with disabilities than whole group instruction
(Schumm, Moody, & Vaughn, 2000; Vaughn, Hughes, Moody, & Elbaum, 2001). Its
major advantage is the opportunity to provide students with more modeling, prompting,
and error correction, and pacing better tailored to their individual needs than in whole
group instruction. The challenge is to ensure that the rest of the class is actively engaged in
meaningful tasks. Having backup tasks ready for those students who require teacher
assistance when it is not available, and for those who finish their tasks before small group
instruction concludes, can help ensure that all students are actively learning.

Students performing at varying levels both academically and socially can learn from
one another in mixed-ability groups.

iStock/CEFutcher

Mixed-Ability Groups
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This instructional grouping practice consists of students, identified through assessment,
who are performing at various levels on skills. This grouping practice can allow students to
work on projects and to make presentations. The advantage is that they can learn from each
other. Little evidence exists that mixed-ability groups adversely affect the learning of
students who are gifted and talented (Tieso, 2005).

One-to-One Teaching
In one-to-one groupings, teachers provide instruction to individual students on the basis of
their specific learning and behavioral needs. For example, a student may need prompts,
feedback, or directions to begin working on or mastering an instructional objective. A
student’s behavior may warrant individualized instruction away from other students in the
classroom. Tutorial assistance might be necessary when preparing for an exam in a content-
area class, or individualized assistance might be necessary to correct errors on a homework
assignment.

One-to-one instruction has been shown to help students avoid frustration and cope with
instructional demands. The advantage is that individual students receive assistance that
promotes their learning. On the other hand, teachers must plan tasks so other students are
engaged as well. Furthermore, one-to-one instruction may not be easy to achieve in general
education classrooms because of the number of students and time constraints.

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Peer Tutoring
Peer tutoring is an instructional grouping practice wherein pairs of students work on
assigned skills, usually for extra practice. Peer tutoring models that have remained viable
instructional grouping practices include Classwide Peer Tutoring (Delquadri, Greenwood,
Whorton, Carta, & Hall, 1986) and Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS; Fuchs,
Fuchs, Mathes, & Simmons, 1997). Research on peer tutoring models has shown that peer
tutoring can improve the academic achievement of tutees as well as increase the amount of
time students spend on school tasks (Heron, Villareal, Yao, Christianson, & Heron, 2006).
Based on years of research, peer tutoring has been shown to increase active student
involvement and students’ opportunities to respond, review, and practice skills and
concepts.

In peer tutoring, there is a tutor-tutee relationship, which consists of instruction and

feedback to provide efficient teaching to students with disabilities and students who are at
risk for academic difficulties (Heron et al., 2006). In reading, for example, a higher
performing peer can be paired with a student who is reading at a somewhat lower level and
needs additional instructional support. The partners take turns serving as reading coach and
reader. The reading coach reads the designated reading passage for a short time period; the
reader then reads the same passage for the same time period. The partners provide error
correction as needed and praise for good reading. Often this passage reading is followed by
comprehension questions. These same procedures can be applied in mathematics,
vocabulary development, and spelling.

The advantages of this grouping practice include the opportunity for students to develop
academic skills, form cooperative relationships, and gain extra instructional support for
learning and behavioral problems. Among the challenges are allocating time to teach tutors
their role responsibilities, matching students appropriately, monitoring the pairs, and
assessing progress. Moreover, there is a group of students with disabilities who do not
necessarily benefit from the peer tutoring model in reading (McMaster, Fuchs, & Fuchs,
2006). Students whose reading skills are significantly lower than the rest of the class likely
will require explicit, systematic instruction.

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Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning allows mixed-ability small groups to focus on academic and social
skills. According to some of the pioneer researchers on cooperative learning, the purposes of
this type of learning are for students to work collaboratively to achieve common academic
and social goals and to be accountable to the team for their individual efforts (Johnson,
Johnson, & Holubec, 1994).

Extensive research on cooperative learning has been conducted in various academic areas
(mathematics, reading, social studies) with students who have disabilities, students who are
typically achieving, and students who come from diverse backgrounds. In most cases, a
classic review of the research literature showed that students tend to derive academic and
social skills benefits from this instructional arrangement (Slavin, 1991).

Several models of cooperative learning are popular in classrooms. The techniques share
similar characteristics: group academic and social goals, arrangement of heterogeneous
student groups, task structure, cooperation, and individual and group accountability. Table
7.7 provides information about cooperative learning models.

Differentiate Your Grouping

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556
In preparing for cooperative learning, consider the following questions:

What are the academic and social skills objectives?

What task or activity structure can be used to teach the objectives?
How can the elements of cooperative learning be promoted?
How will student groups be formed?
What environmental factors must be considered?
What management techniques will be used?
What is the teacher’s role during group activities?
How will individual and group progress with instructional objectives be monitored?
What difficulties might students with special needs encounter in cooperative learning
groups?

Findings from the review of the research literature identified advantages of cooperative
learning. First, there are opportunities for students to work together toward common goals,
thus necessitating some degree of collaborative behavior. Second, group work requires
verbal interactions, creating opportunities to develop language skills. Third, cooperative
learning means students, rather than teachers, are responsible for solving problems. Fourth,
it promotes social interactions and peer acceptance (Slavin, 1991).

Cooperative learning activities require extensive planning and preparation. Teachers must
ensure that all students—regardless of their group assignment—participate fully. The bulk

557
of the work should not fall on the shoulders of only a few students. Finally, teachers must
be sure students are capable of performing instructional objectives successfully with group
members and individually. The Working Together feature shows how professionals can
collaborate to determine how to differentiate content, instructional approach, grouping,
and materials for students who are having difficulties—in this case, during a mathematics
lesson.

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WORKING together

559
Collaborating to Differentiate Instruction
Mrs. Bell is teaching her fifth-grade students different ways to represent fractions and wants them to
compare and order fractions according to fractional parts. She provides a review of different fractions and
key vocabulary. Mr. Rivera, the math specialist, has encouraged the classroom teachers to provide students
with number lines and fraction strips to represent fractional parts, so Mrs. Bell has incorporated these into
her instructional practice. She has the students work in small, mixed-ability groups to compare and order
fractions before they apply this factual knowledge to problem solving. Ms. Chavez, the special education
inclusion teacher, works with the students with mathematics learning disabilities to provide more
specialized instruction on fractions. As Mrs. Bell circulates among the small groups, she listens to group
discussions and notices that several students seem confused. She sits with them and asks questions to check
their understanding of the assignment, the vocabulary, and the use of the number lines and fractions strips
for comparing and ordering fractions. She decides to model the procedure once more and watches students
complete the next example; she also provides error correction as needed. She instructs the students to
complete the next few problems as she circulates among the other groups and makes notes about student
progress in her assessment notebook. During the fifth-grade teachers’ planning period, Mrs. Bell, the other
two fifth-grade teachers, Mr. Rivera, and Ms. Chavez discuss the progress monitoring data from the
fractions lessons. They discuss how Mr. Rivera and Ms. Chavez can help students who are struggling during
mathematics instruction and support the teachers. Having Ms. Chavez working with struggling students in
small groups and Mr. Rivera providing tips for effective instruction on fractions are viewed by the fifth-
grade teachers as effective collaborative practices for now. The teachers have agreed to stagger their math
instruction time so that Ms. Chavez can work in all of the classes.

560
Promoting Effective Grouping

561
Questions to Consider
1. How can Mr. Rivera help Mrs. Bell better understand the difficulties struggling students are having
learning fractions?
2. What cooperative learning model can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Chavez use to maximize Ms. Chavez’s
support of struggling students?
3. How can Mr. Rivera and Mrs. Bell team-teach a lesson on fractions?

562
What Guidelines Should Be Followed for Textbooks and
Instructional Materials?

563
Textbooks
Basals are textbooks usually adopted by school districts to serve as a primary source for
subject-area content. They are a good source of instructional content but often raise
challenges for struggling students:

The reading level of the textbook probably exceeds the ability of the student with
reading difficulties. For students to benefit from reading a textbook, the material
should be at their instructional reading level, the level at which they have 90% to
94% word recognition and 90% to 100% comprehension.
The organization or structure of the text content may be hard for students with
reading difficulties to follow. The text may lack, or the student may not be familiar
with, key words that signal different types of text organization (cause/effect,
compare/contrast). Recognizing how text content is organized helps readers
comprehend the material.
Basals usually do not include enough direct, explicit instruction to help struggling
students learn content. For example, there may not be sufficient practice
opportunities or examples.

In Chapter 10, we provide additional information about textbooks for students with
reading difficulties. In Chapter 12, we offer suggestions for selecting and using content-area
textbooks with struggling readers, especially at the secondary level.

564
Instructional Materials
Guidelines for selecting and using instructional materials should address (a) the student and
(b) the content and methodology.

Student
What are the student’s present levels of educational performance?
Can the instructional material be used to meet IEP goals?
Does the student seem to be motivated to accomplish tasks and under what
conditions?
Does the student remain focused and persist with tasks? When does the student
appear to lose focus and persistence?

Teachers can consult the IEP to identify a student’s reading level as they make decisions
about the need to adapt instructional materials that require the ability to read. They can
also identify a student’s reading level by conducting an informal reading inventory,
discussed in Chapter 8. Finally, it’s important to determine a student’s interest in content
and materials and identify where in the learning process the student stops trying.
Motivation is a key ingredient of successful learning, and knowing their students’ level of
persistence helps teachers understand learners’ needs more fully.

Instructional Content and Methodology

Is the content age-appropriate?
Does the content address state standards and core curriculum?
Does the instructional material specify a sequence of skills?
Is information about teaching strategies included?
Are there sufficient opportunities for practicing new skills?
Are generalization and maintenance activities included?

Age-appropriateness of instructional materials is a primary concern in the selection process.

For example, high-interest/controlled vocabulary materials can be used with older students
who have limited reading vocabularies. These materials focus on topics that appeal to older
students, such as current events, sports, and entertainment personalities, yet are written
with grade-specific vocabulary to take into account limited word recognition and reading
abilities. Equally important is the relationship between the materials and the curricular
expectations from the school district and state. Teachers are held highly accountable
through state assessments to teach the content on which students will be assessed, so
materials selected for instruction must reflect this content, which has been specified as
appropriate for all students.

565
Teachers can adopt a sequence for teaching skills and then be sure the instructional
materials match this sequence. For example, if math instruction focuses on addition facts (6
+ 9, 7 + 3), then the instructional material should include problems that match this skill.
Subtraction math facts should not be included. The next skill in the sequence may include
subtraction math facts and materials that focus on these types of problems.

Instructional materials might include review activities (for maintenance), teaching

strategies, practice opportunities, and enrichment activities (for generalization purposes).
Teachers must examine the materials to determine how the instructional material can best
be used in a lesson and what adaptations are needed, if any.

Very often, teachers need to modify instructional materials to meet an individual learner’s
needs. Some instructional materials offer suggestions, such as extension exercises or
alternative methodologies. Other adaptations might include adding more practice options,
using only portions of the material, rewording complex directions, and breaking
instructional components down into smaller instructional activities.

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Adaptations for Curricular Materials
Textbooks and instructional materials are important components of instruction and must
be selected wisely. Textbooks may be assigned to teachers, but those teachers must still
analyze them critically to see what difficulties students might encounter when reading the
material. Instructional materials are used when concepts are first presented, during guided
practice, and as part of independent practice activities. For example, students can use math
manipulatives as part of place value instruction, complete reading comprehension sheets
during independent seatwork, or use a scale as part of a cooperative learning activity on
measurement. These materials must also be chosen carefully to augment instruction. Table
7.8 provides examples of ways to adapt instructional materials.

567
What Are Assistive Technology Devices and Services for
Promoting Access to the General Education Curriculum?
Advances in technology have benefited most of society, but it could be argued that for
people with disabilities, technology has provided a means to an end, which is
independence. Assistive technology (AT) allows students access to the curriculum in
inclusive settings and environments at school. By focusing on an individual’s functional
capability, it promotes independence for students with disabilities by enabling them to
communicate and socialize with their peers; participate across settings such as the
playground, classroom, cafeteria, and library; and demonstrate their learning of the
curriculum. Functional capability refers to those abilities—such as vision, hearing,
communication, mobility, cognition, and motor control—that are used to help individuals
compensate for struggles that are disability related. For example, an individual who has
good hearing but is blind might want to read a chapter in a textbook. Listening to the
chapter in an electronic book provides access to that material. When selecting AT devices,
we focus on strengths to select devices that help individuals access their environments.

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Assistive Technology Devices
An assistive technology device is the unit itself, which can be an item (a Hoover cane to
help a person who is blind with mobility), a piece of equipment (a motorized wheelchair to
help an individual with physical disabilities move about), or a product system (a computer
with speech output software that reads the text on the screen). The intent is to promote
access and independence for individuals with disabilities by enhancing their functioning.
Therefore, an assistive technology device is anything bought or made that helps a person
with a disability accomplish tasks that would otherwise be difficult or impossible (Bryant &
Bryant, 2003).

AT devices can be viewed along a continuum from low-tech to high-tech. Most of us

identify as “high-tech” those devices that are usually electronic. Computers with their
multiple capabilities, talking calculators, electronic books, screen reader and voice
recognition software, and powered wheelchairs fall at the “high-tech” end of the
continuum. Grips for pencils, different font sizes for text, a grab bar in the shower, and a
magnifier are at the “low-tech” end. Thus, for a student who has a mathematics learning
disability (LD), a calculator may be identified in the IEP as an AT device to help the
student compute basic facts when solving word problems. For students who do not have a
math LD and who use calculators to check their arithmetic, the calculator is an
instructional material rather than an AT device.

Assistive technology service was defined by the Tech Act as “any service that directly
assists an individual with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use of an assistive
technology device” (Assistive Technology Act of 2004). Services include the following:

Purchasing and/or leasing AT

Selecting, designing, and fitting AT
Coordinating and using other therapies or interventions
Training or providing technical assistance for an individual with disabilities or the
family
Training or providing technical assistance for a professional

How are the terms assistive technology device and assistive technology service related? The
answer is simply that they go together. A device of some sort (such as a wheelchair, a
computer, a Braille text, or an FM listening system) may be necessary for a person with a
disability to meet challenges related to impaired mobility, cognitive function, or sensory
function. But the services associated with such assistive technology devices must also be
carefully considered. How will the device be purchased? Who will assess whether the device
and the person are a good match? Who will train the student to utilize the device properly?
How will teachers, other professionals, family members, and others with whom the AT user
interacts learn how to provide personal and educational supports, in and out of the

569
classroom? And how will these people and their services be coordinated? These questions
must be answered successfully for devices and services to be effective.

Importance of Assistive Technology

For more information about assistive technology devices and services to support students’
special learning needs, refer to http://www.closingthegap.com. Tech Notes, below, provides
information about Dragon Dictate, which is voice recognition software and will be used by
Mrs. Bell to help Paul write in his electronic reading journal.

We can group AT devices into categories that reflect their purpose and function. These
categories include positioning and seating, mobility, communication, adaptive toys and
games, adaptive environments, computer use, and instructional aids (Bryant & Bryant,
2003).

Positioning and seating devices encourage the best posture and seating arrangement for a
particular function and time period. Students might move from one place to another using
a wheelchair, sit during conversation and instruction, and have help while eating. Physical
and occupational therapists are key professionals who work with positioning.

Mobility is the act of movement. When most people think of mobility AT devices, they
think of wheelchairs, but mobility devices also include scooter boards, vehicular
modifications, and white canes. Rehabilitation engineers, physical therapists, and
orientation and mobility specialists are important team members with whom to discuss
mobility issues.

Communication devices help people compensate for expressive language (speaking)

difficulties by focusing on their capabilities to understand language and to convey their
thoughts, ideas, and needs. Augmentative and alternative communication (aug com)
devices are included in the communication category. Aug com devices can supplement
vocalizations when speech is not understood by a particular communication partner and
can provide a way for an individual to speak. The speech/language pathologist is a key
member of the IEP team when aug com decisions are to be made.

Adaptive toys and games (recreation) give children with disabilities an opportunity to play
with toys and games to help them develop cognitive skills and to socialize with their peers.
They might include devices with a sound so children who are blind can discriminate among
them. Game board markers might have large tops so children with motor problems can
grasp and hold them. Early childhood specialists work with assistive technologists and
occupational therapists to design features that enable all students to interact with toys and

570
games.

Adaptive environments (control of the environment) are devices and approaches that enable
a person to manipulate the environment to allow for daily living, working, schooling,
playing, and so forth. For instance, remote control units can be used to turn lights on and
off, respond to the doorbell, open doors, or turn a computer on and off in the home,
school, or workplace. In the classroom, something as simple as widening aisles can enhance
mobility for a student who uses a motorized wheelchair. Other adaptive environment
devices include curb cuts; Braille words for restroom, elevator, and room numbers; grab
bars in showers; and automatic door openers. Occupational therapists help make decisions
about ways to adapt the environment.

Computer access devices include keyboard overlays (templates that lie on the keyboard to
define the key space for responding), pointers, and screen reader and voice recognition
software. For example, by using voice recognition software, a student whose upper body
control is limited but whose speech is a “functional capability” can speak into a microphone
and tell the computer what functions to employ. For people who are blind and whose
hearing is a “functional capability,” alternative output devices for computer use, such as
screen reader software, are necessary. Screen reader software reads the text displayed on the
computer screen. Educators, occupational therapists, and rehabilitation specialists typically
assist with computer access.

Finally, instructional aids provide access to the curriculum, instruction, and instructional
materials. Access to information can come via a screen reader program that allows access to
the World Wide Web for research for a student who is blind, and remediation can come
from math or reading instructional software.

Instructional software can provide students with extra practice on academic and problem-
solving skills. However, students must continue to receive instruction from the classroom
teacher.

Figure 7.3 provides guidelines for evaluating and selecting instructional apps and software.

Figure 7.3 Guidelines for Software and Apps Evaluation and Selection

Source: Adapted from Bryant (2015).

571
 Source: Adapted from Bryant (2015).

Classroom teachers can work with assistive technologists and special education teachers to

572
decide which instructional aids are most suitable to help students with disabilities access the
curriculum (Bryant & Bryant, 2003). Table 7.9 provides examples of AT devices students
with disabilities can use, in accordance with their IEPs, to access and benefit from
instruction and function successfully in various environments.

AT devices will be necessary to help Paul, Mrs. Bell’s student with cerebral palsy, benefit

573
from instruction. She decides to use the ADAPT framework to make adjustments to a
reading comprehension activity, which involves writing, for Paul.

574
TECH notes

575
Dragon Dictate
Dragon Dictate is a voice input and voice output program for Mac users. Individuals with upper extremity
or vision disabilities, LD, or spinal cord injury are the target groups for this software. It provides a hands-
free operation, so individuals can speak naturally and control applications with voice commands to move
the cursor or click on the screen. The software was designed to enable writing, editing, and proofreading
capabilities. It includes recognition training so that the software can learn how the user speaks and comes
with a USB headset microphone and Bluetooth wireless capabilities (manufacturer: Nuance
Communications, Inc., http://www.nuance.com).

576
Assistive Technology Services
According to the Assistive Technology Act of 2004, several AT services must be provided to
ensure that devices are properly identified and used. For example, the selection of
appropriate AT devices based on an evaluation of the individual is an important service.
Assistive technologists, diagnosticians, audiologists, occupational therapists,
speech/language pathologists, and special and general education classroom teachers may
participate in an AT evaluation of a student, depending on the student’s needs. Each
professional contributes information about how the student is performing in relation to
academics, communication, motor development, vision, or hearing. One evaluation
example is the Functional Evaluation for Assistive Technology (Raskind & Bryant, 2002),
which enables professionals to rate the performance of a student on listening, speaking,
academics, memory, organization, motor tasks, and behavior. Each discipline (such as
occupational therapy, speech/language, and audiology) has its own criteria for evaluating
student performance.

For example, when AT is being considered during an IEP meeting for a student with an
identified reading disability, the AT technologist works with classroom teachers to
determine reading strengths and areas of difficulty when completing classroom activities.
Classroom teachers may be asked specific questions about reading requirements in the
classroom and about the student’s performance on these tasks. The AT technologist
consults a speech/language pathologist if language difficulties are also noted. Together,
professionals can make decisions about devices that can help the student with reading tasks.
The evaluation process is ongoing; changes may occur in a student’s environment or
setting, strengths and struggles, and maturity (Bryant & Bryant, 2003; Raskind & Bryant,
2002).

Training is another example of an AT service (Rieth, Colburn, & Bryant, 2004). Training
on AT devices should be provided to the students or users of the devices, their families, and
professionals such as classroom teachers, speech/language pathologists, and occupational
therapists. Professionals must be trained to know how devices work, how to integrate them
when working with students, how to troubleshoot if a device malfunctions, and how to
evaluate students to make an appropriate match between device and needs. Training must
be an ongoing priority to ensure that both users and professionals remain informed. It is
conducted in teacher preparation programs and as a part of ongoing inservice training
(Rieth et al., 2004). Paraprofessionals too must become competent in the use of AT devices
to work effectively with their students who rely on them.

Finally, because devices can often go home with students, family members must know how
to use them properly. If electronic devices prove overwhelming, more training may be
required for successful implementation (Lemons, 2000).

577
It is crucial to include families in selecting AT devices and to listen to their viewpoints
(Bryant & Bryant, 1998). Team members must consider family viewpoints about disability
and how services that are intended to be helpful may be interpreted. The family’s
experience and comfort level with technology are very important, especially if they are
helping their child use the technology at home. Finally, family members should know what
outcomes educators hope to achieve by having the student use a particular AT device.
These outcomes should reflect the family’s interest and values in promoting their child’s
independence.

578
ADAPT in action

579
ADAPT framework: READING, WRITING, AND
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY

580
Assistive Technology Integration
As teachers design instruction, they can think about the curriculum and objectives students
will be taught and the way instruction will be delivered (using grouping, modeling, guided
practice). They must also consider the strengths and needs of their students with IEPs and
how AT devices can promote their active participation in lessons (Bryant & Bryant, 2003;
Rieth et al., 2004). Finally, they should also consider the environmental requirements for
the devices, such as whether they produce potentially distracting sound or require
electricity. Students may be able to use headphones with devices such as talking calculators,
speech output, and tape recorders. The location of electrical outlets will dictate where
devices that require electricity can be set up. Other devices may require batteries, often
preferable when mobile environments are part of the setting.

During instruction, teachers should monitor how easy it is to use the device and whether
further training is required. Teachers should monitor their students’ ability to keep pace
with their peers in completing the tasks. Practice with the nuances of the device may be
necessary so students can achieve the maximum benefits from using it.

Finally, teachers should not overlook the fatigue factor when using the device. Some
devices, such as keyboarding with computers, may be tiring and hinder productivity.
Evaluating the effectiveness of integrating assistive technology requires the input of
professionals, family members, and students. We now consider using the principles,
guidelines, and checkpoints of UDL in a lesson as another example of how teachers can
make the curriculum accessible for all learners in an RTI model.

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UDL in action

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Universal Design for Learning Lesson
Note: This UDL-based lesson was developed, in part, using an adapted version of the CAST UDL Lesson
Builder (http://udlexchange.cast.org/home).

Title: World War I

Subject: Social Studies: American History
Unit Description: This lesson is part of a group of lessons that focus on World War.
Unit Goals: The purpose of this unit is to understand the sociopolitical issues and causes of World
War I.
Lesson Goals: The purpose of this lesson is to provide background about the events that led to
World War I through the perspective of the U.S. presidents in power at the time.
Methods: Advance Organizer: Tell the student(s) that the purpose of the day’s lesson is to help
them become familiar with events that led to World War I. A video from a special series about the
Roosevelts will be used to address perspectives about the war from U.S. presidents in power at the
time (http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-roosevelts).

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Introduce and Model New Knowledge:
1. Show a clip of President Theodore Roosevelt that portrays his perspectives surrounding world
events that eventually caused the United States to enter World War I (Checkpoint 5.1—Use multiple
media for communication). Give students questions to answer following the clip to check their
understanding of the video’s content. Have students share their responses with a partner (Checkpoint
8.3—Foster collaboration and community).
2. Give each pair of students an opportunity to share one idea from the video. Return to sections of
the video that support these ideas (Checkpoint 3.3—Guide information processing, visualization, and
manipulation).

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Provide Guided Practice:
1. Have students work in cooperative learning groups to read information from their social studies text
on the causes of World War I by relating this content to the video clip.
2. Have student groups create a graphic organizer of the causes of World War I (Checkpoint 3.2
—Highlight patterns, critical features, big ideas, and relationships; Checkpoints 3.3 and 8.3).
3. Have a representative from each group display their graphic organizer to the whole class and explain
the group’s thinking (Checkpoint 5.1—Use multiple media for communication).

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Provide Independent Practice:
1. At the end of the lesson, have students answer a set of questions about the causes of World War I.

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Summary
Access to the general education curriculum is critical for all students. Differentiating
instruction to meet the special learning needs of students helps to ensure that students
benefit from instruction and learn the curriculum. UDL is an effective way to promote
access and differentiation for all students through the principles, guidelines, and
checkpoints. The ADAPT framework is a tool that can help teachers differentiate
instruction that is responsive to the individual needs of students. As teachers plan, deliver,
and evaluate instruction, they can identify effective practices from the adaptations
categories (instructional activity, content, delivery, and materials) to address specific
student learning needs. We know that adaptations should be individualized to the learner,
relevant to the curriculum, and effective in order to improve learning outcomes. We know
a great deal about what constitutes effective instructional practices for students with special
needs. These practices focus on planning and delivering instruction, teaching different
types of knowledge, and employing techniques that take the stage of learning into account.
Grouping practices such as whole group and small group instruction are a critical
component of effective instruction. As part of quality instruction, teachers adapt
instructional materials to accommodate learning needs. Finally, assistive technology devices
and services hold great promise in helping students with disabilities be active, independent
participants in the educational setting.

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Review the Learning Objectives
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot talk
through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

What is universal design for learning?

UDL is a means for differentiating instruction for all students, including learners
with disabilities. The principles, guidelines, and checkpoints of UDL provide ways to
remove or minimize barriers to learning and promoting accessibility to curricula and
pedagogy, or teaching practices, for all learners, including students with and without
disabilities and English language learners. The goal is to foster the development of
learners to achieve mastery of the curricula within a flexible environment that features
various ways content can be conveyed to account for individual differences.
What is the ADAPT framework?

The ADAPT framework consists of questions that relate to the ADAPT mnemonic:
Ask, “What am I requiring the student to do?”
Determine the prerequisite skills of the task.
Analyze the student’s strengths and struggles.
Propose and implement adaptations from among the four categories.
Test to determine if the adaptations helped the student accomplish the task.

There are four categories of adaptations: instructional activity, instructional content,

instructional delivery, and instructional materials.
What are effective instructional practices?

Effective instructional practices include planning for and delivering instruction. In

the course of planning, teachers consider types of knowledge (discrimination, factual,
rules, procedural, conceptual, or metacognitive) and critical thinking; types of
questions; stage of learning (acquisition, proficiency, maintenance, generalization, or
application); and instructional components of direct, explicit instruction and strategy
instruction. In delivering instruction, teachers should include the following
instructional steps and techniques: an advance organizer, presentation of information,
practice, independent practice, closure, and progress monitoring.
How can instructional grouping practices promote effective instruction?

Grouping practices include whole group, flexible, small group, and one-to-one
grouping structures. Other effective grouping practices include peer tutoring and
cooperative learning. The whole group format works well where common
instructional objectives are identified, the teacher delivers the lesson, and students
respond orally or in writing. Flexible, small groups include same-ability groups and

588
mixed-ability groups. Teachers use same-ability groups to provide extra instruction
and support to those students who are most in need of additional assistance. Mixed-
ability groups can be used for students to work on projects and to make
presentations. One-to-one instruction enables teachers to tailor instruction to
individual students and their specific learning and behavioral needs. In tutoring via
peer partners, pairs of students can work on assigned skills, usually for extra practice.
What guidelines should be followed for textbooks and instructional materials?

For textbooks and instructional materials, consider the student and the instructional
content and methodology. Regarding the student, identify the student’s present levels
of educational performance when selecting materials, and consider whether the
material can be used to meet IEP goals. Regarding content and methodology, decide
whether the material is age-appropriate. Determine whether it includes a sequence of
skills and teaching strategies. Ensure that there are sufficient opportunities to practice
new skills and that generalization and maintenance activities are included.
What are assistive technology devices and services for promoting access to the
general education curriculum?

An assistive technology device is anything that is bought or made that helps a person
with a disability accomplish tasks that would otherwise be difficult or impossible. AT
devices can be grouped into categories, including positioning and seating, mobility,
communication, adaptive toys and games, adaptive environments, computer use, and
instructional aids.

Assistive technology services are those activities that ensure adoption and
maintenance of appropriate devices. One such service is evaluating the functional
capabilities and struggles of individuals with disabilities to aid in the selection of
appropriate devices to promote access and independence. Another service is the
training of professionals, paraprofessionals, families, and users. Training should
include how devices work, how to integrate devices into settings, how to troubleshoot
if a device malfunctions, and how to evaluate students to determine an appropriate
match between device and needs.

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589
REVISIT THE OPENING CHALLENGE
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. How can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Mendez implement the principles of universal design for
learning into their instructional practices?
2. How can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Mendez use the ADAPT framework to differentiate
instruction for their students?
3. How can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Mendez differentiate instruction for their multicultural
and ELL students?
4. What instructional and grouping practices might help them provide effective,
differentiated instruction for their students?
5. How can Mrs. Bell and Ms. Mendez ensure that the textbooks and instructional
materials they use are appropriate for all of their students?
6. How can assistive technology help Mrs. Bell’s students with disabilities access the
general education curriculum?

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Key Terms
access to the general education curriculum, 258
active process assessment, 265
assistive technology device, 297
assistive technology service, 297
augmentative and alternative communication (aug com), 298
basals, 293
checking for understanding, 282
concepts, 271
convergent, lower order questions, 273
cooperative learning, 289
core curriculum, 265
differentiating instruction, 258
distributive practice, 284
divergent higher order questions, 275
elementary grades, 257
engaged time, 282
functional capability, 295
graphic organizers (gos), 268
guided practice, 267
independent practice, 283
instructional reading level, 293
keyword method, 272
level of concern, 281
massed practice, 282
mixed-ability groups, 288
multiple means of action and expression, 260
multiple means of engagement, 260
multiple means of representation, 260
on-task behavior, 281
pedagogy, 259
peer tutoring, 288
progress monitoring, 284
same-ability groups, 287
strategy instruction, 279
universal design for learning (UDL), 258

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591
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

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CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 2: Learning Environments
Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge
Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies
Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Standard 7: Collaboration

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INTASC Core Principles
Standard 4: Content Knowledge
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction
Standard 8: Instructional Strategies

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Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
II. Legal and Societal Issues: Historical movements/trends
III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities: Background knowledge

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

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596
8 Assessment and Data-Based Decision Making

AP Photo/The Patriot-News, John C. Whitehead

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Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

Why do we assess students?

How do we assess students with special needs?
How do we adapt and modify assessments for students with special needs?

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OPENING challenge

599
Determining What Students Know
Elementary Grades Ms. Thompson is a third-year, fourth-grade teacher. One of her students, Kim, excels
as a reader but has difficulties in mathematics. She barely passed her third-grade high-stakes mathematics
test, but in the fourth grade she is experiencing difficulty with more advanced skills and concepts. She is a
hard worker but has difficulty with basic computation and struggles with mathematics vocabulary. Now
that she is working on fractions and algebra readiness skills and concepts, she gets easily confused and
frustrated. Ms. Thompson met with the school’s Response to Intervention (RTI) teacher, Mr. Peters, to
discuss Kim’s progress. At the start of the school year, Kim met the district benchmark for mathematics on
the beginning-of-year universal screener, but only by one point. Mr. Peters administered the middle-of-year
test and Kim failed to meet the benchmark. As a result, Mr. Peters provided supplemental instruction, as
Ms. Thompson continued to provide Kim with core mathematics instruction from the district-adopted
basal textbook.

After 10 weeks, Kim continued to struggle and again failed to meet the benchmark to exit the program.
Rather than having Kim undergo another round of supplemental instruction, Mr. Peters and Ms.
Thompson decided to refer Kim for a special education evaluation to determine whether she has a
mathematics learning disability (MLD). A variety of tests were administered, as dictated by district policy.
Her standardized mathematics tests showed that Kim was performing very poorly compared with her peers;
other test scores in reading and writing were above average when compared with those of her classmates.
Based on the accumulated evidence, it was determined that Kim did have MLD, and she is now receiving
special education support in her inclusion classroom with Ms. Thompson.

Secondary Grades Mr. Gomez has been teaching for four years. His state has recently revamped its state
standards and high-stakes tests. Mr. Gomez’s students will be taking the test in the spring to determine
whether they will move on to Grade 7.

Mr. Gomez has a diverse classroom, and the achievement levels range from very low to very high. He is
confident that some of his students could take the test now and do quite well. Others in his classroom are so
low-achieving that he questions whether he can teach them the skills they need to pass. He has decided to
implement progress monitoring for his entire class. He will collect data on his students’ progress in reading,
math, and science, the three areas being assessed in the spring. He will tailor his instruction to their needs
and monitor their achievement throughout the school year.

Two students in particular concern Mr. Gomez. “Sonya is new to the school and has serious reading problems.
She is unable to decode words and has very little comprehension of written materials. Dondra, my other
challenging student, has attention issues. She is very bright and capable but has difficulty paying attention and
sitting still.”

Although Mr. Gomez has worked with students who have attention problems, he indicated the following:
“None of my former students compare to Dondra. Her condition is exacerbated by muscle control issues. She has
fine motor problems that cause her to struggle when she has to grasp, pick up, or use small objects.”

Reflection Questions In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. How could Ms. Thompson set up a progress monitoring procedure?

2. How could she set goals and chart her students’ progress?
3. How can Mr. Gomez teach Sonya science and test her abilities when she cannot read?
4. What measures are available to identify Dondra’s attentional difficulties and Kim’s mathematics
struggles?
5. How can assessments be used to identify student strengths and struggles?

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In education, assessment is any method by which teachers and other professionals gain
information about students. Students can be assessed to measure academic performance,
intelligence level, behavior tendencies, or emotional stability. Often, people equate
assessment with testing. Tests are one form of assessment but not the only one (Taylor,
2008). When working with students who have special needs, teachers use a variety of
techniques, including but not limited to testing, to gain information about their work and
abilities.

Teachers gather assessment information every time they watch children and adolescents do
things such as play together or complete an assignment. In assessment terminology, this
“watching” is called conducting observation, and it includes not only watching students do
something but also thinking about what they are doing, why they are doing it, and what
the “doing” means to the students and those around them. Teachers’ observations occur
over time and are ongoing, which makes them a valuable tool for recording behavioral or
academic changes (Bryant et al., in press; Flower, McKenna, Muething, Bryant, & Bryant,
2013). Teachers can also gain information by questioning the student, the student’s other
teacher(s), and the student’s parents or classmates, through interviews or a questionnaire or
survey. Assessments help teachers gain valuable information, but only if the results are valid
—that is, only if they truly represent the abilities of the students being assessed.

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Why Do We Assess Students?

602
Purposes of Assessment
There are several reasons why we assess students with special needs. Here we discuss a few
key purposes.

Identifying Strengths and Weaknesses

A major purpose of assessment across various areas like reading, writing, mathematics, and
classroom behavior is to gather information about what a student with special needs can do
well (strengths) and what he or she struggles with (weaknesses). For example, Sonya, in Mr.
Gomez’s class, has difficulty reading, and Dondra has attentional issues. Often, teachers use
assessments called diagnostic measures, not because these measures, in and of themselves,
diagnose a particular condition, but because they assess a student across a variety of skill
areas. Those areas can be within a construct (for instance, several different reading skills), or
they can be more global (reading, writing, and mathematics).

Early Childhood Assessment

When teachers make comparisons among an individual student’s abilities, they are
performing an intraindividual comparison. These comparisons are important because they
enable us to identify what needs to be worked on to help improve any problem areas that
might be discovered.

Determining Relative Standing

In contrast to making intraindividual comparisons, teachers can compare a student’s
performance with that of others. In this case, the teachers are making interindividual
comparisons. Many school districts administer an achievement test in the spring of each
year. This test—perhaps the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, the Stanford Achievement Test, or some
similar test—measures students’ skills, such as reading, math, and writing. Professionals at
the test publishing company, where the tests are scored, assign normative scores that reflect
each student’s standing relative to that of other students across the country (that is, a
national average) and/or to those within the school district (a district average). Sometime a
month or two thereafter, the school is sent the test results. Those results, along with a
booklet explaining what they mean, are shared with parents, and the results are placed in
each student’s cumulative folder, the school’s record of each student’s academic activity.
District superintendents and principals also use the test scores to identify how the schools
within the district compare with one another and how a particular district compares with

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others across the country.

Informing Instruction
One of the first questions teachers should ask when reviewing assessment results is, “What
does the assessment tell me about what I should be teaching my student?” This is an
example of using assessment data to inform instruction or guide instructional efforts.

For example, when administering a reading test to Sonya, whether it is a standardized test
or an informal reading inventory, Mr. Gomez can observe how Sonya responds to different
text features. He may conduct a miscue or error analysis to see what words she misses as she
reads and to make judgments about her word identification skills. If Sonya continuously
leaves off suffixes or inflectional endings, those skills could be targeted for instruction. If
she can correctly respond to literal comprehension questions but misses a sizable proportion
of inferential questions, Mr. Gomez may decide to focus reading instruction on making
inferences.

Determining Program Eligibility

In some cases, assessment data are used to identify exceptionalities (such as intellectual and
developmental disabilities, learning disabilities, emotional or behavioral disorders, and
giftedness) and to determine that students are eligible to receive special program services.
These programs may be special education, Section 504 programs, or dyslexia services, to
name but a few. There is no test for exceptionalities per se. Instead, assessment professionals
(usually psychologists or educational diagnosticians) administer a battery of tests, make
observations, and conduct interviews (in other words, perform a number of assessments),
and they then look at the results with certain criteria in mind. There are established
procedures for diagnosing exceptional conditions, and a team of people (including
classroom teachers) talk about the results of the assessments and decide whether the student
qualifies as having a particular disability or exceptionality.

The role of the classroom teacher in this process cannot be overemphasized. Teachers are
the educational professionals who know the student best, and theirs is an important voice
that lends credibility to the assessment findings that shape the decision-making process. For
instance, Ms. Thompson referred Kim to the IEP team for having potential learning
disabilities in mathematics. After conducting the assessments, the school psychologist
recommended that Kim be identified as having a reading learning disability but not a
mathematics learning disability. The assessment data did not show a math disability but
they did show a reading disability. Ms. Thompson, having worked with Kim for months,
had never noticed a reading problem. In fact, the teacher had always been impressed with
the student’s abilities as a strategic reader. If Ms. Thompson does not speak out during the
meeting and provide contrasting evidence, there is a good chance that the student may be

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misdiagnosed as having a reading learning disability. Test data alone should not be used to
make eligibility decisions. Data should come from a variety of sources, including daily work
samples, which in this case would show that Kim is an accomplished reader in class.

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 Video case 8.1

Why and How Are Students Assessed?

1. Which informal assessment methods are mentioned in the video? How do the teachers use
the results of these informal assessments to guide their instructional planning on a daily
basis?
2. What formal assessment measures do the teachers identify and how are they used to measure
student learning? How do the teachers prepare their students for standardized assessments?

Grading
Perhaps the most common form of assessment that teachers encounter is assessing students
for grading purposes—that is, assigning a numeric or letter index based on a student’s
performance within a specified academic calendar period (usually a semester). To see
whether students learned their spelling words, teachers typically administer a spelling test at
the end of the week and record the percentage correct in the grade book. An end-of-chapter
test might be administered after completion of a science unit. Often these tests have been

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prepared by the textbook publisher, but many teachers choose to create their own tests.
Whichever approach is used, test grades are assigned and constitute a portion of each
student’s final grade for the course.

Whenever teachers grade students’ products, there is always the possibility of bias.
Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson (2009) noted several sources of error that can affect
grading students’ work, especially when subjective scoring occurs (such as for essays or
reports). The halo effect occurs when teachers are influenced by a student’s positive or
negative attributes that are unrelated to the product being graded. For example, if a student
pays attention to the teacher and is eager to please, the teacher may be inclined to view his
or her work more favorably and let those positive attributes affect scoring.

Leniency errors occur when teachers tend to score all papers positively and provide high
scores. Conversely, severity ratings occur when teachers tend to score all papers negatively
and provide consistently low scores. Central tendency errors occur when teachers tend to
score all papers in the average range, limiting high scores and/or low scores.

Personal bias errors can occur when teachers tend to let stereotypes influence student
ratings. A teacher may score a paper higher because “Jimmy has a disability, and he tries
hard.” Conversely, a teacher may score a paper lower because of preconceived notions of
what students with disabilities can accomplish in the classroom.

Finally, logical errors may occur when teachers tend to associate one characteristic with
another. For example, teachers may grade papers higher for those students who
demonstrate high academic aptitude and give lower scores when the opposite is true.

This is not to say that all teachers make these types of errors. But these errors do occur, and
teachers should be on the lookout for them.

Determining Annual Yearly Progress

According to No Child Left Behind legislation, educators must ensure that all students
make adequate yearly progress (AYP), so it is important for teachers to collect assessment
data to determine whether students are making progress toward their end-of-year goals
(Smith & Tyler, 2010).

Teachers want students to be performing at a certain level by the end of the school year.
These end-of-year assessments are sometimes called high-stakes assessments, because
districts and schools use the results to monitor the effectiveness of their teaching efforts.
Test results also may determine whether students advance to the next grade or graduate
from high school; in other words, the stakes for some students are really high.

High-stakes testing has become more rigorous over the past decade or so, as states have

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raised the bar of expectations. Students now are being held to higher standards than ever
before, and with the increasing demands of the Common Core curriculum being adopted
across the country, student accountability has never been higher. High-stakes tests are being
written to assess the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), and such groups as the
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) and Smarter
Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) have led the way in constructing and field-
testing reliable measures that produce valid results for assessing AYP. Many states differ in
the way they determine AYP and what tests are used to measure it. We urge you to visit
your state education agency’s website to look up the expectations for your state, but if you
are currently teaching or if you soon will be, you may already have attended meetings about
your school and district requirements. In these meetings, you can find out what your
district is doing to align current textbooks to the new standards, because the transition to
the CCSS or any set of higher standards is changing the way texts are written and
instructional plans are carried out. Because textbook purchases are made fairly infrequently
(they require considerable effort and expense on the part of schools and districts), it could
be years before all texts in use are in line with current standards. Also, standards change
periodically, so teachers constantly face challenges keeping their materials up to date.

Documenting Progress
Progress monitoring is particularly important in RTI programs. In fact, progress
monitoring is considered one of RTI’s “nonnegotiables,” meaning that no RTI program
should be without it. In our RTI work, we typically use four types of progress monitoring
that cut across some of the areas we have already discussed. As you can see in Table 8.1,
progress monitoring measures are designed to answer specific questions relating to
measurement. Benchmark checks are used as a universal screener and designed to answer
these questions: “Where does the student stand in comparison to his or her peers?” and
“Does the student qualify for intervention?”

Universal screeners in RTI are usually administered three times each year, at the beginning,
in the middle, and at the end of the school year. A benchmark (that’s why it is called a
benchmark check) is that score on the test that determines qualification for intervention
(what we earlier called determining program eligibility). Students who score at or above the
benchmark are seen as doing well in the subject matter being tested and therefore do not
qualify for the RTI intervention. Students who score below the benchmark are seen as
needing the intervention.

We look at benchmark check scores as falling within three categories: A, B, and C (these
stand for levels of performance on the benchmark check, not letter grades). We call those
who score above the 35th percentile A students; the A stands for “All ahead full,” which
means teachers should continue to do what they are doing with these students because it is
working—the students are learning what is being taught. Students who score between the

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25th percentile (our benchmark) and the 35th percentile are B students, meaning “Be
alert.” Students who score at the B level percentile have met the benchmark but not by
much. Teachers should be alert while teaching these students, because they are potential
candidates for falling below the benchmark during the next round of testing. Do they
struggle with new skills and concepts? Do they require additional help when they struggle?
Do scaffolds need to be introduced to help them learn these new skills and concepts?

Finally, those who score below the benchmark—that is, below the 25th percentile—are C
students, and C stands for “Change.” These students qualify for the RTI program, so their
teachers change what they are doing by providing supplemental instruction (referred to as
Tier 2 instruction in Chapter 6) in addition to their core instruction (Tier 1).

When the next round of testing occurs, students receiving supplemental instruction may
reach the benchmark, leave Tier 2, and remain in Tier 1 full time. Some students who met
the benchmark in the previous round of testing may now miss it. These students (very
often the B students from round 1) now qualify for Tier 2 intervention, which supplements
their Tier 1 instruction.

The next type of progress monitoring measure is given only to students receiving Tier 2 or
Tier 3 instruction (see Chapter 6 for Tier 3). The question being asked with the daily check
is, “Did the students meet the objective of the day’s lesson?” Daily checks are given at the
end of each lesson, often in the form of independent practice items. They are important
because if students fail to meet the lesson’s objective and continue to fail to meet other

609
lessons’ objectives, the odds they will do well on the next benchmark check are slim—they
simply will not have learned enough. If a student does poorly on two or three daily checks,
the intervention teacher will have to make some kind of change in the student’s teaching.
For example, the student may have to be moved to a different group that is functioning at a
lower level than the current group. Or perhaps the student will be part of a smaller group,
one that allows the intervention teacher to check for understanding more often, add
additional scaffolds, or adapt instruction more often or in different ways.

The third measure in progress monitoring is called a unit check, which is similar to the
end-of-chapter test found in many textbooks. Unit checks, like daily checks, are
administered only to intervention students. The questions being asked here are, “Has the
student mastered the content taught of the unit/chapter as presented across a two-week (or
so) period?” and “Has the student maintained daily learning across an elongated time
frame?”

Many RTI interventions are composed of lessons that are combined into a unit or module.
The unit check is composed of representative items across the lessons that compose the unit
or module. Often, these items are selected from daily checks; so, for example, if a unit is
composed of 20 lessons, a unit check may be composed of 20 items, one item from each
lesson. Experienced teachers often note that students seem to be learning just fine, as might
be the case when the student meets the objective by scoring well on all daily checks. But
when a unit check is given, for some reason a student might perform poorly—he or she has
forgotten what was taught earlier and has not maintained learning across the time spent on
the unit. Can you imagine how frustrating that must be for the teacher—and the student?

The final check in this progress monitoring system, the aim check, is designed to answer
this question: “Is the student making progress toward his or her intervention goal?” Most
often the intervention goal is to score at or above the benchmark on the next benchmark
check (the next administration of the universal screener). The aim check should be four or
five measures that are alternate forms of the benchmark check. Often the Aim Check is
administered every two weeks during intervention, but sometimes it can be administered
more often; aim check performance is graphed or charted to show growth and movement
toward the benchmark.

See Figure 8.1 for an example. Here, Min’s initial benchmark check score is plotted on the
graph (she answered 16 items correctly). The next benchmark check will be given 10 weeks
later, and to meet it, Min must score 42 points, so that score is plotted on the chart. A line
is drawn from the first score to the goal; this line is called an aim line, which is where the
term aim check comes from. Min scored 20 points on her first aim check two weeks later,
which is plotted on her graph. (By the way, students often do their own charting, which
gives them ownership of the process while allowing them to see their own growth.) Two
weeks later, Min scored 22 points, and two weeks after that, 22 points.

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 Figure 8.1 Sample Charted Performance for Min

Perhaps the most common form of assessment teachers encounter is assessing

students for grading purposes.

iStock/Steve Debenport

Can you see what is happening? Min’s score is increasing but not at a rate that will allow
her to meet her goal. At some point, the teacher must use what is called a “decision rule” to

611
make some kind of change in the intervention. As we mentioned before, this decision
might be to move Min to another group or to a smaller group where the teacher can more
closely observe her during instruction. Let’s say Min is now working with two other
students instead of four. When the change is made, a new aim line is drawn, which shows
the new slope, or trajectory, that must be accomplished to meet the intervention goal. Note
that the new aim line is steeper than the original, which shows that Min must make more
and faster progress than she had to initially. The hope is that the new grouping will work
and Min’s aim checks will show successful movement toward her objective.

To conclude, it is important for teachers to use assessment data to document progress, a

process often called progress monitoring. In some cases, RTI for example, progress
monitoring measures can vary in type and purpose.

Tech Notes provides an overview of creating graphs to measure student performance.

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Video case 8.2

Progress Monitoring

1. How does Mia Tannous describe progress monitoring in reading at her school? What
progress monitoring methods does Tema Khieu mention? How are the results from ongoing
progress monitoring used to enhance student learning?
2. Why does Ms. Tannous say that the math specialists at her school are creating new math
assessments? What characteristics will the new assessments include and how can the data be
used by the teachers?

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Legislative Protection Related to Assessment
Over the years, assessment has been used inappropriately to identify people as having
disabilities they do not really have or to exclude children from programs for which they
would otherwise be eligible. Students from racial or ethnic groups that are not part of the
dominant U.S. culture are often at a disadvantage when taking standardized tests. Also,
students who have not yet truly mastered English cannot adequately demonstrate their
abilities in such testing situations. Differences in culture and in language contribute to
some students being misidentified as having a disability or being excluded from education
programs for students who are gifted (BVSD Office of Advanced Academic Services, 2010).

For example, some children who spoke no English or were English language learners were
administered intelligence tests in English and diagnosed as having intellectual and
developmental disability because of their low test scores (Smith & Tyler, 2010). Clearly the
results of such tests are not valid because they do not reflect the test takers’ intelligence.
Rather, they reflect their inability to respond to questions they do not understand.

To stress the importance of nonbiased evaluations, IDEA ’04 requires that

nondiscriminatory testing be established in each state. Assessment authorities have provided
numerous procedures that test authors can undertake to reduce bias and therefore create
measurement instruments that are nondiscriminatory (Salvia, Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2010;
Taylor, 2008). Before selecting tests for use with students who are culturally and/or
linguistically different, teachers, school psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and other
assessment professionals should consult the tests’ technical manuals to see whether
procedures were undertaken to reduce test bias. The manuals should provide empirical
evidence, in the form of research studies and statistical analyses, supporting the tests’ use in
nondiscriminatory assessment.

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TECH notes

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Grading Charts
When monitoring progress, it is typical to create a graph of student performance that includes the results of
an initial assessment, usually in the form of a pretest; and a goal, a point total that the student is supposed
to score at the end of the intervention (usually a benchmark of some kind). A line is drawn from the initial
test score to the goal, and that line presents a path to success—the results of periodic testing should
continue to improve and mirror the aim line (or that is the hope). As each periodic test is given, the score is
plotted on the graph to present a visual depiction of progress.

Although graphs and charts can be drawn by hand, Microsoft Excel provides a means to do so
electronically. To create a graph, open Excel and save the document as something like “Progress Monitoring
Chart for Juan.” On the first line, write Date, Session, Score, and Aim in the first four columns. Under
date, enter the dates in each row that you will be collecting data (for example, Jan 4, Jan 6, Jan 11, Jan 13
for collected data twice a week beginning on January 4th). Under Session, write 1 to 20 (for 20 data
collection sessions over a 10-week period). Under Score and Aim, write the pretest score (for example, 22).
Now enter the next benchmark under Aim on the same line as the last session. In our case, the benchmark
is 56, so write 56 in the Aim column in the same row as Session 20. Then subtract the pretest score from
the benchmark score (56 – 22), giving the difference of 34 points—the student must increase his pretest
score 34 points to reach the benchmark at the end of the intervention. Next, divide 34 by the number of
sessions; minus 1 (20-1), or 34/19. The quotient is 1.7895. Click on line 3 in the Aim column. Then, in
the formula box (next to fx), enter = D2+1.7895 and press the “Enter” or “Return” key. The number
21.7895 will appear. Copy that box and paste it into the remaining boxes down to the last Aim number
entered (56). You will then see numbers fill in the previously empty boxes. Now, highlight the Score and
Aim boxes from the first to the last, and go to the Chart icon at the top of the Excel sheet. Click on Chart
and several options will appear. Click on Line, then Marked Line. A chart will then appear on the Excel
sheet, with an Aim Line created. As you enter each subsequent Score after progress monitoring testing,
performance will be added to the graph. Save the document and you are good to go! Note: If you get stuck,
simply type the following into your search engine: “Create an aim line in Excel YouTube”—several
demonstration video options should appear. Enjoy!

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How Do We Assess Students with Special Needs?
Over the years, many terms have been used to describe the types of assessments used to
measure student knowledge. For example, tests have been considered to be standardized or
nonstandardized, formal or informal, or summative or formative, depending in large part
on how the results of the tests were used. Earlier we discussed the purposes of assessment.
Here we discuss the types of tests that are given and how they differ from one another.

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Technical Adequacy
Whatever they are, test measures must be technically sound or adequate. Two important
aspects of technical adequacy are reliability and validity.

Reliability means the test must yield consistent results (Salvia et al., 2010). There are
several types of reliability. Internal consistency reliability tells us whether items of a test
consistently measure the same thing (spelling, addition). Results achieved on a measure one
day should match results achieved if the assessment is conducted again a short time later;
this is called test-retest reliability. When tests have multiple forms, such as Form A, Form B,
and Form C (this is common in progress monitoring), alternate forms reliability
demonstrates that each form provides similar scores. Interscorer agreement or interobserver
reliability demonstrates that scorers or observers are all seeing the same thing when they
score a measure (such as a writing rubric) or observe a student in the classroom. The less
reliable a measure is, the less confident we can be in the results of a test, observation, or
scoring system.

Measures must also yield valid results; in other words, scores must reflect performance on
the construct the test claims to be assessing (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2013). A spelling
test that consists of addition and subtraction items is not a spelling test, obviously, and the
test’s scores would never be considered a valid performance estimate of spelling abilities.
But spelling test authors must go further than simply creating a measure that looks like it is
assessing spelling. They must demonstrate that the items have content validity or come from
a legitimate source and meet basic statistical criteria, have criterion-related validity and so
produce results similar to those of established spelling tests, and have construct validity,
meaning they produce results associated with the construct being measured. Test authors
can demonstrate their test’s construct validity by showing that the measures produce results
related to other written language skills, that students get higher test scores as they get older
and become better spellers, and that the test differentiates known poor spellers from known
good spellers.

Teachers should be mindful of technical adequacy when they administer tests, when tests
are administered by others such as school psychologists or diagnosticians, or when they
attend meetings such as IEP meetings. Most test publishers provide evidence of technical
adequacy in their test manuals, but when attending meetings about tests that are not
known to them, teachers can inquire about the technical adequacy of the measures
administered. It is critical that decisions about students based on test results should be
made only when tests are technically sound.

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Coteacher Assessment

619
Norm-referenced Tests
Norm-referenced tests interpret a person’s performance by comparing it to that of his or
her peers. We discussed this earlier when we talked about benchmark checks. In school,
norm-referenced tests answer the question “How does my student compare to others of the
same age or grade?” This comparison can be made by comparing students with others in
their classroom, with others in their school or district, or, most commonly in nationally
standardized tests, with others across the country.

When interpreting students’ results on a norm-referenced test, we need to know what the
reported test scores mean. Most tests report results using raw scores, standard scores,
percentiles, age equivalents, or grade equivalents.

Before we discuss the scores, we need to spend a little time talking about normative
samples. A normative sample consists of the people who were given the test to develop an
average score against which to compare the scores we are to report. If the test reports
national norms, the test has been administered to many students across the country. Many
tests have normative samples wherein thousands of people were tested at each age.
Whatever the numbers, these scores are used to create the national average that serves as a
comparison score for a particular student.

Thanks to sophisticated software, test publishers can quickly and accurately provide district
norms as well, and the district superintendent may request these. Then, a student is
compared not only with a national average but also with a more local average. National
scores tell teachers how their students compare with those from around the country; they
also show principals how their schools compare with those from around the nation and tell
superintendents how their students, schools, and districts compare with those from around
the country. District norms, sometimes called local norms, allow teachers to compare their
students’ scores with each other and help a principal and superintendent see how the
schools compare with one another within the district. That is the power of a normative
sample.

Test publishers report their normative sample’s demographic characteristics (what

percentage of the sample is Black, White, Hispanic, and so on), how many are male and
how many female, how many in the sample are from urban schools and how many from
rural schools, what states the sample was drawn from, and so forth. This important
information is called a normative sample’s representativeness. Teachers should ask, “How
representative is this measure’s normative sample? Does the sample ‘look like’ the students
in my class?” Fortunately, most major measures used in school systems have representative
normative samples (Salvia et al., 2010). Now let’s look at the scores that tests yield.

Raw scores are simply the total number of points a person is awarded. In a test where the

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student has to spell 30 words and gets 20 correct, a raw score of 20 is recorded. On a rating
scale that has a Likert-style rating system (for instance, a behavioral rating scale with
behaviors listed, in which the rater is asked how often a student exhibits that behavior and
selecting 1 for never, 2 for sometimes, 3 for frequently, or 4 for always), the raw score is the
total number of points for the ratings. By themselves, raw scores mean little. Think about
one test that contains 30 items and another that contains 70 items. Raw scores of 25 on
these tests mean different levels of understanding, even though the numbers are the same.
Raw scores are best translated into one or more of the derived scores described below.

Norms for many tests are presented in terms of standard scores, derived scores that have an
average score, or mean score, and a set statistical standard deviation. Table 8.2 depicts the
relationship of several standard scores typically reported in tests. Standard scores are
valuable because they allow teachers both to make interindividual comparisons (that is, to
determine how a student compares with the national or local average) and to assess
intraindividual differences (strengths and weaknesses a person exhibits across test scores).
We said before that when a student scores 25 raw score points on two different tests that
contain different numbers of items, we cannot compare the two raw scores. But we can
compare standard scores with one another. For example, if a test reports standard scores
having a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, we know that a reading score of 125
and a math score of 80 demonstrate a considerable performance advantage in reading over
math. Likewise, reading and math scores of 110 and 108, respectively, mean the student
demonstrated similar abilities in both areas.

Percentiles are also provided for most norm-referenced tests. Percentiles, or percentile
ranks, as they are often called, are convenient and popular because they are so easy to
understand. Percentiles range from 1 to 99, and they represent where the person would
rank when compared with 99 of his or her peers. If a student achieves a percentile of 59 on
a math test, it means that only 40 people scored as well as or better than he or she did on
the test.

A percentile rank of 59 does not mean a student got 59% of the items correct on a
particular test. This is a common misconception. A percentile indicates a person’s standing
relative to that of his or her peers based on test performance, not the percentage of items he
or she got right on a test.

Age equivalents are provided for many test scores. These values indicate the age level from
the normative sample that corresponds to the student’s raw score on each of the tests. For
instance, for a fifth-grade student who was administered an intelligence test, an age
equivalent of 3 years, 4 months simply means that students of that age in the normative
sample scored the same raw score as the fifth grader. Be cautious: This result does not mean
the older student has the same intelligence (or mental age, as it is sometimes
inappropriately called) as a 3-year-old.

621
Grade equivalents also may be assigned to test scores, especially achievement tests. Similar
to age equivalents, these values indicate the normative grade level that corresponds to a raw
score made by a student on each of the tests or subtests administered.

Grade equivalents are reported frequently in achievement testing, but they are often
misinterpreted. When a reading test reports a grade equivalent of 3-2 (third year, second
month of school), it does not necessarily mean the student reads like a third grader. It
means simply that the student achieved the same raw score as children in the third grade,
second month of the school year when they took the test.

Informal reading inventories (IRIs) are unique tests that report scores in terms of grade
equivalents (McLoughlin & Lewis, 2008). They typically consist of a graded word list that
students are given to read (a list of first-grade words, a list of second-grade words, and so
forth). The highest level of word list read at 90% or 95% provides a grade equivalent index.
For instance, if an eleventh grader reads a graded word list and can successfully read only
words on the sixth-grade list, reading the seventh- and eighth-grade lists at less than 90%
accuracy, he or she has a grade equivalent index, based on that inventory, of the sixth grade.

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That does not mean the student reads like a sixth grader; it simply means he or she couldn’t
read words at a higher level on that list. The inventory may stop there, or it may have the
student then read graded passages, usually from the kindergarten level up to the Grade 12
level. When the student can no longer read 90% to 95% of the words correctly, the
examiner stops and assigns a grade-equivalent “reader level” index for the student.

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Progress Monitoring Tests
As we mentioned earlier, schools today place a particular emphasis on monitoring students’
progress. This is due jointly to the AYP requirement of No Child Left Behind legislation
and to the progress monitoring requirements of RTI. Curriculum-based measures (CBMs)
are ideally suited for monitoring progress because they are closely aligned with what is
being taught in the classroom. We present more on CBMs in a later section of this chapter.

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Criterion-Referenced Tests
Unlike norm-referenced tests that compare performance against that of peers, criterion-
referenced tests compare performance to mastery of the content being tested (Taylor,
2008). The most common reason for evaluating students is to determine whether they have
learned what has been specifically taught. For example, imagine a teacher has given a daily
lesson on adding two-digit numerals to three-digit numerals and then follows up by giving
a quiz. If the students get most of the quiz items correct, the assumption is that they have
mastered the subject matter. If a student answers only half the items correctly, there is little
doubt he or she has not mastered the content and reteaching is needed.

Mastery can be determined only when the student has had a sufficient number of
opportunities to demonstrate competence. Response to a single item is not sufficient
because it is no guarantee the student who fails to answer correctly would not answer the
next 99 items correctly if given the opportunity. Likewise, answering the item correctly is
no guarantee that the student wouldn’t miss the next 99 opportunities. As a rule of thumb,
only when a student can correctly answer 80% to 90% (or better) of the items can we
assume mastery has been achieved. It would be unwise to base mastery on fewer than five
items; a student with at least five items can slip up on one yet still demonstrate mastery by
answering the others correctly. Assessing for mastery should include the opportunity to
make a careless mistake without making a misleading interpretation inevitable.

Let’s look at one way in which teachers can make their own criterion-referenced test for
mathematics. Examine the scope-and-sequence chart example from a basal math textbook
and identify skills to be assessed (see Figure 8.2). For our purposes, we’ll keep our example
brief and select only six skills.

Remember, children should be given an opportunity to miss one item and still demonstrate
mastery. Because we have set our mastery level at 80%, we can write five items per skill (see
Figure 8.3). We would write 10 items for each skill if 90% were the mastery level.

Finally, administer and score the test, and check for mastery. For each row of items, did the
student get at least four correct? If so, we can assume the student has mastered the skill. If
not, assume that the student has not mastered the skill and continue teaching the skill.
Teachers should review each skill periodically to ensure students have maintained their
mastery. Students need ongoing practice to maintain their skill sets.

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Testing for Students’ Strategies
Teachers often ask themselves, “How did José come up with that answer?” or “What was
Lizzy thinking?” Some assessments are intended to identify strategies students use when
they are problem-solving. Students rarely arrive at a solution haphazardly; there is almost
always a reasonable explanation of how they derived it. One of the most challenging yet
interesting purposes for assessing math performance, for example, is to target the strategies
a student employs during computation or problem solving. It is intriguing to find out why
a student generates a correct or incorrect response.

Figure 8.2 Sample Scope-and-Sequence Chart

Figure 8.3 Sample Items Based on the Math Scope-and-Sequence Chart in Figure 8.2

We believe no mathematics assessment, for instance, is complete without what we term

process assessment. Simply put, the goal of process assessment in mathematics is to identify
the manner in which students derive a particular answer when solving a problem. More
often than not, students solve math problems conventionally by utilizing standard school
methods (algorithms). At times, however, they are unable to grasp the taught algorithm, so
they design alternate means to derive the answer.

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By way of illustration, consider the problem 43 − 27 = x. The correct difference, 16, can be
derived by (a) understanding the conceptual nature of place value and applying proper
regrouping techniques, (b) failing to grasp the nature of place value conceptually yet
knowing how to apply regrouping techniques, or (c) knowing nothing about either place
value or regrouping but using an invented procedure (for instance, counting on from 27 to
43 and writing down the number of counts made along the way).

Process assessments allow us to identify the strategies by which students arrive at their
answers. We provide two procedures here—passive assessment and active assessment.
Teachers can conduct a passive process assessment by looking at a completed worksheet and
analyzing a student’s answer to a given problem. For example, consider the problem 43 −
27 = x again. A student’s incorrect answer of 24 could well be the result of a regrouping
miscue: The student probably thought something like, “Three minus seven . . . can’t do it
because you have to subtract the smaller number from the larger one, so seven minus three
is four . . . four minus two is two . . . 24.” Although this answer commonly results from
overgeneralizing the basic rule that numbers of lesser values must be subtracted from
numbers of greater value, we cannot be certain it was indeed the student’s strategy. Perhaps
instead the student counted on from 27 but forgot how many counts it took to get to 43.
Memory failure is a common source of error in counting on to higher numbers. The
obvious disadvantage with passive process assessment, therefore, is the uncertainty that
exists when examining errors for defective strategy employment.

The second procedure, active process assessment, generally employs some form of flexible
interviewing, whereby the student discusses aloud what she or he thought during
computation. For instance, a student may be asked to “think out loud” while doing a math
problem. By listening to the student’s explanation, we can identify the strategies employed.
The teacher generally asks follow-up questions to further probe the student’s strategies. To
illustrate, consider a student who calculates 43 − 27 and states, “Three minus seven can’t be
done, so I borrow one from here (tens place) and put three, then I put one next to three
(ones place), and 13 minus 7 is 6, three take away two is one . . . 16.” A follow-up question
might be “Okay. Tell me why you crossed out the four and put three above it.” Based on
the student’s response, the teacher can gain insight into the student’s knowledge of place-
value concepts.

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Screening Tests
Sometimes teachers wish to identify quickly and efficiently who is struggling in a particular
area and who is not. Usually, teachers can identify their students who are having problems
just by working with them, but administering a screening measure helps validate those
impressions. Although the most efficient screeners are group administered because good
group tests provide valid scores in a short time, individual tests can be given. The screening
process often leads to more diagnostic, comprehensive testing, but as is the case with RTI
and its universal screening component, it qualifies students for supplemental instruction.

Various types of screening instruments are available, some highly standardized and others
less so. Torgesen and Bryant’s (2005) Test of Phonological Awareness (TOPA-2+) is an
example of a highly standardized instrument for screening students for phonological
awareness and phonics skills. The test is group administered to kindergarten, first-grade
students, or second-grade children, and those who score below a set benchmark are in need
of more comprehensive testing.

But not all screening needs to be highly standardized. For example, teachers know their
students well enough to complete rating scales about their abilities and provide valid and
reliable information for screening purposes. Teachers who have had a month or two to
observe and work with their students can be asked simply to rate each student’s
performance along a five-point continuum from Poor to Superior or a more detailed rating
scale that spans academic and behavioral areas.

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Diagnostic Assessments
Diagnostic measures are like survey tests in that they survey, or assess, numerous different
areas. They provide more in-depth assessment than screening measures and take longer to
administer. For that reason, screening measures are used to limit the number of students
who need to be administered diagnostic measures. For example, students who do not meet
benchmarks might then be administered the second edition of the Comprehensive Test of
Phonological Processes (CTOPP-2; Wagner, Torgesen, Rashotte, & Pearson, 2013) to
identify strengths and weaknesses across phonological awareness abilities. Or they might be
given the most recent edition of the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE-2) (Rashotte,
Torgesen, & Wagner, 2012) to assess in-depth phonics skills.

Schools typically use two types of diagnostic measures. The first is a global achievement
measure that examines a variety of areas. The Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement
(WJ-IV; Schrank, McGrew, Mather, & Woodcock, 2014), for example, contains more
than a dozen subtests that examine reading, writing, mathematics, and other areas of
achievement. By administering all WJ-IV subtests, examiners obtain a comprehensive
overview of a student’s skills across subject matter.

The Woodcock Reading Mastery Test, third edition (WRMT-III; Woodcock, 2011), is a
second type of diagnostic measure. This test examines only reading, but it does so by
studying many subcomponents of reading, such as comprehension and basic skills.
Comparing and contrasting scores within the measure provides for an intraindividual
analysis of reading strengths and weaknesses. Many such tests provide detailed analyses of
strengths and weakness across mathematics, writing, and other academic skills.

Diagnostic measures also exist for assessing behavior, attention, anxiety, adaptive behavior
skills, and other areas related to school success. With these scales, “diagnostic measure”
takes on a subtly different meaning. Not only are the measures broad-based in their
content, but they may actually be used to diagnose a condition. One of the most popular
scales used for assessing attention problems is the Conners Rating Scale—3rd edition
(Conners-III; Conners, 2008). Because ADHD must be observed across several settings,
this rating scale is completed by parents and teachers, who report on the child’s behaviors at
home and in the classroom. Such a procedure allows for an ecological assessment, because it
looks at behavior across settings and locations and collects data from multiple sources—in
this case, the parents and one or more teachers. With the Conners scale, the teacher (or
parent) reads a list of student behaviors and rates the extent to which each behavior is
present for a particular child. The more behaviors the student exhibits that correspond to
those who have ADHD, the greater the likelihood the student has ADHD.

Before we continue, recall that diagnostic tests are not so named because they “diagnose”
conditions. Although usually true, this statement requires clarification. The results of

629
diagnostic tests may lead to a diagnosis of a disability by special education team members.
The team is typically composed of the student’s parents, psychologists, diagnosticians,
teachers, a representative from special education, and the principal and other professionals.
Team members examine the data provided by diagnostic tests, observations, work samples,
and so on and come to a decision about a person’s eligibility for special education services.
Although test scores are key contributors to the process, it is important to remember this
oft-cited dictum: “Tests don’t diagnose; people diagnose” (Wiederholt & Bryant, 2012).

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Observations
Yogi Berra, one of baseball’s greats, once said, “You can observe a whole lot just by
watching.” On the surface, this statement seems redundant; watching and observing are
seemingly the same. But this is not necessarily true. Rather, people watch so they can
observe. Watching is seeing. Observing is seeing and learning and making decisions about
what you are seeing.

Teacher observations thus provide valuable data that should be combined with the data
from other assessments to make educational decisions. Teachers can observe students and
make performance judgments in many ways (see Chapter 9 on behavior). Here, we provide
an example that yields objective data on students as they work by examining a target
student (the student you are concerned about) and his or her peers. Design a rating scale
that examines the behaviors of interest—in this simple case, object noise and out of place—
while your observation form can examine any behavior of concern (hitting, off-task,
unsolicited talking out). Create an observation tool that looks at the behaviors over a 20-
minute time span (see Figure 8.4).

The approach is quite simple. Determine beforehand which students in the class will serve
as the peer observants (for instance, two students in a row). Then observe the target student
for 30 seconds. If the student is observed doing the behavior (say, out of place) at any time
during the 30 seconds, record a slash mark (/) in the box. Then observe the first peer
student for 30 seconds, recording the behavior (if present) in the same way. Observe the
target student again, then the second peer student, and so on until forty 30-second intervals
have passed (20 for each student).

Figure 8.4 Sample Observation Form

Object Noise 10/5 = 2.0

Out of Place 4/5 = 0.8

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 Object Noise 10/5 = 2.0

Out of Place 4/5 = 0.8

Peer performance is important because it serves as a basis for comparison. To arrive at an

assessment of performance, simply divide the target student’s total number of slashes by the
number of slashes for the peers. The resulting quotient provides an index of observed
behavior. In our example, the target student was observed as making object noise twice as
much as the peers (2.0). But for out of place, the target student was actually in place more
often that the peers (0.8). By comparing the student with peers, we can identify whether
the behavior is student specific or is actually being done by other students in the class as
well.

Teacher observations made during instruction can yield considerable worthwhile

information. Effective instruction calls for checking for understanding throughout a lesson,
which means more than simply asking, “Any questions?” or “Do you understand?” Most
students, especially struggling students, will not ask questions or admit to not
understanding. So they remain silent, having little or no idea what was taught. Teachers
should question students directly to check for understanding and observe student responses
to determine whether their students “get it” or not. For example, if the topic pertains to a
story being read, ask “Why” or “What of it” questions, or questions such as “What is the
author trying to say here?” to gauge student understanding. Students’ answers provide a
wealth of information about their level of understanding, and such questions can be asked
across content areas.

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Interviews
Teachers can obtain a great deal of important information about the children they teach
from the students’ parents or guardians. When developing a diagnostic profile of a student,
evaluators ask parents or guardians questions about their child’s birth, developmental
milestones, illnesses, social skills, and interests. This case history can provide basic
information that helps the teacher or educational diagnostician better understand the
child’s overall development. However, because recall of developmental history may be
sketchy or not totally accurate, try not to rely too heavily on this information. Rather,
interpret it, along with information obtained from other teachers and from the students
themselves, within the total context of assessment data.

Teachers can obtain a great deal of important information about the development of a
child from their students’ family members.

AP Photo/Denis Poroy

Teachers and students can also be interviewed. Overton (2011) suggested that teachers are
in a unique position to consider several important characteristics of their students. For
example, how prepared is the student each day? How does the student begin assignments
during class? If distracted, how does the student perform? Does the student complete his or
her homework assignments? Does the student respond in class? Such questions provide the
interviewer with a sense of the student’s behaviors that may not be noted during a
particular observation.

Think-aloud interviews are a type of process assessment aimed at identifying the cognitive
strategies students use to solve mathematics problems, comprehend reading material,
explore a social studies scenario, conduct a science experiment, and so forth (McLoughlin

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& Lewis, 2008). In the think-aloud interview, the teacher asks a student to think out loud
as he or she performs a task. Interview questions might include the following: (a) “What are
you thinking?” (b) “How will you solve this task or problem?” (c) “What is another way to
solve the problem?” (d) “What do you think the answer might be and why do you think
that?” and (e) “How would you explain this problem to another student?”

Several factors must be present for the think-aloud interview to be used appropriately. First,
the interviewer must be a good observer of student performance. Second, the person must
be knowledgeable about the scope and sequence of the curriculum being used. Third, the
interviewer must be familiar with cognitive strategies the student may be employing
(McLoughlin & Lewis, 2008). For example, if a student is asked to explain (think out loud
about) how to add a group of four blocks to a group of five blocks, and the student puts the
two groups together and then starts counting from one to arrive at the answer, further
questions are needed to determine the extent of her or his knowledge of numbers and
groups and of her or his ability to use the “count on” addition strategy. These questions
might include “What is an easier way to count all the blocks besides starting with one?” and
(given five blocks) “What different arrangements can you make with the blocks to show
five?”

Through the think-aloud interview, it is possible to gain an understanding of how a student

approaches the problem or task and of what strategies are being used. This information
may lead to the development of new instructional objectives or to a change in the
intervention. The interview information, along with other data, can help teachers better
understand the processes their students use to solve problems or tasks and the effectiveness
of these processes.

Although “thinking out loud” can be effective, many children with learning problems have
difficulty expressing their thoughts aloud and require a different interviewing method. We
have found that role-playing can be very effective in identifying what students are thinking
as they work. In this instance, the student plays the role of teacher and the teacher assumes
the student’s role. As an example, you might tell your student, “I have an idea. You be the
teacher and show me how to subtract 17 from 35.” The following dialog may take place (T
is the Teacher; S is the student):

S. First write down 35 on your wipe board.

T. (writes 35) Like this?

S. Yes, very good. Now below the 35, write 17, and make a line under it and put a minus
sign in front of the 17.

T. (writes 17, but the alignment is off) Okay, what’s next?

S. That’s close, but you have to make sure the 1 is in the tens place below the 3 and the 7 is

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in the units place below the 5. You sort of have it mixed up. Watch me (models correct
placement).

T. (erases the incorrect alignment and writes the proper way) Oh yeah, I forgot.

S. It’s very important that the numbers line up. Now the next thing is to subtract the
numbers in the unit column. You can’t go 5 minus 7 because you always have to subtract
the smaller number from the bigger number. So I can’t do 5 minus 7, I have to do 7 minus
5. 7 minus 5 is 2, so write the 2 below the line in the units column.

The process continues, but you already have found that the student has a subtract
misconception. Simply by looking at the student’s work (what we called passive process
assessment earlier), one might be able to draw this conclusion; but this approach confirms
the misconception.

Both interviewing methods serve the same purpose. Teachers may choose one to use
consistently or may alternate the methods for the sake of variety. The key is to use some
form of interview to identify efficient and inefficient strategies students are employing.

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Rating Scales and Checklists
Rating scales and checklists are valuable sources of information that can be used as part of
the assessment process (Reynolds et al., 2009). Typically, rating scales and checklists
provide a listing of skills or abilities, and the rater provides responses indicating how well a
person performs each skill. Sometimes the responses are dichotomous—that is, the skills are
either present or absent. Dichotomously scored rating scales are really checklists. Other
scales offer a range of responses and use a Likert-type response format. Figures 8.5, 8.6, and
8.7 provide examples of these types of scoring options.

Figure 8.5 demonstrates the use of a dichotomous checklist to examine early childhood
behaviors. Figures 8.6 and 8.7 are rating scales that examine writing. The first figure
provides a holistic evaluation of writing and the second provides an analytic approach.

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Rubrics
Rubrics are increasingly being used to evaluate writing samples (see Table 8.3). Here we see
another way to evaluate a writing sample. Rubrics are very similar to rating scales; they are
important to understand because they are often used in tests that measure state standards in
writing. Our sample rubric is one similarly used when assessing the Common Core writing
standards for ninth and tenth graders writing a narrative text. As you can see, it examines
five areas: exposition, narrative techniques and development, organization and cohesion,
style and conventions, and conclusion. Criteria are provided for five scores, ranging from
exceptional (worth 5 points) to inadequate (1 point). Scorers usually read and reread each
student passage several times with these areas and scoring criteria in mind.

Figure 8.5 Example of a Checklist Used with Preschool Children

Figure 8.6 Example of a Holistic Scoring Rubric

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 Source: C.R. Reynolds, R.B. Livingston, & V. Willson, V. (2009). Measurment
and assessment in education (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p. 235.

Source: C.R. Reynolds, R.B. Livingston, & V. Willson, V. (2009). Measurment and
assessment in education (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p. 235.

Figure 8.7 Example of an Analytic Scoring Rubric

Source: Reynolds et al. (2009, p. 235).

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Source: Reynolds et al. (2009, p. 235).

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Unlike many rating scales, rubrics have lengthy descriptions of the scoring criteria, making
scoring decisions somewhat less subjective. However, it takes considerable time and practice
to learn to use rubrics to score writing passages. Teachers often attend lengthy workshops
where they learn how to score passages using rubrics, and they practice scoring passages
with other teachers and compare their scores. It is not uncommon to find considerable
differences of opinion early on during the training, but as discussion and further practice
sessions are conducted, closer agreement is reached. It is critical that whoever scores a rubric
arrives at a similar score. In assessment language, this is called interscorer reliability, which
we discussed earlier in the “Technical Adequacy” section.

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Work Samples
Work sample analysis is a procedure that helps teachers assess academic skills by looking at
students’ permanent products (McLoughlin & Lewis, 2008) to identify types and
frequencies of errors. This information can help teachers establish instructional objectives
or select a new intervention.

The most common type of work sample analysis is error analysis, which is fairly easy to
conduct. The teacher (a) identifies the objective of the assignment, (b) spells out the
mastery criteria for the work, (c) examines work sample products, (d) documents error
types, (e) asks students to explain how they arrived at an erroneous solution, and (f) makes
instructional recommendations. For instance, in mathematics, the teacher could (a)
establish that students are expected to complete 10 word problems at 90% accuracy, (b)
examine the story problems completed by students, (c) record the percentage correct, (d)
examine each problem to identify the types of errors made (for instance, erroneous
computation, incorrect diagram to depict information, incorrect use of “key word”
technique), (e) ask students to explain how they solved the problems, and (f) identify
additional instructional objectives, based on the error types and student explanations, to
rectify the problems. In oral reading, the teacher could record error types (such as
substitutions, omissions, additions) and the number of errors. If the number of incorrect
responses is significant, the teacher can institute a remedial plan.

The error analysis procedure can yield good information for designing the instructional
program. It is important to ask students to explain their answers. Through careful analysis
of work samples, coupled with student explanations, teachers can pinpoint faulty
conceptual or procedural knowledge that they can then remediate.

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School Records
Teachers glean information about their children from a variety of sources, such as the
measures we described earlier. But they can also find information in students’ cumulative
folders (or cumulative records or files, as they are also called), which contain academic and
behavioral history data.

School records can be a valuable source of information about student academic and social
progress. Records of attendance, achievement test scores, curricular materials used during
instruction, anecdotal notes, and student work provide a composite overview of the
student’s progression through the grades. Teachers can use this information to document
particular problems that might have been evident in earlier grades, attendance patterns,
techniques that were implemented earlier, classroom and behavioral interactions, and
teacher concerns. Again, although this is important information, some pieces (such as
anecdotal notes) may need to be interpreted cautiously because of reliability concerns. That
is, people may be inconsistent in their interpretation of information found in the records.

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Portfolio Assessments
Portfolio assessment is a means of monitoring student learning and evaluating the
effectiveness of instructional programs and decision making. Portfolios contain student-
selected work samples and sometimes student notes about how the samples were created
and edited or improved. Portfolio assessment can compare student progress to curricular
objectives and instructional methods, focus our evaluation on process rather than just on
product, measure student academic achievement and classroom learning more directly, and
assist in evaluating the effectiveness of instruction.

Reynolds et al. (2009) noted that portfolios are typically scored using evaluation rubrics.
These rubrics should specify all evaluation criteria that needs to be considered when
evaluating the students’ work products, provide explicit qualifications for performance
levels for all criteria, and indicate whether the criteria are applied holistically or analytically.

For students with learning and behavior problems, portfolio information should be related
to curricular goals included in the IEP. Obviously, such information typically would
include academic and social skills, but information can also be provided about behavior and
adaptive functioning, academic and literacy growth, strategic learning and self-regulation,
and language and cultural aspects that can be linked to the IEP.

Students with learning and behavior problems typically lack specific academic skills and
effective cognitive strategies that promote efficient learning. Therefore, portfolio assessment
should include examples of completed products (for instance, math problems or writing
samples), with analyses that document the types of strategies employed during problem
solving or drafting/editing. Notes taken during writing conferences can accompany writing
samples.

Frequent measures of student progress can help teachers monitor learning and implement
decision-making criteria. For example, it is possible to measure fluency in oral reading twice
a week to determine the effect of the instructional intervention: Collect rate data and
analyze student growth, implement decision rules regarding rate of student progress, and
store graphs in the portfolio until the next timing. The important point about the time line
used for collecting and assessing portfolio items is frequency. For students with learning
and behavior difficulties, monitor progress regularly to determine whether instructional
techniques are indeed promoting student academic growth.

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Behavioral Assessments
All students go through periods in their lives that affect their behavior and personality.
Events at home or with their peers can cause children to act out or to become depressed or
anxious. Typically, these periods do not last long, and the students bounce back. For some
students, however, behavior problems occur for a long time and are systematic. For these
students, assessments can help identify emotional problems that are symptomatic of
disabilities.

Earlier we mentioned that the Conners-III has a parent and teacher rating component. This
allows for an ecological evaluation, that is, one that considers multiple ways to collect
information, such as across people or settings. Across the scales, the responses to one or two
items may not be indicative of a serious behavior problem. But students whose ratings are
consistently problematic across settings when observed by different people may well have
serious behavioral or emotional conditions. The advantage of using ecological assessments,
whether gathered in one scale or across several measures, is that they allow teachers and
others to determine whether the problems occur in just one setting or are pervasive across
multiple settings and people. We provide several examples of less standardized assessment
procedures in Chapter 9 on behavior concerns. All the techniques contribute to identifying
problem behaviors and ameliorating them.

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Curriculum-Based Measures
Progress monitoring relies on collecting data periodically and using it to make instructional
decisions. Curriculum-based measures (CBMs) have gained in popularity as a technique for
monitoring student performance while considering curricular goals and instructional
techniques. Accordingly, CBMs are typically the assessments of choice for monitoring
student progress over time. Professionals use assessment measures that determine how
students are performing not only in relationship to the peer group but also in relationship
to the curriculum and instruction presented daily. Recently, progress monitoring has also
become a critical feature of learning disability identification procedures that employ the
RTI procedure. See the Working Together feature for information about how general
education teachers collaborate with special educators to establish a multitiered service
delivery system for RTI implementation.

To assist educators in designing, implementing, and evaluating instruction to meet the

needs of an increasingly diverse student population, assessment procedures must be versatile
yet valid. With CBM, the content of the curriculum and the content found in the
assessment are the same. The teacher uses material from the students’ curricula to
determine where students should be placed, what their instructional objectives should be,
and how they are progressing. In this section, we describe (a) the purposes of CBM, (b)
ways to design CBAs, (c) data collection and analysis procedures, and (d) procedures for
pairing instruction and evaluation. (See the literature on CBMs and precision teaching;
both use graphing, decision-making rules, and intervention recommendations to guide the
instructional process.) As you read each section, think about a student you may know or
have observed who has a disability. What considerations should occur at each step to help
reduce the need for later adaptations based on the test’s and the student’s characteristics?

Curriculum-based measurement has several purposes:

To measure directly the curriculum being taught

To establish a link between students’ IEPs and classroom instruction
To provide a means for monitoring student progress and evaluating the effectiveness
of the intervention being used to teach the instructional objective
To obtain data during the prereferral stage about students’ progress in the general
education setting without special education services
To provide a more “culture fair” or “culture neutral” means of assessing the progress
of youngsters from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds
To determine initial placement in a task analysis of skills

Thus, curriculum-based measurement offers an alternative to standardized testing as a

means for teachers to place, monitor, and evaluate instructional programs and student
progress.

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646
WORKING together

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RTI Implementation
With the passage of IDEA ’04, school districts can now use the RTI procedure to help in the learning
disability identification process. This procedure may use a multitiered approach to identify early those
students who may be at risk for having learning disabilities and to intervene in kindergarten, Grade 1, or
Grade 2 to help reduce the likelihood that students will be misidentified as having an LD.

General education teachers work closely with special educators to help set up a multitiered system wherein
young children are given curriculum-based assessments (CBAs) in the fall of the school year. Those students
who fall below preset benchmarks, usually set at the 25th or 16th percentile, are targeted for small group
supplemental instruction in the second tier. Students receiving the supplemental instruction continue to
receive regular class instruction in the core curriculum but also are provided additional, small group
instruction using validated practices designed to help them increase their skill levels to those of their peers.

Special educators can help general education teachers identify reliable CBMs that yield valid results and can
also help teachers identify research-based supplemental instructional procedures. Every two weeks or so,
CBMs are readministered and provide an index of growth for each student receiving supplemental
instruction. If the students are making progress, no changes are made to the supplemental program.
However, instruction for students who are not making sufficient progress is modified to better meet student
needs. After 8 to 12 weeks of supplemental instruction, midyear testing is used to determine whether the
students can exit the second tier of intervention or need to continue such instruction for an additional 8 to
12 weeks. After spring testing, students who do not make sufficient progress may be identified as having an
LD if they meet additional, federally prescribed criteria.

Clearly, assessment plays a critical role in the RTI process. Additional testing using highly standardized tests
may also be administered in the determination of a learning disability, but CBA is at the heart of the
assessment process.

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Questions
1. What types of questions might a general education teacher ask a special educator as they discuss
RTI-related issues.
2. Put yourself in the position of the general education teacher. How might you find information
about your school’s RTI program? What questions might you need to have answered?
3. Why are assessments important during the RTI process?

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Designing Curriculum-Based Measures
CBMs can help identify the initial instructional objective placement and measure students’
progress with the identified instructional objective. Before identifying instructional
placement within the designated curriculum, teachers should refer to the IEP and identify
the goals designated for instruction. By examining these goals, teachers can begin to
develop an idea of the content and skill areas that require instruction. The next step is to
design the placement CBA. Taylor (2008) listed five steps to follow when constructing
CBMs for instructional placement purposes.

STEP 1: Identify the goal to be assessed.

Examine the student’s goals on the IEP. An example of a goal might be, “The student
will compute whole numbers.”

STEP 2: Identify the instructional objectives (task analysis).

Break down Step 1 into smaller steps that can become instructional objectives.
Instructional objectives for the goal identified in Step 1 might include the following:
two-digit + one-digit numbers with no regrouping, two-digit + two-digit with no
regrouping, three-digit + two-digit with no regrouping, three-digit + three-digit with
no regrouping, two-digit + one-digit with regrouping, two-digit + two-digit with
regrouping, three-digit + two-digit with regrouping, and three-digit + three digit with
regrouping to the tens and hundreds place. Each of these steps could be treated as an
instructional objective, depending on the student’s ability level.

STEP 3: Develop test items for each instructional objective.

Develop sufficient items (four or five) for each objective to ensure the student has
enough opportunities to respond in the time frame allowed. Develop several versions
of the CBA for testing across several days.

STEP 4: Set standards of performance (mastery levels).

Identify a performance standard for each objective. The criterion can be stated in
terms of percentage correct (80% or 90% accuracy) or rate (100 words per minute
correct); data collection procedures are discussed later. To select an appropriate
performance standard or criterion, (a) have students in the general education
classroom perform the skill and take the average of those scores as the criterion, or (b)
use a “percentage-correct” criterion or fluency criterion based on the type of skill
being assessed (acceptable percentage-correct criteria usually range from 80 to 100,
depending on the skill; fluency depends on the skill), or (c) use the school district’s

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 performance standards.

STEP 5: Administer and interpret the instrument.

Have students take the CBM several times; one administration is not sufficient to
give an accurate picture of students’ instructional abilities. Analyze test item results
for each instructional objective; the scores can be averaged to arrive at the student’s
instructional levels of performance. Instructional objectives with results that fall
below the criterion level are targeted for instruction. Students should know the time
limits in which they will work and the standards that apply (for instance, work
quickly, skip problems you don’t know, reduce fractions, show your work, finish all
the pages).

A major component of CBMs is the collection and evaluation of data for determining
placement and progress in an instructional sequence. A data collection system that
accurately measures the targeted skill is selected, and teachers implement specific data
analysis procedures to determine whether their intervention is indeed making a difference
with the students.

Teachers can incorporate charting into their progress monitoring using CBM data. An
example appears in Figure 8.8. Here, a student has been given 40 addition and subtraction
facts to calculate in one minute. The number of items answered correctly in that time span
(calculations correct per minute or CCPM) is graphed on a sheet of paper. The students
can do this themselves to see their own progress. In our sample, the student’s scores were
graphed weekly. Through Week 3, the student was making progress toward his end-of-
semester objective (marked with an X). But then, for three consecutive weeks, the student’s
scores plateaued. We have drawn an arrow to show how much progress is needed in the
short time remaining before the end of the semester. The arrow demonstrates that changes
must be made in the program to ensure sufficient progress toward the student’s goal.

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How Do We Adapt and Modify Assessments for Students
with Special Needs?
Assessment adaptations include any change in administration, scoring, and interpretation
procedures we make specifically because of a test taker’s ability. Their purpose is to level the
playing field, meaning each test taker has the same chance as any other student to succeed,
whether the assessment is a high-stakes test or Friday’s spelling quiz.

We begin our discussion of assessment adaptations by exploring universal design as it

applies to assessment. We then discuss briefly the role of parents in making test adaptations
or accommodations. Then we introduce different adaptation categories. We conclude our
discussion of assessment adaptations by examining two specific applications where
assessment adaptations may or may not be warranted: high-stakes testing and grading. We
also briefly discuss alternative assessments. Many of the adaptation procedures described in
the section can be generalized to any number of additional scenarios related to assessments.

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Universal Design for Assessment
As described in Chapter 7, the term universal design refers to barrier-free systems that
meet the needs of everyone, including people with disabilities (Smith & Tyler, 2010).
Initially used in conjunction with accessible housing for people with and without
disabilities, universal design has expanded to teaching and testing. The premise is that
curricula and assessments should be made accessible to all students by “remov[ing] barriers
to accurate measurement of learner knowledge, skills, and engagement” (CAST, 2011, p.
8).

Figure 8.8 Sample Chart Depicting Correct Calculations PER Minute (CCPM)

With regard to universal design for assessment, more than 10 years ago Thompson,
Johnstone, and Thurlow (2002) provided some suggestions for making tests more
accessible to all students that are still relevant today:

Select an inclusive assessment population. When developing items, think about all
students who will participate in the assessment. Ideally, examinees would be afforded
equal opportunity to prepare for a test.
Precisely define test content. Define what is to be tested so that irrelevant cognitive,
sensory, emotional, and physical barriers can be removed.
Choose accessible, nonbiased items. Build accessibility into items from the
beginning, and use bias review teams to ensure that quality is retained in all items.

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Be amenable to accommodations. Test design must facilitate the use of need
accommodations (for instance, all items can be communicated in Braille).
Provide simple, clear, and intuitive instructions and procedures. Make sure
students are easily able to follow the directions for taking a test.
Ensure maximum readability and comprehensibility. For example, use plain
language strategies and other approaches that reduce ambiguity and increase
understandability.
Ensure maximum legibility. Characteristics that ensure easy decipherability are
applied to text, tables, figures and illustrations, and response formats.

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Parental Involvement
Parents are (or should be) active participants in all aspects of their children’s education,
including testing. They should be aware of, and sign off on, testing accommodations that
have been suggested for their child. In addition, parents can request testing
accommodations the district should consider. PARCC (2013) has written a parental
guidebook that outlines roles and responsibilities (see
http://www.parcconline.org/resources/parent-resources). You can type into your server,
Expanding Accessibility: Accessibility Features for All Students and Accommodations in
PARCC Assessments—A Parent’s Guide, to download a copy of the guide.

One section of the guide is titled “What Parents Can Do to Support Their Child.” Here is
what PARCC offers to parents:

Familiarize yourself with the Common Core State Standards. Talk to your child’s
teachers about what he or she is learning.
Learn about the PARCC assessments—their purpose, what they measure, and how
the results will be used.
Learn about PARCC accessibility features and accommodations. Identify those that
your child may need or find helpful to use at home, in the classroom, and on the
PARCC assessments.
Find out how your child’s teachers are preparing for the new assessments and how
they are helping your child get ready.
Talk to your child about the accommodations he or she already uses on tests. Discuss
whether or not your child thinks they are helping him or her. Share this information
with your child’s teachers—or encourage your child to share his or her ideas with
teachers.
Share information about your child’s strengths and needs related to using computers
for work assignments with educators. Include information about the types of
strategies your child uses routinely to complete homework assignments and other
tasks in the home and the community.
Encourage your child to use the accessibility features and/or accommodations
identified in his or her IEP or Section 504 plan at home, if possible.
Ask about the technology your child will be using for the PARCC assessments. Ask
about how your child can practice using the technology during school.
Make sure your child is willing to use the accommodation(s) and/or accessibility
feature(s). Inform his or her teacher if your child is having difficulty using an
accommodation.
Research possible state and/or regional technology centers for information on
matching student needs with allowable assistive technology. (p. 3)

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 To make assessments accessible to all students, teachers should give simple, clear, and
intuitive instructions and ensure that students are easily able to follow the directions.

iStock/aldomurillo

As a teacher, you will likely be the first person parents contact with questions about their
student’s testing. Check with your district to see whether a parental handbook is available
that can provide useful information. If there is one, provide parents with a copy, but at the
same time explain its content. If there is no handbook available, create one and have it
checked with your district assessment office. In any case, remember that not all parents
understand education language, and even though these handbooks are typically written
with parents in mind, no two parents are alike. Many will need the material presented in a
way they can understand, and they trust you with that task.

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Adaptation Categories
Adaptations tend to cluster around four basic areas: input adaptations, output adaptations,
time and/or schedule adaptations, and location adaptations. We add a fifth area, academic
qualifications, which deals more with curriculum issues than with testing adaptations.

Input Adaptations
Input adaptations adjust the way students access test stimuli and questions. More than 20
years ago, Hammill, Brown, and Bryant (1992) identified three testing input formats that
remain relevant today for assessment adaptations: listening (the test taker listens to
instructions and/or test questions), reading print (words and numbers), and looking at
stimuli, such as spatial tests that have the student look at a one-dimensional, unfolded
drawing and ask what the object would look like if folded into a three-dimensional object.
The input of test items should suit the needs of all students, including those who have a
disability. For example, a student with a reading learning disability is unlikely to do well on
a science test if he or she has to read the question. In this instance, recognizing student
needs allows teachers to adapt the test input to allow the student to demonstrate acquisition
of science knowledge.

One of the key considerations for input adaptations deals with the content that is being
assessed by the test. Think about Sonya, a student we met earlier in Mr. Gomez’s class. In
two weeks, she is going to take two tests, back-to-back, that require reading paragraphs and
responding to multiple-choice questions. The first test is a measure of reading
comprehension, and the second test assesses knowledge of science concepts. Because Sonya
has a learning disability in reading, she struggles with both test formats, so she decides to
speak with Mr. Gomez about possible input adaptations.

Sonya will probably not be allowed to use an adapted input format for the reading
comprehension test, but she is likely to receive adaptations for the science test. Why? The
content of the reading test is reading. Adaptations that remove reading from the task defeat
the purpose of the test; in other words, changing the input format changes the content
being measured. This is one litmus test of any assessment adaptation. If the content being
measured by the assessment is altered, the adaptation proposal is likely to be unsound.

Science content, on the other hand, would not be altered if we remove reading as the input
format. The test uses reading as an efficient way to test large numbers of students’
understanding of science, because the assumption is that all (or at least most) test takers can
read the paragraphs and questions. But reading ability itself is not being tested. Thus,
because the content of the assessment is not being changed, altering the input format to
speech would be legitimate.

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Output Adaptations
Output adaptations adjust the way a test taker records responses to test questions. Output
formats include speaking, minor (providing a one- or two-word response); speaking, major
(responding with sentences); manipulating objects (such as blocks or coins); marking an
answer sheet (the familiar “fill in the bubble,” for example); pointing; drawing; and writing
print. If a test’s output format interferes with its ability to provide valid scores for a student
who has a disability, output adaptations can be made.

Consider Dondra from the chapter’s opening example, who has a neurological impairment
that affects her fine motor skills. As a result of this disability, Dondra has trouble grasping a
pencil, and when she finally controls it, she has difficulty using the pencil to write or make
identifiable marks. Dondra is studying to take a social studies exam in three days. This
exam requires students to read multiple-choice questions and respond by filling in bubbles
of a Scantron sheet. Thus, the test’s output format will make it nearly impossible for
Dondra to mark the answer sheet (completely filling in a bubble without going outside the
bubble). Clearly, the test’s content has nothing to do with filling in bubbles on an answer
sheet; it is measuring social studies skills. Therefore, it is likely that Mr. Gomez will alter
the test’s output format for Dondra to allow her to better respond to the test questions.

Time and/or Schedule Adaptations

When appropriate, teachers may extend testing time and may also change the way the time
is organized. Extended time is a common test adaptation. The idea is that people with
reading disabilities, even if they are able to read the text, do so at a much slower rate than
their peers without disabilities. Thus, the slow readers will not have the same opportunity
to complete the test as their peers without disabilities.

Most tests have time limits. As a rule of thumb, students are expected to complete about
75% of the test in the prescribed time allocation, and/or 80% of the students are expected
to have an opportunity to respond to all items. Students with disabilities may not be able to
complete the test in the allotted time, so time adaptations may be made. In addition, a test
may be organized to provide 25 minutes for one test to be taken, give students a five-
minute break, and then call for a second test to be administered after the break. Some
students, by the nature of their disability, may be fatigued and require a longer break
between test administrations. Depending on the circumstances, the students may be
allowed to wait longer before completing the rest of the test. Such an adjustment is a
schedule adaptation.

Location Adaptations
Location adaptations may change the setting in which a test is administered or the

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conditions of the test setting. Some students have disabilities that affect their ability to
perform when distractions occur around them. For these students, a conventional testing
setting, such as the classroom, may be inappropriate, and an isolated setting may be an
appropriate location adaptation. In addition, some students with behavior issues may need
to be tested in a situation that minimizes the effects of their behavior on others.

Assessment Technology

Academic Qualifications
Although they are not really adaptations in the true sense of the word, academic
qualifications are used to identify whether a person should take the test in the first place.
Most students with disabilities, by law, participate in the general education curriculum, so
they will take the same tests as their nondisabled peers. However, some students with severe
disabilities have IEPs that focus on special academic areas such as life skills. In this instance,
alternate assessments would be deemed more appropriate than a test that measures mastery
of content the students haven’t been taught.

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Adaptations for High-Stakes Testing
Most states have adopted the Common Core State Standards (National Governors
Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). For
the first several years of the CCSS, there was no standard high-stakes assessment that
measured performance on the standards. States that had adopted the CCSS were left to
either adjust their state’s high-stakes tests to conform to the new standards or continue to
test the non-CCSS content that had been assessed by the previously administered
instruments. To remedy the situation, the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium and
the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers wrote and field-tested
a standard assessment. States not adopting the CCSS will continue to use their own high-
stakes tests.

Curricular Content
Usually, a team of experts meets and creates, for each subject area, a list of skills they want
taught to their state’s students. Essentially, they are telling teachers across the state what it is
important for all students in their classrooms to learn in kindergarten, Grade 1, and so on
through high school. Through this process, state departments of education tell their
teachers and population, “This is important for all children in __________ (insert any state
here). We care enough about our children’s education that we have created a set of skills all
children should have before they go on to the next grade.” Supposedly, when students have
learned everything they should know in the third grade, they are ready to learn the material
in the fourth grade, and so on until graduation.

Assessment Issues
Once the curriculum skills have been set, a team of experts creates a test to measure those
skills, and these state exams form the basis for most states’ high-stakes testing. Think about
the logic behind the testing. It begins with “These are the skills that all students in the state
of _________ need in order to graduate from high school.” Then it moves to “If students
need to know this information by the end of high school, what skills do they need at the
end of the ninth grade? We’ll create a test of those skills, which students will take at the end
of ninth grade. If they fail the test, they have to repeat the ninth grade until they are ready
for the tenth grade.” Most states do not test at every grade level; they pick key grades for
testing, usually two or three years apart. For most students in states with this policy, high-
stakes testing can begin as early as the third grade.

High-stakes testing has a dramatic effect on teachers and students. First, teachers have to
teach the skills the state has specified. Fortunately, most publishers of basal textbooks
understand this, so they work to ensure a correspondence between these enumerated skills

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and the skills that are taught in textbooks. If there are gaps, teachers are responsible for
filling them.

As we have already noted, not all students have to participate in high-stakes testing. If a
student has a disability, the student’s IEP may state that he or she is exempt from such
testing. However, states are increasingly devising alternate tests for students with
disabilities. This approach stems from the belief that all students should be accountable for
learning.

Adaptation Issues
If a student with a disability is going to take a high-stakes test, test adaptations may be
made to compensate for the student’s disability. The decision to do so is not made
haphazardly. Usually, states and districts have set policies governing the choice; teachers
may wish to consider the following six-step procedure. (Note: Throughout this section, we
deal with disability-related adaptations for high-stakes testing. For adaptations related to
English language learners, see the Considering Diversity feature.)

STEP 1: As the IEP committee, discuss whether the student should participate in
state and district assessment.

This step has three components:

1. Examine a student’s IEP goals and the content of the educational program or
the state’s curriculum.
2. Examine the purpose of the state and district-wide assessments and the content
of the assessments.
3. Measure the match between the student’s educational program and the content
of the assessment.

If there is no match between the student’s educational program and the content of
the assessment, the student may be exempted from the testing. If there is a match, the
next step in the process is to determine whether adaptations are warranted.

STEP 2: As a committee, discuss the student’s need for test adaptations.

IEP committees should examine the input and output formats of the state and
district-wide assessments and the IEP and student work samples to determine
whether the formats of the assessment will yield valid results.

If the committee agrees that the formats match the student’s abilities, there is
probably no need for adaptations. If, however, the formats preclude achieving valid
results because they do not allow for the student’s limitations (for example, Sonya’s
inability to read precludes using reading as an input format that yields valid results),

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adaptations may be needed.

STEP 3: As a committee, identify test adaptations that respond to the student’s needs
identified in Step 2.

Earlier, we described several areas where adaptations typically take place. To review,
do input concerns preclude obtaining valid results in a typical setting? Does the
output format need to be altered to ensure that the student can complete the task?
Or, if he or she reads slowly because of the disability, is more time needed to
complete the task? If the student is easily distracted, is a different testing location
needed?

STEP 4: As a committee, document your decision in the IEP. If the IEP committee
decides the student should not participate, members should recommend an
appropriate alternate assessment.

STEP 5: As a committee, collect data and develop procedures for monitoring the
effectiveness of adaptations.

What type of data should teachers collect? Usually, there are four sources of data.
First, collect student scores on two versions of the same test, with and without
adaptations. Remember that it is entirely possible the student will fail the test because
he or she does not know the answers to the test items. Adaptations don’t guarantee
success; they are designed to guarantee only that the results are valid. If the student
doesn’t know the content and, with adaptations, demonstrates that lack of
knowledge, then the results are valid.

Interview the student after testing to gauge his or her reactions. Did the adaptations
work? What other issues may have arisen during testing that you need to know
about?

Teachers also must be interviewed. This interview can be conducted at any time to
learn about the student’s academic characteristics, but it is important to know
whether test adaptations have been used successfully in class. Ideally, each teacher will
be a member of the committee and will provide input during each stage of the
process.

STEP 6: Finally, interview the student’s parents. What are their perceptions of the
testing process and the way it affects their son or daughter? Parents will be
dramatically affected by the results of the high-stakes assessment, so they need to have
input throughout the process, and their reactions to the committee’s findings and the
testing process should be documented. Ideally, they too have been members of the
committee, but that is seldom the case.

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CONSIDERING diversity

663
Adaptations for High-Stakes Testing of English
Language Learners

664
ADAPT in action

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Alternate Assessments
Although states differ in the options they make available to students with disabilities in
high-stakes testing, all states have some sort of alternate testing plan available. No Child
Left Behind legislation has dictated that no more than 1% of students may be assessed
using alternate assessments. As a result, such assessments are usually administered only to
students with severe cognitive disabilities or those whose disability requires alternate means
for testing.

The National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) suggests three approaches that
states may use when conducting alternative assessments. Alternative assessments based on
alternative achievement standards (AA-AAS) are used with students with the most severe
cognitive limitations. “These assessments are based on the grade-level content covered by
the typical assessment used with all students, but they do so at reduced depth, breadth, and
complexity. These assessments describe achievement based on what a state determines is a
high expectation for these students” (NCEO, 2013, para. 3).

Alternative assessments based on modified achievement standards (AA-MAS) can be

administered to those students with disabilities who are accessing the general education
curriculum that is covered by the general assessment but who may need more time to take
the test. According to NCEO (2013, para. 4), “these assessments measure a student’s
mastery of grade-level content but are less difficult than grade-level achievement standards.”
States that use the AA-MAS are in the process of discontinuing this option.

Alternative assessments based on grade-level achievement standards (AA-GLAS) “include

the same grade-level content as the general assessment and describe achievement in the
same way as the general assessment” (NCEO, 2013, para. 5). The AA-GLAS is for those
students with disabilities who require alternate testing formats or procedures that typically
are not included as part of the general assessment or are not addressed with use of
accommodations.

Some organizations, such as the National Center and State Collaborative, and the
Educational Testing Service, have been working with selected states and groups for years to
construct and field-test reliable alternative assessments that yield valid results. Much of this
work is aligned with the CCSS. Other states are taking it upon themselves to create their
own alternative assessments, particularly those that have chosen not to adopt the CCSS. In
these cases, the alternate assessments focus on individual state standards.

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ADAPT framework: ADAPTING TEST INPUT

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Summary
This chapter presents techniques for promoting positive behavior and facilitating social
skills. Both of these areas can greatly influence a teacher’s success in promoting an
atmosphere for learning. Identifying specific behavioral and social tasks will help teachers
plan effective adaptations and interventions that can provide students with skills to use not
only in the classroom but also schoolwide and in the community.

By utilizing assessment practices, teachers will realize quickly how successful their
adaptations and intervention programs are in promoting an environment that is conducive
to learning. Implementing practices discussed in this chapter will help students with
disabilities become more involved in the classroom and be better accepted by their peers.

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Review THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot talk
through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

Why do we assess students?

There are several reasons for assessing students. One reason is to identify strengths
and weaknesses. Another reason is to determine the student’s relative standing in class
compared with the other students. Informing instruction, documenting progress, and
determining program eligibility are yet other reasons. Finally, grading and
determining annual yearly progress are reasons for assessing students.

How do we assess students with special needs?

Norm-referenced tests compare a person’s performance with that of his or her peers.
Criterion-referenced tests measure abilities against a mastery standard. And non-
referenced tests examine the strategies that a person uses when problem solving.
Curriculum-based measures provide information that is curriculum specific, and
performance-based assessments allow for authentic information gathering that cannot
be obtained using conventional assessments.

How do we adapt and modify assessments for students with special needs?

Assessment adaptations include any change in administration, scoring, and

interpretation procedures we make specifically because of a test taker’s ability. Their
purpose is to level the playing field, meaning each test taker has the same chance as
any other student to succeed, whether the assessment is a high-stakes test or Friday’s
spelling quiz.

Test your understanding of chapter content. Take the practice quiz. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

669
Revisit the Opening Challenge
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions in the Opening Challenge and revise them
on the basis of what you have learned.

1. How could Ms. Thompson set up a progress monitoring procedure?

2. How could she set goals and chart her students’ progress?
3. How can Mr. Gomez teach Sonya science and test her abilities when she cannot read?
4. What measures are available to identify Dondra’s attentional difficulties and Kim’s
mathematics struggles?
5. How can assessments be used to identify student strengths and struggles?

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Key Terms
adequate yearly progress (AYP), 317
assessment, 314
exempt, 354
high-stakes assessments, 317
norm-referenced tests, 325
observation, 314
reliability, 324
universal design, 348
validity, 324

Review key terms with eFlashcards. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

671
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

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CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge
Standard 4: Assessment

673
INTASC Core Principle
Standard 2: Learning Differences
Standard 4: Content Knowledge
Standard 6: Assessment

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Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities: Assessment

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

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iStock/Susan Chiang

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Part III Adaptations to Meet Individual Learner
Needs

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9 Promoting Positive Behavior and Facilitating
Social Skills

This chapter was written with the assistance of

Dr. Andrea Flower.

iStock/damircudic

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What practices can be used to foster student relationships and communication?

What ways can be used to communicate effectively with students?
What are effective classroom arrangement practices?
What are the goals of misbehavior?
How can problem behaviors be assessed?
What instructional strategies are available for behavior problems?
What is social competence?
How can safer schools be promoted?

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OPENING challenge

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Addressing Behaviors and Social Problems
Elementary Grades Ms. Watson is midway through her tenth year of teaching and in her third year of
teaching second grade. Three weeks ago a new student, Sandy, joined her class after moving from another
state. Sandy was diagnosed as having autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as a preschooler and has been in
inclusive settings throughout her schooling. Ms. Watson has never had a student diagnosed with ASD and,
because Sandy is new to her class, she did not have a chance to attend professional development (PD)
sessions about Sandy’s challenging behaviors. Sandy is a friendly student who is eager to please, but she
presents social and behavioral challenges that Ms. Watson has not confronted before. For example, when
Marianne, a classmate, came to school with a new haircut, Sandy blurted out, “Ewwww, that’s ugly,”
causing Marianne to start crying and other classmates to yell at Sandy, resulting in a meltdown. Sandy
speaks without thinking at times; because of the statements she makes, her classmates sometimes see her as a
bully. Sandy also demands to go first in activities, does not respond well to changes in routine, and screams
when she does not get her way or is frustrated.

For three days per week for half a day, a special education teacher comes into the classroom to provide
support. She works with Sandy as Ms. Watson teaches lessons. The special education teacher rephrases Ms.
Watson’s instructions at times to make the lessons more accessible, and she also serves to calm Sandy when
she gets frustrated or upset. Once each week, the special education teacher meets with Ms. Watson during
her planning period to provide PD on how to meet Sandy’s unique demands.

Secondary Grades It is October of Ms. Martinez’s second year of teaching eighth-grade English, and she is
planning lessons for the upcoming week. She connects her lessons to the Common Core State Standards
(CCSS) and the district’s curricula. She makes sure that there are activities that keep her students engaged.
Depending on the lesson, she pairs students with disabilities with students who have stronger skills.
However, things are not going very well for her students with disabilities. Ms. Martinez is puzzled about
three students who seem to challenge her day in and day out. She has read their school folders, but she feels
that she doesn’t know them well.

One student, Sam, is identified as having ADHD. She studied this condition in her teacher-preparation
program and even worked with one student with ADHD during student teaching, but having a student
with ADHD in her class all day long is wearing her out. Ms. Martinez begins to question her ability to work
effectively with Sam: “How can I get him to pay attention? How can I help him get organized? He forgets what
to do and can’t remember to return homework. Why does he have so few friends? Am I really prepared to help this
child learn?”

Her second student, Eric, is identified as having a mild emotional or behavioral disorder. He was retained in
fifth grade. Ms. Martinez worries about Eric: “I don’t really understand his disability. Why is he so defiant? He
seems to do things on purpose just to be disruptive and get everyone’s attention. What can I do with him so that he
will stop interfering with my teaching? Why does he bully the other children? Shouldn’t he be in a special
education classroom?”

Finally, Ms. Martinez turns her thoughts to Luisa, who has a learning disability in reading and writing: “She
seems so lost during group instruction and spends way too much time fiddling with things in her desk, sharpening
her pencils, and being off task. Why can’t she work with the other students? What’s wrong?”

Ms. Martinez asks herself the following: “How can I help these students behave? What can I do about their social
skills? How do I know whether my teaching practices are working?”

REFLECTION QUESTIONS In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. If you were Ms. Watson, in what areas would you seek PD help from the special education teacher?
2. How might Ms. Watson be able to identify specific challenges that Sandy presents?

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 3. What advice would you offer Ms. Martinez about getting to know her students better?
4. How can Ms. Watson and Ms. Martinez foster student relationships and communication?
5. How can both teachers help their students with their behavior?
6. How can both teachers facilitate their students’ social skills?
7. How can both teachers determine whether student behavior and social skills are improving?
8. How can Ms. Watson and Ms. Martinez use the ADAPT framework to promote positive behavior
and facilitate social skills?

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Take a quiz to find out what you’ve learned.

Review key terms with eFlashcards.
Watch videos to see teachers in action.

The classroom is a social environment in which academic instruction must thrive. For
teaching to be successful, teachers must create, nurture, and manage a classroom
environment that supports student learning and interactions, minimizes situations that
contribute to the occurrence of problem behaviors, and addresses those unacceptable
behaviors that interfere with teaching and learning. For example, consider Sam, Eric, and
Luisa in the Opening Challenge. Practices are readily available that teachers can employ to
help students with their behavior and social problems. Some of these practices are presented
in this chapter. Research has confirmed that teacher attention to nurturing and managing
the classroom, student behavior, and social aspects of learning involving behavior
management and applied behavior analysis contribute significantly to promoting an
environment that is conducive to teaching and learning (American Psychological
Association, 2014; Wolfgang, 2008).

This chapter presents practices that teachers can use to improve student relationships and
communication. You will learn about ways to promote appropriate behavior and to
facilitate the social skills of all students. You will also learn about interventions that may be
necessary for a small number of students so that they can succeed in inclusive settings.
Assessment techniques will help you identify behaviors and social skills that require
intervention and determine if these interventions are effective. Finally, you will learn about
positive behavioral supports, a process supported by the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEA; U.S. Department of Education, 2004), and also about
ways to promote safer schools. The ADAPT framework will be implemented throughout
the chapter so that you can learn how to use the framework to promote positive behavior
and to facilitate social skills in your classroom.

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What Practices Can Be Used to Foster Student Relationships
and Communication?
There are a number of practices you can adopt to cultivate good relationships with—and
among—the students you teach.

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Get to Know Your Students
Students’ attitudes, beliefs, experiences, and backgrounds influence their perceptions of
school and learning and how they approach their relationships with their teachers. Teachers
who get to know their students quickly can structure their teaching according to students’
interests, background experiences, and attitudes. By doing so, teachers show they care about
their students and make connections between their students and teaching. Getting to know
students by taking time to talk with them (before school, between classes, during a
conference, and in small groups) is one of the most powerful techniques for fostering
positive relationships and creating an effective learning community.

How can teachers learn more about their students with disabilities? A good place to begin is
by examining students’ individualized education programs (IEPs; for a complete discussion
on IEPs, see Chapter 6) to determine their academic and social goals. IEPs can provide
helpful information about those areas in which the students need support. Such areas might
actually be prerequisite skills for those behavior and social skills tasks that teachers expect
from their students. For example, students are expected to follow classroom directions. If
the student’s IEP states that assistance is needed to help the student follow directions, then
the teacher may need to adapt the delivery of directions for that student by shortening the
length of directions and including cues and reminders. With practice, these simple
adaptations can be implemented very naturally and without much effort. Oftentimes,
simple adaptations benefit many students in the classroom, including those who have IEPs.

Student Relationships

Teachers can also get to know their students through a variety of activities. For example,
students can complete an interest inventory, which consists of a series of questions geared
for a particular age-group. It can help teachers find out more about their students’
backgrounds, interests, and perspectives. Questions that help teachers get to know students
better include the following:

“How many brothers and sisters do you have?”

“What is your favorite movie and why?”
“What was the name of the last book you read that you enjoyed?”
“What is your favorite sport?”
“What do you like to do after school?”
“What do you like to do on the weekends?”
“What is your favorite television show?”

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 “Who is your hero and why?”
“How do you know if someone is your friend?”
“How can we help people who are mean to other people?”
“If you could change one thing about school, what would it be and why?”
“What do you like most about school?”
“How do you spend time with your family?”
“If you could change one thing in your life, what would that be?”

Answers to these sample questions, obtained orally or in writing, can provide teachers with
information about their students. Information from the interest inventory can be used to
initiate discussions, help decide which books to select for the reading center or for class
literature groups, or identify a topic for group work and research. Interest inventory
answers also can provide important information about students’ cultural backgrounds and
experiences (Zakrzewski, 2012).

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Video case 9.1

Getting to Know Your Students

1. What methods does Melissa Wood-Glusac use to learn about her students? How does she
incorporate a get-to-know-you activity into the English curriculum?
2. How does Ms. Wood-Glusac use knowledge about her students as readers and writers to
plan effective instruction and meet the needs of all students in her class? What are other
advantages of getting to know your students?

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Use Motivational Practices
Implementing practices to motivate students is another way that you can foster positive
student relationships. When designing or implementing instruction, it is important to focus
on what motivates students to perform well, whether academically, behaviorally, or socially.
For example, at times students may be bored or frustrated with the academic materials
presented to them. Those who have been identified as gifted and talented may not be
challenged sufficiently in inclusive settings with the core curriculum. Enrichment activities
provided in instructional materials or in basal textbooks (i.e., those used to teach subject-
area content) can be good sources of extra stimulation needed by those students who are
gifted and talented. In contrast, students with learning and behavior difficulties have
experienced varying degrees of success and failure with academic and social interactions
during their school years. These successes and failures influence their motivational levels for
classroom activities and assignments.

Later in this chapter, information about functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is

presented. This process can help teachers determine possible reasons why students are not
motivated to do their best in class. Identifying specific reasons through FBA can influence
how teachers approach teaching. For example, if some students are reluctant to work on a
research project, giving them more instruction in the steps for doing research or in getting
online to locate research materials may increase their motivation to complete a research
project.

Older students, in particular, may present challenging behavior that is often driven by a
lack of motivation for tackling tasks that continue to frustrate them. For example, older
students with reading difficulties have spent years struggling with textbook reading. As the
demands of the classroom shift from “learning to read” to “reading to learn,” older students
may exhibit problem behavior that is a manifestation of their frustration. Given that older
students may legally drop out of school, teachers of older students with academic and
behavioral problems are challenged to implement effective techniques for motivating them.

When working with students of all ages, it is important to distinguish between students
with a skill deficit (i.e., the student has not mastered specific skills) and those with a
performance deficit (i.e., the skill or behavior is not consistently exhibited even though it is
in the student’s repertoire). For students who exhibit a skill deficit, teachers should spend
time teaching them new skills. Oftentimes, learning new skills is motivating for some
students who may have spent years struggling. Empowering students with new knowledge
and the recognition that they can do it can go a long way toward providing motivation and
creating a positive learning community. In contrast, students who exhibit performance
deficits require different procedures. These are students who have learned the skill but lack
the motivation to perform under certain circumstances or with certain people. For these

687
students, some of the following motivational techniques may be helpful for fostering a
positive learning community:

1. Know your students’ names and use their names as often as possible.
2. Plan for every class; never try to wing it.
3. Pay attention to the strengths and limitations of each of your students. Reward their
strengths and strengthen their weaknesses.
4. If possible, set your room in a U-shape to encourage interaction among students.
5. Vary your instructional strategies; use lectures, demonstrations, discussions, case
studies, groups, and more.
6. Review the learning objectives with your students. Be sure students know what they
are expected to learn, do, know, etc.
7. Move around the room as you teach.
8. Make your classes relevant. Be sure students see how the content relates to them and
the world around them.
9. Be expressive. Smile.
10. Put some excitement into your speech; vary your pitch, volume, and rate.
11. Give lots of examples.
12. Encourage students to share their ideas and comments, even if they are incorrect.
You’ll never know what students don’t understand unless you ask them.
13. Maintain eye contact and move toward your students as you interact with them. Nod
your head to show that you are listening to them.
14. Provide opportunities for students to speak to the class.
15. Be available before class starts, during break, and after class to visit with students.
16. Return assignments and tests to students as soon as reasonably possible. Provide
constructive feedback.
17. Be consistent in your treatment of students.
18. Make sure that your exams are current, valid, and reliable. Tie your assessment to
your course objectives.
19. Plan around 15- to 20-minute cycles. Students have difficulty maintaining attention
after a longer period of time.
20. Involve your students in your teaching. Ask for feedback. (University of Nebraska–
Lincoln, Office of Graduate Studies, n.d.)

Fostering Positive Relationships With Students

Some students see little reason for tackling the academic activities of the day. They may not
see the relevance of the tasks or be interested in the way in which activities are presented.
To increase motivation, activities must be presented in a meaningful way. What are some

688
examples of meaningful activities? Meaningful activities relate learning to students’ interests
and encourage them to become actively involved in learning. Student-centered learning is
a type of learning that engages students actively in the learning process through the use of
hands-on tasks, discussions, and decision making. It is widely supported as an effective
means for teaching and learning (Powel, 2013). Creating exciting learning experiences,
such as class plays, group assignments, mock TV news productions of historical events, and
field trips, encourages student involvement. Actively engaging students in the learning
process and helping them make connections to real-life situations increases their motivation
for participating in and completing activities (Neo, Neo, & Tan, 2012).

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Be Responsive to Cultural Differences
Demographic changes within our society mean that today’s classrooms include students
from diverse linguistic, ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic backgrounds (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2010). This rich heritage of diversity, coupled with a wide range of familial
experiences, serves as a strong foundation for classroom instruction and has created a new
context for teaching (Hernandez, 2001). Teachers should be informed about the social and
behavioral norms of various cultural, ethnic, and racial groups. Teachers should examine
their curricula and classroom literature to determine if students can see themselves reflected
in the lessons and can learn about themselves and others. Fostering positive student
relationships requires educators to be sensitive to the diverse norms brought to classrooms
so that they can understand the behavior of different groups and be responsive to these
cultural variations (Klingner, Boelé, Linan-Thompson, & Rodriguez, 2014). For example,
in some cultures (e.g., Native American, Hawaiian), the spirit of cooperation is contrary to
the focus on competitiveness that is found in other cultures and in many of today’s
classrooms (Smith & Tyler, 2010).

It is important for teachers to understand behavioral patterns that are socially acceptable in
certain cultures so that they can avoid the risk of misidentifying students as possibly having
behavioral disorders. For example, students who exhibit behavioral interactions that are
counter to “mainstream” behavior could be mistakenly identified as having emotional or
behavioral disabilities. The potential long-term and negative effects on school achievement
when students are misidentified as having disabilities are both obvious and well-
documented (Sullivan & Bal, 2013). The misdiagnosis of a disability and inappropriate
placement in special education can be disastrous for a student. The results can be reduced
expectations from parents and teachers, low self-esteem, and feelings of inferior
achievement.

For example, in Chapter 4 you read about the disproportionate representation of African
American and Hispanic students in special education. Some parents, educators, and
policymakers believe that one reason for these students’ disproportionate representation
may rest in a conflict between teachers’ perceptions and expectations and students’ cultural
identity. Take a few moments to read the example in the Considering Diversity feature on
the potential conflict between a teacher’s perceptions and a student’s cultural identity.

How can teachers better understand the cultural values and norms in today’s diverse
classrooms? How can they plan and implement practices that are responsive to cultural and
ethnic norms? Teachers can learn more about their students through observation,
questionnaires, and student-teacher conferences. They can ask students how they like to
work (alone or in a group), how large a group they prefer, how they seek adult feedback,
how they feel about being praised publicly and privately, how they respond to rewards, and

690
how they are disciplined. Student input will help teachers create student-centered activities.
Teachers can learn how students from diverse backgrounds perceive the rules and
expectations imposed by the teaching staff and the school. Additionally, it is important for
teachers to understand how families perceive school environments and the discipline of
their children. Teachers can strive to integrate these values and norms into a more cohesive
learning community.

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CONSIDERING diversity

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Mixed Messages?
One expression of cultural identity among African American male adolescents is a walking style that many
educators consider “nonstandard.” The stroll, as it is sometimes called, is characterized as a deliberately
swaggered or bent posture, with the head held slightly tilted to the side, one foot dragging, and an
exaggerated knee dip. This raises interesting questions about making assumptions on the basis of behaviors
related to cultural identity. For instance:

How can a student’s walk contribute to a teacher’s perceptions about individual student
achievement, aggression, or need for special education?
How might a teacher’s perceptions about students’ behavior influence referrals to special education?

Some answers to these questions come from research. Based on students’ styles of walking, teachers made
the following decisions about middle school boys:

Boys who stroll, regardless of race or ethnicity, are more likely to be judged by teachers as having
lower achievement than those who use standard walking styles.
Those who stroll are viewed as being more aggressive and deviant.

Without information about academic achievement, these boys are also thought of as being in need of special
education. In other words, teachers are likely to mistake cultural differences, such as walking style, with
cognitive and behavioral disabilities, placing those students at risk for underachievement, inappropriate
referrals to special education, and misidentification as students with disabilities.

Source: Belgrave and Brevade (2014).

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Conduct Student Meetings
More than 40 years ago, William Glasser (1969) presented the classroom meeting as a way
for teachers and students to confront problems and issues constructively as a group.
Through group participation and ownership of issues, a positive climate can be created and
positive relationships with students can be fostered. Glasser described three types of
meetings that are still widely conducted today:

The open-ended meeting is for students to discuss how they would deal with possible
problems and take a “What would you do if . . .” approach to problem solving. This
gives teachers a chance to discuss hypothetical problems to help students think about
possible resolutions before problems come up.
The educational/diagnostic meeting determines what students know and what they
do not know about a topic to be studied. “What is . . . ?” and “Why is that a
problem?” are examples of questions for learning about students’ knowledge of a
topic.
The problem-solving meeting focuses on a problem exhibited in class that may be
related to the handling of materials, class procedures, or a specific student. Students
are asked to explain the problems they see, their effects, and possible solutions. The
meeting concludes with an agreed-upon plan.

For older students, a peer-forum technique was first implemented more than 25 years ago
by Lewandowski (1989) as a means for students to discuss issues and resolve problems. The
peer forum is a panel of students who have had trouble in school; these students have
agreed to talk with their peer group about how they handled these difficulties. Panel
members discuss problems they encountered in school and offer positive advice about how
they handled their problems. Additionally, panel members discuss strategies for being
successful in school, such as study techniques, counseling, and how to access additional
resources. By engaging in conversation with older students who have dealt with these types
of problems, students demonstrate problem-solving skills, enhancing the opportunity for a
more positive community approach to learning and problem resolution. Next, we discuss
ways to promote effective communication with students.

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WORKING together

695
Assistance with Behavior Management: Learning Ready
Ms. Watson does small group, Tier 2 instruction as part of her RTI responsibilities. She has been having
difficulties with managing the behavior of some of the students in her small groups. She met with the
special education teacher, Mr. Asad, to identify a strategy to help the students remain engaged during her
reading, writing, and mathematics interventions. Mr. Asad suggested that she use Learning Ready, a strategy
that can be applied to whatever content is being taught. During mathematics, he calls it Math Ready; when
applied to reading, he calls it Reading Ready. He presented a picture of a hand that shows the components
of Math Ready (see Figure 9.1). Each digit represents something that the students should be doing to
remain engaged during a lesson. He places the Math Ready graphic on the table where instruction is taking
place. On the first instructional day, he goes over each component and provides examples and nonexamples
of each. Students practice being Math Ready before the lesson begins. Periodically, if he notes a student or
two not being Math Ready, he simply states “Math Ready,” and his students usually reengage.

Figure 9.1 Depiction of Math Ready

1. Eyes on activity! Students’ attention should be on the teacher or on the worksheet/materials being
used in the lesson.
2. Mouth quiet! It is difficult to speak and listen at the same time, so the idea is to have students speak
when appropriate but be quiet when the teacher or peers are talking.
3. Hands on table! Children often slouch when they are seated, and we want them to be in a position
where they can write with proper posture. Having hands on the table also reduces the likelihood
that children’s hands will be on one another.
4. Ears listening! This is the yang to Mouth quiet’s yin. During instruction, the teacher often provides
and verbally explains multiple examples. Students listen to the instruction and respond to questions
designed to check for understanding. Listening is a critical piece of the engagement puzzle.
5. Ready to learn! If the students are engaged by adhering to the previous four guidelines, they are
ready to learn.

Mr. Asad added that intermittent checks for Learning Ready are useful. He sets a vibrating timer at different
times, 30 seconds, 2 minutes, and so forth, for a total of eight checks over the course of a 30-minute lesson.
When the timer vibrates, he checks the students for being Math Ready. If they are, he places a token in a

696
jar. At the end of the day, if they accumulate at least seven tokens as a group, they receive a sticker.

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Questions
1. Think about your observations of or experiences with teaching small groups. What types of
challenging behaviors did you encounter? How might Mr. Asad’s suggestions be helpful?
2. In a small group in class, practice Mr. Asad’s strategy. How long does it take to feel comfortable
observing the “students,” managing the timer, and employing the token system?

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Video case 9.2

Communicating Effectively With Students

1. In what ways do the elementary teachers in the video use praise and other rewards to
motivate their students? How do the students respond to these practices?
2. How does Jan Evans support her students’ success by communicating clearly with them?
What advice does she give to other teachers about communicating with students?

699
What Ways Can Be Used to Communicate Effectively with
Students?
In addition to using techniques that promote a positive learning community, managing
teacher behavior can facilitate the accomplishment of expected behavioral and social skills
tasks by all students.

700
Communicate Clear and Consistent Messages
Communication is a critical component of any classroom learning community. Poorly
articulated behavioral and social expectations and inconsistent ways of handling the results
of mixed messages detract from a positive tone in any classroom. Behavioral and social
expectations, and the consequences for following (or not following) them, should be
communicated to students. Consequences, both positive and negative, must be consistent if
students are to take teachers’ messages seriously. For example, if tardiness is an unacceptable
behavior, it should be addressed each time it occurs. Ignoring the problem sometimes and
addressing it at other times sends mixed messages to students about expected behavior and
social skills.

Sometimes, despite clearly communicated expectations for behavioral and social tasks,
students continue to struggle. Thomas Gordon’s (2003) Teacher Effectiveness Training
program, which remains widely used today, helps teachers understand how to handle some
of these problem situations. Gordon’s approach is based on the work of Carl R. Rogers,
who conducted research on emotional and self-concept development. Rogers believed that
people respond to an emotionally supportive approach that includes openness and
understanding. According to Gordon, if a problem behavior infringes on either the
teacher’s or the other students’ rights, or if it is a safety issue, the teacher should own the
problem (Wolfgang, 2008). Teachers can respond to such problems by using text messages
to communicate feelings to students about the effects of their behavior. With an I-message,
the teacher tells students his or her feelings without blaming the students. Let’s compare a
good I-message and a poor one, both offered to address the same problem.

Problem: Several students interrupt the teacher when she is explaining assignments.
Good I-message: “When students interrupt (problem behavior) me when I am
speaking, I have to repeat what I just said (effect of the behavior), and that frustrates
me (feelings).”

This example tells the students the problem, its effect, and the feelings of the person
sending the I-message.

Poor I-message: “I want you to stop interrupting me. If you do that again, you’ll have
to stay after school.”

This example orders the students to stop a behavior and uses a threat to curb it. The
teacher is in a position of power. According to Gordon, practices such as ordering,
threatening, and warning are roadblocks to effective communication (Wolfgang, 2008; see
Table 9.1 for examples of 12 roadblocks to communication).

Gordon acknowledges the need for teachers to use strong directives such as ordering, but

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only if danger is present (Wolfgang, 2008). Gordon stresses that overusing commands can
result in conflict between the teacher and students. Clearly communicated behavioral and
social skills tasks, delivery of consequences, and the use of I-messages all contribute to
effective communication (Wolfgang, 2008).

702
Explain the Rules and Consequences
Rules are a necessary part of society; this is true for the classroom as well. Rules provide
parameters, structure, and predictability. Rules set the limits! Without rules, students are
left to their own devices to determine the teacher’s expectations and guidelines for
appropriate behavior and social skills. Sometimes, teachers assume that students know how
they are supposed to act in class. The codes of school conduct often are implied and not
communicated carefully. Unfortunately, in some school situations, students learn about the
rules only when they break them and are punished for their infractions. How can teachers
communicate rules so that students can meet the behavioral and social expectations of the
classroom? Teachers can use a class meeting to involve students in establishing classroom
rules by asking them, “What rules do we need so that I can teach and you can learn in a
safe classroom?” Here are a few tips for selecting rules (Canter, 2010):

Four to six rules are enough; having too many rules makes it difficult to monitor
compliance.
State rules in a positive manner, such as “Follow directions.”
Select observable rules that apply throughout the day. “Be respectful” is difficult to
observe, is too vague, and may require the teacher to take instructional time to ask,
“Is that respectful?” A more specific rule, such as “Raise your hand to speak in group
discussion,” is more effective.
Involve students in setting the rules. This is especially important for older students so
that they feel they have a voice in the decision-making process.

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When students exhibit minor problem behavior, teachers can intervene by giving
instruction on how to behave appropriately.

AP Photo/Virginian-Pilot, Amanda Lucier

Once rules are selected, they should be shared with the principal and students’ families.
The rules should also be posted. Rules should come with both positive recognition and
consequences. When students follow the rules, praise, special notices, privileges, and other
types of positive recognition provide helpful reinforcement (Canter, 2010).

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When rules are broken, consequences must follow. Here are some items to consider when
deciding on consequences:

The consequence should match the infraction; that is, the consequence must make
sense for the misbehavior or broken rule. For example, the consequence for being late
to class once should be different from that for being late four days in a row.
The consequence should be something that the teacher can manage. If the
consequence is “stay after school,” the teacher may have to give up planning time at
the end of the day.
Consequences should be applied consistently and as soon as possible after the
infraction. If consequences are applied inconsistently, students get mixed messages
about following the rules.
Consequences need to be communicated clearly to students. They should know what
will happen when rules are broken and when they are followed.

Is it necessary to teach rules? Yes! Rules must be explained, reinforced, and reviewed
regularly. Teachers should work closely with special education colleagues regarding
enforcement of rules and logical consequences for students with disabilities. For instance, a
student with mild emotional or behavioral disabilities may have an IEP with certain
guidelines for rules. Likewise, students who lack the ability to shift among different settings
and teachers may need extra guidance in remembering the rules as situations and teachers
change during the day.

705
Explain the Daily Schedule
Most people like to be informed about the schedule of events so that they know what to
expect during the course of the day, week, or even vacation period. By communicating a
schedule to students, teachers can prepare them for what to expect each day; they will know
what is going to happen and be prepared for it. A classroom schedule establishes routines
and communicates to all students the activities of each day.

The teacher can develop a classroom schedule and post it for students to review throughout
the week. Several routines can be part of one week. For example, one routine can be used
on two days and a different routine on three days. The teacher can help students by
reviewing the schedule for the day or for the class period.

For students who struggle with certain academic subjects or tasks, problems might occur
during specific times of the day associated with those subjects or tasks. For instance, if
reading is a demanding activity for a student, it is not surprising that the student might get
out of his or her seat, start talking to a friend, or take extra time to go to the reading table
for instruction. Think back to Luisa in the Opening Challenge. Luisa has a learning
disability in reading and writing. Her teacher identified problems with her remaining on
task and getting her work done.

What can a teacher do about this academic problem, besides adjusting the work? The
Premack Principle is a highly effective technique for motivating students to accomplish
tasks (Education Portal, 2015). With this method, activities that are more demanding or
challenging (such as reading and writing for Luisa), and thus less preferred, are conducted
earlier in the day or class period. Less demanding and more preferred activities are
scheduled for later in the day or class period so that students have something to work
toward. In some cases, earned or free time (i.e., designated time during the school day that
is provided for students who have completed their work) can be scheduled later in the day.
Some parents use the Premack Principle to get their children to eat: “When you finish your
dinner you can have dessert!” Astute teachers have used the Premack Principle for years to
help students accomplish classroom tasks.

706
Provide Good Directions
What does it mean to provide good directions? If students understand what they are
supposed to do, remember the directions, and follow them, then the teacher probably has
provided good directions. Here are some tips for providing good directions and
communicating them effectively:

Be concise; too many words may confuse students or be difficult to remember. Two
or three single-step actions are sufficient.
State directions right before the activity.
Check student understanding of the directions. For example, consider the following
directions: “In pairs, I want you to first (use a visual signal showing one finger) read the
paragraph together; second (showing two fingers), underline words you don’t know;
and third (showing three fingers), write two sentences about the paragraph.” The
teacher does a quick check for understanding by asking students what they are
supposed to do.

707
Describe Transition Procedures
Why is transition time so important? Transition is the time when students are changing
activities or classes. Often it is a less structured time, so transition can be a challenging time
for students who need structure as part of their routine. Students may struggle with shifting
from one activity to another either in the classroom or across settings in the school. When
students complete small group work, the expectation is that they can return to their desks
without problems. Unfortunately, this is not always the case.

Difficulties with transition times occur for a variety of reasons. Sometimes, teachers do not
pay enough attention to student movement in the classroom during transitions. At other
times, the teacher has not clearly communicated expectations for student behavior during
transitions. Also, the procedures that teachers use to make transitions may not be the most
effective ways for students to change activities. For example, asking all students to line up
for lunch or move into group work at the same time may invite problems.

How can teachers communicate effectively during transition times? Here are several
transition suggestions:

Signal to students that it is time to finish their work because soon they will be
moving to the next activity. Providing a verbal reminder, “Finish up what you are
doing because the bell will ring in 10 minutes,” signals how much time students have
to complete their work and get ready for the next activity or class.
Gain student attention prior to the transition to provide directions for the transition.
Teachers can use their proximity (e.g., standing at the front of the classroom), a
visual signal (e.g., flickering the lights), or a verbal signal (e.g., counting backward
from five to one) to gain students’ attention. Then, directions for the transition to
another activity in the classroom or to another location, such as the next class or the
cafeteria, can be provided. One teacher shared her strategy for gaining student
attention: “All eyes on me.” Her students were taught to reply in unison, “All eyes on
you.” It works!
Communicate the transition plan and behavioral expectations. For instance, younger
students could be told that they need to meet in their spelling groups at the carpet
area and that they should walk to the mat quietly. Older students could be told that
they should return to their seats and gather their belongings to get ready for the bell
to change classes.
Praise students who follow the transition plan and meet behavioral expectations.
Provide specific praise, thank students for following the directions given, and
demonstrate the appropriate behavior if convenient. For example, announcing “The
Red group went to the mat quietly with their spelling materials; thank you for
following the directions” or “The group working on computers did a nice job of

708
logging off and returning to their desks quietly” tells students specifically what they
did appropriately that related to following transition directions.

709
Use Specific Praise Judiciously
Specific praise is complimenting or verbally rewarding students for their accomplishments.
Providing specific praise is a very simple way to communicate behavior and social
expectations. Praise can serve as a reward for proper behavior and social interactions and as
a reminder about expectations for students. Specific praise is a form of attention and
feedback that has been studied for many years, and it has been shown to be very powerful
in bringing about positive behavior in classrooms (Haydon & Musti-Rao, 2011). Although
easy to implement, specific praise is underutilized in many classroom settings. Thus, one of
the easiest interventions for managing behavior remains untapped in many classrooms.
Think back for a moment to Sandy in the Opening Challenge; recall her problems with
saying hurtful things without thinking. Ms. Watson gives her a card with a happy face
(instructional material) to remind her to make positive statements and provides specific
praise (instructional delivery) when she “catches” her giving a compliment to a classmate.
She can also conduct periodic role-playing with small groups to facilitate positive social
communication.

What guidelines are important to consider when using specific praise to promote positive
behavior?

Make the praise specific. For example, a teacher who wants students to raise their
hands to speak during group discussions can acknowledge a student who
demonstrates this task by saying, “Thank you, Eric, for raising your hand to speak
instead of shouting out.” This praise is specific to the task of raising a hand, which
the teacher expects students to demonstrate during class discussions. This praise also
gives Eric positive attention.
Consider the age of the student or students being praised. For instance, teachers
cannot praise tenth-grade students in the same way they do first graders. Older
students may not respond favorably to a teacher who praises them publicly, but a
private word can mean a great deal.
Use praise judiciously. This means that teachers should focus on the behavior or
social skill that they want students to demonstrate. Excessive praise loses its
reinforcing value.

Next, we describe classroom arrangements that can address problem behaviors.

710
What Are Effective Classroom Arrangement Practices?
Your classroom is the stage on which the educational experience unfolds. It pays to plan the
setting thoughtfully.

711
Physical Arrangements
The physical arrangement of the classroom is an important component of effective
classroom management. What are some considerations for designing the environment?
Arranging activity-based centers in less distracting parts of the room can minimize
problems. For example, in elementary classrooms, the reading, writing, and listening
centers could be placed next to one another, assuming that students are using headphones
in the listening center. The art center, however, should be placed away from students’ seats
and quieter centers. At the secondary level, instructional supplies and materials for students
could be stored away from students’ desks. Computers can be arranged in another section
of the room.

712
Traffic Patterns
Traffic patterns, the paths students take to move about the classroom, are another issue to
consider. How can traffic patterns make a difference? The arrangement of furniture and the
location of instructional materials (e.g., pencil sharpener, computers, books, lab
instruments) may influence how students move about the classroom as they go from large
group to small group instruction and from independent seatwork to the pencil sharpener.
The following tips can help manage classroom traffic patterns:

Separate instructional areas.

Provide adequate movement space.
Provide access to the most-frequented areas. (Emmer & Evertson, 2008; Evertson &
Emmer, 2012)

Emmer and Evertson (2008) recommended that teachers simulate student movement about
the classroom to determine possible problem areas. For instance, a student who uses a
wheelchair will require more navigational space in the classroom; the room arrangement
will require wider spaces to accommodate the student’s movement about the room.

713
Seating Arrangements
How students’ desks are arranged is yet another consideration. The types of activities and
desired interactions should influence desk arrangements and seating patterns, such as rows
and groupings. In addition, specific student behavioral needs will influence how the desks
are arranged and where certain students’ desks are located in proximity to the teacher and
other students. For instance, students who are distracted easily or who like to socialize will
require preferential seating (i.e., closer to the teacher or with students who can ignore
“talkers”). A student who is easily distracted should sit in an area that is less traveled by
peers, rather than in an area (such as by the pencil sharpener) that is frequented during the
day.

714
With-It-Ness
Teachers must be able to see all of the students all of the time to be aware of interactions;
this is referred to as with-it-ness (Pressman, 2011). Why is with-it-ness so important? A
lack of teacher awareness of classroom activities and student behavior can contribute to
misbehavior and social problems. Nooks and crannies may offer students “private space,”
but they limit teachers’ abilities to be aware of classroom activities. In addition, teachers
who position themselves in the classroom where visibility is limited are inviting problems
that they cannot see or stop. Teachers must have “eyes in the back of their heads” and let
students know such is the case. Designing the classroom’s physical environment to
maximize visibility of all students makes it possible to prevent behavioral and social
problems or to address them as situations warrant.

With-it-ness

715
Classroom Observation
Taking time to observe the environment, including traffic patterns, seating arrangements,
and student interactions, will provide information about changes that may be needed.
Through observation, teachers can reduce behavioral problems and increase student
involvement with those students who tend to be quiet or uninvolved with their peers.
Asking students, particularly older ones, about environmental factors such as temperature,
noise, furniture, and arrangements can also inform decision making about creating an
environment that is conducive to learning, managing behavior, and facilitating social
interactions.

This section presented practices that teachers can use to help all students understand and
accomplish behavior and social skills tasks in the classroom. We know there is also a group
of students who exhibit difficulty managing their behavior. For these students, it is helpful
to understand the “goals” of misbehavior and to be familiar with interventions that can
address problem behavior.

716
What Are the Goals of Misbehavior?
For many years, researchers have studied student behavior to better understand why
problem behaviors occur and to identify ways to promote positive behavior. Differing
viewpoints about the causes of inappropriate behavior have influenced the development of
approaches and systems for managing it. For example, inspired by Alfred Adler’s work on
the relationship of behavior to social acceptance, Rudolph Dreikurs (1968) and Dreikurs
and Cassel (1972) believed that people’s behavior, including misbehavior, is goal driven—
specifically, that it is performed to achieve social acceptance. If students are not successful
in achieving social acceptance, misbehavior occurs that can be annoying, hostile,
destructive, or helpless. But students who believe that inappropriate behavior will garner an
adult’s positive attention are mistaken. The attention they get is negative. These students
are desperately seeking positive acceptance but do not know how to achieve it. They need
to learn appropriate prosocial behaviors—behaviors that are positive and that build
relationships—to achieve the acceptance they are seeking.

Teachers can help students recognize their misguided goals and can offer alternatives for
social acceptance (Wolfgang, 2008). When teachers understand the goals of misbehavior,
an appropriate intervention plan can be implemented to support positive behavior and to
decrease or eliminate inappropriate behavior. Table 9.2 provides information about the
goals of misbehavior and offers examples of techniques for handling mistaken goals.
Additional instructional strategies are provided in the next section.

717
How Can Problem Behaviors Be Assessed?
How can positive behaviors and problem behaviors be described when they occur? What
behaviors are acceptable? How can the occurrence of problem behaviors be assessed?
Teachers must be able to describe behaviors that are desirable as well as those that are
intrusive to teaching so that they can design and assess intervention plans.

718
Behavior Identification
Teachers must be able to describe problem behavior. An identified behavior should be
observable, measurable, consistent over time, and of great concern (e.g., interfering with
teaching or learning). For example, “calling out” can be observed, and it can be counted for
a designated period. “Calling out” is a behavior that, although not serious, interferes with
class discussions and can be labeled as rude and relatively disruptive. Returning to the
Opening Challenge, “How many times Eric ‘calls out’ during a 15-minute discussion after
viewing the film” tells us that “calling out” is the behavior that is being observed for 15
minutes. Ms. Martinez can measure it consistently over time by using a tally system to
record how many times Eric calls out. Information on the identified behavior can help Ms.
Martinez describe the problem behavior (calling out during a discussion), determine how
often it occurs (measuring the behavior for a time period), and know if the behavior
(calling out) is decreasing and if a desirable behavior (hand raising) is increasing when an
intervention plan is implemented.

Identified behavior can be stated in the form of behavioral objectives that include a
condition, a behavior, and a criterion for improvement. The following examples include
these three components and relate to our three students from the Opening Challenge.

In the reading group (condition), Luisa will stay in her seat (behavior) for 20 minutes
(criterion).
During the daily 10-minute whole class morning discussion (condition), Eric will
raise his hand (behavior) each time (criterion) he wishes to participate.
For writing activities (condition), Sam will have his pencil (behavior) each day
(criterion) to complete the writing assignments.

719
Observational Techniques
For students who engage in minor infractions, simply recording observations of positive
behavior and problematic behavior anecdotally in a notebook or on lesson plans may suffice
to keep track of how they are progressing with behavior intervention programs or to
identify possible issues. However, in many cases systematic observational systems can
provide information helpful in the design, implementation, and evaluation of behavior
programs.

Observational systems can determine how frequently or how long a problem behavior
occurs. Table 9.3 provides observational systems that can be used to gather data about the
identified behavior and to assess the effectiveness of the intervention plan. Think about
behaviors you have seen in classrooms and select the observational system you would use to
measure that behavior. Keep in mind that the system should be sensitive to the behavior.
For example, if a student continuously and rapidly taps a pencil on the desk, it would be
hard to use event recording to capture each occurrence of this distracting behavior. Rather,
interval recording would be a more appropriate system to use to get a sense of the
occurrence of the behavior.

Figure 9.2 Displaying Data Collected with Interval Recording

720
Oftentimes, it is helpful to display data. Figure 9.2 shows one way to depict data collected
on an identified behavior. Data displays provide an easy way to see what is happening. In
this example, the teacher was concerned about Patricia’s talking with her neighbors when
she was supposed to be writing independently in her journal for 10 minutes each day. The
teacher chose the interval recording system to collect data. Prior to implementing a
behavior management plan, the teacher collected the first four data points. As shown in the
figure, Patricia’s percentage of talking was quite high. However, a dramatic decrease in
talking (the remaining four data points) is noted with the introduction of a behavioral
intervention. What intervention from those discussed in this chapter would you use to
reduce the inappropriate talking behavior?

Events that occur either before or after the behavior may contribute to its occurrence.
Descriptive observation of these events can reveal important clues about how to manage the
behavior. The Antecedent Behavior Consequence (ABC) log is a good tool for recording
observations. “A” stands for events that occur before the behavior of concern, “B” is the
behavior of concern, and “C” stands for the events that happen after the behavior occurs.
The ABC log can be used for gathering data about what is going on with the student and
the environment. These data can help the teacher make informed decisions about why
problem behavior is occurring. An example is provided in Figure 9.3. Review the data and
try to determine what is triggering or maintaining the behaviors. Based on your idea, what
would you do next? For example, Luisa’s reading abilities can be assessed with the
possibility of providing more intensive reading intervention to help her learn to read better.

Figure 9.3 ABC Log

721
 Source: Adapted from Preventing School Failure: Tactics for Teaching
Adolescents, by T. Lovitt, 2000, 2nd ed., Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Source: Adapted from Preventing School Failure: Tactics for Teaching Adolescents, by
T. Lovitt, 2000, 2nd ed., Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Reviewing existing records is another source of data. Records can include office referrals,
attendance records, counselor information, and cumulative school folders. Also, interviews
of family members and support personnel can yield important clues about the events that
trigger or maintain problem behavior. We review instructional strategies for positive
behavior next.

722
ADAPT in action

723
724
ADAPT framework: FOR LUISA

725
What Instructional Strategies Are Available for Behavior
Problems?
Sometimes, specific interventions must be implemented to promote positive behavior in
the classroom.

726
Planned Ignoring
Planned ignoring, sometimes referred to as the ignore strategy, is the planned, systematic
withdrawal of attention by the individual from whom the attention is sought. This
individual could be the teacher but could also be a classmate.

Planned ignoring is an appropriate intervention if the behavior is a minor infraction that

poses no threat of harm to others (Evertson & Emmer, 2008). Behaviors such as
threatening others or fighting will probably not be influenced quickly enough by ignoring
and should be dealt with quickly and directly. The landmark research that clearly
demonstrated the power of adult attention on nursery school children’s behavior was
conducted more than 50 years ago (Allen, Hart, Buell, Harris, & Wolf, 1964). Results
showed the correlation between behavior and the application and withdrawal of teacher
attention.

What guidelines apply to planned ignoring? First, the person who is doing the ignoring
must be the individual whose attention is being sought. It is important to know whose
attention a student is seeking. How can a teacher determine this? Adult attention is
extremely important to younger children, which is why teachers see immediate and often
dramatic changes when they praise or ignore younger students. However, as students get
older, the attention of the peer group increases in importance, and the teacher’s influence
lessens. This is why ignoring older students when they are off task probably will not be
effective. Second, planned ignoring must be implemented consistently, even if the behavior
of concern increases. It is common for inappropriate behavior to escalate when planned
ignoring is first introduced. Notably, some students will purposefully exhibit inappropriate
behavior to gain the teacher’s attention. However, planned ignoring can quickly become an
effective intervention when implemented consistently, even during the brief escalation
period (Corrol, Tynan, & Lines, 2009). As experienced teachers have noted for years, when
a student’s behavior fails to achieve the desired effect, the behavior will usually stop.
However, teachers should become aware of students who engage in attention-seeking
behavior and provide them with positive attention for appropriate behavior as much as
possible.

Problem Behaviors

727
Redirect Inappropriate Behavior
Redirection is the process of informing a student that an error was made and asking the
student to describe the appropriate behavior. The student is provided an opportunity to
demonstrate the appropriate behavior with reinforcement. Redirection is an effective way to
help a student stop a problem behavior and receive further instruction on appropriate
behavior in a relatively short amount of time. Much like specific praise and planned
ignoring, redirection is a helpful intervention if the behavior is relatively minor and stems
from the need to remind students about appropriate behavior.

When students exhibit minor problem behaviors, the teacher can intervene by giving
instructions on how to behave appropriately. Students should be told the desired behavior
and provided with positive support for demonstrating the appropriate behavior. With a
focus on the positive, a reprimand—a negative response to problem behavior—is avoided.
A reprimand does not provide the student with the opportunity to practice the correct
behavior and receive reinforcement. For example, if a student calls out rather than raises his
hand during discussion, the teacher can talk privately with the student, stating that calling
out is inappropriate and asking the student to explain what he should have done during
discussion (raise his hand to contribute). Then, in further class discussion, contingent on
hand raising, specific praise could be provided for the appropriate behavior. Redirection is a
positive intervention and helps students become aware of and practice the desired behavior.
In thinking back to Eric from the Opening Challenge, who calls out and may be seeking
Ms. Martinez’s attention, she can redirect his calling out by privately having him explain to
her what he can do besides calling out and by praising him with positive attention each
time he raises his hand.

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Contingent Observation
Sometimes problem behavior occurs during small group work or an activity when peers
may be reinforcing the student’s misbehavior. Peer reinforcement may result in increased
levels of the problem behavior. Contingent observation is a form of time-out whereby a
disruptive student is removed from an activity but is still allowed to observe the
proceedings. Contingent observation can be implemented in such situations if it appears
that the peer group is contributing to the problem behavior. The advantage of this
intervention is that the student can observe others participating appropriately in the group
work, which can reduce the loss of instruction. It is important to ensure that the contingent
observation period is long enough to make a difference but not so long that interest is lost
in rejoining the group.

Managing Classroom Behavior

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Criterion-Specific Rewards
With criterion-specific rewards, students earn privileges only as they reach desirable levels of
the target behavior. This intervention is used widely in schools. Rewards are given to
students who achieve designated levels of improvement (the criterion level) for a specific
academic, behavioral, or social skill. Rewards may include the following:

Tangible items, such as food, trinkets, or prizes.

Token reinforcers, such as happy faces, stickers, or points toward a “payoff.”
Social reinforcers, such as praise, positive notes, or positive calls to parents.
Activity reinforcers, such as a one-night no-homework pass, 10 minutes of extra
recess time, or earned time to select a desired activity in the classroom (listening to a
tape).

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Classroom rules should be posted. Rules should come with both positive recognition
and consequences. When students follow the rules, praise, special notices, privileges,
and other types of positive rewards may be earned.

Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit

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It should be noted that a reward for one student might not have the same appeal for
another; therefore, it is necessary to find out from students what rewards are most desirable
to them. Also, something that is rewarding in September may not be appealing to students
in November. Rewards will probably lose some of their value to students over time, so they
must be changed to achieve results. Table 9.4 provides a list of suggested rewards for
elementary and secondary students.

Think back to the Opening Challenge; Ms. Martinez is reflecting about Sam. Recall that he
has been identified as having ADHD. He has difficulties staying organized and being
prepared to work. See how Ms. Martinez uses a certificate as a reward when Sam achieves
the desired goal of an organized desk, which in turn helps him be prepared for class.

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Contracting
Contracting involves setting up a written agreement between two parties that designates a
targeted behavior that needs improvement. This technique is sometimes necessary for
students whose problem behaviors do not seem to respond to other interventions. Alberto
and Troutman (2012) suggested that contracts can be an effective intervention for teachers
to implement because the conditions for reinforcement are written down, which can help
busy teachers remember how behavior for certain students will be managed.

The following are simple guidelines for implementing contracts:

1. The desired behavior and a reward that is meaningful to the student must be
identified.
2. The conditions for earning the reward must be stipulated as part of the contract,
including the desired behavior and the time frame.
3. The contract should contain an If . . . then statement and include the behavior,
condition, criterion, and reinforcer (Alberto & Troutman, 2012).
4. The teacher and the student should sign the contract. A sample contract is shown in

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Figure 9.4.

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ADAPT in action

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ADAPT framework: FOR SAM

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Interdependent Group Contingencies
Students and teachers respond well to group contingency interventions because they are
typically arranged as classroom games (Flower, McKenna, Muething, Bryant, & Bryant,
2013). They take a little more time on the teacher’s part to manage, but they can be
effective for dealing with problem behaviors that are resistant to other interventions, such as
planned ignoring and redirection. With interdependent group contingencies, students
earn reinforcement when they achieve a goal that has been established for the group. Group
contingencies focus on using the peer group as a resource to encourage positive changes in
behavior. Interdependent group contingencies are effective for all age-groups, particularly
when the peer group’s attention and reactions are the reasons why the undesirable behavior
occurs. Interdependent group contingencies have been used for years because they are very
effective in reducing rates of inappropriate behavior and increasing the occurrence of
desired behaviors.

Figure 9.4 Sample Behavior Improvement Contract

Here are a few guidelines to keep in mind when using interdependent group contingencies.
First, be certain that the student involved is capable of performing the desired behavior and
stopping the inappropriate behavior. If not, undue pressure could be placed on an
individual who causes the group to lose its opportunity for the reward. Second, plan for the
possibility that several students might actually enjoy subverting the program for the group.
If this occurs, special arrangements must be made for the subversive students.

Let’s return to Ms. Martinez. She decides to implement the “Good Behavior Game,” which
was developed by Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf in 1969 (see also Flower et al., 2013). Ms.
Martinez is concerned that many of her students don’t work well independently while she
is conducting small group work. In particular, Luisa struggles with this expected task. Ms.
Martinez decides to focus on improving the behavior of working independently. She
divides the class into teams. When the timer sounds, the team whose members are on task
during independent work is given a point. At the end of each day, the team with the most
points earns 10 minutes to work on an activity of their choice (something the class values as
important). The members of the other team who haven’t earned enough points have to
continue with their independent work. Eventually, Ms. Martinez sets a criterion of five
points as the goal for earning the reward.

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Self-Regulation
Self-regulation occurs when individuals monitor their own behavior. Using self-regulatory
techniques, individuals attempt to avoid situations that lead to inappropriate behavior or
stop problem behavior if it has already started. Self-regulation is a type of self-management
(i.e., the implementation of specific interventions by the targeted student to manage his or
her own behavior). Studies have shown that self-management techniques (or self-mediated
techniques, as they are sometimes called) are effective for both elementary and secondary
students (Ryan, Pierce, & Mooney, 2008). Self-management techniques are appealing
because they actively involve the individual in the learning process and promote
independence and decision making. Examples of self-regulation techniques include
“counting to 10,” using self-talk to work through a problem, and walking away from a
potentially problematic situation. Obviously, these techniques require the teacher to help
the student know how to recognize a problem situation and when to use the appropriate
technique.

Let’s examine some guidelines for implementing the self-regulation intervention. Modeling
and role-playing are good ways to help students learn self-regulation techniques. It will be
necessary to determine which techniques are more appropriate for younger or older
students. The students’ use of self-regulatory techniques will increase as they receive
reinforcement and see the effects of the techniques. Figure 9.5 is an example of a
“Countoon.” Students can use the Countoon to self-regulate by recording occurrences of a
desired behavior, such as “raising hand during class discussions,” and the problem behavior,
such as “calls out.” The technique of self-recording to monitor one’s own behavior can lead
to increases in the desired behavior and to decreases in the problem one. In the following
section, we offer instructional strategies for more serious behavior.

Sometimes, students may exhibit problem behaviors that require more intensive
interventions. We provide examples of interventions that you can use to reduce or eliminate
these problem behaviors.

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Self-management techniques are appealing because they actively involve the individual in
the learning process. These techniques require the teacher to help the student know how to
recognize a problem situation and when to use the appropriate technique.

iStock/monkeybusinessimages

Figure 9.5 Countoon

Time-out and Seclusion Time-out

Time-out is an intervention that removes the student from a situation that is reinforcing
the inappropriate behavior. Seclusion time-out, in which the pupil is placed in an isolated
room, is used for severe, out-of-control behavior. With seclusion time-out, the student is
removed from a situation that is encouraging and maintaining the problem behavior and
placed in a neutral environment. Usually, the neutral environment is a small room where
the student is isolated for a designated period of time (Alberto & Troutman, 2012).
Seclusion time-out has gained in popularity because it offers the student a chance to calm
down, think about what happened, and rejoin the group in a short time period. However,
the Council for Children with Behavior Disorders (2009) cautioned that “seclusion to

739
control behavior should be used only under the following emergency circumstances and
only if all three of these elements exist”:

The student’s actions pose a clear, present, and imminent physical danger to him/her
or to others;
Less restrictive measures have not effectively de-escalated the risk of injury; and
The seclusion should last only as long as necessary to resolve the actual risk of danger
or harm or while awaiting the arrival of law enforcement or crisis intervention
personnel such as when the student has possessed a weapon or committed a crime. (p.
10)

In-School Supervision
In-school supervision is recommended only for severe behavior problems and only after
other positive interventions have been tried but failed over a period of time. Because
students miss class, this intervention is usually reserved for major disruptive acts, such as
fighting (Emmer & Evertson, 2008). School privileges are suspended, and students must
spend their time completing schoolwork in a quiet environment. Students should not
consider in-school supervision a better place to be than in class. The advantage of this
intervention for teachers is that they do not have to miss their lunch breaks or planning
periods to supervise disorderly students; rather, someone is assigned to supervise the in-
school suspension room. The advantage for students is that they are required to complete
schoolwork and are in school rather than out on the streets. The in-school supervision
procedure serves as a deterrent to future disruptive behavior. Let’s look at how problem
behaviors can be assessed.

IDEA (2004) requires the use of positive behavioral interventions and supports and
functional behavioral assessment for students with disabilities who exhibit challenging
behavior. To meet this federal mandate, many schools now utilize three-tiered models or
multitiered systems of support (MTSS) to prevent and respond to challenging behavior.
You probably have thought of tiered systems with regard to RTI and academics; tiered
systems can also be used to deal with behavior as well. For example, MTSS for behavior
provide classwide and schoolwide supports at the core level (Tier 1); targeted, preventive,
small group interventions at the secondary prevention level (Tier 2); and individualized
support at the tertiary level (Tier 3; Sugai & Horner, 2009). The core level facilitates
appropriate behavior for all students by establishing behavioral expectations and
procedures. Students who do not appropriately respond to core supports may require more
intensive, frequent supports that are provided at the secondary level. The Tier 2
intervention level addresses students with at-risk behaviors who can benefit from
instructional interventions focused on reducing harm, such as social skills interventions
(Lane, 2007). As with academic supports for RTI, some students may still require more
intensive, frequent, and supportive interventions than provided at the secondary level.

740
Tertiary, or Tier 3 level interventions typically support individual students through
individualized interventions such as functional behavioral assessment and function-based
interventions (Sugai & Horner, 2009).

Schoolwide positive behavior support (SWPBS) is an example of MTSS through which

core, secondary, and tertiary supports can be utilized along a continuum. SWPBS is a
framework, not a curriculum, intervention, or program. As such, it can be tailored to meet
the needs of the students with whom it is being implemented. As Sugai and Horner (2009)
suggested, it is an approach that should lead to “sustained use of evidence-based practices
related to behavior and classroom management” (p. 309) that are accurately implemented.

MTSS for behavior is dynamic, that is, it is continually developing and evolving. Recent
advances in this field have included SWPBS at the core level. SWPBS addresses schoolwide
social cultures while providing behavioral supports for students with challenging behavior,
including those with emotional/behavioral disorders (Sugai & Horner, 2009). For students
with emotional/behavioral disorders, the prevention elements of MTSS may be critical for
addressing their complex academic and behavioral challenges to intervene early when
student behavior is most easily changed (Lane, 2007).

The continual evolution of MTSS for behavior is an important component of students’

education. Researchers and practitioners must not only understand the current evidence-
based practices that promote improved behavioral outcomes but also continually search for
ways to facilitate improved outcomes for learners who exhibit multiple, challenging risk
factors. With more than 18,000 U.S. schools implementing MTSS for behavior
(http://www.pbis.org), researchers are needed to study the critical features of each level of
MTSS. Teachers just beginning their careers should become well-versed in using MTSS to
help them manage behavior in their classrooms. School and district leaders must be able to
support teachers as they implement behavior supports.

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 Video case 9.3

Positive Behavior Supports

1. How is SWPBS used at Mia Tannous’s school? What methods are used to ensure that it is
working effectively in each classroom and across the school?
2. How does SWPBS help students to feel safe in school? How does it support students’
learning?

Functional Behavior Assessment

Simply put, functional behavior assessment (FBA) is “a systematic set of strategies that is
used to determine the underlying function or purpose of a behavior, so that an effective
intervention plan can be developed” (The National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorder, n.d., para. 1). Individuals engage in behavior because it gets
them something they want (e.g., teacher attention) or helps them avoid something they do
not want (e.g., time-out). Thus, the behavior has a function, goal, or purpose. Conditions

742
in the environment also can cause behaviors to occur. FBA is used to determine what the
individual is doing and under what conditions.

The goals of the FBA are as follows:

Describe the problem behavior and the conditions that trigger and reinforce its
occurrence.
Generate hypotheses or educated guesses of why the behavior is occurring.
Identify goals for decreasing the problem behavior.
Develop an intervention plan.

The ABC log, student and parent interviews, and review of school records and documents
are examples of ways to collect data as part of the FBA and to write the behavior
intervention plan.

Behavior Intervention Plan

Teachers who can explain the function or purpose of problem behavior can respond more
effectively to students by planning appropriate interventions. A behavior intervention plan
provides teachers with a road map for changing inappropriate behavior and teaching new,
appropriate skills. The behavior intervention plan is developed on the basis of findings from
the FBA.

Classroom teachers can expect other school personnel, such as the special education teacher,
school psychologist, and counselor, to work together to conduct the FBA and to write,
implement, and evaluate the behavior intervention plan. An example of how professionals
collaborate to conduct the FBA and to write the behavior intervention plan is shown in the
Working Together feature below. Take a moment to read this example.

We now discuss social skills and how teachers can facilitate the development of these skills
in their classroom through the ADAPT framework. Good social skills are extremely
important for peer group acceptance. The social skills of some students with disabilities and
at-risk students may not be adequate to promote peer acceptance. Thus, it is essential to
devote attention to ways teachers can facilitate social skills in inclusive settings.

Now, let’s examine social skills. We begin with a description of social competence.

743
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 9.1

744
Creating a Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP)

745
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE
Students will be provided with a BIP to improve their behavior in school.

746
INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT
Behavior

747
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
Student’s functional behavior assessment (FBA), BIP chart

748
INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY
Grouping: Individual

749
TEACHING PROCEDURES
1. Meet with a behavioral intervention team and with the student and/or parent(s).
2. From the student’s FBA, identify antecedent events, problem behaviors, and consequences.
3. Generate a hypothesis as to the cause(s) of the problem behavior that will result from the BIP.
4. Determine the goal of the BIP.
5. Create the BIP, including the intervention, person responsible, and the assessment.

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Behavior Intervention Plan
Student: Mark Friar

School: Fairview Middle School, Grade: 6 (language arts and reading)

General Education Teacher: Mrs. Franklin; Special Education Teacher: Mr. Garcia

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Results from the FBA
Antecedent Events (A): Request by the teacher to work in a small group; small group involves students
with average reading abilities; small group tasks involve reading aloud.

Problem Behaviors (B): Student refuses to move to and work with the small group.

Consequences (C): Teacher attention (redirection, reprimands); instructional time lost because of lack of
compliance for working in small groups.

Hypotheses: Because of low reading skills and the setting demands of the small group, the student may
have feelings of inadequacy and thus is engaging in behavior to avoid the reading tasks. He may seek
acceptance through attention-getting behavior and isolating himself from the group.

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Intervention Goal
The intervention goal is to increase compliance for working in small groups on literacy tasks.

753
What Is Social Competence?
Social competence means that a person uses social skills well enough to obtain positive
reactions and to reduce the likelihood of negative reactions from others. Being socially
competent means that an individual has the ability to perceive when and how to use social
skills depending on the situation and social context. The result contributes to acceptance by
others. Unfortunately, research studies suggest that many individuals with special needs
tend to have difficulty with an array of social behaviors, including, for example, choosing
appropriate social behaviors for different situations, predicting behavioral consequences,
reading social cues, and adapting their behavior in social situations.

Think about the three students—Sam, Eric, and Luisa—from the Opening Challenge.
Review their social skills issues. Table 9.5 provides examples of social skills tasks and
prerequisite skills. How do Sam, Eric, and Luisa’s social skills problems compare with this
list of social skills tasks that teachers expect in the classroom?

754
Curriculum
Social skills curricula have been developed for elementary, middle, and high school
students. Social skills can be categorized into a variety of domains, such as communication
skills, problem-solving skills, getting along with others, and coping skills. Figure 9.6
includes sample social skills curricula for elementary and secondary students. Take a
moment to review this information. Using Figure 9.6, which social skills activities would
you recommend for Sam, Eric, and Luisa? If you said “getting-along skills” for Sam,
“negotiation” and “coping skills” for Eric, and “conversation” for Luisa, then you’re on
track for matching interventions to struggles with prerequisite skills for social skills tasks.

The Tech Notes feature discusses communication devices.

Now let’s consider ways to assess social skills. Assessing social skills provides information
about students’ social behavior and how interventions are working. Several techniques can
be used to assess social skills. For example, the ABC log described elsewhere in this chapter
can be used to determine what social skills are problematic and what events and individuals
may be triggering or increasing the occurrence of the inappropriate social behavior. Rating
scales found in many social skills curricula can be used to determine which students are
exhibiting poorer skills than their peers. Also, sociometric surveys and sociograms can be
used to identify peer relationships in the classroom.

755
 Figure 9.6 Sample Social Skills Curricula and Programs

Sociometric Survey
Sociometrics, or peer-nominating techniques, help teachers learn about peer relationships.
Through the use of a sociometric survey—a set of questions answered by students regarding
their perspectives on their peers—teachers can learn which students may be popular, which
may be rejected, and which may be isolated within the classroom or peer group. The
sociometric survey can be conducted by asking students to respond to several of the
following questions:

Who would you most like to eat lunch with?

Who are your top three choices to sit next to?
Who do you not want to sit next to?
Who would you invite to your birthday party?
Who do you get together with during the weekend?
Who would you not want to be in your working group?

Some of these questions relate to relationships within the classroom and others relate to

756
afterschool activities. By asking these types of questions and having students record their
responses confidentially, teachers can learn a great deal about students who are popular and
students who are disliked. Teachers also can learn which students may be isolated. This
information can help teachers plan social skills training and instructional groupings to
foster better peer relationships in the classroom.

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WORKING together

758
The Functional Behavior Assessment and Behavior
Intervention Plan
The process of conducting an FBA and developing a BIP is a team effort that can involve the special
education teacher, general education teacher, counselor, speech/language pathologist, and other
professionals, as appropriate. Consider the following example to learn about possible roles for each
professional and the student.

Mrs. Evans, the eighth-grade social studies teacher, was concerned about the behavior of one of her students
with a diagnosed emotional or behavioral disability. She has tried several interventions to address the
misbehavior, to no avail. She called together the school support team to work with her on the next step.
The team decided that the needs of the student warranted an FBA.

Mrs. Evans indicated that she could use the ABC log to collect data on the situational events prior to and
following the behavior of concern. She agreed to do this for a week. The special education teacher agreed to
collect quantitative data using an observational system so that the frequency could be identified. The
counselor agreed to interview the student’s mother, which might help shed light on events at home that
could help the team understand the student’s behavior. Finally, the counselor agreed to review school
records and interview the student.

After the FBA was finished, the data analyzed, and the hypotheses generated, the team wrote the BIP
together. Collectively, they identified the interventions that could reasonably be implemented to teach the
student more appropriate behavior and to reduce the misbehavior. They agreed to give the plan two weeks
and then reevaluate.

759
Questions
1. How can the ABC log be implemented in the classroom during the instructional day?
2. What is important for Mrs. Evans to remember when she observes the “B” part of the ABC log?
3. Pretend you are the counselor. What questions would you ask the student’s mother?

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TECH notes

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 Communication Devices

Poule at en.wikipedia

Melissa is a 14-year-old student who is a ninth grader in the local high school. Melissa was born with a
severe form of spastic cerebral palsy that makes it difficult for her to produce intelligible speech. For
mobility she uses a motorized wheelchair, which can be operated with a joystick. She is able to keep up with
the work in general education classes with appropriate adaptations and modifications. To communicate,
Melissa uses an electronic communication device as a means to express her needs, to interact with teachers
and friends, and to function in her classes.

Because of Melissa’s cognitive and receptive language strengths, the communication device contains features
that provide a range of communicative interactions. A scanning system is used that searches by row and
column an array of communicative choices. When the choice is highlighted, Melissa activates a switch that
emits the oral response. Switch-activation capabilities are appropriate for Melissa because of her motoric
challenges.

The use of the communication device is a good start for enhancing social interactions because it gives the
user a tool for expressive language. However, communication partners should exhibit patience by giving the
user a chance to manipulate the device (motor control) and by allowing time for the rate of communication
utterances (electronic emission) to occur. Students are likely to be intrigued by this tool, and if appropriate,
the operator may enjoy “being the expert” and showing them how it works.

Sociogram
Drawing a sociogram—a graphic depiction of peer relationships—of the information
gleaned from the sociometric survey can help a teacher see quickly what relationship
patterns are evident in the classroom. A sociogram is shown in Figure 9.7 to graphically

762
display students’ answers to the first question from the sociometric survey. See if you can
figure out the relationships in this classroom.

We now examine ways to teach social skills. Each of the following procedures can be
effective in teaching social skills. With a little practice, students can improve their social
skills in the classroom and with peers.

Role-Playing
Role-playing is an activity in which students practice the desired behaviors under the
guidance of their teacher or counselor. Role-playing includes a combination of effective
teaching practices to teach skills and provides an opportunity for students to practice with
guidance. You can construct contrived situations in which students role-play particular
behaviors. How can role-playing be used to teach social skills?

The teacher can model the appropriate social interaction skills. By “thinking aloud,”
students learn the steps and thinking process used to initiate the social interaction
skills successfully.
The teacher can provide examples of the appropriate use of the target skills and
examples of failure to exhibit them. This step helps students see how the interaction
should look and how it should not look.
Students should practice the desired social interaction behaviors in contrived
situations while the teacher prompts the desired behaviors.

Figure 9.7 Sociogram

Coaching
Coaching focuses on encouraging appropriate behaviors through modeling and feedback.
Coaching can be used to teach many different social skills (Brooks, 2011). It is an

763
interactive process that facilitates self-directed learning by teachers or other coaches
providing guidance and feedback on appropriate social behaviors in natural settings.

How does coaching work? Coaching involves the use of direct verbal instructions, followed
by the opportunity for students to rehearse or practice the target skill in a nonthreatening
situation. Use the following steps in a coaching situation:

1. Present the rules or standards for the target behavior.

2. Model the desired behavior.
3. Have students rehearse the skill.
4. Ask students which behaviors in their opinion went well and which did not.
5. Ask students how they could do things differently next time.
6. Provide feedback on the rehearsed performance.
7. Make suggestions for future performances.

Problem Solving and Decision Making

Most students understand what is deemed acceptable behavior at school and in society.
However, students can benefit from interventions that teach them how to solve problems
and make good decisions. Students who struggle with social skills benefit from
interventions that teach them how to choose socially acceptable behaviors in specific
situations.

Teaching procedures for social skills are presented in Figure 9.8. As with any social skill,
thinking aloud, modeling, role-playing, and coaching are good interventions to teach the
steps.

Figure 9.8 Listening to Others Form

764
 Source: Adapted from Do2Learn (2013).

Source: Adapted from Do2Learn (2013).

Table 9.6 provides an example of how teachers can take steps in their classroom to make
decisions and solve problems.

Cohen (2011) developed a social skills program that uses coaching to help young adults
who have social anxiety. Students are matched with a coach to work with throughout the
program. Social coaches offer helpful guidance through three scenarios.

First, job interviews are conducted to prepare for and practice potential job interviews.
During this time, social coaches discuss possible jobs that students might be interested in
and provide helpful tips on how best to answer possible interviewer questions while also
serving as interviewers in mock sessions and providing helpful comments.

Bookstore conversations take place in bookstores and involve the coach and student
observing customers as they browse through books and interact with employees. Students
are taught to “read the room” for people who may be receptive to talking about the books
that are available.

765
Teaching problem-solving and decision-making skills is an important part of the
social skills curriculum at all grade levels. What social skills are needed to help these
students complete their group assignment?

766
 Thinkstock/Stockbyte

Finally, coaches observe students as they make and participate in telephone calls to and
with their friends. The coaches work with their students to create a script of what to do
before making the call, how to initiate the conversation, and how to respond to the person
on the other end of the call. The coaches also provide emotional support when needed. In
the next section, we discuss ways to make our schools safer, an issue that has become
paramount.

767
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 9.2

768
Listening to Others

769
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY
Listening to others

770
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE
Students will understand the skills associated with listening to others during communication.

771
INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT
Social skills: Communication

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Cards or sheets of paper with the following purpose statements (one for each student, incorrectly
ordered):
I should look directly into someone’s eyes while they are talking so that we both feel
“connected” to the conversation.
I should acknowledge what someone is saying by nodding or making a comment so that the
other person knows that I understand what is being said.
I should look at the face of the person that is talking to me so that he or she feels that I am
listening to him or her.
I should stand facing toward someone so that I can hear him or her clearly and let him or
her know that I am paying attention.
Blank sheet of paper or overhead transparency
Blank “Listening to Others” chart (Figure 9.8)

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INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY
Grouping: Whole class or small groups

773
TEACHING PROCEDURES
1. Brainstorm and record on a piece of paper (or blank transparency) some important reasons for
“listening” to other people when they are talking.
2. Give each student a blank “Listening to Others” chart that presents the four skills relating to being a
good listener:
When someone is talking to me, I should stand facing him or her.
When someone is talking to me, I should look at his or her face while he or she is speaking.
When someone is talking to me, I should look directly into his or her eyes from time to
time.
When someone is talking to me, I should acknowledge him or her by nodding my head or
making a comment about what he or she is saying.
3. Give students the card or sheet that contains the purpose statements. Have them match each
purpose statement to “The Skill” and write the purpose in the adjacent, matching purpose box.
4. Model each of the four skills from the “Listening to Others” chart for the students. Have them
determine which skill you are modeling and state the purpose for the behavior.
5. Have your students model the behavior to get a “feel” for how it should be done.
6. Videotape their “performance” and let them watch it back and critique themselves to improve for
next time.

Source: Adapted from Do2Learn (2013).

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How Can Safer Schools Be Promoted?
Recent events in some high schools across the country are vivid reminders of the
importance of making connections with our youth and identifying potential problems
before they become serious.

775
Guidelines for Safer Schools
Educators are looking at ways to address violence and aggressive acts to help make schools
safer. According to Smith and Tyler (2010), adhering to the following guidelines makes for
safer schools:

Consistent rules, expectations, and consequences across the entire school

Positive school climate
Schoolwide strategies for conflict resolution and dealing with student alienation
High level of supervision in all school settings
Cultural sensitivity
Strong feelings by students of identification, involvement, and bonding with their
school
High levels of parent and community involvement
Well-utilized space and lack of overcrowding

776
Bullying
Bullying has received national attention as educators strive to address this critical issue in
schools. As White and Loeber (2008) noted, “bullying can create a climate of fear and
discomfort in schools and communities” (p. 380). Bullying is intent on harming the victim
and is one of the most significant health risks to children (Raskaukas & Scott, 2011).
Bullying can be physical, verbal, or psychological and occurs at all grade levels. The person
doing the bullying attempts to assert power and control over the person being bullied.
Bullying most often occurs in Grades 6 through 10, with about 3 in every 10 students
being involved in bullying, as either the bully or the victim
(http://www.bullyingstatistics.org). Limited research on bullying and disabilities suggests
that students with disabilities have a greater chance of being bullied than their nondisabled
peers (Raskaukas & Scott, 2011; Saylor & Leach, 2009). Examples of bullying include
physical attacks on the playground or after school, verbal intimidation, and exclusion from
social networks.

Boys are noted as asserting more physical types of bullying, whereas girls tend to exhibit
more psychological types of bullying, such as excluding and gossiping about the victim.
Both boys and girls report being victimized by bullies.

In examining student traits, individuals who engage in bullying and victims of bullying
share several characteristics. Both exhibit problems with social and psychological
adjustment, as shown in demonstrated difficulties with friendships and reported feelings of
isolation. It has been suggested that some students with disabilities who bully others may
have social information processing deficits; that is, “a lack of social skills may be related to
the lack of assertion, a lack of self-control, or both” (Rose, Swearer, & Espelage, 2012, p.
4).

What can teachers do about this critical problem? Remember that in the Opening
Challenge, Ms. Watson noticed that some students thought that Sandy was a bully because
of the mean things she would sometimes say. One could question whether Sandy is
intentionally bullying her classmates, but bullying is a major issue in schools today and any
perceived threat should be dealt with. Strategies for all students can be implemented to
address the bullying problem:

Make bullying prevention and intervention part of the curriculum. Students should
understand that there are bullies, victims, and bystanders who reinforce the bullying
behavior. Provide information about the types of bullying—physical, verbal, and
psychological—including examples. Students may want to describe examples of
bullying as well.
Involve school administrators, teachers, families, and the community. School
procedures for preventing and responding to bullying should be developed and

777
 shared with students and families.
Work with the school counselor to identify effective strategies to handle and report
acts of bullying. Have the school counselor conduct age-appropriate discussions with
students about power, aggression, and control. Ask the school counselor to meet
privately with students to conduct individual or small group discussions about
feelings related to self-concept, social relationships, and other situations in school or
at home that may be problematic.
Sociograms can reveal students who are viewed less favorably by many classmates
(note Amy and Debbie on the sociogram in Figure 9.6). Although sociogram results
should be interpreted cautiously, evidence should be gathered to support possible
problems with social relationships. For example, the teacher can observe students’
behavior toward one another in class and note students who are frequently
withdrawn from the group.

Teaching problem-solving and decision-making skills is an important part of the

social skills curriculum at all grade levels. What social skills are needed to help
students interact more appropriately with their peers?

iStock/PeopleImages

Although most attention to bullying has been regarding student-to-student bullying,

attention also needs to be paid to violence against teachers. In a 2011 study conducted by
the American Psychological Association Task Force on Violence Directed Against Teachers
(APA, 2013), 80% of the 2,998 K–12 teachers surveyed reported at least one instance of
victimization in the previous 12 months. Teachers reported being victimized not only by

778
students but by their parents as well. Although little research has been conducted in
preventing violence against teachers, Espelage et al. (2013) suggested that at the student
level, teachers employ functional assessment-based interventions that target the reasons why
such behaviors occur and work to avoid situations that lead to aggressive student behavior.
They also suggested that teachers clearly state classroom and school rules, model and reward
positive behavior, and avoid public confrontations. Finally, teachers should provide their
students with clear expectations and demonstrate appropriate social and behavioral skills
that students can use to manage anger, resolve conflict, and improve the classroom
environment. Clearly, more research is needed to identify effective practices, and attention
needs to be paid to violence against educators in both preservice and inservice teacher
training programs.

779
UDL in action

780
Universal Design for Learning Activity
Note: This UDL lesson was developed, in part, using the CAST UDL Lesson Builder
(http://lessonbuilder.cast.org/create.php?op=new).

Refer to the UDL information in Chapter 7 to determine which checkpoints are addressed in this lesson.

The UDL framework (version 2.0) is comprised of three main principles (I. Representation, II. Action and
Expression, and III. Engagement). Each principle has three guidelines and several checkpoints that define them
further. In this lesson plan, we delineate how various instructional strategies meet the UDL checkpoints.

Title: Playing Together

Subject: Other

Grade Level(s): 3–5

Duration: 20 minutes

Unit Description: This lesson is part of a unit that teaches students to initiate interactions with peers
during school recess and/or playtime.

Unit Goals: The goal of this unit is to increase social skills.

Lesson Description: This lesson teaches prerequisite skills: ability to communicate verbally, make requests,
and ask for information.

Lesson Goals: The purpose of this lesson is to teach students to initiate interactions with peers during
school recess and/or playtime.

781
Methods:
Anticipatory Set: Tell students that the purpose of the day’s lesson is to help them play better with their
classmates. State that, although it is fun to play alone, it is also fun to play with others. In fact, some games
or activities require more than one person. But playing with others isn’t always easy, and today’s lesson will
help them learn some of the “rules” that help people play together.

Introduce and Model New Knowledge: Have a student select a toy, game, or activity and decide whom he
or she wants to play with. Then model how to ask peers to play with him or her. Show a short film clip of,
or show pictures depicting, examples and nonexamples (multiple means of representation). Model
appropriate and inappropriate volume during communication (e.g., using quiet and loud voices to say,
“Will you play ___ with me?”). Explain why using appropriate and inappropriate initiators will encourage
or discourage others to become play partners. Continuously check for understanding and provide
reinforcement and/or error correction as appropriate. Provide scaffolds as needed (multiple means of
presentation; e.g., have games/toys available that are appropriate only for individuals and those that are
appropriate only for multiple players—have students select those suited for multiple players; show a clip of
students playing well together and students arguing during play—which students would be better play
partners?). Consider collaborating with colleagues to have older students create and videotape example and
nonexample scenarios that can be used during instruction as a multiple means of representation during this
instructional phase or during guided or independent practice.

Provide Guided Practice: Tell students that you will practice together. Role-play, demonstrating
appropriate and inappropriate initiators. Have students practice appropriate game selection (What
games/toys/activities are suited to playing together?), identify a potential play partner (Who do you know
who likes this game/activity? Who would you like to play with? Who plays well with others?), and practice
initiating contact. Allow students to communicate in the way that is most effective (multiple means of
action and expression; e.g., phrases rather than complete sentences, pointing). Continuously check for
understanding and provide reinforcement and/or error correction as appropriate.

782
Provide Independent Practice:
Day 1: At the end of the lesson, provide four or five examples of appropriate and inappropriate
selection of games/toys/activities, potential play partners, and initiators. Have students select
whether each example is appropriate or inappropriate. If scenarios have been created depicting
examples and nonexamples, these can be used during independent practice.
Day 2: During the play period, present a verbal prompt whenever one minute passes without the
student initiating interaction with a play partner. (Sample prompt: “Remember how we worked on
asking someone to play with you? Go ask ______ to play with you.” Provide the prompt in a quiet
voice.

Adapted from Licciardello, Harchik, and Luiselli (2008).

783
Summary
This chapter presents techniques for promoting positive behavior and facilitating social
skills. Both of these areas can greatly influence a teacher’s success in promoting an
atmosphere for learning. Identifying specific behavioral and social tasks will help teachers
plan effective adaptations and interventions that can provide students with skills to use not
only in the classroom but also schoolwide and in the community.

By utilizing assessment practices, teachers will realize quickly how successful their
adaptations and intervention programs are in promoting an environment that is conducive
to learning. Implementing practices discussed in this chapter will help students with
disabilities become more involved in the classroom and be better accepted by their peers.

784
REVIEW THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot talk
through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

What practices can be used to foster student relationships and communication?

There are a number of practices you can adopt to cultivate good relationships with—
and among—the students you teach, including getting to know your students, using
motivational practices, being responsive to cultural differences, and considering
student meetings.

What ways can be used to communicate effectively with students?

Managing teacher behavior can facilitate the accomplishment of expected behavioral

and social skills tasks by all students. Some techniques include communicating clear
and consistent messages, explaining the rules and consequences, explaining the daily
schedule, providing good directions, describing transition procedures, and using
specific praise.

What are effective classroom arrangement practices?

There are several practices. Examine the physical arrangement and observe traffic
patterns. Consider seating arrangements and maintain with-it-ness.

What are the goals of misbehavior?

Lack of social acceptance contributes to the goal of misbehavior. Other goals are
attention getting, power and control, revenge, and inadequacy.

How can problem behaviors be assessed?

Teachers must be able to describe behaviors that are desirable as well as those that are
intrusive to teaching so that they can design and assess intervention plans.
Observational techniques and the ABC log can be used to assess problem behaviors.

What instructional strategies are available for behavior problems?

For less serious behavior, several strategies are available, including planned ignoring,
redirecting inappropriate behavior, providing contingent observations, providing
criterion-specific rewards, contracting, planning interdependent group contingencies,
and implementing self-regulation techniques. For more serious behavior, there are
several strategies, including time-out, seclusion, and in-school supervision.

785
What is social competence?

A person uses social skills well enough to obtain positive reactions and to reduce the
likelihood of negative reactions from others. Several techniques can be used to assess
social skills including the ABC log, rating scales found in many social skills curricula,
and sociometric surveys and sociograms, which can be used to identify peer
relationships in the classroom. There are a variety of instructional strategies that can
be used to teach social skills. Role-playing, coaching, and problem solving and
decision making are examples.

How can safer schools be promoted?

A variety of techniques can be used, including the following:

Consistent rules, expectations, and consequences across the entire school
Positive school climate
Schoolwide strategies for conflict resolution and dealing with student alienation
High level of supervision in all school settings
Cultural sensitivity
Strong feelings by students of identification, involvement, and bonding with
their school
High levels of parent and community involvement
Well-utilized space and lack of overcrowding

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786
REVISIT THE OPENING CHALLENGE
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. If you were Ms. Watson, in what areas would you seek PD help from the special
education teacher?
2. How might Ms. Watson be able to identify specific challenges that Sandy presents?
3. What advice would you offer Ms. Martinez about getting to know her students
better?
4. How can Ms. Watson and Ms. Martinez foster student relationships and
communication?
5. How can both teachers help their students with their behavior?
6. How can both teachers facilitate their students’ social skills?
7. How can both teachers determine whether student behavior and social skills are
improving?
8. How can Ms. Watson and Ms. Martinez use the ADAPT framework to promote
positive behavior and facilitate social skills?

787
KEY TERMS
interdependent group contingencies, 397
interest inventory, 368
job interviews, 412
planned ignoring, 392
prosocial behaviors, 384
specific praise, 381
student-centered learning, 371
text, 376
traffic patterns, 383
transition, 380
with-it-ness, 383

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788
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

789
CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 2: Learning Environments
Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

790
INTASC Core Principles
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences
Standard 3: Learning Environments
Standard 4: Content Knowledge
Standard 6: Assessment
Standard 8: Instructional Strategies
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

791
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Human development and behavior
III. Delivery of Services to Students: Curriculum and instruction

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

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multimedia: edge.sagepub.com/bryant

792
10 Teaching Literacy

iStock

793
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What issues are related to written communication instruction?

What are the five components of reading?
What are the stages of the writing process?
How can teachers provide effective instruction and adaptations for reading and writing?

794
OPENING challenge

795
Appropriate Reading and Writing Instruction
Elementary Grades Mr. Nu is reviewing results of the screening assessment that was administered as part of
the RTI initiative in place in his urban school district. The district’s policy requires teachers in kindergarten
through third grade to assess all their students in the fall, winter, and spring to identify those at risk for
reading and/or writing difficulties and to monitor their academic progress throughout the school year. The
demographics of the district reflect a rich cultural diversity, and many students are eligible for free or
reduced-price meals.

Mr. Nu taught kindergarten for four years and is now in his fifth year teaching third grade. In his class of
21 students, three are at risk for reading difficulties and five are at risk for writing difficulties. In examining
the reading results, Mr. Nu reflects, “These students have problems with word identification. They lack ways to
identify words in a list or in their reading passage. Decoding results show that some of the students lack basic skills
to figure out unknown words. Some have difficulty identifying individual phonemes and can’t seem to blend or
segment sounds to form words. I’m concerned that this problem may affect their decoding and spelling skills. All
these students exhibit difficulty with oral reading. Their reading is choppy because they don’t know the words by
sight. Problems with reading fluency affect their ability to understand the text. I’ll have to provide them with
extra reading support in addition to my regular reading and writing instruction for the entire class.”

In examining the writing results, he reflects, “The students exhibited problems across the board. In the
mechanics portion of the test, they spelled poorly and failed to follow capitalization and punctuation rules. In their
writing passage, the word counts were very low, they tended to write using simple sentences, and there were
numerous agreement errors. And I had a very difficult time reading their passages because of poor handwriting.
We have no formal assessment data that deal with the stages of the writing process per se, but we teach the writing
process at our school and I have many student writing samples that I can examine as part of an informal writing
assessment. I can see by the results of these writing samples that some of my students have really struggled with some
or all of the stages of the writing process.”

In thinking about the results of the assessments, Mr. Nu realizes that most of his students are doing well,
but several aren’t. He will have to spend time teaching reading and writing skills as part of his core
curriculum while also providing small-group supplemental instruction to his struggling students. During
core instruction, Mr. Nu will be guided by the UDL principles as he creates and delivers his reading and
writing lessons.

Secondary Grades Mrs. Sago is in her third year of teaching 11th-grade English, literature, and reading in a
small, rural high school. In her school district, all students are required to take at least two years of English
composition. Across her five classes, the number of students ranges from the smallest class size of 11 to the
largest class of 21. During the summer, Mrs. Sago attended several workshops on the writing process. In
applying what she learned, she noticed that most of her students were adept at brainstorming and topic
selection and could produce a first draft. For the most part, students were able to adjust their writing to the
purpose of the passage and to the hypothetical audience who would be reading their works. Some students,
however, had considerable difficulty in this regard. Nearly all students had some level of difficulty in
organization, but a few of her students continued to write disjointed paragraphs even after guidance from
her. Spelling, capitalization, and punctuation were not problematic for most of her students, but a small
group of students produced errors across the board and were ill-equipped to edit their work for errors. She
reflects on her efforts: “I have to admit that it was a frustrating experience at first. I divided each class into
groups of five students, who were to brainstorm about a topic of their choosing. One group decided to write letters
to admissions directors at their favorite colleges to inquire about scholarships and academic opportunities. They
went online to the website of their school of choice and to the guidance counselor’s office to get some brochures.
Each created a rough draft of his or her letter. When I met individually with them in a writing conference to
discuss the revision, editing, and publishing stages, two students were completely lost. They didn’t understand why
their letter couldn’t just go out “as is.” For the two reluctant students, each stage presented its own challenge. Their
revised letters looked almost identical to their originals, with the same disorganization, simple sentence
construction, and immature vocabulary as their first draft. Editing proved extremely difficult. They simply could

796
 not spell and struggled correcting their errors. Capitalization and punctuation were not problem areas, because
every sentence began with a capital letter and ended with a period or a question mark. There were no other
punctuation marks or capital letters because of the simplicity of their sentences. I really struggle with how to help
them.”

Although teaching at opposite ends of the education spectrum, Mrs. Nu and Mrs. Sago both have students
who “get it” and students who don’t. Although Mr. Nu is teaching early writing skills and Mrs. Sago is
having her students apply skills they supposedly learned many years earlier, they both were faced with the
challenge of helping their students put words on paper in a meaningful way.

Reflection Questions In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them based on what you have learned.

1. What specific difficulties might students in Mr. Nu’s class exhibit in idea generation,
grammar/syntax, vocabulary/semantics, capitalization, punctuation, spelling, and
handwriting/legibility?
2. What specific difficulties might Mr. Nu’s students exhibit in phonological awareness, word
identification, reading fluency, reading vocabulary, and reading comprehension?
3. How might students benefit from writing conferences in Mr. Nu’s class as they move through the
five stages of the writing process?
4. How can Mrs. Sago provide the adapted lessons to students who require additional instruction
while keeping the rest of the class engaged in relevant work?
5. How can Mrs. Sago integrate reading and writing instruction?
6. How can Mrs. Sago monitor her students’ progress or response to intervention?

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Watch videos to see teachers in action.

Most students enjoy learning to read and write, and many young children enter
kindergarten with some, and maybe even considerable, literacy skills. This head start is due
in large part to the literacy-rich environment full of books, writing utensils, and
communication in which they grow up. But some children are not so fortunate. Their
homes do not have these literacy advantages, or they were unable to attend preschool, or
because of disability-related conditions they are unable to benefit from their environmental
advantages. These students may struggle with learning to read and write, and they require
special attention and instructional efforts to become literate. This chapter examines key
features of reading and writing instruction and provides examples of effective literacy
instruction that have been proven useful to teachers who work with struggling students.

In 2000, the National Reading Panel, commissioned by Congress to evaluate the evidence
for early reading instruction, published Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based
Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading
Instruction. This report documented the importance of explicit reading instruction,

797
including instruction in phonological awareness, phonics, reading fluency, reading
comprehension, and vocabulary.

Figure 10.1 depicts these five components of reading and illustrates their relationship to
good reading instruction. According to the National Reading Panel (2000), reading
instruction must occur for each component. Good readers use skills from each component
effortlessly and in combination as they read a variety of texts, such as novels, magazines,
newspapers, and textbooks.

Although no comparable group has been gathered to address writing instruction, we have
learned much over the years via research and practice, most of which centers on the
“recursive” process of writing. The recursive writing process has five stages: prewriting,
drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. In a later section, we review the stages by
describing what each stage means, showing how some students may struggle with the tasks
in each stage, providing instructional guidelines for each stage, and showing how lessons
within each stage can be adapted based on struggling students’ needs. Here, we begin by
presenting the various issues in effective written communication instruction.

Figure 10.1 Reading Components

798
What Issues Are Related to Written Communication
Instruction?
It is estimated that one in four students has difficulty learning to read. Of those who
exhibit problems learning to read by the end of first grade, about 85% will continue to
struggle through the fourth grade and beyond (U.S. Department of Education, 2002).
Results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (2013) indicate that
approximately 40% of all fourth graders read below grade level. The percentages among
students from diverse backgrounds and students who live in poverty or have disabilities are
even higher.

Research has identified specific difficulties demonstrated to varying degrees by students

who are struggling readers (Wanzek & Roberts, 2012). Some may have trouble
discriminating sounds in rhyming activities or identifying sounds in words. Further deficits
may be noted in the ability to connect sounds to letters and letter combinations. Some
students may show adequate abilities with phonological awareness skills but struggle to
learn sound-symbol relationships (or letter-sound correspondences, as they are sometimes
called) and have limited sight vocabularies. Reading fluency may be slow and choppy;
problems with fluency hamper the ability to comprehend text because students spend so
much mental energy identifying words that they find it difficult to also concentrate on the
meaning of what they are reading. Students who find reading laborious and difficult often
don’t read independently for pleasure. Yet extensive reading is one of the best ways to
increase reading vocabulary. Thus, vocabulary development may be affected because of
limited reading exposure.

Older students may also exhibit reading difficulties that remain uncorrected from the
elementary years. They may have limited strategies for figuring out words with multiple
syllables and lack techniques for breaking words apart, sounding out the parts, and
blending the parts together to read the word. Secondary teachers often note that their
students with reading difficulties have problems comprehending text and are hampered by
a limited vocabulary (Bryant et al., 2011). In classes where the textbook is the major source
of information for students, comprehension and vocabulary problems can greatly affect the
student’s ability to succeed at the secondary level. Many struggling readers who would not
otherwise attend colleges or universities can continue their education at the postsecondary
level thanks to community colleges. If their reading problems remain, however, they
experience many of the same challenges they faced in high school.

799
 Reading skills are fundamental for success in school. How can you provide
appropriate reading instruction and adaptations for all your students?

iStock/monkeybusinessimages

Many students who have reading problems also experience difficulties in writing tasks.
Over the past decade, written communication instruction has attained a prominent role in
all classroom settings. Spurred by national interest in improving academic skills, research
findings in cognitive psychology, and the renewed emphasis on writing in postsecondary
settings and adult life, written communication instruction warrants teachers’ attention
across all academic subjects (Graham & Perin, 2007). As a result, more instructional time
has been allotted to writing, and increased written communication competency testing has
been implemented nationwide (Harris et al., 2012).

Elementary and secondary students with learning problems are unable to express themselves
successfully in written communication. For example, compared with their typically
achieving peers, students with learning problems write fewer, shorter, less cohesive narrative
story compositions and include fewer story elements (Lane et al., 2011). Students with
learning problems typically lack effective writing strategies (Graham & Harris, 2005), spell
poorly because they do not associate letters with sounds (Moats, 2005/2006), require
explicit instruction to edit effectively (Graham & Harris, 2011), revise ineffectively
(Graham, Harris, & Larson, 2001), and write using fewer different words and fewer
sentences. Clearly, writing instruction is necessary for elementary and secondary students
with learning difficulties to improve their skill in written communication.

800
Foundational skills such as spelling and handwriting are also critical. The reader will likely
view a paper that contains rich ideas and vocabulary and is written in an engaging manner
negatively if it contains numerous mechanical errors and is barely legible (Santangelo &
Graham, 2014).

Some students with reading and writing problems are identified as having dyslexia or
dysgraphia, respectively. Dyslexia, a language-based reading disability thought to affect
15% of school-age students, is a lifelong condition found in people from all backgrounds.
It tends to run in families (Honig, Diamond, & Gutlohn, 2008) and affects the following
areas to varying degrees, depending on its severity:

Learning to speak
Decoding unknown words
Recognizing words
Learning letter-sound associations
Memorizing facts
Comprehending
Spelling
Writing
Discriminating sounds
Learning a foreign language

Creating a Climate to Motivate Readers

Bryant, Bryant, Hammill, and Sorrells (2004) identified the following research-based
characteristics associated with dyslexia:

Sound–letter association errors when reading aloud

Poor memory for letters and words
Slow oral reading
Slow silent reading
Substitution of words of similar meaning while reading aloud (e.g., substitutes
thermos for flask)
Substitution of phonetically similar words while reading aloud (e.g., substitutes chair
for cheer or then for when).
Oral reading with flat, disjointed, or nonmelodic (dysrhythmic) intonation
Does not remember letter sequences in printed syllables
Interchanges short words, especially articles (e.g., substitutes a for the) when reading
orally

801
 Omits inflectional endings (such as -s, -ed, -ing) when reading aloud
Cannot break a word into syllables
Cannot combine syllables into words
Reverses sounds (e.g., pan as pna) when reading aloud
Reads as though each word is encountered for the first time
Cannot call pseudowords (e.g., nim, klep).
Calls words correctly but does not know their meaning
Adds words when reading aloud
Cannot retell what has been read
Cannot comprehend a passage without reading it more than once

Appropriate instruction and the implementation of instructional adaptations can help most
struggling readers learn to read. Teachers must focus on teaching the skills of the five
components of reading shown in Figure 10.1 and help students apply these skills to various
types of text.

Dysgraphia is a writing disorder that causes problems with handwriting, spelling, and
composition. In a review of the research and intervention literature, Hammill and Bryant
(1998) found that students with writing disabilities are reluctant to write at all. When they
do, they write awkwardly and slowly and with limited output (i.e., their essays are too
short, and they write relatively few words and sentences). They spell poorly, omit or repeat
letters, add letters, reverse them (such as using b for d), put them in the wrong sequence
(for example, htnig for thing), confuse vowels, and either do not attempt to spell
phonetically or misspell words by attempting to spell phonetically. Some students misspell
so badly their words are indecipherable (camelu, huete). Some use unconventional pencil
grips, write in mirror fashion, and form letters correctly but slant the line upward across the
page.

From a syntactic and semantic perspective, students with dysgraphia use too many short
words, omit word endings, omit words from sentences, write the wrong words (e.g., hotel
for house), produce sentence fragments, and avoid complex sentences. Qualitatively, some
write wordy but content-empty passages and sequence ideas improperly when writing a
paragraph. Not all students with writing disabilities or difficulties exhibit all these
characteristics. But if you have had the chance to observe writers, you have probably
observed several of these behaviors. In fact, you could form a checklist of these behaviors
and use it to screen for students who either may be developing poor writing habits or may
already have dysgraphia. For these students, help with the stages of writing is critically
important.

802
Video case 10.1

Components of Reading

1. The students and teacher in the video discuss three of the five main components of reading.
How do the students and teacher describe the components of fluency, comprehension, and
vocabulary? How do these components work together during the reading process to enhance
students’ reading success?
2. In the video, you see a variety of effective practices that are used to support fourth-grade
students’ reading of the novel Holes. What instructional strategies does the teacher use to
teach the components of reading, and how does she implement them in an inclusive
classroom? How are these practices used throughout the video to support student learning?

803
What Are the Five Components of Reading?
Teaching struggling students is hard work and requires patience and perseverance. It is
frustrating to sometimes find that students who seem to be progressing appear to have
forgotten everything they learned over the past few weeks of instruction. Fortunately,
researchers and practitioners have identified a number of teaching strategies to help
students become better readers and writers. In this section, we present information about
the areas of reading and the stages of writing, including examples of lessons that can be
used to teach important literacy skills and concepts.

804
Phonological awareness
Phonological awareness describes a variety of listening skills, including rhyming, blending,
and segmenting. Although technically a skill that requires listening and speaking,
phonological awareness has long been studied in relation to reading, initially as auditory
discrimination, which is the ability to identify speech and other sounds, such as
environmental sounds. When auditory discrimination includes only speech sounds, it is the
same as phonological awareness.

One type of phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, is the ability to segment, blend,
and manipulate individual phonemes, which are the smallest units of sound that influence
the meaning in words. Phonemic awareness is considered the most important type of
phonological awareness because it is related to phonics instruction, spelling, the ability to
read, and the alphabetic principle—the recognition that letters of the alphabet represent
sounds in language.

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Phonological

Awareness
It is not uncommon for beginning readers to have difficulty with the following tasks
(Bryant, Wiederholt, & Bryant, 2012):

Recognizing or producing words that rhyme

Blending or segmenting syllables
Blending or segmenting onset-rimes
Recognizing that two words begin or end with the same sound or different sounds
Recognizing that two words contain the same or different medial, or middle, sounds
Segmenting or blending a word’s individual sounds
Manipulating sounds to identify a new word when a sound is deleted or substituted
in a word

Strategies for Teaching Phonological Awareness

There are myriad ways to teach phonological awareness skills. Teachers can have students
play games like Simon Says, wherein the teachers says, “Simon says, ‘Blend the sounds
together to form a word: /m/ /a/ /n/.’” At some point, do not say, “Simon Says.” Say,
“Blend the sounds together to form a word: /t/ /a/ /p/.” If the student responds, she or he is
out of the game.

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 These students are listening to a book on tape while also reading the book in print.
What reading skills are these students practicing? What other activities may reinforce
these skills?

iStock/richiesd

Other activities include arranging the students in a circle and having them pass around a
bag containing objects with consonant-vowel-consonant, often called CVC, names (such as
rock, can, tape). Students identify the object, then segment the word into individual sounds
(/r/ /o/ /k/) before passing the bag along to others. The game can be modified to have the
next student say the word, say a new word that ends or begins with a different sound
(“sock”), and then segment the word (/s/ /o/ /k/) before the next person continues the
game.

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Phonics and Word Study
Phonics is the teaching of letter-sound patterns so that students can identify unknown
words they encounter in text. The ability to read words quickly and effortlessly lets students
recognize words on sight. Good readers also possess effective decoding strategies to decipher
unknown words. Word identification instruction consists of teaching sight word
recognition and decoding skills.

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Phonics and

Word Study
Teaching students to recognize sight words and to decode unfamiliar words are important
parts of word identification instruction. Struggling readers at the elementary and secondary
level often possess a limited sight word vocabulary and have difficulty recalling words
automatically, even after instruction. For these students, constant practice and review of
sight words, along with reading the words in text, is a critical component of daily
instruction. The guidelines for sight word instruction in the next section offer ways to
provide the extra practice struggling readers need.

Phonic analysis difficulties vary among students with reading problems. Many students are
able to identify letter-sound correspondences and know how to say letter combinations in
isolation. For these students, the problem often lies in blending letter sounds together to
read words. This difficulty is especially apparent as they try to decode pseudowords (such as
zim) used to assess phonic analysis skills. Conversely, good readers have developed such
automaticity in reading words that it is impossible to tell whether words are in their sight
vocabularies or they are rapidly and effortlessly applying their phonics skills.

Strategies for Teaching Phonics and Word Study

The following guidelines for sight word instruction provide helpful tips for effective
teaching in an area that typically requires practice and review for mastery and retention.
They should be implemented regularly and will help teachers plan their instruction (Honig
et al., 2008).

Assessment: Use a sight word list to determine which words should be targeted for
intervention.
Instructional content: Teach targeted words that most commonly occur in
informational text, literature, and basal readers that students encounter during
reading. Teach the words before students read text containing these words.
Instructional content: Teach irregular words with common parts and similar sound
patterns as word families, such as would, could, and should; and other, mother, and

807
 brother.
Instructional content: Teach separately words that have visually similar patterns.
Words such as though, thought, and through; was and saw; and were and where should
not be taught together.
Instructional content: Teach a limited number of new words in each lesson.
Instructional materials: Use flash cards for instruction and review. Color-code parts
of words that require more attention (color green the w in was and the s in saw to
focus student attention on the initial sound of the word).
Instructional delivery: Focus student attention on all the letters and sounds of
irregular words, including letters or letter combinations that do not follow common
English sounds or spellings.
Review/maintenance: Include a cumulative review of key high-frequency words (two
to three minutes daily).
Fluency: Build fluency once words have been learned. Have students read groups of
sight words on flash cards. Show the flash card and ask, “What word?” Students
should respond correctly within three seconds. Put unknown words in a separate pile
for further instruction.
Progress monitoring: Daily, at the conclusion of the lesson, review the words taught
to determine which were learned. Review previously taught words on a weekly basis.
Put words not remembered back into the instructional content pool of words.

Teaching phonic analysis is an important part of early reading instruction. Students must
establish a strong understanding of letter-sound correspondence and combinations. They
must also be able to identify word parts such as phonograms, or rimes, which are parts of a
word to which consonants or blends are added to make a word (an, ip, un). The following
practices can help struggling readers learn to decode using phonic analysis skills
(Cunningham, 2013).

Instructional content: Teach letter-sound correspondence in a logical order. Most

useful initially are the consonants b, c, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, and t, and the
vowels. Present continuous letter sounds (e.g., s and /sss/, m and /mmm/, n and
/nnn/) before stop letter sounds (p and /p/, k and /k/). Select letters that represent
sounds found in decodable text students will read.
Instructional content: Introduce the most common sounds of the letters first.
Lowercase letters should be taught before uppercase ones.
Instructional content: Teach the letter combinations that most frequently occur in
text.
Instructional content: Avoid teaching letter-sound correspondence and letter
combinations that sound similar and may confuse students. For instance, /m/ and /n/
and /sh/ and /ch/ should not be taught together. Letter combinations with the same
sound, such as /ir/ and /ur/ and /ee/ and /ea/, can be taught at the same time.
Instructional content: Teach phonograms containing letter-sound correspondences

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 that have been introduced. Phonograms or rimes such as ap, at, ip, it, un, and et
paired with initial consonants or onsets provide opportunities to segment and blend
sounds to make words. These words should be featured in the decodable text students
will read. Decodable texts contain words with the sounds and patterns you have
previously taught and students have mastered
Instructional delivery: Teach students to blend the letter sounds together in a
seamless fashion. For instance, students should be taught to say mmmaaannn rather
than separating the sounds /m/ /a/ /n/.
Instructional materials: Have students read decodable texts.
Connections to spelling: Have students spell the words so their phonics instruction
can be reinforced. Spelling and reading are closely related skills. Here are some
examples of ways to make connections to spelling:
Introduce letter-sound correspondences for spelling as they are being introduced and
taught in reading.
Have students sort words into spelling patterns.
Have students identify words from their text with patterns that match what they are
learning in phonics.

The following are guidelines for English language learners:

Discuss letters that may have pronunciations in English that differ from those in the
student’s first language (the letter h in Spanish is silent). Correct differences of speech
sounds carefully.
Where appropriate, add pictures of words (such as on the back of word cards) to help
students associate words and meanings and to learn vocabulary.
Use charts and word banks to categorize words according to patterns.
Teach rules for decoding words with letters that do not make their most common
sound (silent-e words, double-vowel words).

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Reading Fluency
Reading fluency is the ability to read text accurately, quickly, and with expression. The
ability to read with “speed and effortlessness” is what fluency is all about.

There are two types of reading fluency. Oral reading fluency is the combination of rate, or
how fast someone reads, and accuracy, or how many words he or she correctly identifies.
For oral reading, fluency may also include expression or prosody, which means altering
pitch, tone, and so forth. Silent reading fluency is a combination of rate and
comprehension.

Despite its importance, most teachers do not spend a lot of instructional time building
students’ fluency. Some spend no time. However, time spent on fluency building is time
well spent.

Reading fluency is an important skill for older readers who have to read large quantities of
material for school assignments. We suspect that you, as a student and a teacher,
understand the importance of fluency and how it affects the amount of time you allocate to
completing your reading. Repeated reading, the process of developing fluency through
multiple readings of the same passage, increases reading accuracy, reading rate, and
comprehension. Researchers have found repeated reading to be very effective in developing
the reading fluency and reading comprehension abilities of students with reading
difficulties (Kim, Bryant, & Bryant, 2015).

Fluency is influenced by numerous factors, such as content and purpose for reading, and
the fluency expectations for oral and silent reading differ. Findings from a study that
examined oral reading fluency rates for first grade (beginning in winter) through eighth
grade are presented in Table 10.1 (Hasbrouck & Tindall, 2005).

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Reading

Fluency
Beginning readers read more slowly and make more oral reading errors than mature readers,
read with very little prosody, and struggle with silent reading comprehension. More
specifically, beginning and struggling readers

Exhibit problems with accuracy and speed.

Present basic word reading difficulties.
Have a small sight vocabulary.
Read word by word.
Rarely self-correct their errors during their reading.

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Have difficulty reading aloud in ways that reflect a misunderstanding of the text and
are unable to engage listeners.

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INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 10.1

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Phonics Analogies
INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT: Initial, middle, and final phonemes

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: Elkonin mat and boxes, Chips

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 Teaching Procedure
1. Give students a mat with blank boxes and chips.
2. Place a picture at the top of the mat (e.g., man).
3. Ask students to identify and say the word.
4. Tell them that the three boxes stand for each sound in man.
5. Say the first sound in man (/m/) and have the students repeat the sound as they place the chip in
the first box.
6. Say the middle sound in can (/a/) and have the students repeat the sound as they place the chip in
the second box.
7. Say the final sound in can (/n/) and have the students repeat the sound as they place the chip in the
third box.
8. Tell them to blend the sounds together to form the word while sliding their pointer finger left to
right under the boxes. /m/ /a/ /n/
9. Have them say the word . . . man.

Error Correction: If students make an error, say, “Stop. Listen as I model the procedure.” Model another
word. Have students repeat. Then continue with guided practice.

Guided Practice: Provide several words for the students to work on in groups of three or four. As they
work, circulate and provide error correction and feedback.

Independent Practice: Give each student several words to do alone. Tell the other students to sound out
each letter, blending them and then saying the word quickly.

PROGRESS MONITORING: After the lesson, give the students 10 words to identify using their
blending skills; check for mastery.

To connect the phonics analogies activity to the alphabetic principal after they have mastered the phonics
analogies activity, exchange the child with letters (m a n) and repeat the activity. Say, “Put the letter that
represents the /mmm/ sound in the word man in the correct box. What sound? (/mmm/). What letter? (m).
What location? (beginning). Put the letter that represents the /nnn/ sound in the word run in the correct
box. What sound? (/nnn/). What letter? (/n/). What location? (end). Put the letter that represents the /a/
sound in the word rat. What sound? (/a/). What letter? (a). What location? (middle).

Strategies for Teaching Reading Fluency

Students need to read fluently so they can focus on reading comprehension (Kim et al.,
2015). To build fluency, they should have opportunities to practice reading words in
isolation (such as sight words) and text at their independent level. The following practices
can help develop fluency.

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Instructional content: Select appropriate text. Fluency instruction is best
accomplished using materials at the students’ independent reading level, where they
recognize many words at sight and identify unknown words quickly. Students should
concentrate on reading with an increased rate and not worry about decoding
unknown words. Instructional-level materials can be used, but avoid frustration-level
texts. Beginning readers can practice building their fluency by reading decodable
texts. In addition, texts for fluency building should be of interest to the students.
Instructional delivery: Model fluent reading or have a fluent reader do so.
Instructional delivery: Teach students word identification skills to build
automaticity and obtain a core sight word vocabulary. Help build fluency with
isolated words, phrase reading (reading three or four word phrases, such as “in the
tree” and “on the large ball”), and connected text.
Progress monitoring: Assess students’ oral reading ability at least biweekly. Graph
the number of words per minute that are correct. Compare progress to the
benchmark fluency rates presented in Table 10.1. Students must make steady
progress on each assessment so they will reach the winter and spring benchmarks.

815
Reading Vocabulary
Vocabulary is knowledge of the word meanings. A person’s reading vocabulary is his or her
understanding of words, or word comprehension. When readers understand individual
words, they are better able to understand phrases and sentences. This, in turn, can help
them understand new words with the help of context clues, or surrounding text,
particularly when a word has more than one meaning. Once readers comprehend sentences,
they can better understand paragraphs and finally achieve passage comprehension, the
ultimate goal of reading.

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Reading

Vocabulary
Considerable research has sought to identify the vocabulary differences between struggling
and good readers. Good readers have a deep understanding of words. They use background
knowledge to understand the meaning of unknown words, and they can select from
multiple meanings the correct definition of a word in context. Good readers understand
word origins and know that many words are based on Greek and Latin words. They know
word parts (base words, prefixes, and suffixes), and they understand both denotative and
connotative definitions of words. Good readers are able to apply context clues, and if they
still do not know the definition of a word, they can use reference materials such as a
dictionary or a thesaurus. Finally, they are confident in their ability to identify word
meanings using a variety of strategies.

Struggling readers are deficient in all these skills. They lack confidence to apply context
clues, or they don’t know the clues to begin with. They struggle with using dictionaries and
often lack the reading ability to use guide words to access unknown words in the
dictionary. As we have seen in word identification, beginning readers struggle with
identifying prefixes and suffixes, so it stands to reason they have difficulty understanding
word parts. Their knowledge of word origins is virtually nonexistent. Finally, beginning
readers may be able to apply denotative meanings to words, but they rarely understand
connotative meanings. All in all, beginning readers not only have difficulty identifying
words but also struggle with word meanings.

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BONUS Instructional Strategy 10.1: Technology-Assisted Reading

Strategies for teaching reading vocabulary. Vocabulary instruction that produces in-

817
depth word knowledge and increases reading comprehension is important for all
students. Instructional practices must focus on enhancing retention of new
vocabulary to help students comprehend text. Students must learn strategies for
independently developing a deeper understanding of the meanings of words that
often constitute vocabulary found in content-area text. The following practices can
help focus more attention on vocabulary learning.
Instructional content: Teach students to use context clues to figure out meaning in
conjunction with other vocabulary instructional approaches. Like the dictionary
approach, context clues alone are insufficient for struggling readers. For example,
they may not fully understand the meaning of the word magnanimous in the sentence
“The philanthropist’s donation to the Girl Scouts of America was a magnanimous
gesture,” but they can use the context of the sentence to know it’s probably a good
thing to be magnanimous.
Instructional delivery: Integrate vocabulary instruction within the context of a
reading lesson. Have students use graphic organizers to map meanings of words.
Teach them to use word parts, such as prefixes and suffixes, to understand word
meanings. Identify a few words to preteach before the lesson, especially if they are
technical words. When possible, combine the definition and contextual approaches
for identifying word meanings. Review word meanings after reading by playing
games with words and definitions (such as Jeopardy and Concentration) and by
creating or elaborating on semantic maps.
Instructional delivery: Provide students with multiple opportunities to practice
using words they know. Researchers have noted that it takes multiple exposures to
words to understand them well enough to incorporate them into our vocabulary
(Butler et al., 2010).
Instructional material: Teach students to use reference materials. Make this one, but
not the only, strategy for finding word meanings. Show students how to choose which
meaning to apply in a particular context. Have them make connections between their
background knowledge and word meaning.

818
BONUS Instructional Strategy 10.2: Contextual Searching

819
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 10.2

820
Word Meaning/Picture Associations
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE: The students will learn how word associations with synonyms,
antonyms, and visuals can facilitate their learning and enhance retention of word meanings.

INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT: Vocabulary

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: Word Association Chart

821
Instructional Delivery
Grouping: Whole class or small group

822
TEACHING PROCEDURE
1. Give students a copy of the chart and a vocabulary word. Have them write it in the top left-hand
box of the chart (see table that follows).
2. Have students draw a picture that depicts the word in the picture box.
3. Tell students to write a synonym (or example) and an antonym (or “nonexample”; tells what the
word does not mean) in the boxes.
4. Have students write a definition of the word using the meaning from the picture and the synonym
and/or antonym.
5. Direct the students to write a sentence that uses the word and is personally meaningful.
6. Have students work in small groups to complete the same activity for the next vocabulary word.
7. The students can make posters of their words, share their charts, or create a Jeopardy-type game with
the words.

PROGRESS MONITORING: Have students define the words in a quiz or group project.

823
ADAPTATIONS
Instructional content: Provide fewer words for students to define.
Instructional materials: Eliminate one or two boxes on the chart initially.
Instructional delivery: Have students make posters of their charts showing variations in pictures,
synonyms, and antonyms (nonexamples) for vocabulary words.

824
NAME

825
Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension requires interacting with text and extracting meaning from stories
or passages (Honig et al., 2008). Literal comprehension deals specifically with the material
on the printed page; inferential comprehension focuses on what is “behind the scenes” (that
which is not directly stated). Someone with literal comprehension can read a passage on
Mount Vesuvius and recall factual information obtained in it (for instance, Vesuvius
destroyed the city of Pompeii; there were no known survivors). Inferential comprehension
requires the reader to go beyond the facts stated in the passage and project his or her own
ideas to imagine the writer’s thoughts and feelings or those of the people affected by the
volcano.

Enhancing Reading Comprehension Instruction

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Reading

Comprehension
Much has been written about the struggles students face as they try to comprehend what
they are reading. Beginning readers do not understand the multiple purposes for reading;
either they have little background knowledge about the topic of the passage or they don’t
know how to activate the knowledge they have. When their understanding breaks down,
they continue to read without monitoring their reading. They have great difficulty creating
mental images of what is going on in the passage and struggle to identify the main ideas
and the way they are supported by specific details. When asked to summarize what they
read, they either produce a blank stare or repeat the story verbatim as well as they can. They
may be able to answer literal questions, at best.

Conversely, good readers are strategic readers. They demonstrate the ability to use effective
strategies before, during, and after reading to enhance comprehension. They possess
strategies to access and understand text, and they can generalize their strategies to all kinds
of reading materials.

826
 Video case 10.2

Instructional Adaptation Strategies

1. In the video, the teacher shares a variety of instructional adaptations that make
Shakespearean text more accessible for her students. What specific strategies does she
mention, and why does she use them? How do these strategies help her students to
understand Romeo and Juliet?
2. Shakespearean text contains language that may be unfamiliar and daunting to high school
students. What methods does the teacher use to enhance her students’ understanding of the
vocabulary found in the prologue of Romeo and Juliet? How does understanding the
vocabulary used at the beginning of the play establish context for the students and support
their comprehension of the plot?

Strategies for Teaching Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension strategy instruction plays an important role in helping students
become strategic readers. It focuses on teaching them to construct meaning before, during,
and after reading by integrating text information with their background knowledge (Honig

827
et al., 2008). Students who can activate and apply whatever background or prior knowledge
they have regarding a topic are more likely to understand a passage than those who cannot.

Comprehension strategy instruction has proved especially helpful for promoting the
learning opportunities of students with reading disabilities. Consider one type of
comprehension strategy instruction, collaborative strategic reading (CSR).

CSR consists of four reading strategies—preview, click and clunk, get the gist, and wrap
up. These strategies are combined with cooperative learning to teach students how to
comprehend what they are reading. Before they read, students activate their prior
knowledge by previewing the text. They brainstorm what they know about the topic and
then predict what they will read about based on the text’s features (such as illustrations and
headings). Making predictions is an important activity for strategic readers because it gets
them engaged and gives them a reason for reading ahead. Will their prediction turn out to
be right or wrong? Compare this with someone who is reading simply to be able to turn the
page and get closer to the end of an assignment.

Next, students read short segments of the text, such as a paragraph or two, during what is
called click and clunk. They read along (click) until they come to a word they do not know.
They are taught to use fix-up strategies, written on clunk cards, and vocabulary strategies,
such as context clues, to determine the meaning of unknown words, concepts, or phrases,
which are called clunks. For each paragraph, get the gist (or find the main idea) requires
students to tell who or what they read about and the most important information about the
“who” or “what” in 10 or fewer words. Finally, students wrap up by summarizing key
concepts and asking questions like “who?” “what?” “why?” and “how?” to reflect on
important information in the reading passage. Students record their predictions, clunks,
gists, and wrap-up questions on a graphic organizer called a learning log. They complete the
four strategies in cooperative groups to learn from each other and to resolve questions about
vocabulary and concepts.

Working in cooperative groups can help increase student success in reading

comprehension.

iStock/mediaphotos

828
CSR should be taught in two stages. In stage 1, the teacher uses think-aloud and modeling
to introduce the four strategies, followed by students practicing the strategies for several
days. During stage 2, students learn cooperative learning roles and then are divided into
small groups to implement CSR with minimal adult assistance.

Struggling students, including those with disabilities, can experience difficulty in any or all
of the five areas of reading. Often but not always, students who struggle with reading also
struggle with writing, because many of the skills related to reading affect writing
acquisition. For example, a student who has little knowledge of phonics skills will likely be
a poor speller. Likewise, students with limited reading vocabularies may find it difficult to
select mature words as they write.

829
What Are the Stages of the Writing Process?
We now turn our attention to the expressive side of literacy—writing. Before discussing the
writing process, or the stages students go through as they put their ideas on paper and revise
and edit their product, we present a few ideas about the work of Karen Harris and Steve
Graham, which deals with the complexity of writing and the reasons some students may
struggle.

830
Instructional Design Features that Promote Success
Harris and Graham have spent many years developing strategies for struggling students,
including those with LD, to become effective writers. Their application of the Self-
Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) approach to writing has been proven effective for
helping students become better writers (Harris & Graham, 2013).

Their six phases of writing instruction provide a framework within which teachers can
guide students through the writing process, as they align closely with the five stages of the
writing process. To their list we have added the writing conference, which can integrate all
Harris and Graham’s framework elements throughout the stages of the writing process.

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 BONUS Instructional Strategy 10.3: Story Mapping for Narrative Text

Develop and Activate Background Knowledge

832
We have already discussed the importance of background knowledge as it pertains to
reading comprehension, but having prior knowledge of a topic is just as important in
writing. In Harris and Graham’s SRSD approach to writing instruction, background
knowledge also includes “critical vocabulary and understandings students need to
successfully understand, learn, and apply writing and self-regulation strategies” (Harris &
Graham, 2013, p. 75). As teachers apply the SRSD approach, they also take note of student
aversions to writing, including any doubts about whether they can undertake the task
successfully. As most experienced teachers will attest, success breeds success, so it is
important that students begin to experience success in writing as early as possible.

Discuss It
In this case, “it” stands for what good writers do. Teachers discuss with students how good
writers go about finding something to write about, learning more about the topic, creating
an initial draft, and revising and editing their product. Another goal in this step is to have
students recognize that the writing process, while challenging at first, becomes enjoyable as
they see their works develop into thoughtful pieces; in other words, writing can be fun!
Teachers introduce strategies as “tricks” students can use to improve their writing.

Model It
Once the concepts have been introduced, teachers model strategies and ways to implement
them. Think of this as interactive modeling or modeled practice, because students are active
participants in the process. This form of modeling has two purposes. First, it keeps the
students engaged. Second, it provides the teacher with a way to check for student
understanding. Having the students do what the teacher models reveals whether the
students understand the procedures to that point. If a problem occurs, the teacher can
introduce a scaffold or provide additional examples.

Memorize It
Many strategies in the SRSD approach use memorization, for instance, mnemonics such as
POWTREE. Even if a mnemonic is not presented, however, students must memorize the
strategy so they can call on it automatically when needed. You have probably used a
mnemonic at some point in your life, such as for learning the colors of the rainbow (Roy G
Biv helps us remember the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet).

Support It
Teachers support students as they write by carefully monitoring student progress as they
plan, draft, revise, and edit. Through experience, teachers learn to recognize telltale signs of

833
misunderstanding (crinkled noses, sighs, hands covering the face, or even tears) and know
when to introduce scaffolds to get students beyond the troubling spots. Even though
scaffolds fade over time as students become more independent in their writing, students
tend to remember them and can apply them independently when problems arise or know
when to ask teachers for help. Experienced teachers recognize early that struggling students
tend to quit when they experience problems during writing, whereas typical students are
challenged by difficulties and endeavor to work through them on their own or with the
help of a peer, or, of course, ask the teacher for assistance. In other words, good writers self-
monitor throughout the writing process.

Creating a Climate for Writing

Support from teachers is critical for all students as they work to expand their writing
abilities.

© Frances Roberts / Alamy

Perform Independently
Independent writing is the goal of effective writing instruction. Throughout the writing
process, teachers encourage students to apply what they have learned thus far not only to
novel writing experiences but also to their other classes. For example, if writing is taught in

834
the English or language arts class, students are encouraged to apply their writing skills to
their work in science, social studies, or mathematics classes. As students mature, writing
becomes an important aspect of their coursework, and their ability to generalize their
strategies to all their classes becomes very important.

Engage in Writing Conferences

Throughout the writing process, students can work together or with the teacher to plan,
draft, and revise their written product. Known as writing conferences, such collaborations
provide a means to generate ideas, identify the audience for whom the written work is
intended, choose the form and tone of what is to be written, and revise and edit the various
drafts. All the writing strategies presented in this chapter can take place during such
conferences.

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Prewriting Stage of Writing
We have often compared writing to a competition between the mind and the blank piece of
paper (or computer screen) that sits before the writer. Many times, the writer has plenty of
ideas but struggles to get them onto the page. Soon, the blankness of the page begins to win
out; what was in the mind begins to disappear, and the mind itself becomes the blank page!
The prewriting stage can serve to help the writer win the competition by allowing the
student to do some constructive planning before he or she puts pen to paper (or fingers to
keyboard) to write a first draft. During the prewriting stage, the student has to select a
topic, gather research or information about the topic, determine who the audience will be
(i.e., who will read the paper), and so on. Many consider the prewriting stage (or planning
stage, as it is sometimes called) the most important stage in the writing process. Proper
research, planning, and organizing set the stage for what is to come and save a lot of time
and energy “down the writing road.”

Strategies for Teaching Prewriting

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Prewriting

Hammill and Bryant’s (1998) research has significant relevance to the prewriting stage, as
the behaviors exhibited by students with learning disabilities show us. As you read each
characteristic, think about how it would affect students as they brainstorm, select a topic,
conduct research, organize their paper, and so forth—all key features of the prewriting
stage. When they tackle the prewriting stage of a writing task, struggling students

Do not move from one idea to another.

Approach complex problems in a concrete way.
Veer from the subject at hand to pursue some minor detail.
Are inconsistent in thinking and make illogical arguments.
Have difficulty learning abstract concepts (such as freedom, pronoun, and nation).
Have difficulty organizing, grouping, and forming concepts.
Do not see cause/effect relationships.
Organize time poorly.
Are rigid and resistant to changes in thought.
Lack “stick-to-it-iveness,” or persistence.
Are unable to generate worthwhile ideas.
Cannot organize ideas into a cohesive plan of action.

836
 Jump to premature conclusions.
Show poor judgment.

Strategies for Teaching Prewriting

Numerous activities can help guide students through the prewriting stage of the writing
process. We present a few here.

Using Self-Writing.

Self-writing encourages writing about the student’s own experiences. Students try to capture
five or six incidents from their past as briefly but as realistically as possible. Have them

Recall morning activities, remember something that happened, and write it down.
Go back in time one to two weeks, remember an event, and write it down.
Go back in time one to two months, recall an event, and write about it, focusing on
as many details as can be recalled.
Go back in time as a young child, recall a fun activity or event, and write about it.

Making Lists.

Students can make many different lists to find a topic to write about. Nancie Atwell (2010)
suggested that students keep lists of past and potential purposes, audiences, topics, and
genres. They can also keep lists of events and subjects that interest them, as well as favorite
belongings or accomplishments. The teacher can give a general topic such as accidents,
courage, or school, modeling by first listing one or two personal events that have to do with
that topic. Students then develop lists of their own experiences and share those lists.
Sharing often helps trigger memories for those who are having difficulty. Teachers then
need to model how to choose the best topic from the list.

Writing Literature.

After reading a story, novel, play, or poem, have students brainstorm the themes of the
piece and then plan an original work using one of the themes. Or the student could write a
story using one of the characters or a setting from the literature or compare/contrast a
character in one story with a character in another. Literature, especially children’s books,
can also be used to trigger memories and promote personal applications.

Brainstorming.

Brainstorming is a way to generate ideas. Johnson (2008) noted that most students do not
know how to brainstorm, and brainstorming rules must be taught explicitly and modeled.

1. All ideas must be accepted. No criticizing or evaluation is allowed. At this stage, bad

837
 ideas are just as important as good ideas.
2. Freewheeling is celebrated. Creative, bizarre, unusual, and silly ideas are welcomed.
3. The goal of brainstorming is quantity. The more ideas generated, the greater the
opportunity to find a solution.
4. Hitchhiking is welcome. Hitchhiking occurs when students add to ideas that have
already been stated or combine multiple ideas into a single thought (adapted from
Johnson, 2008 pp. 191–192).

838
BONUS Instructional Strategy 10.4: Planet Wright (Plan-it Right)

839
CONSIDERING diversity

840
Writing Assistance for Culturally and Linguistically
Diverse Students with Special Needs
Culturally and linguistically diverse students who have special learning needs, such as writing difficulties,
can benefit from the following suggestions:

1. Designate adequate time for writing. Thirty minutes each day should be allotted to writing
instruction and opportunities for students to practice under the teacher’s guidance and with
feedback.
2. Provide a variety of writing topics, including those with which students are most familiar. Students
who are learning to write in a second language and have writing difficulties should be allowed to
select topics that are related to their background knowledge and experiences. Allowing students to
choose their own topics at first can enhance success, because students will probably select topics
with which they are most comfortable.
3. Establish a “writing environment.” Teachers can create positive associations with writing by
engaging students in different types of writing (informational, lists, directions, journals) throughout
the school day. Students should view writing as a natural means of expression, with links to
academic areas such as reading, mathematics, and social studies. Conferencing with students
regularly reinforces their writing efforts by providing enthusiastic feedback about written work, as
well as suggestions for improvement.
4. Incorporate culturally diverse materials. Surround students with books and materials that depict
various cultural heritages. Teachers can use these materials (pictures in the books, for example) as
story starters. For older students, global and national current events can serve as topics for students
to write about.
5. Include technology. Students should learn keyboarding skills and have access to computers with
word processing programs, spell-check tools, and specialized assistive technology (text-to-speech,
voice recognition) to facilitate the writing process.
6. Provide explicit instruction during the writing process. Model and “think aloud” the steps involved
in each stage of the writing process. Provide many opportunities for students to hone their writing
skills. Carefully assess their progress, and use the results to inform further instruction.
7. Facilitate vocabulary development. For students who are learning new vocabulary, provide word
walls and instruction on vocabulary building. Teachers can use the vocabulary strategies discussed in
the chapter on reading to help students develop their written vocabulary.

Source: Adapted from Bos and S. Vaughn (2006).

841
Drafting Stage of Writing
Most people have heard of the “first draft,” which is the goal of drafting—a first attempt to
put ideas into print. During the drafting stage, the intent is for writers to simply translate
their ideas into written form. Improving the draft comes later.

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Drafting

When preparing students to make initial drafts of their work, remember the differences
between struggling writers and their same-age peers (Hammill & Bryant, 1998). Struggling
writers typically

Write without considering the purpose for their work, who will read what they write,
or the form their writing should take.
Focus too little attention on meaning, concentrating instead on mechanics and
writing “rules.”
Have little knowledge about the elements of text structure, such as word order and
vocabulary.
Avoid taking risks.

Strategies for Teaching Drafting

There are many useful ways to help writers generate effective sentences. See the
Considering Diversity feature for ways to provide writing assistance for bilingual students.

Instructional delivery: Use examples and nonexamples to demonstrate effective text

structure—and the lack of it.
Instructional delivery: Provide students with multiple opportunities to practice
writing effective sentences.
Instructional delivery: Model how to write a variety of sentences in a paragraph.
Check for student understanding, and provide corrective feedback.

During the drafting stage of writing, students put their prewriting ideas into a written draft
form. Bryant and Bryant (2011) described how word prediction programs support the
writing process by helping students select related words to complete their thoughts (see this
chapter’s Tech Notes feature).

842
Revising Stage of Writing
During the revising stage, the focus shifts from the writer to the reader. How do students
revise what they have written so that it will be easy for the reader to understand and will
fully demonstrate the writers’ knowledge of the topic using the most appropriate form and
tone?

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Revising

Struggling writers have difficulty revising their work because they lack the appropriate
skills. Their approach to the revision process is quite different from the approach used by
their same-age typical peers (Hammill & Bryant, 1998). Struggling writers

Have little knowledge about how to improve their writing.

Have trouble recognizing errors in word order and vocabulary use that might affect
meaning.
Lack strategies and skills for correcting errors in their work.
Make revisions that do not address the errors they have made, so the overall quality
of their draft remains the same.

843
BONUS Instructional Strategy 10.5: Supported Writing

844
TECH notes

845
 Word Prediction Programs
Originally developed to help students with physical impairments to reduce the number of keystrokes needed
to write, word prediction programs are often used by struggling writers to select words. The student begins
to type, and the word prediction program offers alternatives that can be used to help write a sentence; the
writer then selects the word and continues typing as new words come into view. Word prediction programs
often include speech synthesis to read the text and the various word options that appear on the screen.
Bryant and Bryant described two popular word prediction products that are widely used:

Co:Writer (Don Johnston Inc.) was designed to add word prediction, grammar, and vocabulary to
word processing programs. In addition to word prediction described earlier, the grammar feature
corrects grammatical errors and helps students practice their writing skills.
WordQ 2 (Quillsoft) is also used with word processing programs as described previously; the writer
selects a word with either a mouse click or keystroke. Once each sentence is written, WordQ 2 reads
the sentence aloud. An interesting feature of this program involves the use of a temporarily
disappearing word prediction box that allows the writer to work through the document without
distraction.

Strategies for Teaching Revising

As students look at each section of their paper during the revising stage, have them
participate in peer revision conferences. Before the conferences, writers can examine their
own work for possible improvements.

Instructional content: Have students ask themselves the following questions:

Has the author written for a specific audience?

Is the purpose for writing clear?
Is the information presented in a logical sequence?
Does the writer stay on topic?
Are there topic sentences with supporting details?
Is there a strong conclusion?

As students answer these questions, they should highlight the parts of their text that relate
to them.

Instructional activity: Select several sentences from a passage. For each sentence,
delete a word and provide three options. The student selects the option that best fits
the sentence syntactically and semantically.
Instructional delivery: Model ways to ask the questions and revise a paper on the
basis of the answers.

Throughout the writing process, teachers can have students collaborate with one another
during writing conferences. Such conferences allow students to share their work with their

846
peers (or the teacher) to receive critical feedback. Even though conferences occur frequently
during the revising and editing stages, they can be held during the prewriting or drafting
stages as students share and discuss their ideas and first drafts. Other possibilities include
having a display area for students’ writing, modeling writing, thinking aloud while working
through the writing process, using the overhead projector to generate compositions
showing the writing process, establishing a post office, designing activities around students’
interests, and having students write, write, write!

847
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 10.3

848
Peer Revision
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY: Peer revision

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE: Revising documents

INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT: Revising of whole passage

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: None

849
Instructional Delivery
Grouping: Students in pairs

850
Teaching Procedure
1. Have the students divide into pairs.
2. Model how to consider questions before giving the paper to a peer reviewer
Does the paper fulfill its intended purpose?
Will the audience understand what you have written?
Does the form of the paper fit the purpose and intended audience?
Is the paper interesting?
Is there anything that can be done to make the paper more interesting?
Are there enough details or examples in the content of the paper?
Does it “read right”?
3. Teach students explicitly how to make revision symbols during peer revisions. Provide examples and
nonexamples, and provide multiple opportunities to practice (Haager & Klingner, 2005).
4. Have peer reviewers also answer the questions in procedure 2. Model appropriate interactions
between peer reviewers and writers, such as providing constructive criticism and avoiding caustic
remarks. Give examples and nonexamples of appropriate comments.
5. Give exactly the same passage to all student pairs. Direct each pair to role-play and practice peer
revision. Check for student understanding, and provide praise or corrective feedback as warranted.
6. Have students revise their own drafts and then exchange papers with a peer for a peer review.
Periodically check for understanding, and provide praise and corrective feedback. Ensure that
students are staying on task and taking this revision process seriously. If need be, stop the process
and model once again how to provide constructive criticism.

PROGRESS MONITORING: As you check for understanding during guided practice, provide error
correction or praise. Meet with the students in a conference after they have revised their papers following
peer revision. As you participate in this conference, examine the actual edits and see how the students have
revised their papers on the basis of the revision suggestions. After the final paper has been turned in, be sure
to grade in terms of what was taught during the revision process. It does little good to teach revising skills if
students are not held accountable for errors that “slip through.”

851
Editing Stage of Writing
After students have revised their drafts and fully developed the meaning of what they have
written, they move to the editing stage, where they focus on ensuring that the written piece
is grammatically and mechanically correct. To produce a paper that contains as few errors
as possible, they should look for inconsistencies in mechanics and grammar choices, such as
lack of subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement and the appearance of sentence
fragments or run-ons.

Editing requires a variety of strategies that must be explicitly taught to help writers become
competent at finding and correcting their mistakes.

iStock/track5

Some writing experts differentiate between editing and proofreading, but we see them as
similar and interrelated. Editing requires a variety of strategies that must be explicitly
taught to help writers become competent at finding and correcting their mistakes. As
writers become better editors, they can often correct grammar and mechanical errors during
the revising stage. In fact, they may begin to make fewer common errors during the
drafting process.

During the editing stage, students can first edit their own papers and then share their
papers with at least one other person. This opportunity to practice makes writers/editors
better at finding mistakes in their own writing, thus helping them create drafts with fewer
errors.

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Editing

We considered the characteristics of students with writing disabilities earlier in this chapter;
many are particularly relevant for students who struggle during the editing stage. To review,
these students

Spell poorly.

852
 Use too many short words.
Omit words in sentences.
Omit endings of words.
Write the wrong words.
Write sentence fragments.
Avoid writing complex sentences.
Sequence ideas improperly when writing a paragraph.

Strategies for Teaching Editing

A number of instructional routines are available to students when editing.

Instructional materials: Have the writers use checklists while they act as the first
editor of their own work. They should ask themselves the following:
Did I express myself clearly? Will the reader understand what I wrote?
Did I write any sentence fragments?
Did I capitalize the first word in each sentence?
Did I capitalize proper nouns?
Did I end each sentence with the correct punctuation mark?
Did I spell all the words correctly?
Did I use semicolons in the right places?
Did I use proper verb tenses?
Did I use apostrophes correctly?
Did I vary the length of my sentences?
Did I capitalize “I” whenever I used it?
Did I use commas when I wrote lists?
Instructional delivery: Model editing strategies and teach students to check their
work against their checklist.
Instructional delivery: Explicitly teach one editing skill at a time.
Instructional delivery: Teach students how to proofread others’ work and provide
corrective, supportive feedback.

853
Publishing Stage of Writing
At the end of the writing process, we arrive at the publishing stage, where we determine
that the paper is finished. Of course, minor changes might need to be made, because in
writing there are always a number of possible revisions and edits that can be made. But at
some point we have to tell the students their work is done. They are now ready to publish
their work, which consists of creating a written product that is easy for the reader to read. If
it is handwritten, it should be neat and legible.

Characteristics of Students Who Struggle With Publishing

Penmanship is important for handwritten work, but it can be a struggle for some students.
Cecil Mercer and Paige Pullen (2004) described a variety of handwriting difficulties:

Slowness
Incorrect direction of letters and numbers
Too much or too little slant
Inconsistent spacing
General messiness
Inability to stay on a horizontal line
Too much or too little pencil/pen pressure
Mirror writing
Closed letters
Closed top loops that should be open (forming e like i)
Open loops that should be closed (forming i like e)
Omission of parts of letters

854
WORKING together

855
Taking on Technology
Many teachers are uncomfortable working with technology, especially sophisticated technology such as
speech-to-text or text-to-speech. We encourage you to get to know and collaborate with your assistive
technology (AT) specialist. Not every school has an expert in assistive technology in the building. Many
school districts or regional service centers hire itinerant professionals, who move from school to school and
provide consultant services with classroom teachers and special educators. If you need help with assistive
technology devices or services, contact the AT specialist and arrange for a meeting to discuss your students
who have special needs.

Skills. Teachers should be able to rate the student (weak, average, or strong) in the following skills:

Applies capitalization rules.

Spells correctly.
Writes neatly with little difficulty.
Uses appropriate grammar.
Edits/proofs well.
Writes well conceptually.
Applies a sense of audience effectively.
Demonstrates overall writing skills.

856
 BONUS Instructional Strategy 10.6: CHECK Spelling Errors

Setting demands. The teacher should also share the extent to which the following tasks are accomplished in
the classroom:

Writes test answers.

Writes papers (reports, term papers).
Writes stories/essays/poems.
Copies from the chalkboard/text (words and numbers).
Takes notes.

857
 Spells words (in isolation and in continuous text).

Having this information available will give the AT specialist some of the information he or she requires to
help you work with your students who have special needs. You will probably be asked many more
questions. Also, be sure to ask questions that you have regarding how AT devices and services can help you
meet the needs of your struggling students. Together, you can examine the student ratings and the writing
requirements of the classroom setting.

858
 Questions
1. Think about students you have worked with or observed. What are their AT needs, if any, and what
resources might you use to learn more about AT devices and services? Knowledge about AT will
help you discuss your students’ needs with the AT specialist.
2. Role-play with a classmate a conversation concerning a hypothetical student. One of you will be the
teacher, the other the AT specialist. What questions would be asked? What information would you
require to answer the questions?

Strategies for Teaching Publishing

Graham (2009–2010) stressed the importance of handwriting in writing improvement,
noting that “early handwriting instruction improves students’ writing. Not just its
legibility, but its quantity and quality” (p. 20).

Instructional content: Establish desirable habits such as short daily learning periods.
Instructional content: Do not accept poorly written work.
Instructional delivery: Have students overlearn skills, that is, continue to practice
them beyond mastery. Apply this strategy to letter formation and alignment in
isolation and then use the skills in meaningful contexts and assignments.
Instructional delivery: Have students evaluate their own handwriting.
Instructional delivery: Teach handwriting skills explicitly.

859
How can Teachers Provide Effective Instruction and
Adaptations for Reading and Writing?
Reading and writing can be taught separately, of course. But opportunities exist to dovetail
them as part of integrated literacy lessons. For example, teachers can have students create a
story map (see Figure 10.2) as part of reading comprehension and prewriting instruction.
The components of the map become a writing outline that describes the story elements.

Another example teaches word identification, reading comprehension, and drafting or

revising instruction. The teacher can select a passage from the text, delete certain words,
and create a maze for students to complete. By providing three word choices, only one of
which fits the sentence semantically and syntactically, the teacher offers the student
instruction in word selection, an important skill in drafting or revising. Using the preceding
sentence as an example, we have the following:

By _________ (provide, provided, providing) three word choices, only one of which
______ (fitting, fits, fitted) the sentence semantically and syntactically, the teacher
offers the student _______ (illusion, instruction, illustrate) in word selection, an
important skill in drafting or revising.

Publications That Feature Student Writing, Poetry, and Art

860
BONUS Instructional Strategy 10.7: Paired Reading

Figure 10.2 Group Story Mapping

861
Finally, the same maze procedure can promote fluency and editing at the same time.
Instead of providing three syntactic/semantic word choices, the teacher can provide three
spellings of the missing word. The students select the word that is correctly spelled for as
many of the missing words as they can in a one- or two-minute time span. Again using the
previous sentence, we have the following:

The students ______ (silekt, select, sullect) the word that is correctly _______ (spelt,
spelld, spelled) for as many of the missing words as they can in a one- or two-minute
______ (time, tyme, tiem) span.

Integrating reading and writing instruction helps to save instructional time and provides
opportunities to demonstrate to students the important link between reading and writing.
In the case of the story map and outline, the activity also demonstrates the importance of
organization in writing. Outlining is a difficult skill for many students, and using a graphic
organizer such as the one provided for the story map simplifies the process considerably.

862
BONUS Instructional Strategy 10.8: HINTS Identifying Multisyllabic Words

863
ADAPT in action

864
ADAPT framework: FOR MARK

865
UDL in action

866
Using UDL Principles to Design and Integrate Literacy
Lessons
Note: This UDL-based lesson was developed, in part, using the CAST UDL Lesson Builder
(http://lessonbuilder.cast.org/create.php?op=new).

The UDL framework (version 2.0) is comprised of three main principles (I. Representation, II. Action and
Expression, and III. Engagement). Each principle has three guidelines and several checkpoints that define them
further. In this lesson plan, we delineate how various instructional strategies meet the UDL checkpoints.

TITLE: Reading Lesson: Character Map: Fern Arable

SUBJECT: Reading Comprehension

GRADE LEVEL: 4

DURATION: 45 minutes

UNIT DESCRIPTION: This lesson is designed to identify characteristics of a main character in Charlotte’s
Web.

LESSON DESCRIPTION FOR DAY: The students need the following prerequisite skills: ability to
communicate verbally and attend to a short video clip and work collaboratively.

UNIT GOALS: The purpose of this unit is to understand the roles that characters play in the story.

LESSON GOALS: The purpose of this lesson is to teach students to complete a character map for one of
the characters in the story, Charlotte’s Web.

867
Methods:
Anticipatory Set: Tell the student(s) that the purpose of the day’s lesson is to help them understand how
characters in stories help us understand why events in stories occur. They will be working with print and
digital copies of E. B. White’s classic story Charlotte’s Web, as well as the film version that came out in 1973.

868
Introduce and Model New Knowledge
1. Introduce Fern Arable to the class as someone who will play an important role in the story. Explain
that Fern is 8 years old at the beginning of the story and will grow up as the story progresses. State
that students will be working on discovering the traits that Fern possesses.
2. Read the section of Charlotte’s Web that deals with her saving Wilbur’s life and promising her father
that she will take care of the young piglet. Project a copy of the passage onto the whiteboard.
3. Play a short clip of the movie Charlotte’s Web (Checkpoint 1.3—Offer alternatives for visual
information) that covers the material that was read.
4. Have students work in small groups to talk about Fern and to describe her physical and personality
features and to plan their character map (Checkpoint 6.2—Support planning and strategy
development).
5. Have them create a character map using paper and pencil, overhead transparency, or Kidspiration or
Inspiration (Checkpoint 5.1—Use multiple media for communication). A useful resource for initial
training for Kidspiration can be found at
http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/mitchell/technology/how_to/kidspiration.pdf.
6. Provide scaffolds as needed (Checkpoint 6.3—Facilitate managing information and resources).
a. Demonstrate to students how they alter the displays of information using features from
Kidspiration (Checkpoint 1.1—Offer ways of customizing the display of information).
b. Have students label their map using key terms such as physical traits, personality development,
teen challenges, and so forth (Checkpoint 2.1—Clarify vocabulary and symbols).
c. For struggling students, provide a digital copy of Charlotte’s Web with screen reader
software, so that the story can be read aloud as the student follows along (Checkpoint 2.3—
Support decoding of text, mathematical notation, and symbols).

869
Provide Guided Practice
(Checkpoint 5.3—Build fluencies with graduated levels of support for practice and performance):

1. Provide print, digital, and video versions of Charlotte’s Web.

2. Select a chapter that will be the focus of the activity.
3. Have students work in small groups to create their character map (Checkpoint 8.3—Foster
collaboration and community). Allow them to choose groupings for learning activities.
4. Allow students to choose what they will produce.
a. Create the character map presentation using the medium of their choice.
b. Conduct a role-playing interview of Fern for a Charlotte’s Web blog. A character map will
accompany the interview.
c. Create a newspaper article discussing how Fern comes to Wilbur’s rescue as her father
prepares to slaughter him. A character map will be part of the article.
d. Other (as approved by teacher).
5. Be prepared to model, for example, PowerPoint or interview procedures.
6. Check for understanding and provide corrective feedback as needed.
7. Support self-regulation skills by assisting students in setting and monitoring learning and behavioral
goals (Checkpoint 9.2—Facilitate personal coping skills and strategies).

870
Provide Independent Practice
1. At the end of each day, students answer questions related to the new information as they leave the
classroom (e.g., What feelings did Fern experience as she grew older?).
2. When student projects are completed, they will be evaluated using a scoring rubric designed for the
product type. Alternative progress monitoring will be available based on discussions with and
requirements for individual students (Checkpoint 6.4—Enhance capacity for progress monitoring).

UDL Guidelines are available at http://www.udlcenter.org/aboutudl/udlguidelines/downloads.

871
Summary
A successful reading program must consider the phonological awareness, word
identification, reading fluency, reading vocabulary, and reading comprehension abilities of
individual students and the development of instruction tailored to individual needs. A
comprehensive and effective reading program must include a balanced approach to
instruction. Students demonstrate a variety of reading characteristics in the five
components of reading as they develop reading skills. Effective reading instruction includes
features that encompass delivery of instruction and what should be included, such as
strategy training and opportunities for students to read good literature. Guidelines for
teaching each component of reading were provided and should be used when planning and
delivering instruction. Finally, instructional adaptations make it possible to teach these
reading components to all struggling readers, including those who have reading or other
disabilities.

872
Review the Learning Objectives
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot talk
through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

What issues are related to written communication instruction?

Students may have trouble discriminating sounds in rhyming activities or identifying

sounds in words. Further deficits may be noted in the ability to connect sounds to
letters and letter combinations. Some students may show adequate abilities with
phonological awareness skills but struggle to learn sound-symbol relationships and
have limited sight vocabularies. Reading fluency may be slow and choppy; problems
with fluency hamper the ability to comprehend text. Older students may have limited
strategies for figuring out words with multiple syllables and lack techniques for
breaking words apart, sounding out the parts, and blending the parts together to read
the word.

What are the five components of reading?

Phonological awareness, word identification, reading fluency, reading vocabulary,

and reading comprehension.

What are the stages of the writing process?

Prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing.

Prewriting: Review the purposes for writing and ways to select from the various
purposes; discuss audience sense, the process for determining the probable reader;
and review the way the purpose and audience will affect form and tone. Drafting:
Present a sentence pattern (beginning with simple sentences and moving to
compound sentences, complex sentences, and then compound-complex sentences),
use examples and nonexamples to illustrate the critical features of a particular
sentence pattern, and provide students opportunities to practice identifying parts of
sentences and the associated sentence patterns. Revising: Students should decide
whether their writing tells the reader what the writing is about, whether the purpose
is clear, and whether any part of the writing does not help achieve the purpose.
Editing: Have the writer serve as the first editor of his or her own work, using
checklists and other strategies. Model editing strategies and teach the students to
make appropriate comments, and then have the students use peers as editors. Briefly
edit students’ writing and confer with students about one or two editing skills.
Publishing: Teach handwriting skills explicitly, establish desirable habits in short daily
learning periods, and have students overlearn skills in isolation and then apply them

873
in meaningful contexts and assignments.

How can teachers provide effective instruction and adaptations for reading and
writing?

The ADAPT framework can help make instructional adaptations to ensure that
students attain the instructional reading and writing objectives. Teachers can examine
the instructional task of the lesson and any prerequisite skills students need and, if
students lack one or more prerequisites, make lesson adaptations such as providing an
alternate activity, changing the instructional content or materials, or using flexible
grouping strategies. Once the adapted lesson has been taught, teachers conduct
lesson-related assessments to ensure the student attained the instructional objective,
that is, learned what was taught.

Test your understanding of chapter content. Take the practice quiz. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

874
REVISIT THE OPENING CHALLENGE
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What specific difficulties might students in Mr. Nu’s class exhibit in idea generation,
grammar/syntax, vocabulary/semantics, capitalization, punctuation, spelling, and
handwriting/legibility?
2. What specific difficulties might Mr. Nu’s students exhibit in phonological awareness,
word identification, reading fluency, reading vocabulary, and reading
comprehension?
3. How might students benefit from writing conferences in Mr. Nu’s class as they move
through the five stages of the writing process?
4. How can Mrs. Sago provide the adapted lessons to students who require additional
instruction while keeping the rest of the class engaged in relevant work?
5. How can Mrs. Sago integrate reading and writing instruction?
6. How can Mrs. Sago monitor her students’ progress or response to intervention?

875
KEY TERMs
auditory discrimination, 429
decodable texts, 433
dysgraphia, 428
dyslexia, 427
overlearn, 453
phonological awareness, 429
reading fluency, 433
reading vocabulary, 436

Review key terms with eFlashcards. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

876
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

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CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge
Standard 4: Assessment
Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

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INTASC Core Principles
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences
Standard 4: Content Knowledge
Standard 6: Assessment
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction
Standard 8: Instructional Strategies
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

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Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Characteristics of students with disabilities
III. Delivery of Services to Students: Curriculum and instruction

880
Common Core State Standards

881
Reading
Literacy
Craft and Structure
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas
Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity

882
Writing
Text Types and Purposes
Production and Distribution of Writing
Research to Build and Present Knowledge
Range of Writing

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

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884
11 Teaching Mathematics

iStock/SimmiSimons

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Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What are the attributes of students with mathematics difficulties?

What is early number development and how is it taught?
What are arithmetic combinations and how are they taught?
What is place value and how is it taught?
What is whole-number computation and how is it taught?
What are rational numbers and how are they taught?
What is algebra and how is it taught?
What is problem solving and how is it taught?

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OPENING challenge

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Helping Struggling Students Access the Mathematics
Curriculum
Elementary Grades Ms. Hart is a third-grade teacher in a large urban school district. Her class of 23 is
culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) and includes several students who have reading and mathematics
problems. Three—from Eastern Europe, Chile, and Taiwan—are bilingual. After administering the
district’s curriculum-based assessment in mathematics, Ms. Hart learns that one-third of her students do not
perform at the competent level on end-of-second-grade skills and concepts; several are performing closer to
the first-grade level in fundamental concepts and skills such as numeration. Third grade is the year her
students take the state’s assessment in reading and mathematics. She realizes she must focus extra attention
on the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSSM, 2010), the part of the curriculum that
presents the greatest challenges for her students. “I have to begin teaching the third-grade mathematics
curriculum to all my students. But I must provide extra instruction on fundamental skills and concepts to my
struggling students to give them the support they will need to learn more advanced mathematics. I’ll use word
problems to reinforce student use of the basic number and operation skills so they can apply what they learn to a
problem situation. I know what I need to do, but how am I going to find time for the extra instruction in
mathematics and reading? How can I use peer-mediated strategies to support my teaching? What should I do
about monitoring the students’ progress in mathematics?”

Secondary Grades Mrs. Reid is reviewing her sixth-grade students’ papers from today’s quiz on problem
solving. She is using a problem-based approach to teaching the CCSSM (2010) required by her school
district. She starts lessons with a quick vocabulary assignment, a review of what was taught the previous day,
and an introduction of materials for the day’s exercises. Her students work in small groups to generate
solutions to problems that require the use of measurement, geometry, and prealgebra skills and concepts.
Mrs. Reid reflects on the quiz results. “Most of my 140 students got the majority of the problems correct. They
used different strategies to solve the problems, which suggests that their group work helps them identify ways to
solve problems correctly. But I have 32 papers in which most of the answers are incorrect. Many mistakes are due
to inaccurate calculations and faulty strategies. I’ve spent weeks on problems that focus on specific skills, yet some of
my students aren’t getting it. I am stumped about what to do next.”

Ms. Hart and Mrs. Reid share a similar concern—a significant number of students in their classes lack
prerequisite skills to perform grade-level mathematics. These teachers must decide how to provide extra
intervention for their students, what interventions to implement, and how to monitor student progress to
determine whether the interventions are working.

Reflection Questions In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What mathematical learning characteristics might be contributing to the students’ learning

difficulties?
2. How can Ms. Hart and Mrs. Reid use the features of effective mathematics instruction to structure
their lessons?
3. What instructional adaptations can be implemented to help students access the mathematics
curriculum?
4. What suggestions do you have on ways in which these teachers can monitor student progress?

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Take a quiz to find out what you’ve learned.

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 Review key terms with eFlashcards.
Watch videos to see teachers in action.

Mathematical literacy is the ability to use skills and concepts to reason, solve problems, and
communicate about mathematical problems in the classroom and in everyday life (National
Mathematics Advisory Panel [NMAP], 2008). According to the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) in their Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics, “the need to understand and be able to use mathematics in everyday life and
in the workplace has never been greater and will continue to increase” (p. 4). NCTM
noted, “those who understand and can do mathematics will have significantly enhanced
opportunities and options for shaping their futures. A lack of mathematical competence
keeps those doors closed” (p. 5). The development and application of mathematical
competence are important educational goals for all students. The CCSSM provide guidance
for many states and school districts in their development of mathematics curricula,
instruction, and assessment. States, school districts, researchers, higher education teacher
preparation faculty, and textbook publishers have acknowledged the importance of the
CCSSM nationally. You can find the standards at http://www.corestandards.org/Math/.

We know mathematics instruction should include approaches, activities, and interventions

to teach mathematical skills and concepts that promote mathematics literacy for all
students. Adaptations help students with mathematical difficulties and disabilities
participate in classroom discussions and learn mathematical skills and concepts emphasized
in the CCSSM (2010).

In this chapter, you will learn about these students and about ways to provide effective
mathematics instruction using the ADAPT framework. We begin with information about
students with mathematics difficulties.

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What are the attributes of Students with Mathematics
Difficulties?
About 5% to 8% of school-age students are identified as having a mathematics disability
(Geary, 2011), and some have difficulties in both reading and mathematics instruction.
About 5% to 10% of school-age students have persistent low achievement in mathematics;
these difficulties could have long-term consequences as students move through the grades
with increasingly more difficult curriculum (Bryant, Bryant, Kethley, et al., 2008; Jordan,
Glutting, & Ramineni, 2009; Murphy, Mazzocco, Hanich, & Early, 2007). Clearly
educators and researchers need to pay attention to the mathematical needs of these
students.

As early as preschool, parents, educators, and researchers notice that some students have
problems learning simple mathematics ideas such as counting, telling how many are in a
group, and naming numbers. Even though this may sound very basic, these students may
be exhibiting problems with number sense. Number sense is an awareness and knowledge
of concepts related to numbers, measurement, data, and algebraic thinking, for example
(Berch, 2005). You may have worked with a student whose answer to an arithmetic
problem was wildly off the mark. Through multiple opportunities to use representations to
show and talk about numbers, students can develop number sense to help them reason
mathematically. Now, we examine mathematics difficulties and disabilities.

Research findings have shown that 5% to 8% of school-age children are identified as

having a mathematics disability.

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Thinkstock/Creatas

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Mathematics Difficulties and Disabilities
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004, a learning disability
can be identified in mathematics calculation and/or mathematics problem solving.
Sometimes, mathematics difficulties are referred to as dyscalculia, which refers to problems
in learning mathematics skills and concepts. However, the terms learning disabilities in
mathematics and mathematics disability are more widely used today.

Students with mathematics calculation difficulties may demonstrate problems with some or
most of the following skills:

Identifying the meaning of signs (e.g., +, −, ×, <, =, >, %, ∑)

Remembering answers to basic arithmetic combinations (e.g., 8 + 9 = ?, 7 × 7 = ?)
Using effective counting strategies to calculate answers to arithmetic problems
Understanding the commutative property (e.g., 5 + 3 = 8 and 3 + 5 = 8)
Solving multidigit calculations that require regrouping
Misaligning numbers
Ignoring decimal points

Difficulty solving word problems can be observed in any of the following skills:

Reading the problem

Understanding the meaning of the sentences
Understanding what the problem is asking
Identifying extraneous information that is not required for solving the problem
Developing and implementing a plan for solving the problem
Solving multiple steps in advanced word problems

Mathematics difficulties appear to be persistent and evident across elementary and

secondary levels and into adulthood; they are cumulative and worsen across the grade levels
(Jordan, Glutting, & Ramineni, 2009).

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Learning Characteristics
Gersten, Jordan, and Flojo (2005) examined the results of a series of studies comparing the
abilities of young students in kindergarten through Grade 2 who exhibited mathematics
difficulties as compared with the abilities of their typically achieving peers. Learning
problems were noted in arithmetic combinations (basic facts), counting strategies (counting
all, counting on), and number sense (basic counting techniques, understanding of size of
numbers, number relationships). Gersten and colleagues found that over a period of time,
limited mastery of arithmetic combinations (basic facts) was a “hallmark of mathematics
difficulties” (Gersten et al., 2005, p. 296). They suggested that difficulties learning
arithmetic combinations seem to be a characteristic of a developmental difference that
hinges on memory or cognitive problems (Geary, 2011).

In another study on mathematics difficulties, Bryant, Bryant, and Hammill (2000) asked a
group of teachers who taught students with learning disabilities and mathematics
difficulties to rate the frequency at which specific mathematical skills were problematic for
their students. These mathematics skills were then analyzed statistically to determine
whether they actually predicted mathematics difficulties. Table 11.1 shows the results of
this analysis of mathematics skills, which were most predictive of mathematics difficulties of
second- through eighth-grade students.

For students receiving Tiers 2 and 3 mathematics intervention in an RTI model and
students with mathematics disabilities, evidence-based instructional practices can teach
most mathematics concepts and skills. First, the concrete-semiconcrete-abstract (CSA)
instructional routine is a way to help students understand the abstract nature of
mathematics and to develop conceptual understanding. It was originally studied as a way to
teach place value (Peterson, Mercer, & O’Shea, 1988) and arithmetic combinations (Miller
& Mercer, 1993; Miller, Mercer, & Dillon, 1992), and a solid body of evidence supports
its use. Students learned the skills to the criterion level, suggesting that CSA is highly
effective for students with mathematics difficulties. The technique has also been applied to
the teaching of rational numbers such as fractions (Butler, Miller, Crehan, Babbitt, &
Pierce, 2003) and more recently to algebraic expressions (Strickland & Maccini, 2013).
Table 11.2 shows the steps of the CSA instructional routine.

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The following instructional procedures should be used when implementing the CSA
instructional routine.

The CSA teaching procedures begin with the teacher providing an advance organizer about
the purpose of the lesson. Next, the teacher models how to solve the problem, while
verbalizing the steps (“thinking aloud”). The teacher asks questions, such as “What is the
first thing I do?” Then guided practice is implemented. Students work on several problems,
and the teacher provides prompts and cues. A prompt might go something like this: “You
have the correct number of blocks for the first number. Now which number do you look
at?” Corrective feedback and assistance are provided immediately. Finally, students work
independently to complete 10 problems. To solve problems during guided practice,
students use manipulatives in the concrete phase and tallies in the semiconcrete phase; in
the abstract phase, students are instructed to solve the problem using only numerals.

Following are evidence-based intervention practices and instructional routines:

Instruction during the intervention should be explicit and systematic. This includes
providing models of proficient problem solving, verbalization of thought processes,
guided practice, corrective feedback, and frequent cumulative review.
Interventions should include instruction on solving word problems that is based on

894
 common underlying structures.
Intervention materials should include opportunities for students to work with visual
representations of mathematical ideas, and interventionists should be proficient in the
use of visual representations of mathematical ideas.
Interventions at all grade levels should devote about 10 minutes in each session to
building fluent retrieval of basic arithmetic facts.
Progress monitoring should be employed, with students receiving supplemental
instruction if they appear to be at risk.
Motivational strategies should be included in Tiers 2 and 3 interventions.
Students should receive help in recognizing that fractions are numbers and that they
expand the number system beyond whole numbers. Number lines can be used as a
central representational tool in teaching this and other fraction concepts.
Students should be assisted in understanding why procedures for computations with
fractions make sense.
Students’ conceptual understanding of strategies for solving ratio, rate, and
proportion problems should be developed before they are exposed to cross-
multiplication as a procedure to solve such problems.

Sources: Gersten et al. (2009), Siegler et al. (2010).

For students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and students with intellectual disability
(ID) ranging from mild to severe, different mathematics profiles appear. Some researchers
feel some students may have average mathematics abilities (Wei, Christiano, Yu, Wagner,
& Spiker, 2015), while others have observed that about 25% of students with ASD have a
mathematics LD (Williams, Goldstein, Kojkowski, & Minshew, 2008). Difficulties in
learning-related social skills in ASD have been found to relate to academic difficulties (Blair
& Razza, 2007). Also, repetitive and/or restricted interests and activities may challenge
students to remain engaged with academic tasks (Rispoli et al., 2011; Stasolla, Perilli, &
Damiani, 2014). Depending on their intellectual cognitive profile and mathematics
difficulties, interventions could be designed for students with ASD, similar to those for
students with mild to severe cognitive disabilities or LD (Gevarter et al., 2015).

Coteaching Mathematics

Students with severe cognitive disabilities typically are taught mathematics concepts and
skills that we commonly think of as functional skills, which means skills they need to
engage in basic living activities. Many relate to money, purchasing, basic calculations, time,
and measurement (Browder, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Harris, & Wakeman, 2008).
Although most of these skills are identified in the CCSSM, purchasing is not; it is a

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functional skill students must learn.

Table 11.3 shows a sampling of behavioral strategies that were part of research studies
focusing on students with either ASD or severe cognitive disabilities.

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Factors Contributing to Mathematics Difficulties
Several factors contribute to mathematics difficulties. First, language difficulties can
interfere with reading and understanding the vocabulary of the curriculum. For instance,
students must understand the meaning of terms and symbols related to mathematics
instruction. Years ago, Wiig and Semel (1984) referred to mathematics as “conceptually
dense,” which means that students must understand the meaning of each mathematical
symbol and word because context clues, such as those that appear in reading, are limited or
nonexistent. Wiig and Semel’s idea is important because students must identify and
understand the meaning of abstract symbols such as =, S, s, π, and ≥ to solve problems.
Take 4 < 9, for example. The student must understand each symbol to decide whether this
number statement is true or false. Or consider solving 6 × 8 = . Many students with
mathematics difficulties interpret the equal sign (=) as an operational symbol meaning “I
have to find the answer” (Powell & Fuchs, 2010). But the equal sign is a relational symbol,
meaning both sides of the equation must be the same or there is a relationship between
them. So, 6 × 8 = 48, 48 = 6 × 8, 6 × 8 = 40 + 8, and so forth (Powell, 2014). Teachers can
spend time during mathematics lessons teaching and reviewing this symbolic language.
Posting the symbols with a brief explanation is a good reference tool for students. The
Considering Diversity feature on language and symbols of mathematics provides other ideas
for teachers to think about as they work with students from CLD backgrounds, including
those from other countries.

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Think back to Ms. Hart’s concerns about her students from CLD backgrounds in the
Opening Challenge. She needs ideas for helping her students learn the language of
mathematics. Table 11.4 provides examples of the language or vocabulary associated with
mathematics curricula. For struggling students, the preview and review of new terms are
critical. Consider using the instructional ideas for teaching vocabulary found in Chapters
10 and 12 for teaching the language of mathematics.

Second, problems with memory and executive functioning contribute to mathematics

difficulties. Working memory is the function by which we process and store information
simultaneously. Long-term memory is the function that permanently stores information.
Executive functioning is the ability to self-monitor by using working memory, inner
speech, attention, and recall of recent information (Swanson & Jerman, 2006). Students
who have memory problems and who process information slowly (Geary, 2011) lack the
automatic ability to remember arithmetic combinations or facts. Memory difficulties can
also influence the child’s ability to recall the steps needed to solve more difficult word
problems in the upper grades (Bryant et al., 2000), to recall the steps in solving algebraic
equations, or to remember what specific symbols mean. It is common to hear a teacher say,
“He knew the math facts yesterday, but he just can’t seem to remember them today.”
Memory difficulties play an important role in how successfully students can perform
mathematical operations (Shin & Bryant, 2015).

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 Working Memory

Finally, mathematics difficulties can be attributed to instructional issues. One issue is the
insufficient development of fundamental understandings of whole numbers, the
relationships among the four operations, and whole number properties. Another issue is
lacking an understanding of the arithmetic properties. Students may have a limited
understanding of the commutative (A + B = B + A; A × B = B × A) and associative ([A + B]
+ C = A + [B + C]; [A × B)] × C = A × [B × C]) properties of addition and multiplication
and of the distributive property (A × [B + C] = [A × B] + [A × C]). Knowledge about these
properties can help students solve more accurately (5 × 3 = 3 × 5) and more effectively
derive answers for more difficult problems (4 × 8 = 4 × 6 + 4 × 2 = 24 + 8 = 32; National
Research Council, 2009).

A third instructional issue is insufficient opportunities to learn, practice, and master

effective and efficient strategies. Teachers must include important validated principles of
instructional delivery including scaffolding instruction (Coyne et al., 2011; Doabler &
Fien, 2013). Refer to Chapter 7 for additional instructional delivery practices that should
be included in an RTI model.

In each of the following sections, we present mathematics content that stems from the
CCSSM. We use the four categories of the ADAPT framework to provide ideas for making

899
adaptations to instruction. We use assessment ideas from Chapter 8 and understanding of
the learning characteristics of individuals with mathematics difficulties and disabilities.
Finally, we offer ideas related to the stages of learning and types of knowledge presented in
Chapter 7. First, we look at early number development.

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CONSIDERING diversity

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Focusing on the Language and Symbols of Mathematics
Although mathematics may be called the “universal language,” there are some important differences among
cultures with respect to terminology, algorithms, and solving strategies. We must not assume that learners
have a low level of mathematical proficiency if they are interpreting terminology, performing algorithms,
and using strategies that are different from those used in this country, because they may be mathematically
correct. For example, in Chinese, 14 is “ten four.” In Eastern Europe, the numeral 3,076 corresponds to the
numeral 3.076 in the United States (Sorto, 2012).

The linguistic and symbolic features of mathematics have “tricky spots” because words may be used in
unfamiliar ways (odd and even), structural relationships between words and syntax must be discerned
(relationship of adjectives and nouns in sentence structure), and algorithmic formats (reading from left to
right or from top to bottom) may be different. Therefore, teachers must be sure that all students have the
necessary semantic, linguistic, and symbolic understanding of the mathematics concepts and skills presented
for instruction.

Language difficulties can occur when solving word problems, for instance, because this requires
understanding what the problem is asking and the sentence structure and identifying extraneous
information (Van de Garderen & Scheuermann, 2014). Difficulties with syntax and word meaning can
affect students’ ability to solve problems successfully.

The language and symbolism of mathematics must be taught directly as part of a mathematics lesson. This
is especially true for secondary students, who are often faced with abstract mathematical concepts, such as
algebra and geometry that require a solid foundation of mathematical skills (equations, formulae,
mathematical properties) and language. Teaching ideas include the following: (a) identify prerequisite
symbols, syntactic language, and word meanings for the lesson; (b) assess current student understanding of
this language; (c) provide explicit instruction to teach the language; and (d) include sufficient practice and
review.

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What Is Early Number Development and How Is It Taught?
Early number development describes a variety of skills and concepts that typically emerge
and are taught in preschool, kindergarten, first grade, and second grade (Chard et al.,
2008). Many activities can bolster students’ understanding of numbers and using this to
make sense out of mathematics. For example, the ability to count is a crucial skill many
young children develop well before they enter formal schooling in kindergarten. Through
informal experiences at home, on the playground, and in the grocery store, they are
frequently exposed to counting principles (Bryant, Roberts, Bryant, & DiAndreth-Elkins,
2011). In their classic work on children’s understanding of numbers, Gelman and Gallistel
(1978) presented five counting principles important for early number development: (a)
one-to-one correspondence, (b) stable order (counting words are stated in a consistent
order), (c) cardinality (the last counting word indicates the number of objects in a given
set), (d) abstraction (any group of objects can be collected to count), and (e) order
irrelevance (counting objects in any sequence does not alter the count).

Along with basic knowledge about counting, young children acquire the vocabulary that
describes mathematical relationships. They use “more” to ask for another cookie and “all
gone” when the cookies are finished. They may hear an adult ask, “Do you want another
cookie?” or “Do you want one more cookie?” Their experiences with objects teach the early
language of mathematics via physical representations that children come to understand.
Finally, young children often know how to read and write some numerals, such as 1, 2, and
3.

Parents and teachers can pair numbers with objects in sets so children are counting objects,
saying how many, and selecting the numeral that represents the count. Although their
writing may be rudimentary at the early stage, children are hearing, representing, seeing,
and writing numbers (they can be asked to write the number 1). It is through these types of
informal experiences with their environment, the media, other children, and adults that
young children develop the early understanding about mathematical concepts from which
more formal instruction evolves.

Early Number Development

903
 Experience with objects, such as the manipulatives these students are using, teaches
the early language of mathematics through physical representations that children
understand.

iStock

The magnitude of numerals is another important concept for students to learn for later
mathematical content. For example, students should be able to tell that 51 is greater than
48 and 19 is less than 20. The ability to make these judgments resides in understanding
quantity but also knowing that 5 tens is more than 4 tens and 1 ten is less than 2 groups of
ten. This ability relies on understanding place value or the base ten system, which is the
decimal numeral system that has 10 as its base.

Let’s take a look at difficulties with early number development.

904
Difficulties with Early Number Development
Research results have shown that students with early mathematics problems exhibit
difficulties understanding number sense as demonstrated in number knowledge and
relationship activities (magnitude, sequencing, base ten). They struggle to achieve
conceptual understanding of counting principles, which can affect their use of more
advanced counting strategies (such as counting on: 8 + 2 = 11) to solve arithmetic
combinations (Geary, 2004). Counting up and back two or three numbers from a given
number and understanding “bigger than” and “less than” in number magnitude are other
important skills that may be problematic (Jordan, Kaplan, Ramineni, & Locuniak, 2009).
Number reversals may persist long after instruction in writing numbers has occurred.
Reading, writing, and representing the teen numbers are consistently problematic for
struggling students (Bley & Thornton, 2001). Consider that 11 and 12 sound very
different than 13, 14, 15, and so forth. This difference can be difficult in terms of how to
identify these numerals. Finally, Jordan, Kaplan, Ramineni, and Locuniak (2009) found
that over time, students with mathematics difficulties scored lower on place value tasks than
average students. Taken together, these findings suggest that students with mathematics
difficulties require sustained instructional time on number knowledge, counting principles,
and place value concepts in the early grades (Bryant, Bryant, Kethley, et al., 2008; Fuchs et
al., 2010).

905
Teaching Early Number Development
We begin with some general notes on teaching early number development and then look
more closely at several specific skills.

Number Sense

Diagnosis: Conduct an informal assessment asking students to read and write

numerals, count objects, identify which numeral or group has more quantity, and tell
how many are in a group. Use the results to help you determine early number skills
and focus beginning instruction in early number development.
Instructional content—Comparing and grouping objects: Provide many
opportunities for students to show set equivalency, to make groups based on
problems, and to decompose (take apart) larger numbers into smaller sets. Use word
problems for students to form and manipulate sets. Pair number symbols with
groupings to reinforce the connection between concrete representations and abstract
symbols.
Instructional content—Reading and writing numerals: Pair instruction on reading
numerals with writing numerals. Writing proficiency may take longer to master as
young children learn how to hold the pencil correctly and make correct stroke
formations. Provide models of correctly written numerals, including directional
arrows for stroke formation. Do not allow messy work, because if you do, it will
persist throughout the school years.
Instructional materials—Place value and the ten-frame: Use the ten-frame
frequently to help students make and see the concept of 10. Use two ten-frames to
build the teen numbers. Use a five-frame initially for students who struggle with the
ten-frame.
Instructional materials: Use counting cubes, number lines, ten-frames, and objects
for counting, comparing, grouping, and decomposing activities, number magnitude,
number sequencing, and number recognition. Refer to Figure 11.1 for examples of
manipulatives and materials.
Language: Provide multiple opportunities for students to use the language of
mathematics. Refer back to Table 11.4 for examples of the language to emphasize.
Model the use of these terms, such as same, equal, more, and less, in early number
development activities.
Proficiency and progress monitoring: Build fluent responding for number
recognition and number writing. Use flash cards for “fact numbers,” where students

906
 see the number and respond within three seconds (“look and say”). Focus instruction
on numbers students cannot quickly name. Use “quick write,” in which students
write numbers in sequence, beginning with 0, for one minute. Count the number of
correctly formed numerals. Then focus instruction on those numerals that are not in
order or are not written correctly.

Counting
Develop basic counting skills. Conduct warm-ups by giving students a number and having
them count up “two more” or count back “two less.” Have students tap the count or show
fingers so they get the count right. This builds counting skills and reinforces the concepts of
more and less. Give students two groups of objects. Have them count the first group and
place it in a cup. Then, beginning with the last number named in the cup, have them count
on the second group of objects. This develops the counting on strategy. Have students
count groups of objects and then ask, “How many?” This builds the counting principles of
one-to-one correspondence and cardinality.

Figure 11.1 Examples of Manipulatives and Materials for Mathematics Instruction

907
 Sources: 1Van de Walle et al. (2012); 2Hudson and Miller (2006).

Sources: 1Van de Walle et al. (2012); 2Hudson and Miller (2006).

Teen Numbers
Teach 14, 16, 17, 18, and 19 first by emphasizing that you say the second number first,
such as four-teen. Try “fast numbers” with these five numbers; that is, the student looks
and says the number quickly (within three seconds). Once students know these numbers,
move to 13 and 15. Tell students how to read thir-teen and fif-teen. Once students know
these two numbers, mix them with the other five numbers. Next, teach 11 and 12. They
are not teen numbers but fall in the 10 to 20 number range. Tell students they just have to
learn these numbers by sight. Once they know them, mix them with the other teen
numbers. Pair the reading and writing of the teen numbers with making the numbers in
the ten-frame during instruction. Have students name the numbers out of order and write
them when dictated. Conduct magnitude comparison activities (discussed next) with these
numbers.

Magnitude Comparison
Give students two numbers and have them tell which number is bigger, smaller, greater
than, less than, more than, or less than the other number. At first, provide numbers that are
somewhat far apart, such as 3 and 8, 22 and 36, or 105 and 116. Then provide numbers
that are closer together, such as 9 and 11, 28 and 30, or 111 and 115. Focus on the teen
numbers and on numbers with 0, such as 50, 106, and 207. For smaller numbers, have
students use cubes to make trains or use the number line to show magnitude. For larger
numbers, have students use the hundreds chart to explain number magnitude. Connect
magnitude comparison with place value activities (discussed later).

Numeral Recognition: Fast Numbers

Show students the number cards 0 through 5. Model “Look and Say” quickly. Correct
errors if needed and provide the correct response right away. Put correctly named number
cards in one pile and incorrectly named number cards in another pile. Spend more time on
the incorrect pile. Have students say numbers quickly for 30 seconds to see how many they
can get right. Increase the range of numbers gradually. Keep numbers done correctly in a
special pile and present them once a week to be sure students can still name them quickly.

Number Writing: Quick Write

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Have students write numbers, beginning with zero, for one minute. After the timing, have
students count the number of numerals written. Numerals that are written backward, are
very messy, or are not in sequence are considered errors. Correct errors by providing a
number line for students to see how numerals are written correctly. Have students graph
the number of numerals they can write correctly in one minute. This is a good warm-up
activity and can be done several times a week.

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 Video case 11.1

Teaching Arithmetic Combinations

1. Jan Evans describes a variety of ways to use children’s books to help students learn about
math concepts and vocabulary. Which of these strategies do you see in the subtraction lesson
in the video? How do these practices develop students’ math skills?
2. What other strategies does Ms. Evans mention that help students to learn math concepts
and vocabulary? How does she create concrete learning experiences for her young students?

Reversals
Reversals may occur with single-digit numerals, such as 6 for 9, and with multidigit
numbers, such as 24 for 42. Give students many opportunities to practice writing numerals
correctly using a variety of materials. Use stencils for tracing, models of correctly formed
numerals, and models with directional cues showing where to start making the numeral and
in what direction to go. Have students correct reversals.

910
Part-Part-Whole Relationships
Identifying ways to compose and decompose numbers is a foundation skill that helps
students think about the concept of numbers. The part-part-whole and missing-parts
relationships are the building blocks for learning arithmetic combinations and solving word
problems. It is important for students to develop an understanding of these relationships.
For example, have students show the parts of a number such as 5. Model the commutative
property, showing 4 + 1 = 1 + 4 by using colored cubes and the five-frame. Make 5 with 4
+ 1; then turn the frame around so students see that 1 + 4 also equals 5. Use the five-frame
to determine other “parts” of 5, such as 3 + 2, 2 + 3, 0 + 5, and 5 + 0. These activities can
be done with other number quantities and should be an integral part of instruction.

Arithmetic combinations are often difficult for students. In the next section we examine
ways to teach this important foundation skill.

911
What Are Arithmetic Combinations and How Are They
Taught?
Instruction in arithmetic combinations (sometimes called basic facts) consists of developing
declarative and procedural knowledge and conceptual understanding. In the elementary
grades, students are taught strategies for learning these arithmetic combinations, so most
remember the answers automatically. These students demonstrate computational fluency,
which consists of knowing and using efficient methods for accurate computing (NCTM,
2000). Geary (2004) identified researched strategies typically developing students use for
solving arithmetic combinations. When students are first learning addition, they use finger
counting or verbal counting strategies (Siegler & Shrager, 1984). The counting all and
counting on strategies are most commonly used (Fuson, 1982; Groen & Parkman, 1972).

The counting all strategy means taking the quantity of each addend and then counting
both quantities (2 + 3 is 1, 2 + 1, 2, 3 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5). The counting on strategy means
taking the larger addend and counting on by the other addend (3 + 2 is 3 + 1, 2 = 3, 4, 5).
The decomposition strategy means that students break down a fact into a partial sum and
then add or subtract 1, for example (5 + 6 = 5 + 5 = 10 + 1 = 11 or 6 + 6 = 12 – 1 = 11).
The direct retrieval strategy assumes students have learned the facts and can now retrieve
the answer automatically. Eventually, as students master facts, the strategies they use
become more memory based. However, for students who find mathematics challenging,
computational fluency remains a persistent problem (Geary, 2004; Jordan, Hanich, &
Kaplan, 2003).

912
Difficulties with Arithmetic Combinations
Difficulty with learning and remembering arithmetic combinations is a typical problem
among students who struggle with mathematics and students who are identified as having
mathematics disabilities. Problems in retrieval of arithmetic combinations seem to inhibit
the ability to grasp the more complex algebraic concepts taught in later years (Bryant,
Bryant, et al., 2011; Geary, 2004). Lack of efficient and effective counting strategies is
another problem commonly associated with arithmetic combinations and students who
struggle with mathematics (Bryant, Bryant, Gersten, Scammacca, & Chavez, 2008; Gersten
et al., 2005). These students require instruction to develop both conceptual understanding
of arithmetic combinations and procedural knowledge to figure out the answers. We know
that instruction for struggling students is most enhanced through the use of physical, visual,
and abstract representations of arithmetic combinations.

913
Teaching Arithmetic Combinations
Let’s begin with general notes and then look more closely at some specific skills.

Diagnosis: Assess to identify which arithmetic combinations students know as “fast

facts” and which they do not. Use observation and clinical interviews to identify what
strategies (for example, counting on fingers) the students use to solve facts when a
quick response is not provided. The think aloud procedure is used to examine a
student’s knowledge of and thinking about how to solve problems (McLoughlin &
Lewis, 2008).
Instructional content—Sequence: Teach arithmetic combinations systematically.
Although there is no “best” sequence, you should generally teach easier strategies first
(count on + 0, + 1, + 2, + 3; count back or down − 0, − 1, − 2, − 3; doubles − 4 + 4).
Then teach turnaround combinations (for example: 1 + 4 = 4 + 1, also known as the
commutative property) for addition. Teach fact families (5 + 3, 3 + 5, 8 − 3, 8 − 5)
once students have mastered some addition facts.
Instructional content—Decomposition: Present multiple opportunities for students
to practice decomposition of numbers to solve arithmetic problems. For example,
students can use the “doubles + 1” strategy to arrive at the answer for 7 + 8: What
double is in 7 + 8? 7 + 7. What is double + 1? 7 + 7 + 1 = 15, so 7 + 8 = 15.
Acquisition: For students learning facts, practice is an important component of
instruction and should occur for about 10 minutes daily. Teachers such as Ms. Hart
in the Opening Challenge, who are looking for ways to give students more practice,
can use apps to provide it. Recall from Chapter 7 the key features—such as multiple
examples and response opportunities—to look for when making decisions about
downloading educational apps.
Proficiency: Conduct one-minute timings (“fast facts”) on arithmetic combinations
to build fluency. Show flash cards with combinations and give students up to three
seconds to say the answer (no fingers). Facts that are not answered quickly remain in
the practice pile.
Generalization: Promote generalization by having students answer problems with
mixed signs and whole-number computational problems.

Table 11.5 presents a list of strategies and gives examples of arithmetic combinations for
each strategy.

Returning to our Opening Challenge, recall the issues Ms. Hart faces with some of her
students with mathematics. Now, you will see how she adapts instruction to address their
needs. In ADAPT in Action, Ms. Hart uses the ADAPT framework to help students who
have difficulty with some addition combinations.

For many students, place value is a challenging concept. In the next section we discuss how

914
to teach it.

915
What Is Place Value and How Is It Taught?
The base-ten system is an important component of mathematics instruction that students
must fully grasp (Van de Walle et al., 2012). Understanding place value helps students
understand numerical relationships and the “how” and “why” of procedures used to solve
problems. Yet evidence also suggests that students do not learn place value concepts
sufficiently to understand procedures for multidigit calculations (Jordan, Kaplan, et al.,
2009). For example, they might see the numeral 63 as a single numeral rather than seeing
each individual digit representing specific values in the number. Yet instruction in place
value is frequently limited. It often develops conceptual understanding using concrete
representations too briefly and moves on to pictorial representations (pictures, tallies)
sooner than appropriate for some students.

916
917
Difficulties with Place Value
Students may demonstrate a variety of problems related to their conceptual understanding
of place value. Insufficient time spent with concrete representations results in poor
understanding of the notion of place and value. According to Ross (1989), as cited in Van
de Walle et al. (2012), there are five levels of place-value difficulties.

1. Single numeral: Individual digits in numerals such as 52 are not understood as

representing specific values in the number. Rather, 52 is regarded as a single numeral.
2. Position names: The student can name the position of the digits (in 52, 5 is in the
tens place and 2 is in the ones place), but value is not associated with the position.
3. Face value: Each digit is taken at face value. In 52, the student selects 5 blocks to go
with 5 and 2 blocks to go with 2. This indicates the value of the position is not
understood.
4. Transition to place value: In 52, 2 blocks are selected for the ones place, and the
remaining 50 blocks are selected for the 5; no grouping of tens is demonstrated.
5. Full understanding: In 52, five groups of 10 are selected for the 5, and 2 remaining
blocks are chosen for the 2.

Young children, of course, do not fully understand place value, and it should not be
surprising that older students who struggle with learning mathematics have not achieved
full understanding of the base-10 system. Diagnostic teaching—giving problems and
asking students questions—can help teachers understand what level of development
students have reached in learning about place value.

918
ADAPT in action

919
920
BONUS Instructional Strategy 11.1: Make Ten Plus More

921
ADAPT framework: MS. HART

922
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 11.1

923
Strategies to Teach Arithmetic Combinations
Addition: Count On (+ 1, + 2, + 3)1, 2

924
Procedure
1. Tell students to “start big” by selecting the larger of the two addends and then to count on by the
amount of the second number.
2. Emphasize + 1, + 2, or + 3, depending on the number. For example, 9 + 3 = is computed by saying,
“Start big”—9 plus three more, 10, 11, 12 to arrive at 12 as the answer.
3. Have students verbalize the process to ensure accuracy in using the “count on” procedure.

Progress monitoring: Monitor progress by conducting “fast facts”—containing facts with + 1, + 2, and + 3,
where students have to say or write the response quickly (within three seconds).

Adaptations: Instructional materials, instructional delivery, instructional content

Representations: Concrete and pictorial

Subtraction: Count Back or Down (− 1, − 2, − 3)1

925
Procedure
1. Tell students to “start big” by selecting the larger of the two numerals.
2. Have students count back by the amount of the second number, − 1, − 2, or − 3, and then write the
answer.
3. Have students verbalize the process to ensure accuracy in using the “count back” procedure.

Progress monitoring: Monitor progress by conducting “fast facts”—containing facts with − 1, − 2, and – 3,
where students have to say or write the response quickly (within three seconds).

Adaptations: Instructional materials, instructional delivery, instructional content

Representations: Concrete and pictorial

Multiplication: Count By

926
Procedure
1. Tell students to identify a number in the problem they know how to count by.
2. Make tallies or hold up the number of fingers for the other number in the problem.
3. Count by the number from 1 until all of the tallies or fingers are accounted for; the last number
named is the answer.

Example: 4 × 8 = ?

1. I know how to count by 4’s.

2. I will hold up eight fingers.
3. I count by 4’s eight times: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32.
4. 32 is the answer.

Progress monitoring: Monitor progress by conducting “fast facts,” where students have to say or write the
response quickly (within three seconds) to a group of facts (e.g., the 3’s, 4’s, 5’s, 6’s, 7’s, 8’s, 9’s). Then mix
up the facts.

Adaptations: Instructional materials, instructional delivery, instructional content

Representations: Concrete and pictorial

Division: How Many Groups?2

927
PROCEDURE
1. Tell students to read the division problem 81 ÷ 9 = x and then ask, “How many groups of 9 are in
81?”
2. Have students count by 9’s until they reach 81.
3. Tell them that the number of times they count by 9 represents the number of groups of 9 in 81.

Progress monitoring: Monitor progress by having students say answers for “fast facts.”

Adaptations: Instructional materials, instructional delivery, instructional content

Representations: Concrete and pictorial

1 SOURCES: Bley and C. Thornton (2001);

2 SOURCES: Van de Walle et al. (2012).

928
Teaching Place Value
The following techniques can be applied to teaching place-value concepts.

Diagnosis: Using the clinical interview procedure and manipulatives, and having
students write numbers to represent place values, assess their level of place-value
understanding.
Instructional materials: You can use a variety of manipulatives to teach place value
and the concept of whole-number computation with and without regrouping: rods,
cubes, base-ten blocks, and bean sticks help teach whole-number computation at the
concrete level, as do base-ten mats and place-value charts. Figure 11.1 shows
examples of manipulatives and other materials.
Vocabulary: Teach and regularly use the vocabulary of place value. Students should
use base-ten language such as 53 represents 5 tens and 3 ones. Other vocabulary
should include regrouping to describe how 10 ones are “bundled” to add to the tens
place or how a 10 is “unbundled” to add to the ones place during whole-number
addition. Similarly, the vocabulary related to hundreds and thousands should be used
for larger place-value groupings. Refer to Table 11.4 for examples of terms to teach.
Instructional content: The idea of zero as a placeholder is one of the most
challenging concepts for many students, including struggling students. Provide
multiple opportunities for students to use manipulatives to represent numbers
containing zero as a placeholder to carry out whole-number operations.
Concrete, pictorial, and abstract representations: Pair the use of manipulatives to
concretely represent the place and value of numbers with the use of written numerals
to demonstrate how to write the numbers (abstract representation). For example,
base-ten blocks are used on the place-value mat to represent numbers; students then
write the numbers to show how many in each place. Then move to pictorial
representations paired with concrete along with abstract. For example, use pictures of
blocks depicting numbers, where students build the number using base-ten blocks to
check their pictures; they write the numbers as the final step.
Progress monitoring: Assess student understanding of place value by giving them
numbers to represent with base-ten blocks, having them tell the numbers in two ways
(base-ten number and standard number) and writing the number. Include numbers
with zero as a placeholder on a regular basis, because numbers with zero are the most
problematic for students to understand.

Teen Numbers
Have students spend time on teen numbers. These numbers represent another area that is
very problematic for struggling students to learn. Use two ten-frames to represent quantity
for the teen numbers. Provide a number. Have students build the number in the frames,

929
read the number, and write the number. Ask questions such as the following: How many
more is 14 than 11? How many do I need to add to 12 to get 15? How many is 2 less than
17? How much is 10 plus 8? Teen numbers should also be taught within the context of
hundreds. Repeat the activities described here by using hundreds and teen numbers such as
215, 317, and 411. See Figure 11.1 for an example of a ten-frame. The ten-frame provides
students with a visual representation of the concept of 10. It is a useful instructional tool
that can be used, for example, for counting, counting by 5, and solving simple addition and
subtraction problems.

930
BONUS Instructional Strategy 11.2: Additional Strategies to Teach Arithmetic
Combinations

931
Need to Trade?
Need to trade is a prerequisite activity to renaming in addition. You can introduce this
intervention once students have had practice with addition with renaming. Present a variety
of addition problems with and without renaming and ask students to identify those in
which renaming is required, that is, in which they need to trade 10 ones for 1 ten (Bley &
Thornton, 2001). Have students use base-ten blocks to represent numbers initially and
then move to visual representation such as tally marks.

Are There Enough?

“Are there enough?” is used for subtraction problems with and without renaming. Give
students different subtraction problems and have them decide whether the top number in
the ones place is large enough for them to subtract the bottom number from it. Numbers
with various places up to thousands can be used, as well as numbers with zeros as
placeholders. This activity focuses students’ attention on the ones place, number
discrimination, and place value (Bley & Thornton, 2001). The application of place value to
whole-number computation is discussed next.

932
What Is Whole-Number Computation and How Is It
Taught?
Solving problems that contain whole numbers requires an understanding of the relationship
between numbers and place value, as well as skill in estimating, determining the
reasonableness of answers, using a calculator, and using appropriate algorithms. Instruction
in place value and whole numbers should occur throughout the curriculum. It is not
necessary for students to master addition before being introduced to subtraction or to be
proficient in basic arithmetic combinations before being introduced to whole-number
problems.

Whole-number operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

without and with regrouping. Students should understand the meanings of the operations
and how they are related to one another. They should also be able to compute fluently.
Place-value abilities are a fundamental skill for whole-number computations. Estimation
and rounding strategies are important companion skills, particularly with advanced
multiplication and division computation (Cathcart, Pothier, Vance, & Bezuk, 2000;
Hudson & Miller, 2006). Whole-number computation should include the development of
conceptual understanding, instruction in procedural strategies, and the application of
computation in story problems (Hudson & Miller, 2006).

933
Difficulties with Whole-Number Computation
Bley and Thornton (2001) identified the process of solving whole-number computation as
complex because it relies on symbols, multiple steps, and a level of abstraction that may be
problematic for struggling students. Difficulty with arithmetic combinations can interfere
with students’ ability to attempt whole number computations. Students may view the task
as too difficult because they lack fluency with basic facts. The multistep process of
computing whole-number problems can be overwhelming to students who have difficulty
remembering multiple steps and sequences for solving problems. Difficulties with
understanding number relationships and place value can affect the ability to apply
important fundamental skills, such as estimating, rounding, recognizing reasonableness of
answers, and doing mental computation when solving whole-number computations.
Finally, using algorithmic procedures to compute whole-number problems may cause
difficulties for students well beyond the elementary school years.

Teaching Whole-Number Computation

The general steps involved in teaching whole-number computation follow. Note that
calculators and other technology have an important role to play.

Diagnosis: Provide three problems each of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division computation, including problems with and without regrouping and division
with remainders. Include problems with zero as a value in the ones, tens, and
hundreds place. Provide reasonable time for students to complete the problems.
Correct the work, noting what types of errors are made. Refer to Table 11.6 for
examples of error patterns identified in whole-number computation and remedial
strategies to address these error patterns (Ashlock, 2009).
Instructional materials: Use materials from place-value instruction to support
conceptual understanding of whole-number operations. Students who struggle to
recall answers quickly for arithmetic combinations can use a basic facts table.
Technology: Provide students with calculators to check their answers for whole-
number computations.
Vocabulary: Use visuals to demonstrate concepts such as regrouping and remainder.
Instructional materials: Provide a facts table to support students who need help
recalling arithmetic combinations. Pair arithmetic combinations instruction with
whole-number computations.
Instructional content—task analysis: Provide similar types of problems when
initially teaching whole-number computation at the abstract representation level.
Similar types of problems include 2 digit + 2 digit with no regrouping, 3 digit − 3
digit with 0 in the tens place, and 2 digits × 1 digit with regrouping. Then provide
mixed-problem worksheets with the same operation, such as 2 digits + 1 digit with

934
 regrouping, 2 digits + 2 digits with regrouping, and 3 digits + 3 digits with
regrouping. Finally, provide mixed-problem worksheets with mixed operations.
Strategies: Teach students procedural strategies (examples are described later) to solve
whole-number computations. Use “invented strategies” for those students who can
benefit from representing whole-number computations in nontraditional ways. Refer
to Table 11.7 for examples of “invented algorithms.” Choose judiciously which
strategies to teach; too many strategies can confuse students. Work with students to
determine the strategy that makes sense to them and that they can use independently,
efficiently, and effectively.
Generalization: Promote generalization by having students answer problems with
mixed signs and in whole-number computational problems.
Technology: Software programs can be used to support the extra instruction that
students may require to learn whole-number computation. Some programs offer
excellent visualizations of the process using manipulatives, which is often the type of
instruction that teachers do not have sufficient time to provide. In the Tech Notes
feature below, the Unifix cubes software program is shown, illustrating how the cubes
are partitioned for a simple division problem with a remainder.

Teaching Fractions

935
936
937
938
939
TECH notes

940
Using Software to Show Pictorial Representations of
Math Concepts
Unifix Software (Didax Educational Resources, 2015) is a program that shows pictorial representations of
abstract math concepts. The Unifix are interlocking cubes students can arrange to display patterning,
counting, and operations. Unifix Software supports switch access, which means that students with motor
problems can use the software with switches that control movement in the software.

Pictor Unifix Software can be used to provide pictorial experiences with math concepts.

Didax/Unifix

You can use the following procedures with the Unifix cubes software to pictorially represent and solve the
equation 17 ¸ 5 = x.

941
 Teaching Procedure
1. Identify higher and lower performing students who can work together at the computer station.
2. Review the concept of division using the base-ten blocks.
3. Have students work in pairs at the computer with the Unifix Software.
4. Monitor progress by having students complete four division problems independently, using paper
and pencil.

Rounding
Have students round numbers up or down to the nearest 10 or the nearest 100 for whole-
number computation, column addition, mental computation, estimation, and determining
the reasonableness of an answer. For example, in the division problem 286 divided by 72, it
is easy to discover that 4 is a reasonable estimate of how many times 286 can be divided by
72 because 70 × 4 = 280.

Estimation: The Front-End Strategy

Teach students the front-end strategy for computing column addition (Reys, 1986).
Provide students with a list of numbers to be added, such as 376 + 87 + 432 + 11 = . Show
the students how to first add the numbers in the “front” (that is, the hundreds column: 300
+ 400 = 700). Then adjust the numbers in the tens and ones columns to form 100 (87 + 11
is about 100, and 76 + 32 is about 100, which makes 200). Third, add the “front” number
(700) plus the adjusted number (200). Finally, estimate the answer (900 in this case). This
strategy can be applied to adding money as well.

Estimation: The Clustering Strategy

Teach students to use the clustering strategy when all the numbers have about the same
numerical value. For instance, the numbers of people who attended a football game during
one month might be 15,833, 17,021, and 16,682. All the numbers cluster around 16,000,
so a reasonable estimate is 16,000 × 3 = 48,000 people for three games.

Bean Stick Computation

Have students use bean sticks as manipulatives for addition and subtraction whole-number
computation with and without regrouping. Sticks of 10 beans demonstrate place value for
the tens place, and remaining beans represent the ones place. Demonstrate using the beans
to trade 10 ones for a ten for regrouping. The demonstration plus permanent model (D +
PM, discussed later) technique can be used for instructional purposes. Figure 11.2 shows an

942
example of using bean sticks for addition with no regrouping.

Alternative Algorithms
Teach students algorithms, which are routine, step-by-step procedures for computation.
Examples of alternative algorithms include partial products and expanded notation, which
are based on place value. Partial products can be used to teach division; they help students
focus on place value and the quantity that is actually being partitioned:

428 ÷ 2 = ?

400 ÷ 2 = 200

20 ÷ 2 = 10

8÷2=4

_____

214

Figure 11.2 Using Bean Sticks to Solve Computational Problems

Expanded notation can be used for whole-number subtraction and division. The
expanded-notation algorithm helps students show place-value representations of numerals
and calculate answers, as illustrated in the following array.

943
For both types of alternative algorithms, model and “think aloud” how you solve a division
problem. Students imitate and verbalize the steps in applying these algorithms, use
manipulatives to represent the process, or work with a partner to solve problems.

Demonstration Plus Permanent Model

Have students use the demonstration plus permanent model (D + PM) intervention, which
has proved successful in teaching students explicitly how to solve problems that include
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of whole-number computation. This
intervention takes only a short time to implement, is best applied individually or in small
groups, and can greatly facilitate mastery of computation. Teachers using this intervention
often report that students catch on very quickly and learn the steps efficiently. The D + PM
intervention is at the level of abstract representation but can easily be adapted with visual
representations (problems shown using base-ten pictures) and physical representations
(problems completed using base-ten manipulatives or bean sticks). Thus, an instructional
materials adaptation can help students who require additional conceptual development to
understand place value, as well as computing with and without regrouping. The following
steps make up the demonstration (D) + permanent model (PM) intervention:

Demonstrate (D) how to solve a problem by “thinking aloud” the steps in whole-
number computation. Stress place-value and regrouping language if regrouping is
involved.
Leave the demonstrated problem as a referent (PM) on the student’s worksheet or the
chalkboard.
Have students compute the next problem, saying the steps out loud. If the problem is
worked correctly, have students complete the remaining problems (Rivera & Smith,
1988).

Key Questions
Some students become confused when doing multistep whole-number computation
(division, multiplication). Ask the following key questions to help students get back on
track:

What is the problem?

What are the steps?
What did you just do?
What do you do next?

Mercer and Mercer (2005) recommended teaching students the following cue or “family
strategy” to remember the steps required to solve division problems: Daddy (divide),
Mother (multiply), Sister (subtract), and Brother (bring down). Students can be taught to

944
use the “family strategy” or to ask themselves the “key questions” by referring to a chart or
cue card, an approach that promotes more self-regulated learning. You can pair these
techniques with the D + PM intervention to teach students how to solve division problems.

Sequence of Instruction
Use this approach to promote generalization. Traditionally, teachers present information to
students in a task-analyzed, sequenced format, teaching the easiest skill first. Once that skill
has been mastered, they present the next one, and so on. Investigations have revealed,
however, that students do not have to be taught whole-number computational skills in an
easy-to-difficult sequence for learning to occur. Rather, they can be taught the most
difficult skill within a group; most will generalize the algorithmic process to the easier
problems. Concrete representations such as bean sticks and base-ten models can promote
understanding of place value and renaming.

The following guidelines are suggested:

1. Develop a task analysis of whole-number computation (two digits + one digit, two
digits + two digits, three digits + two digits, three digits + three digits—all with no
regrouping; two digits + one digit, two digits + two digits, three digits + two digits,
three digits + three digits—all with renaming).
2. Test students to identify the skills they have mastered and those that require
instruction.
3. Group skills by “no renaming” and “renaming.”
4. Select the most difficult skill within a group as the instructional target (say, three
digits + three digits with no renaming; three digits + three digits with renaming).
5. Teach this most difficult skill using the demonstration plus permanent model
intervention.
6. Present problems representing all the skills within a group for practice (two digits +
one digit, two digits + two digits, three digits + two digits, three digits + three digits
—all with renaming).
7. Collect student performance data on all the skills on the practice sheet. (Rivera &
Smith, 1988)

We now talk about mathematical areas that can be challenging as students progress through
the grades.

945
What Are Rational Numbers and How Are They Taught?
Rational numbers are critical for more advanced mathematics success, especially in algebra
(NMAP, 2008). They include the whole numbers and integers; numbers that can be
written as the quotient of two integers, a ÷ b, where b is not zero (NCTM, 2000); and
fractions, decimals, and percentages. Students should work flexibly with fractions, decimals,
and their relationship to percentages, applying these rational numbers to real-life problems
related to money, cooking, shopping, and measurement (NCTM, 2000). According to Van
de Walle et al. (2012), developing students’ understanding of fraction concepts is critical to
their success in learning and understanding how to compute with fractions. Students
should be taught to view fraction and decimal systems as representing the same concepts.
Once they understand this relationship, they should be introduced to percentages and
taught the interrelatedness of decimals, fractions, and percentages (Hudson & Miller,
2006).

946
Difficulties with Rational Numbers
Students encounter a variety of challenges as they work with fractions, decimals, and
percentages. According to Bley and Thornton (2001), those who demonstrate problems
with abstract reasoning have difficulties with rational numbers. Research findings from a
longitudinal study of 147 students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grade with mathematics
learning disabilities (MLD), mathematics difficulties (MD), and typical achievement (TA),
found that those with MLD performed poorly on ranking proportions with fractions and
decimals (ranking smallest to largest decimals shown as numbers and fractions shown as
pictures) compared with the other two groups (Mazzocco & Devlin, 2008). Students with
MLD manifested significantly more difficulties in identifying fraction and decimal
equivalence (.50 = 5 10 ) than did students with MD and students who were TA.
Mazzocco and Devlin (2008) suggested poor conceptual understanding of rational numbers
(weak number sense) as a possible explanation for low performance in basic tasks, which are
associated with earlier grades’ content. Students also have difficulties with integers, often
due to rules learned in earlier grades that do not apply to the new material (Karp, Bush, &
Dougherty, 2014). For example, when we add two negative numbers such as –4 + –6, the
sum (–10) is smaller than either of the two addends.

947
 Students encounter a variety of challenges as they engage in work with fractions,
decimals, and percentages.

© Ilene MacDonald / Alamy

The vocabulary associated with these number systems may be problematic and thus require
explicit instruction in the definitions and use of the terms. Number sense regarding the

948
relative sizes of parts, such as thirds, tenths, 0.60, and 25%, and their relationship to a
whole unit may be difficult for some students. Problems of this nature will interfere with
the ability to judge the reasonableness of answers to questions such as “Is 3 4 or 1 4
closer to a whole?” Relating fractions, decimals, and percentages requires a sense of number
size and relationship, and without a good sense of number size, even numeral relationships
become challenging. Difficulty remembering the meaning of symbols can interfere with
interpreting how to solve problems. For example, –1 means negative 1 and not subtract 1.
Finally, understanding and recalling the procedural steps necessary in computations is yet
another difficult area for students who are struggling.

949
Teaching Rational Numbers
Our overview of teaching these skills reflects the fact that many students, with and without
special needs, need lots of help learning to work with rational numbers and integers.

Diagnosis: Refer to Table 11.6 for examples of error patterns and remedial strategies
to address them (Ashlock, 2009).
Vocabulary: Teach terms related to fractions, decimals, percentages, and integers
explicitly (Van de Walle et al., 2012).
Instructional content:
Make connections to money: Talk about and show how decimals such as .25,
.10, and .05 are related to money.
Make connections to telling time: Connect simple fractions ( 1 2 , 1 4 )
to telling time: half-past the hour, quarter after an hour, or quarter to an hour.
Instructional materials: Use rods, fraction tiles, grid paper, Geoboards,
number lines, and pattern blocks to provide activities with quantities in
different forms and shapes. Provide multiple exercises for students to represent
similar values across the numeration systems using various materials. For
example, use a paper strip to show 1 4 of a region, a Geoboard to show .25 of
a region, and grid paper to show 25% of a region. Number lines and integer
chips are very useful for teaching integers.

Figure 11.1 shows examples of manipulatives and materials that can be used for instruction
in fractions, decimals, and percentages. See the National Library of Virtual Manipulatives
(NLVM; http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html) for multiple manipulative tools for
numbers and operations, algebra, geometry, measurement, and data analysis and
probability.

Strategies: Use the CSA or D + PM procedure for teaching addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division algorithms.
Technology: Encourage students to check their work using calculators.
Progress monitoring: On a weekly basis, conduct assessments on concepts and skills
taught to assess whether students are benefiting from instruction. Error analysis can
pinpoint misconceptions you can target for further instruction and review.

Sorting Fractions and Decimals

950
Given a variety of fractions (or decimals) and the three choices Close to Zero, Close to 1 2
, and Close to 1, have students sort the fractions (or decimals) according to their
relationship to the choices. To do this accurately, students must understand the relative
sizes of the fractions (or decimals). Have them use manipulatives to demonstrate the
accuracy of their choices (Bley & Thornton, 2001).

Fractions as Equal to or Greater Than 1

Teach students a range of fractional representations when first introducing the concept of a
fraction to help develop number sense about relative size. Rather than limiting instruction
to 1/2, 1/4, and 1/3, include fractions such as 5/5, 3/1, and 12/4, using fraction strips and
shapes such as squares, rectangles, and circles to illustrate physical representations of the
fractional concepts. Students then learn from the beginning of fraction instruction that
fractions represent relationships, not specific amounts.

Comparisons
Have students make comparisons to see comparative sizes of fractions and the relationship
between the sizes. For example, younger children might state that 1/3 is greater than 1/2
because 3 is greater than 2; however, comparisons using manipulatives such as fraction
strips or connecting cubes can help them develop an understanding of relative sizes. Note
that students must know the identity of the whole (e.g., a cake or a pizza) to discern that
1/2 is indeed greater than 1/3.

Arithmetic Combinations and Fractions

Combine instruction on arithmetic combinations with simple fraction problems. Build
fluency in responding to problems, relying on arithmetic combinations, and then present
fractions containing the combinations students have been practicing. If the targeted
multiplication facts are factors of 8, fraction problems might include the following example:
8 9 × 6 8 = 42 72 = 2 3

This technique helps students make the connection between learning multiplication
combinations and computing problems with fractions, and it provides additional practice

951
with multiplication combinations.

Money, Decimals, and Percentages

Teach money and decimals together because they have a natural connection. Mastery of
money and decimals is a life skill; they may have more relevance for students if taught
together. Use number combinations that have been taught and mastered during study of
whole-number computation. Use the newspaper or advertising circulars to teach and
reinforce money, decimals, percentages, and computational skills. Computing the prices of
items, spending a designated amount of money by “shopping the sales,” and comparison
shopping are all activities that require students to use money, decimals, percentages, and
computational skills.

Algebra is an important area that requires careful attention. We take a look at it in the next
section.

952
What Is Algebra and How Is It Taught?
Algebra uses mathematical statements to describe relationships between things that vary
over time. Algebra is about finding the unknown. Algebra is identified as the gateway to
college readiness; students must be prepared to be successful with algebraic content
(NCTM, 2000; NMAP, 2008). Algebraic reasoning and the development of algebraic
concepts require the use of models and algebraic symbols to represent problems and
quantitative relationships and strategies to construct and solve simple to complex equations.
Algebraic reasoning relies on patterns; variables, equality, and equations; symbolism; and
relations, functions, and representations (Allsopp, Kyger, & Lovin, 2007; Van de Walle et
al., 2012). For students at risk and students with mathematics disabilities who find
mathematics difficult, adaptations are critical to helping them succeed with algebraic
content and developing their potential to enter higher education.

953
Difficulties with Algebra
Difficulties with algebra stem from a variety of problems, including difficulties mastering
arithmetic combinations and understanding the vocabulary used in algebraic reasoning. As
noted in the problem-solving section later in this chapter, students who demonstrate
mathematical difficulties typically exhibit poor performance in solving word problems,
which are an important component of algebraic study. Another challenge is understanding
patterns and functions. Finally, limited algebraic thinking impedes some students’ success.
Algebraic thinking is thinking about underlying mathematical structures to analyze,
generalize, model, justify, or prove quantitative relationships (Dougherty, Bryant, Bryant,
Darrough, & Pfannenstiel, 2015; Kieran, 2004).

954
Teaching Algebraic Reasoning
Students who are well on their way to mastering the concepts and skills addressed earlier in
this chapter are ready for the exciting challenge of algebraic reasoning.

Diagnosis: Use the think-aloud process with specific problems to assess the level of
students’ reasoning.
Instructional content: Make connections in activities among patterns, functions, and
variables. For example, students can identify and extend a pattern, represent the
relationship in a table, identify the functional relationship formula, and predict the
next response in a table by using the formula.
Instructional content: Teach the arithmetic properties presented in Table 11.8.
These properties are part of algebraic reasoning and are important concepts for
students to understand. Even if remembering the name of the property is an issue,
students must develop conceptual understanding of how numbers are related and
how values are influenced by the properties in this table.
Instructional materials: Use a mathematics balance to help students visualize
equalities. Use objects (keys, buttons, blocks, or geometric shapes) that students can
categorize according to color, size, and shape.
Vocabulary: Check student understanding of the key vocabulary of algebraic
instruction.
Questioning: Use the examples of the three types of questions in Table 11.9 to
generate problems for students to solve.
Strategies: Provide specific strategies and teach using the “think aloud” procedure so
students learn how to solve equations and word problems.
Technology: Teach students how to use graphing calculators to plot points and draw
curves when graphing patterns (Van de Walle et al., 2012). Refer to the applets on
the e-Standards published by the NCTM. The applets feature the connection
between word problems as real-life situations and graphs and equations. For instance,
students can manipulate a situation involving runners and their speed, distance, and
time from a starting point. As the students manipulate the variables, the relationship
among these variables can be graphed. Finally, review the NLVM to determine how
algebraic concepts can be represented using virtual manipulatives.

955
Fact Families
Explain to students that fact families are three numbers that are related, just as the people
in a family are related. For example, the numbers 2, 5, and 7 can be used to make two
addition problems (2 + 5 = 7 and 5 + 2 = 7) and two subtraction problems (7 − 5 = 2 and 7
− 2 = 5). Demonstrate with the manipulatives the commutative property and that
subtraction is the inverse of addition. Provide students with many opportunities to create
their own “families.” Have them write equations for their problems. Use Figure 11.3 to

956
convey the notion of family and to give students a place to write the number sentences for
their fact families.

Solving Algebraic Equations

Teach students a strategy for solving algebraic equations. The following strategy requires
students to ask themselves questions to guide their thinking through the steps (Allsopp et
al., 2007):

Solve: 5x = 25

1. Is there a letter?

“There is a letter that represents a variable. I need to figure out the value of the
variable.”

2. What is on each side of the equals sign?

“There is 5x and 25, and 5x means 5 times x.”

3. What is the value for x?

“I know that 5 times 5 equals 25, so the value of x is 5.”

Order of Operations
Teach students the order in which operations are used to solve equations. The correct order
follows:

1. Perform all operations within parentheses and brackets.

2. Evaluate each power (exponent).
3. Do all multiplications and divisions, from left to right.
4. Do all additions and subtractions, from left to right.

Figure 11.3 Family of Facts

957
Teachers frequently teach students to use the mml:mnemonic “Please Excuse My Dear
Aunt Sally” as a way to remember the order of operations. “Please” is a reminder for
parentheses, “Excuse” stands for exponents, “My” refers to multiplication, “Dear” means
division, “Aunt” is a reminder for addition, and “Sally” means subtraction.

Provide examples of equations for which students have to explain how to solve the problem
using the order of operations rules. Create a poster and bookmark with the order
information as a cue for those students who may need help remembering it.

Graphic Organizers
Use graphic organizers as a way to help students visualize mathematical relationships,
vocabulary, and concepts. Venn diagrams can demonstrate similarities and differences
between two concepts; hierarchical diagrams can show subordinate relationships to a
superordinate concept; and mapping diagrams (see Figure 11.4) can visually depict how
information about concepts can be organized (Maccini & Gagnon, 2005). Figure 11.4
shows the four operations and terms that convey each. Students must understand what
operation each term represents as they encounter them in algebraic equations.

Figure 11.4 Graphic Organizer

958
 Source: Adapted from Maccini and Gagnon (2005). Reprinted with permission.

Source: Adapted from Maccini and Gagnon (2005). Reprinted with permission.

Problem solving is one of the most important areas in mathematics. In the next section, we
discuss a variety of ways to teach this subject.

The Working Together feature shows how individuals with different expertise collaborate
to provide mathematics instruction to all students and intensive interventions to those
students who require additional support. You will see how teachers structure algebra
instruction, making use of a block model to increasingly intensive instruction for struggling
students.

959
WORKING together

960
Collaborating to Support Struggling Students in
Algebra
Parkview High School is located in an urban school district in which a large percentage of students are
eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. All students take algebra; those who require more intensive
intervention have a double block of algebra each day. Approximately one-third of the ninth graders need
this type of model because of low performance and behavioral issues such as low attendance and task
completion. The principal and the mathematics department chair worked with the data management team
to pull other sources of data to develop profiles of students’ mathematics difficulties. Ms. Martinez, the
mathematics teacher, and Mr. Wilson, the mathematics interventionist teacher, worked together to provide
differentiated and supplemental instruction when progress-monitoring data indicated a need to intervene.

The double block includes regular, Tier 1 intervention in the first part of class, taught by Ms. Martinez, and
more intensified Tiers 2 or 3 intervention taught by Mr. Wilson and Ms. Bell, the special education
inclusion teacher, during the second part of the block class. Students are grouped into small homogeneous
groups, based on progress monitoring data related to algebraic concepts, and taught strategies for solving
equations. The vocabulary of each lesson is carefully taught, and students are required to engage with the
mathematics by explaining what they are doing, justifying answers, and problem solving. Students use
various manipulatives and visual representations to model the mathematics. Mr. Wilson and Ms. Bell use a
three-station model for instruction. In one station, Mr. Wilson teaches the mathematics; in the second, Ms.
Bell teaches the strategies; and in the third station, students work with a partner to practice the content.

Depending on the day, Mr. Wilson can be reviewing, Ms. Bell can be reteaching, and the independent
station might be devoted to progress monitoring. During their planning time, the two teachers review each
student’s data to choose next steps for the following day, which could include regrouping students and
intensifying instruction.

961
Questions:
1. Is there another coteaching model Mr. Wilson and Ms. Bell could consider for the double block of
algebra intervention? What might this other model offer that is different than the stations model?
2. What activities might Mr. Wilson and Ms. Bell develop together for the stations model where
students are working independently so they remain engaged?
3. How can Mr. Wilson and Ms. Bell work together to help students who have struggled for years in
mathematics deal with possible motivation issues?

962
What Is Problem Solving and How Is It Taught?
Problem solving is a basic life skill as well as an essential component of a total mathematics
program (NCTM, 2000; NMAP, 2008; Woodward et al., 2012), emphasized in the
CCSSM (2010).

You can develop word problems from classroom and daily-life situations that require
problem solving. Connect conceptual and skill development to problem solving by
integrating whole-number computations, fractions, decimals, percentages, and algebraic
equations into word problems students can solve that reflect real-life situations.

Mayer (1998) identified five types of knowledge needed to solve word problems: linguistic
(English language and syntax), semantic (understanding of the meaning of words),
schematic (knowledge of word problem types and recognition of irrelevant information),
strategic (ability to plan and monitor solution strategies), and procedural (ability to perform
a sequence of operations). As noted by Montague, Enders, and Dietz (2011), good problem
solvers use a variety of cognitive and metacognitive strategies to solve word problems, such
as rereading, drawing pictures, identifying important information, and disregarding
extraneous information.

963
Solving real-world word problems is a basic life skill and is recommended as a major
component of the mathematics curriculum.

iStock/dlewis33

964
Difficulties with Problem Solving
Students with mathematical difficulties struggle to solve word problems for a variety of
reasons. They may not understand how to use the five types of knowledge or schema for
solving word problems (Jitendra et al., 2007). They may not recognize the types of word
problem structures or choose an appropriate solution strategy to solve the problem (Powell,
2011; Shin & Bryant, 2015). They may have problems applying multiple steps within
word problems (Shin & Bryant, 2015) or selecting and using the correct algorithms
(Hecht, Close, & Santisi, 2003). Moreover, students have been shown to have difficulties
paraphrasing what they were being asked to do in the problem and visually representing the
process and solution (Krawec, 2014).

965
Video case 11.2

Math Problem Solving

1. What is the MSI problem-solving strategy and how does it benefit students who struggle
with math? What are the steps in the MSI problem-solving process?
2. How does Lisa Sigafoos guide her students in applying the MSI strategy to a math word
problem? What questioning techniques does she use to scaffold her students’ success?

966
Types of Word Problems
The word problems typically found in elementary curricula require (a) join, part-part-
whole, separate, and compare for addition and subtraction, and (b) equal-groups,
multiplicative comparisons, combinations, and product-of-measures problems for
multiplication and division (Van de Walle et al., 2012). Mayer (1998) indicated that
interest, area, mixture, river current, probability, number, work, navigation, progressions,
exponentials, triangles, distance/rate/time, averages, scale conversion, and ratio problem
categories are typically included in secondary-level textbooks.

In some cases, students with limited reading abilities may have difficulty solving story
problems simply because they are unable to read the words. Adapting instruction might be
the answer to this type of problem. For instance, story problems could be presented on
audiotape as well as on paper so that difficult words are read aloud to the students. Another
way to address reading level is to have students work in cooperative learning or peer-
tutoring arrangements. A student with a more advanced reading level could be the
designated reader for the other student or students. A third possibility is to have students
work individually or in small groups with the teacher, a family member volunteer, or the
paraprofessional. This individualized attention could easily address the reading-level
problem and provide additional support in solving story problems. A fourth option could
include controlling the reading level of the word problems to more closely match the
reading level of the students. By carefully selecting words, teachers can address the reading
level more adequately in some cases.

967
Teaching Problem Solving
The general steps for teaching problem solving follow:

Diagnosis: Use clinical interview procedures to assess the reasons for difficulty
solving problems. (These might include language, numbers that are too big, reading
problems, extraneous information, or linguistic structure.) Rewrite problems
accordingly. In some cases, problems may have to be read to students who have
serious reading issues.
Instructional delivery: Include problems with too little or too much information;
ask students to tell what is needed or what is extra.
Instructional delivery: Have students write story problems for peers to solve.
Instructional delivery: Have students substitute smaller numbers for larger numbers
that may be troublesome. Students can (a) use manipulatives to depict problems, (b)
use charts and tables to organize information, (c) solve problems containing more
than one right answer, (d) devise their own story problems, (e) solve real problems
(situations in the classroom or current events), and (f) focus on the language of the
story problem by explaining problems with varying linguistic, symbolic, and
extraneous information in their own words.
Strategy instruction: Teach explicit strategies. Refer to Instructional Strategy 11.2
for ways to teach problem solving. Refer to What Works Clearinghouse for an
evidence-based practice guide on problem solving
(http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide.aspx?sid=16).
Calculations: Have students use calculators to check their work.
Progress monitoring: Monitor student performance regularly. Provide several
problems for students to solve independently. Ask them to show their work,
including the ways they both make a plan and perform their calculations.

One of the most useful applications of algebraic reasoning is in using equations to solve
word problems. Fast Draw, Questions and Actions, and Math Scene Investigator are three
strategies that have been suggested for analyzing and solving problems. Instructional
Strategy 11.2 provides an example of teaching procedures that focuses on geometry
instruction.

Think back to the Opening Challenge with Mrs. Reid. ADAPT in Action provides
information about how Mrs. Reid approached problem-solving instruction with her
students with mathematics difficulties and disabilities.

968
Fast Draw1
1. F ind what you’re solving for.
2. A sk yourself, “What are the parts of the problem?”
3. S et up the numbers.
4. T ie down the sign.
5. D iscover the sign.
6. R ead the problem.
7. A nswer, or draw and check.
8. W rite the answer.

969
1Adapted from Mercer and Miller (1992); 2Pfannenstiel, Bryant, Bryant, and Porterfield (2015).

970
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 11.2

971
Geometry, Measurement, Problem Solving: Buying Sod
for the Backyard

972
Instructional Objective
The student will use a strategy to solve a multistep problem.

973
Instructional Content
Problem solving, number and operation, geometry, measurement, algebra (conceptual understanding)

974
Instructional Materials
Graph paper, recording sheet

975
Instructional Delivery
Grouping: Small group of students

Vocabulary: area, square, foot

Before teaching the lesson, review the vocabulary terms. Have students define the terms in their own words.
Use visuals for English language learners.

976
Teaching Procedure
1. Provide directions to the whole class for the activity:

In small groups, you are going to work together to generate a solution to the following problem. You are
going to lay sod in your backyard. Sod is sold in squares measuring 12 inches by 12 inches. The backyard
is 50 feet by 72 feet. Draw on graph paper a diagram of the backyard area you wish to sod. Sod goes for
$.85 a square. How much will enough sod to complete the project cost? Solve the problem and record your
group’s answer and reasoning.
2. Tell students that each one of them should write, on his or her recording sheet, what the problem is
asking, strategies for solving the problem, and the calculations.
3. Circulate among groups, asking questions to promote discussion and problem solving.
4. Have a speaker from each small group explain to the whole class how the group solved the problem.

progress monitoring (Independent Practice)

After the lesson, give each student four problems to solve independently. Ask students to draw a diagram to
represent each problem and to show all calculations.

Source: Bryant, Kim, Hartman, and Bryant (2006).

977
ADAPT in action

978
ADAPT framework: PROBLEM SOLVING

979
UDL in action

980
Universal Design for Learning Lesson
Note: This UDL-based lesson was developed, in part, using the CAST UDL Lesson Builder:
http://lessonbuilder.cast.org/create.php?op=new.

The UDL framework (version 2.0) is comprised of three main principles (I. Representation, II. Action and
Expression, and III. Engagement). Each principle has three guidelines and several checkpoints that define them
further. In this lesson plan, we delineate how various instructional strategies meet the UDL checkpoints.

Title: Using grids to learn percentages.

Subject: Mathematics: Number and operation-percentage

Grade Level: 6

Duration: 45 minutes

Unit Description: This lesson is part of a group of lessons that focus on the relationship among
percentages, fractions, and decimals.

Lesson Description for Day:

Prerequisite skills: Ability to communicate verbally

Unit Goals:

The goal of this unit is to understand the relationship among percentages, fractions, and decimals.

Lesson Goals:

The purpose of this lesson is to introduce the concept of percentage using a 10 × 10 grid.

Methods: Anticipatory Set:

Tell the students that the purpose of the day’s lesson is to help them become familiar with the concept of a
percentage to prepare for further lessons about the relationship among percentages, fractions, and decimals.
They will need to understand how these concepts are related and ways for representing similar quantities.

Introduce and Model New Knowledge:

1. Introduce the mathematical term percent and the symbol that denotes percent. Explain that percent
means one part in a hundred. Show pictures from newspaper clippings that use percent and the %
symbol to discuss sales (Checkpoint 2.1—Clarify vocabulary and symbols). Have students provide
real-life examples of items that they and their family buy on sale and what bargains they look for
such as 50% off (Checkpoint 3.1—Activate or supply background knowledge).
2. Explain that they are going to use the concept of percent for planting a garden. Read the problem to
the students:
Ms. Sanchez is going to plant a garden this spring. She has a plot of land that she will partition
into parts so that she can plant both flowers and vegetables. Ms. Sanchez knows that she wants
more land devoted to flowers and that the remaining land will be for different types of vegetables.
She decides to draw a grid to help her visualize what the garden might look like.
3. Show students models using the virtual manipulative grids of what Ms. Sanchez’s garden might look
like using NLVM (http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html) (Checkpoint 5.2—Use multiple tools
for construction and composition).
4. Show a percentage and ask students what the grid would look like given the percentage so that they
can work from a number to shading a grid and from a shaded grid to providing a percentage to help

981
 students become comfortable with using the virtual manipulatives (Checkpoint 3.3—Guide
information processing, visualization, and manipulation).

Provide Guided Practice:

1. Have students work in pairs at computer stations to use the virtual manipulative grid to create
pictorial scenarios of what Ms. Sanchez’s garden might look like.
2. Have student pairs share with each other their ideas and use the term percent as they describe their
plot of land’s partitions (Checkpoint 7.1—Optimize individual choice and autonomy).

Provide Independent Practice:

At the end of the lesson, give students scenarios for the garden and have them show their gardens.

982
Summary
It is important for teachers to challenge their students to achieve mathematical competence.
It is equally important for teachers to provide appropriate instructional adaptations for
those students who are most in need of academic assistance. For students with mathematics
disabilities, adaptations are important to help them participate in classroom discussions and
learn mathematical skills and concepts emphasized in the NCTM standards.

Instructional adaptations are necessary to help students benefit from instruction in the
general education setting. This chapter offers ideas about adaptations for early number
development; arithmetic combinations; place value; whole-number computation; fractions,
decimals, and percentages; algebra; and problem solving. Keep in mind that other areas
addressed in the NCTM standards (such as measurement, geometry, and statistics and
probability) also require adapted instruction.

983
Review the Learning Objectives
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot talk
through the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the text.

What are the attributes of students with mathematics difficulties?

Students with mathematics difficulties have different disabilities and may display
difficulties with language processing, working memory and executive functioning,
and cognitive development. Students exhibit problems with a variety of math skills
and concepts, including arithmetic and whole number computation, place value,
rational numbers, algebraic thinking, and problem solving.

What is early number development and how is it taught?

Early number development describes a variety of skills and concepts—which involve

number sense—that typically emerge and are taught in preschool, kindergarten, first
grade, and second grade. Teaching early numbers involves number and operation
concepts.

What are arithmetic combinations and how are they taught?

Instruction in arithmetic combinations consists of developing declarative and

procedural knowledge and conceptual understanding. In the elementary grades,
students are taught different strategies, such as counting on, for learning these
arithmetic combinations.

What is place value and how is it taught?

Place value refers to the base-ten system, which is an important component of

mathematics instruction. Teaching place value involves the use of manipulatives and
activities to promote the concept of regrouping and the base-ten system.

What is whole-number computation and how is it taught?

Whole-number computation requires an understanding of the relationship between

numbers and place value, estimating, determining the reasonableness of answers, and
using appropriate algorithms. Teaching whole number computation involves error
analysis to determine remedial strategies, the use of manipulatives, and strategies or
algorithms for solving problems.

What are rational numbers and how are they taught?

984
Rational numbers include the whole numbers and integers, numbers that can be
written as the quotient of two integers, a ÷ b, where b is not zero, and fractions,
decimals, and percentages. Teaching involves the use of manipulatives and
opportunities to practice the concepts associated with rational numbers.

What is algebra and how is it taught?

Algebra uses mathematical statements to describe relationships between things that

vary over time. Algebraic reasoning and the development of algebraic concepts
require the use of models and algebraic symbols to represent problems and
quantitative relationships and strategies to construct and solve simple to complex
equations.

What is problem solving and how is it taught?

Problem solving is a process that involves understanding word problem structures

and how to translate these structures into equations to solve the problem. Problem
solving is taught through various strategies and should include real-world problems.

Test your understanding of chapter content. Take the practice quiz. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

985
Revisit the Opening Challenge
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What mathematical learning characteristics might be contributing to the students’

learning difficulties?
2. How can Ms. Hart and Mrs. Reid use the features of effective mathematics
instruction to structure their lessons?
3. What instructional adaptations can be implemented to help students access the
mathematics curriculum?
4. What suggestions do you have on ways in which these teachers can monitor student
progress?

986
Key Terms
base ten, 476
diagnostic teaching, 489
dyscalculia, 467
executive functioning, 473
long-term memory, 473
number sense, 467
partial products, 498
think aloud, 481
working memory, 473

Review key terms with eFlashcards. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

987
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

988
CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge
Standard 4: Assessment
Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

989
INTASC Core Principles
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences
Standard 4: Content Knowledge
Standard 6: Assessment
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction
Standard 8: Instructional Strategies
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

990
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Human development and behavior
III. Delivery of Services to Students: Background knowledge

991
Common Core State Standards

992
Mathematical Practices
Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.
Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.
Model with mathematics.
Use appropriate tools strategically.
Attend to precision.
Look for and make use of structure.
Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.

993
Domains
Counting and Cardinality K.CC
Operations and Algebraic Thinking K, 1,2,3,4,5.OA
Number and Operations in Base Ten K, 1,2,3,4,5.NBT
Number and Operations—Fractions 3,4,5.NF
Ratios and Proportional Relationships 6,7.RP
The Number System 6,7,8.NS
Expressions and Equations 6,7,8.EE
Functions 8,HS.F
Measurement and Data K,1,2,3,4,5.MD
Geometry K,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,HS.G
Statistics and Probability 6,7,8,HS.SP
Number and Quantity HS
Algebra HS
Modeling HS

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

Get the tools you need to sharpen your study skills. Access practice quizzes, eFlashcards, video, and
multimedia: edge.sagepub.com/bryant

994
995
12 Facilitating Content-Area Instruction and Study
Skills

Thinkstock/Digital Vision

996
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions:

What difficulties do students demonstrate with content-area instruction?

How can teachers teach content-area vocabulary and concepts?
How can teachers teach students to monitor their reading comprehension?
How can students learn from textbook instruction?
How can teachers promote student participation?
How can teachers help students with difficulties in study skills?
What are ways to facilitate memorization and test taking?

997
OPENING challenge

998
 Facilitating Content-Area Instruction and Study Skills
Elementary Grades Mr. Davis is in his 13th year of teaching fifth grade in a middle-class suburban school
district whose demographics reflect a rich cultural diversity. Fewer than 30% of enrolled students are
eligible for free or reduced-cost meals. Several of Mr. Davis’s 27 students have learning disabilities, and two
are being referred for possible ADHD. Reviewing results from the survey he gave the class, Mr. Davis found
that few had time management skills or strategies to help them understand content-area expository texts. He
reflects, “Most of my students have good decoding skills and can read fairly fluently. However, clearly I have to
help them read their content textbooks successfully. Time management skills showed similarly poor results on the
survey. My students did not identify a plan for taking notes or studying for tests, and few spend uninterrupted time
studying. Those who have learning disabilities are extremely capable, but they need help to benefit from content-
area instruction and to implement effective study skills. Some of my English language learners also need help with
vocabulary and comprehension strategies for textbook reading if they are to avoid being at a serious disadvantage
when they go into middle school next year.”

Secondary Grades Mrs. Marks is in her ninth year of teaching honors and general history in the 10th, 11th,
and 12th grades in an urban school district. Her students span a range of academic abilities, and most are
eligible for free or reduced-cost lunch. Several have reading disabilities, one has a mild developmental
disability, and several are English language learners. Her classes range in size from 15 to 37 students and
encompass many ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. Mrs. Marks recognizes that students need strategies to
learn the content and concepts in their history textbooks. She wants to prepare them to handle the demands
of a postsecondary education, but many cannot describe what good note-taking and test-preparation
practices look like or how to budget their time. She reflects, “I use the textbooks as a starting point for my
teaching and build on the information in them through lectures and hands-on activities. History has to come alive
for my students, not just be a recounting of the past. But my students have to be able to grasp the concepts and
learn the vocabulary from the text to understand what I am teaching.”

Reflection Questions In your journal, write down your answers to the following questions. After
completing the chapter, check your answers and revise them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What difficulties might students in both teachers’ classes exhibit with regard to content-area
instruction and study skills?
2. How can the teachers effectively work with their students to help them become efficient learners in
content-area instruction and study skills?
3. How can these teachers provide adapted lessons to students who require intensive intervention,
while keeping the rest of the class busy with relevant work?
4. How can study skills assessment be used to identify how students, including struggling students,
become more efficient learners?

Get the edge on your studies: edge.sagepub.com/bryant

Take a quiz to find out what you’ve learned.

Review key terms with eFlashcards.
Watch videos to see teachers in action.

As students progress from the upper elementary grades to middle school and high school, a
new pattern evolves in which teachers teach their content-area material and students

999
employ study skills such as taking notes and learning subject matter. Students are now
required to read textbooks at their grade level or above; write reports and papers, often
using technology such as laptops, desktop computers, or tablets; take notes, often using
portable devices such as tablets or smartphones in a library; and participate in discussions
and activities. They must also complete homework, take tests, conduct research, and
manage their time across multiple subject areas. Because teachers will cover a great deal of
instructional content, the pace of instruction may not match the learning needs of
struggling students who require a lot of practice to master material. Thus, students with
special learning needs may be challenged to keep up with their classmates.

Content-area instruction focuses on teaching students subject knowledge in areas such as

mathematics, social studies, science, and literature. Secondary teachers use various
instructional approaches for teaching content-area material to students. For example,
middle and high school content-area instruction is often teacher directed; that is, teachers
present lectures on textbook content, and students read their textbooks to identify
important facts and concepts in preparation for weekly tests (Bryant, Bryant, Kim, & Hou,
2015). Content-area instruction may also include student-centered activities, which actively
engage students in the learning process to solve problems, discuss issues, and create
products. Teachers focus more of their time on facilitating student learning through hands-
on activities, questioning, and discussions. Thus, in content-area classes, students must be
able to read and understand textbooks and engage in activities such as class discussions and
questioning.

To learn from textbooks, teachers’ lectures, and class discussions, students must use
effective study skills. “Study skills are specific skills employed to acquire, record, remember,
and use information efficiently” (Hoover & Patton, 2007, p. 2). Students must also be able
to manage their time and concentrate in class and while they are studying. They must be
able to listen effectively to lectures and discussions so they can distinguish important from
irrelevant information to take notes. They must know how to memorize information and
take objective and short-answer tests to pass their classes. Unfortunately, study skills are not
often directly taught (Lavenstein, 2015); rather, students may have to acquire these skills by
getting tips from helpful teachers, peers, or parents.

We know that secondary teachers who teach in inclusive settings must help all students
access and learn the general education curriculum. Because of the problems many students
demonstrate with literacy skills, there is increasing emphasis at the state and national levels
on the literacy needs of this group of students and on identifying ways to help them learn
content-area material. Teachers want strategies to help their students comprehend material
in textbooks, including key concepts and terminology, and to engage in classroom activities
that lead to successful learning (Bryant et al., 2015; Vaughn & Bos, 2015).

In this chapter, we provide an overview of content-area instruction and study skills, and
you will learn about the difficulties faced by students who struggle in these areas.

1000
Instructional strategies and adaptations based on the ADAPT framework are provided to
help you teach students who need extra instructional support.

1001
What Difficulties Do Students Demonstrate with Content-
Area Instruction?
Reading and understanding content in textbooks is one of the major challenges for students
with reading difficulties. Many struggling older students read well below grade level and
have difficulty learning content (Bryant et al., 2015; Vaughn et al., 2010). They lack
strategies for learning vocabulary and concepts, monitoring their reading, and tackling
content in textbooks. Activities that demand discussion and small-group participation may
also be problematic because students have not learned the content well enough to
contribute.

In terms of vocabulary and concept knowledge, all students will not learn meanings at the
same rate. Those who have reading disabilities will have poorer vocabularies than better
readers, because a great deal of vocabulary learning occurs through reading different types
of materials. Thus, the gap between good and poor readers will widen over time (Stone &
Urquhart, 2008). Students who lack strategies for learning vocabulary and concepts
typically are not familiar with the multiple meanings of words, word origins, or derivational
meanings, that is, meanings of words that are formed from other words, sometimes adding
prefixes, suffixes, or inflectional endings. Using a dictionary to look up the meanings of
words and using context clues in text may not be helpful strategies. Dictionaries may be too
difficult to understand, or the context may not provide helpful clues for figuring out word
meanings.

Reading comprehension calls on us to think and construct meaning before, during, and
after reading by integrating information from the author with our own background
knowledge (Clewell, 2015). Self-monitoring reading comprehension requires many skills.
Readers must activate their prior knowledge about a topic, question themselves, identify
main ideas and supporting details, paraphrase, and summarize information. Good readers
monitor their understanding of reading as they read text, and they use strategies to promote
comprehension and retention (Honig, Diamond, & Gutlohn, 2008). We know that
students who struggle with monitoring their reading comprehension do not establish a
purpose for reading or activate background knowledge. They lack self-questioning abilities
to ensure comprehension, and their summarizing strategies are deficient (Schumaker &
Deshler, 2006). Any one of these problems can seriously interfere with reading text and
learning new concepts. Combined, they impose serious reading challenges on struggling
students.

Content-area instruction in science, history, and social studies that focuses primarily on the
textbook as a source of information assumes students can read and comprehend expository
text, which is explanatory/factual in structure and includes multisyllabic, technical words;
various expository text structures (such as cause/effect, compare/contrast); and concepts and

1002
facts (Schumaker & Deshler, 2006). Research has shown a strong relationship between
students’ understanding of text structure and reading comprehension (Butler, Urrutia,
Buenger, & Hunt, 2010). Students with reading difficulties do not understand text
structures and thus have difficulty getting meaning from their content-area reading
materials. They do not take advantage of the physical features of the text, such as headings,
tables, boldfaced terms, and chapter organizers and summaries.

Finally, in classrooms where teachers include student-centered activities, learners with

special needs may be challenged by instruction that requires group interactions, discussions,
and product development. For example, students may not possess the basic reading and
writing skills to function well in group work. They may not be able to make connections to
or remember previously taught material from an earlier chapter or unit that is now
integrated into group activities. Difficulty understanding figurative and literal meanings
and trouble distinguishing connotative meanings—associated meanings that enrich a
word’s primary meaning—from denotative meanings—dictionary definitions—may
hamper students’ ability to understand readings and engage in discussions. Let’s turn now
to ways to teach content-area vocabulary and concepts.

1003
Video case 12.1

Building Prior Knowledge in the Content Areas

1. In the video, Jan Evans stimulates her students’ prior knowledge of food that grows on farms
in Texas. What methods does she use to activate and enhance their prior knowledge before
she introduces the lesson?
2. How does Ms. Evans incorporate authentic language learning experiences, such as reading,
writing, speaking, thinking, and listening, in her content-area instruction? In what ways will
these opportunities benefit her students?

1004
How Can Teachers Teach Content-Area Vocabulary and
Concepts?
Good readers acquire vocabulary rapidly during their school years (Honig & Gutlohn,
2008). They learn about 3,000 new words each year as they read content-area materials and
read independently. By the time they graduate from high school, most will have
encountered more than 88,500 word families (consisting of a base word and its derivatives,
such as success and successfully), many during the course of their independent reading (Beck,
McKeown, & Kucan, 2013).

Each content area has its own concepts and technical vocabulary, the language students
must learn if they are to comprehend specific information. A concept is a general idea or
understanding; it is a crucial word or phrase critical for grasping the content. Technical
vocabulary includes words that relate specifically to each content area. For example, in
history, students must understand the meaning of the technical term transcontinental as
they read about westward migration and railroad expansion in the United States. They also
need to understand the relationship between transcontinental and migratory patterns and
the reasons people migrated west. To learn content-area material, students need strategies
to develop an understanding of the meaning of concepts, in this case migration, and their
relationships to the content and the meaning of vocabulary words (Honig & Gutlohn,
2008). Let’s review some ideas for teaching technical vocabulary and concepts.

Content Area Inclusion

1005
Teaching the content-area vocabulary is a critical component of promoting reading
comprehension. What method is this teacher using to teach vocabulary? What other
methods might be helpful?

Fairfax County/Creative Commons

1006
Teaching Technical Vocabulary and Concepts
Vacca, Vacca, and Mraz (2014) provided suggestions for helping students learn the
meanings of new words and concepts that they encounter in content-area texts. We have
blended these suggestions with the adaptation categories from the ADAPT framework:

Instructional delivery: Present new vocabulary in semantically related groups, which

are groups of words with meaningful relationships (see the semantic feature analysis
grid in Table 12.1; Stahl & Nagy, 2006).
Instructional delivery: Teach students the meaning of the prefixes and the Greek
and Latin roots used most frequently in specific content areas. For example, in social
studies, teach trans (over, across, beyond), geo (earth), and port (carry); in science,
teach bio (life), ex (from, former), and meter (measure).
Instructional activity: Have students link new vocabulary with their background
knowledge by describing what they already know about the topic (Beck et al., 2013).
Instructional activity: Have students make up sentences using new vocabulary (Stahl
& Nagy, 2006).
Instructional materials: Have students develop word lists or banks.
Instructional materials: Have students use typographic cues such as footnotes,
italics, boldface print, and parenthetical definitions to define words.
Instructional materials: Have students use visual displays, including graphic
organizers such as hierarchical charts (charts with broader concepts listed first,
connected to supporting narrower concepts), Venn diagrams (intersecting shapes
that show how concepts are similar and different), semantic maps (maps or webs of
related words, vocabulary, concepts), and graphs.
Instructional delivery: Help English language learners by teaching academic
language.
Instructional delivery: Provide opportunities for gifted and talented students to
work together to develop and expand their content vocabularies.

Teaching Vocabulary and Concepts

Now we examine specific instructional strategies to promote the understanding of content-

area concepts and related vocabulary.

1007
CONSIDERING diversity

1008
Teaching Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
Although secondary students who are gifted and/or talented (GT) may take advanced placement (AP)
classes, you may find that your class includes students who are GT. Bauer, Benkstein, Pittel, and Koury
(n.d.) provided a number of recommendations that can be used to meet these students’ unique needs. These
suggestions are examples of good teaching and can be used with many students.

Compact the curriculum and provide enrichment activities. Provide environments that are
stimulating and address students’ cognitive, physical, emotional, and social needs in the curriculum.
Let the students move quickly through the required curriculum content and onto more advanced
material. Allow for academic rigor.
Allow students to pursue independent projects based on their own individual interests. Assign
independent projects based on your students’ ability level. Encourage creativity and original
thinking among gifted students. Allow them to explore ways of connecting unrelated issues in
creative ways.
Teach interactively. Have students work together, teach one another, and actively participate in
their own and their classmates’ education. Note: This does not advocate gifted children being peer
tutors in the classroom; the gifted student should be challenged as well. Emphasis should be on
working together in the classroom. Cluster gifted children together as a table within your classroom
and utilize advanced materials, as well as other suggested resources and modification, to meet their
exceptional needs.
Explore multiple points of view about contemporary topics and provide students with
opportunities to analyze and evaluate material. Allow open forums and debates in the classroom
about controversial issues. Utilize specialized training to ensure your ability to meet the needs of
gifted students. Share personal interests with all students, to enrich and expand their world.
Do not assign extra work to gifted children who finish assignments early. This is unfair and
frustrating to them. Simply offering more of the same only restricts further learning. Instead, allow
those children to work on independent projects or other unfinished work when they finish an
assignment early.
Consider team teaching, collaboration, and consultation with other teachers. Use the
knowledge, skills, and support of other educators or professionals in the schools. In addition, attend
professional development sessions that offer strategies to meet the needs of students who are gifted
and/or talented.

Source: Adapted from Bauer et al. (n.d.).

1009
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 12.1

1010
Semantic Feature Analysis—Civil War Battles

1011
Instructional Objective
The student will create a graphic display to connect a concept to related key vocabulary terms.

1012
Instructional Content
Vocabulary from lessons

1013
Instructional Materials
Concept, semantic feature analysis grid, vocabulary

1014
Instructional Delivery
Grouping: Whole class for initial instruction; small groups for practice and sharing

1015
Teaching Procedures
1. Identify the concept to teach.
2. Model how to complete a semantic feature analysis grid.
3. List the related vocabulary words down the left-hand columml:mn, and write the names of the
features across the top row.
4. Review the vocabulary words to see whether they contain any of the features listed under
characteristics; if so, have the students put a + in the corresponding box. If not, have students put a
− in the box.
5. Have students provide a reason why they chose to put + or − in the box.
6. Have students work in small groups to complete a semantic feature analysis grid for a concept to be
studied and related vocabulary words.
7. Have students explain their grids to the class.

A completed semantic feature analysis grid for some of the Civil War battles is shown in Table 12.1.

1016
Progress Monitoring
Give students key concepts from a lesson, and have them generate related vocabulary.

See BONUS Instructional Strategy 12.1 for an effective strategy related to the keyword mml:mnemonics.

Source: Vacca et al. (2014).

1017
Evidence-Based Instructional Strategies
The following evidence-based instructional strategy provides effective ways to help students
learn the meanings of technical words and concepts.

The semantic feature analysis grid is implemented as part of instruction. Returning to our
Opening Challenge, recall the issues Mrs. Marks faces with her class in terms of reading
and vocabulary. The ADAPT in Action feature shows how she adapts instruction to address
Samantha’s needs.

Now we focus on ways in which students can monitor their own reading comprehension.

1018
BONUS Instructional Strategy 12.1: Keyword Mml:Mnemonics

1019
1020
ADAPT in action

1021
1022
ADAPT framework: FOR SAMANTHA

1023
How Can Teachers Teach Students to Monitor Their
Reading Comprehension?
Good readers monitor their understanding of reading as they proceed through the text and
use strategies to comprehend and retain the material (Wright, 2010). Students who are able
to monitor their comprehension are aware of whether they are understanding and/or
remembering what they are reading. Monitoring entails regulating comprehension during
reading so students can prevent faulty understanding. It means (a) activating background
knowledge, (b) clarifying the purposes for reading, (c) identifying the important
information, (d) summarizing information, (e) engaging in self-questioning about the text,
(f) using text structure formats to comprehend text, and (g) correcting problems when
comprehension is inadequate. Students benefit from instruction on when and how to use
different strategies to monitor comprehension so they will be able to fix any comprehension
problems. Let’s review ways to teach students how to monitor their reading
comprehension.

1024
Teaching Students to Monitor Their Reading
Comprehension
Students should engage in multiple activities before, during, and after reading to ensure
that comprehension monitoring is an ongoing process. You can adopt the following
suggestions to teach comprehension monitoring. We have blended them with the
adaptation categories from the ADAPT framework.

Instructional delivery: Teach students to ask questions before, during, and after reading.

Questions before reading:

What is my purpose for reading?

What do I already know about this topic?
What do I think I will learn about this topic (make predictions)?

Questions during reading:

Does what I am reading make sense?

Is this what I expected? Should I revise my predictions or suspend judgment until
later?
How are the important points related to one another? What parts are similar and/or
different?
Should I read on, reread, or stop and use a fix-up strategy? Are there any words I
don’t understand?

Questions after reading:

What were the most important points?

What is my opinion? How do I feel? Do I agree or disagree?
What new information did I learn? (Vacca et al., 2014)

Instructional delivery: Help students link background knowledge with topics to be studied
before reading. For example,

Students can make predictions about the reading based on such physical features of
the text as pictures, graphs, and headings.
Students can watch a video that depicts a time era or science concept to be studied.
Students can make a semantic map (see Figure 12.1) to activate their prior
knowledge.

Instructional delivery: Teach students ways to think about the text during reading:

1025
 Students can use the paraphrasing strategy to help monitor their understanding of
content in each paragraph (see BONUS Instructional Strategy 12.2 for more
information).
Students can use fix-up strategies to repair faulty comprehension, such as checking
their understanding using the questions listed earlier, rereading difficult sentences,
and paraphrasing sentences or paragraphs (fix-up strategies were discussed in Chapter
10).
Students can turn headings into questions and answer the questions after they read
sections of the text.
Students can complete graphic organizers (discussed in the next section) to organize
their thoughts about the reading. For instance, Figure 12.2 shows a character map for
Stuart Little that was constructed during reading in response to questions about
character traits.

Figure 12.1 Semantic Map for Sharks

1026
 BONUS Instructional Strategy 12.2: Comprehension-Monitoring Activities

Instructional delivery: Help students think about the content after reading. For example,

1027
 Students can summarize text in small chunks, such as chapter sections, and then
combine the smaller summaries into a chapter summary.
Students can write reports to answer questions about the reading.

Now we review specific instructional strategies for comprehension monitoring.

Figure 12.2 Stuart Little Character Map

Source: Bryant and Bryant (2011).

Source: Bryant and Bryant (2011).

1028
Video case 12.2

After Reading Strategy

1. How does using the SWBST strategy help Tema Khieu’s students to summarize a familiar
short story? How can this strategy enhance students’ comprehension when they read other
texts?
2. What additional methods does Ms. Khieu use to guide her students’ reading
comprehension? How does she incorporate cooperative learning, mml:mnemonics, and
technology into her instruction?

1029
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 12.2

1030
Kwls
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE: Before, during, and after reading, the students will create a KWLS
chart to determine what they know about the topic and what they are learning as they read.

INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT: Reading comprehension: Activating prior knowledge and acquiring

new knowledge

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: KWLS chart, history text

INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY: Grouping: Whole class group

1031
TEACHING PROCEDURE
1. Determine the core concept.
2. Develop a KWLS chart with the core concept stated in question form.
3. Before they read the material, ask the students what they think they already know about the core
concept. That information is to be recorded in the K columml:mn.
4. Ask the students what they want to find out while reading the material. That information is to be
recorded in the W columml:mn.
5. After reading a portion of the text, return to the KWLS chart and confirm or deny the knowledge in
the K (What I know) columml:mn.
6. Complete the L (What I learned) columml:mn by writing the answers to the questions written in
the W (What I want to find out) columml:mn and entering other pertinent information that
students have learned from the reading.
7. Complete the S (What I still need to learn) columml:mn as they are reading.
8. Repeat steps 5, 6, and 7 until the reading has been completed.

PROGRESS MONITORING: Review students’ charts after they finish filling them in to determine the
accuracy of the information. Provide a comprehension check to determine how well students are
understanding their reading.

A sample of a completed KWLS chart is shown in the following table for the core concept question “What
were the American colonists’ attitudes toward England before the American Revolution?”

1032
Evidence-Based Instructional Strategies
The evidence-based methods in Instructional Strategy 12.2 and BONUS Instructional
Strategy 12.2 provide effective ways to help students learn how to monitor their reading
comprehension.

Now we return to the Opening Challenge to revisit information about Mr. Davis’ class. We
will learn how he plans adaptations to the KWLS strategy to help Andre monitor his
comprehension of instructional material.

In the next section, we focus on ways to help students use textbooks effectively.

1033
ADAPT in action

1034
1035
How Can Students Learn from Textbook Instruction?
Textbooks are an integral part of content-area instruction. They typically consist largely of
expository text, although stories (narrative text) are sometimes included to provide a
humanistic perspective. For example, in a social studies text, an account of events
surrounding the Civil War can be personalized with stories about the effects of the war on
individuals and their families.

Expository text conveys information in a variety of ways through the use of text structure:

Problem solution—the text presents a problem and offers possible solutions, usually
identifying one solution as most appropriate.
Description—the text provides details about a topic, person, event, or idea.
Cause/effect relationships—the text links events (effects) with their causes.
Enumeration or categorizing—the text is organized by means of lists or by collecting
like items.
Compare/contrast—the text explains similarities and differences between topics,
concepts, or issues.

Authors and publishers of textbooks work hard to ensure that chapter content is effectively
organized and to incorporate a wide variety of study aids. Students should recognize and
understand how to use these tools. Teachers can help their students get the most out of
them by using the text perusal strategy known as PARTS (see BONUS Instructional
Strategy 12.3). This cognitive strategy helps readers identify study aids such as
introduction, outline, learning objectives, headings, boldface type, graphics, and focus
questions. Let’s explore some ways to help students benefit from textbook instruction.

1036
Teaching Students How to Learn from Textbooks
The following suggestions can help teachers facilitate student learning. We present them
with the categories of adaptations from the ADAPT framework.

Instructional materials: Considerations for selecting textbooks (can also serve as guidelines
for textbook selection committees):

Make sure textbooks have coherence (logical flow of ideas) and appropriateness
(match between material to be read and reader’s knowledge and skills). The
relationships between main ideas and details should be clear.
Look for plenty of signal words that serve as cues to text structure, such as first,
second, and finally for sequence and on the other hand for comparison and contrast.
Visuals should be informative and should reinforce important content information.
Check that graphic organizers such as charts, pictures, flowcharts, and diagrams
support the text structure.
Be sure there are sufficient practice activities that help students learn and apply
concepts and ideas.
Vocabulary should be reinforced with activities to help students develop an
understanding of concepts.

Instructional delivery:

Divide reading assignments into meaningful segments and plan the lesson around
these segments.
Introduce the topic by having your students think about what they already know
about it (e.g., “What do you know about . . . ? What connections can you make?”).
Have students preview the reading segment by examining the illustrations, headings,
and other clues to the content.
Ask students to make predictions about what they will learn. They may write
individual predictions, write with a partner, or contribute to an oral discussion,
creating a list of class predictions.
Have students read the selection and evaluate their predictions. Were their
predictions verified? Were they on the wrong track? What evidence supported or
contradicted the predictions? Have them discuss their predictions and the content of
the reading.
Close the lesson with a review of the content of the reading and a discussion of the
prediction strategies students should use as they read any text.
Teach words that signal text structures. For example,
Sequence—first, second, next
Cause/Effect—causes, effects, as a result of
Problem/Solution—the problem is, the question is, difficulty

1037
 Compare/Contrast—is similar, is different, however, in the same way
Description—for example, also, another feature
Enumerative—includes the following
Teach text structures using graphic organizers. Model how to use the graphic
organizers. Figure 12.3 shows an examples of a graphic organizer that can be used as a
study guide and sources of information for test questions.

1038
 BONUS Instructional Strategy 12.3: PARTS Cognitive Strategy

Source: Instructional strategies that facilitate learning across content areas (n.d.).

1039
Promoting students’ participation is an important part of teaching. In the next section, we
take a look at ways to engage students in the learning process.

The following list uses the “What’s Old” and “What’s New” strategy and discusses ways to
help students with comprehension monitoring. In the next section, we discuss how teachers
can promote student participation in class discussions and activities.

1. Break the class into small groups. Give each group a chapter to review. Instruct
students to peruse the topics and special features within their sections.
2. Ask the groups to consider the primary topics covered and list them on a chart under
the columml:mn headings What’s Old and What’s New. To categorize the topics,
ask them to consider whether the content has been covered in past classes. There may
be some disagreement among group members, so encourage them to develop a
consensus.
3. Instruct students upon chart completion to return to the What’s Old columml:mn
and place an asterisk beside topics they have reviewed several times. In the What’s
New columml:mn, ask them to circle items that are so new that they had never heard
of them before this exercise.
4. Have each group come forward in turn to display the charts. Allow students to lead
their classmates on a chapter walk, pointing out old and new concepts. Encourage
them to seek feedback from the class about their lists.

Figure 12.3 Question Exploration Guide for the question “How do problems with
the layer teach us about human effects on the environment?”

Material removed as permission to reprint in digital format was not granted.

Source: Bulgren, Marquis, Lenz, Schumaker, and Deshler (2009).

Source: Bulgren, Marquis, Lenz, Schumaker, and Deshler (2009).

1040
 Textbooks are the materials used most often by content-area teachers as the basis for
their instruction. What other kinds of materials in this classroom are helping students
learn about geography and culture?

iStock/CEFutcher

Source: Garber-Miller (2006).

1041
ADAPT framework: FOR ANDRE

1042
How Can Teachers Promote Student Participation?
Students learn by actively engaging in the learning process through discussions,
questioning, and small group activities. Along with textbook instruction, active engagement
can help students with learning difficulties understand and interact with the material.

Heather Walport-Glawron wrote an article for the Edutopia.org website in 2012 (updated
in 2014) in which she summarized responses from middle-school students to the question
“What engages students?” Their answers follow:

1. Let us work with our classmates.

2. Let us work with technology.
3. Connect the real world to the work we do.
4. Love what you do (as a teacher).
5. Get me out of my seat.
6. Bring in visuals.
7. Give us choices.
8. Understand your clients—us!
9. Mix it up!
10. Be human, and have fun (as a teacher).

Promoting Participation in the Classroom

Source: Adapted from Walport-Glawron (2014).

Which of these, if any, can you relate to? Do you feel there are important items on this list?
What might you add to the list? Think back on your own education. Do you recall any of
your teachers (or professors) offering any of these engagement enhancers? Based on what
you have learned so far, are there any activities or strategies that you might use in your
classroom to promote student engagement?

1043
Using Class Discussions to Engage Students
Teachers can include all students in class discussions through various activities and
techniques. Questioning strategies can facilitate discussions by engaging students in asking
and answering. Requiring students to write their responses and share their ideas within a
small group is good preparation for whole class instruction. Teachers should work among
small groups checking for understanding, modeling how to respond to questions, and
asking probing questions to stimulate student thinking. The following suggestions can be
implemented in all content-area classes. Again, we’ve incorporated them with the categories
of adaptations from the ADAPT framework.

Instructional materials/delivery: Provide a discussion guide with questions students

should answer alone, with a partner, or in a small group before class discussions
begin. For example, in a small group setting, each group could be responsible for
summarizing content for an assigned element of a novel such as setting, characters,
problem, and resolution. In social studies or science, students may be assigned a
specific part of a chapter to summarize or chapter headings to turn into questions and
then answer.
Instructional delivery: Provide a question stem card with stem questions such as
“How are ________ and _______ alike and different?” “What explanation can you
offer about . . . ?” “Why do you think . . . ?” “How would you describe . . . ?” and a
topic, character, event, or issue to go with the stem. Students should prepare an
answer to the question before discussion, working with a partner or in a small group.
Instructional delivery: Divide students into small groups and give them one
question representing each level of Bloom’s taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Questions can be the same across
groups, so when groups share their responses after the activity, the class can identify
multiple perspectives about questions that require higher order thinking, such as
synthesis and evaluation.
Instructional activity: Have students record their questions about content and put
the questions in a box. Draw questions and have students answer the questions.

In the next section, we present information about anchoring instruction as a means for
promoting student participation. Anchored instruction begins with an event or problem
situation (the anchor) presented in a video or movie that provides background and creates a
shared experience among students to facilitate learning (Thomas & Rieth, 2011). The
anchor can be the main focus or a supplement to facilitate student discussions (Kumar,
2010). Although more research is needed, the technique shows promise for teaching
secondary students with academic problems (Bottge et al., 2014). It has been shown to
foster students’ higher level thinking during class discussions (Thomas & Rieth, 2011).
Instructional Strategy 12.3 shows how to use the technique.

1044
 Teachers can include all students in class discussions through various activities and
techniques. What are some examples of techniques that may be useful in your
classroom?

iStock/monkeybusinessimages

Referring back to the Opening Challenge and issues in Mrs. Marks’s class, let us see how
she will use the ADAPT framework and anchored instruction using To Kill a Mockingbird
to ensure Colleen’s successful participation in group work.

As noted in Chapter 7, UDL is a powerful means for promoting access to the curriculum
for all learners. We have discussed using anchoring instruction as a way to facilitate group
participation. Now we present a UDL lesson that focuses on using To Kill a Mockingbird
and incorporates the UDL principles and checkpoints.

We now turn our attention to study skills, which are critical for successful learning at all
grade levels. Students develop study skills in the elementary grades, maintain their use in
the middle grades, refine their skills in high school, and generalize the use of study skills in
adult contexts (Hoover & Patton, 2007). Students with learning difficulties exhibit
problems with study skills. Teachers must be prepared to facilitate the development and use
of effective study skills for all students.

1045
How Can Teachers Help Students with Difficulties in Study
Skills?
Students with special learning needs must be explicitly taught study skills, because many
have not learned how to strategically approach academic tasks in a way that will help them
effectively gain and use information taught via text, lecture, and media (IRIS Center,
2015). Managing study and exam preparation time is critically important for success in
secondary and postsecondary classes. Those with special needs may demonstrate problems
with time management because they organize their time poorly, are easily distracted from
tasks or projects, lack “stick-to-it-ness” or persistence, and are unable to organize their ideas
into a cohesive plan of action (Bryant et al., 2015). Difficulty in any one of these areas
results in trouble completing a task. When students have multiple difficulties, their time
management problems are aggravated.

Creative Study Skills

Listening is a skill students use to obtain meaning from spoken language, to promote more
efficient study habits, and to foster communication in general. Listening is not synonymous
with paying attention, nor is it synonymous with hearing, although both contribute to
good listening.

Research studies show that despite the amount of time students spend listening to someone
and its importance as a study skill, teachers spend little time on listening instruction
(Hoover & Patton, 2007). The ability to listen, to receive and understand information, is a
crucial skill for students to be taught explicitly. You can facilitate listening skills in your
students.

Students must listen to take notes during lectures or discussions and to follow directions
(Hoover & Patton, 2007). Listening requires understanding spoken language, including
sentence structure and vocabulary. Students must also be able to grasp the meaning of the
message by organizing the content and ignoring irrelevant information. According to
Hoover and Patton (2007), students with special learning needs may exhibit the following
listening problems:

Are unable to concentrate during listening activities.

Frequently lose attention due to visual distractions during listening activities.
Frequently lose attention due to auditory distractions during listening activities.
Are unable to identify primary and secondary points in verbal messages.
Are unable to follow verbal directions when repeated several times.

1046
 Are unable to state purposes of a listening activity. (p. 67)

BONUS Instructional Strategy 12.4: Conducting Research

1047
As students listen to lectures and discussions, they are expected to take notes to study.
Those with special learning needs may have trouble taking notes for several reasons (Boyle,
2011). They may not be able to identify the most important information or write fast
enough to keep up with the lecturer. Even when they do record notes, they may have
problems making sense of their notes after the lecture if they are illegible or unorganized.

Students with special learning needs demonstrate difficulties with short-term, long-term,
and working memory. Short-term memory is a temporary store of information that we tap
for immediate endeavors, like remembering two tasks to accomplish today or a short list of
items to buy at the supermarket. Long-term memory is a permanent store of information
whose permanence is aided by the way information is stored. Working memory is the
mental function by which we simultaneously process and store information (Swanson,
Zheng, & Jerman, 2009). Memorizing information for class work and tests relies on all
three types of memory.

Struggling students experience a number of difficulties related to memorizing and test

taking. For memorizing, they may lack efficient strategies such as chunking, rehearsing, and
creating mml:mnemonics for studying material that will be tested. They may not make
associations between new and learned material to help them memorize content. They may
lack efficient strategies for approaching a test, such as managing time or tackling multiple-
choice questions methodically, and they may not use memory strategies to retrieve
information as they take the test. Finally, they may have difficulties reading and
understanding test instructions. Given this list, it is not surprising that students struggle
taking exams, even if they know the content being tested.

We return to Mr. Davis, who had his students complete a survey to help him learn about
their content-area and study skills. The survey is shown in Table 12.4, which you may want
to use with your students.

1048
Next, we talk about ways to help students improve their time management skills.

1049
Teaching Time Management Skills
Some students with learning problems have difficulties with organizational skills in general;
managing and organizing time is one component of the bigger self-management picture.
Time management requires students to (a) identify what they must accomplish, (b)
understand how long each task will take to complete, and (c) schedule blocks of time to get
the job done efficiently. Time management entails making judgments and estimates about
the time requirements of various tasks; your students may struggle with time management
if they lack good estimation skills and conceptual understanding of time. For example, the
student who does not begin a research paper until three days before the due date either has
not demonstrated sufficient understanding of the demands of the task or lacks the time
management skills to complete the task by the deadline. You can use the following activities
to help students with their time management skills (see Study Guides and Strategies: Time
Management: http://www.studygs.net/timman.htm):

Block out study time and breaks during the day.

Dedicate study spaces.
Conduct weekly reviews.
Prioritize assignments.
Achieve “stage one”—get something done!
Postpone unnecessary activities until the work is done.
Identify helpful resources.
Use free time wisely.
Review notes and readings just before class.
Review lecture notes just after class.

Teaching Organizational Skills

More than ever before, students are being held to higher standards, as evidenced by the
increasing number of states that have adopted the Common Core State Standards. With
increased accountability comes an increased workload, and students are required to
complete assignments on time for all of their classes. As shown in the Tech Notes feature,
technology can provide students like Colleen with time management options.

1050
INSTRUCTIONAL strategy 12.3

1051
Anchoring Instruction
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE: The students will learn content using an anchor and present their
knowledge in a group presentation.

INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT: Expository or narrative text presented through a video

INSTRUCTIONAL METERIALS: Video anchor, computers, writing materials

INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY: Grouping: Whole class or small group

1052
TEACHING PROCEDURES
1. Identify a video that corresponds with the text to be read. In this case, we will use To Kill a
Mockingbird as the video anchor to teach human relationships, social studies events (post–World
War I, World War II, the Great Depression), and themes such as racism, authority, power, and
socioeconomic status. Students will be divided into small groups, and each group will work to
prepare a multimedia presentation about researched topics that will be presented to the class after
the assignments are completed.

2. PHASE 1: Setting the Stage. This phase consists of activities to help students develop interviewing
and research skills for their final multimedia project. Students learn how to conduct interviews, ask
questions to research a topic, and use their background knowledge to learn more about a topic. As
an example, the jigsaw cooperative learning procedure (see Chapter 10) can be used, where
members of one jigsaw group conduct research about the author, in this case Harper Lee. Part of
the multimedia presentation can include a video where, after students return to their primary
groups, one member of the group interviews “Ms. Lee” about her life and how her life experiences
may have influenced her writing. Table 12.2 shows the three procedures employed in Phase 1.

1053
3. PHASE 2: Watching the Anchor/Retelling. This phase occurs over several days and introduces
students to the themes of the story, for example, power, money, and human relationships in To Kill
a Mockingbird. After watching the film, students retell the events and identify scenes they think are
important to the story. Retelling descriptions are written on sentence strips and ordered according
to their place in the story. If students recognize that information is missing, additional strips can be
created and added to the descriptions. Students answer questions about the movie related to the
themes, setting, characters, and events. Students then engage in a discussion to confirm conclusions
and clarify misconceptions.
4. PHASE 3: Segmenting. In this phase, students segment the movie into scenes and label them for
use during Phase 5, when they will conduct their research. Strategies used for segmenting include
looking for logical breaks between scenes based on plot, scene changes, and character appearances.
For instance, if the students choose Mayella Ewell’s courtroom scene as a segment, it might be
labeled “Mayella’s Testimony.”
5. PHASE 4: Characterization. In this phase, students conduct character analysis. Students work in
small groups, and each group chooses one character to portray. The students create an acrostic for
their character. For example, for Scout: S—secretive, c—curious, o—outward, u—unpredictable,
and t— tomboy. Students identify scenes from the video that depict that character’s personality and
show how the character relates to the themes of power, money, and human relationships.
Characterization activities are shown in Table 12.3.
6. PHASE 5: Student Research and Presentations. Students work in small groups to develop a research
question on issues that stem from their discussions. Group members conduct research to gather
information to answer their questions and create a multimedia presentation. Students must use
library and Internet resources. For instance, one question might be, “How did the stock market
work?” Students would research this question and relate it to the stock market crash that occurred
during the Great Depression in the United States, the period of time depicted in To Kill a
Mockingbird. The teacher helps students with researching their topic and developing their
presentation. A group multimedia presentation is the final event.

1054
Source: H. J. Rieth, D. P. Bryant, C. K. Kinzer, L. K. Colburn, S.-J. Hur, P. Hartman, & H.-S. Choi
(2003), An analysis of the impact of anchored instruction on teaching and learning activities in two ninth-
grade language arts classes, Remedial and Special Education, 24(3), 173–184. PRO-ED. Reprinted with
permission.

1055
ADAPT in action

1056
1057
ADAPT framework: FOR COLLEEN

1058
UDL in action

1059
Universal Design for Learning Lesson
Note: This UDL-based lesson was developed, in part, using the CAST UDL Lesson Builder
(http://lessonbuilder.cast.org/create.php?op=new).

The UDL framework (version 2.0) is comprised of three main principles (I. Representation, II. Action and
Expression, and III. Engagement). Each principle has three guidelines and several checkpoints that define them
further. In this lesson plan, we delineate how various instructional strategies meet the UDL checkpoints.

Title: English I Lesson: Dramatic Structure

Subject: English I Lesson on Literature

Grade Level: 9

Duration: 45 minutes

Unit Description: This lesson is part of a group of lessons centering on Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird.

Lesson Description for Day: Prerequisite skills: Ability to communicate verbally, attend to a short video
clip, work collaboratively

Unit Goals: The goal of this unit is to understand the interplay of heroism and courage during the 1930s in
the Deep South.

Lesson Goals: The purpose of this lesson is to teach students to complete a project that conveys the phases
of plot: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and denouement.

Methods: Anticipatory Set: Tell students that the purpose of the day’s lesson is to help them understand
dramatic structure as it relates to literature. They will be working with print and digital copies of Harper
Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird, as well as the film version that came out in 1962. The movie does a good
job of following the events of the book, so the three can be used in conjunction with one another.

Introduce and Model New Knowledge

1. Introduce new vocabulary (exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, denouement) by saying
the words, having students repeat the words, writing the words on the board, discussing definitions,
and providing strategies for remembering the definitions (e.g., denouement = decision or done).
2. Read a section of To Kill a Mockingbird to the class and diagram the plot on the board using a plot
diagram and the new vocabulary words. Provide a print copy of the text for students to follow
along.
3. Play a short clip of the movie To Kill a Mockingbird (Checkpoint 1.3—Offer alternatives for visual
information) that picks up from the material just read. Have students work in small groups to
diagram the plot.
4. Provide scaffolds as needed (Checkpoint 4.2—Optimize access to tools and assistive technologies;
Checkpoint 6.3—Facilitate managing information and resources).
a. Demonstrate to students how they can change the fonts and backgrounds of digital text by
copying and pasting to Microsoft Word; also, for students who are using text-to-speech
technology, make sure they understand how to adjust the volume and speed of the audio
(Checkpoint 1.1—Offer ways of customizing the display of information).
b. Provide graphic organizers (e.g., word maps, semantic maps) to help struggling students
better understand key vocabulary terms (Checkpoint 2.1—Clarify vocabulary and symbols).

Provide Guided Practice

1060
 1. Provide print, digital, and video versions of To Kill a Mockingbird.
2. Select a chapter that will be the focus of the activity.
3. Have students work in small groups to diagram the plot of the selected chapter (Checkpoint 8.3—
Foster collaboration and community). Allow students to choose groupings for learning activities.
4. Allow students to choose what they will produce:
a. Create a PowerPoint, Animoto, or Prezi presentation.
b. Create a performance or scenes.
c. Create a poster or diorama.
d. Other (as approved by the teacher).
5. Be prepared to model, for example, PowerPoint procedures.
6. Check for understanding and provide corrective feedback as needed.
7. Support self-regulation skills by assisting students in setting and monitoring learning and behavioral
goals (Checkpoint 9.2—Facilitate personal coping skills and strategies).

Provide Independent Practice

1. At the end of each day, students answer questions related to the new information as they leave the
classroom (e.g., What is exposition?).
2. When student projects are completed, they will be evaluated using a scoring rubric designed for the
product type.

Source: Johnson-Harris and Mundschenk (2014).

UDL Guidelines are available at http://www.udlcenter.org/aboutudl/udlguidelines/downloads.

1061
Teaching Listening and Note-Taking Skills
According to Steimle, Brdiczka, and Mühlhäuser (2009), classroom lectures too often lead
to passive listeners, but that does not need to be the case; note taking requires students to
be able to listen actively, recognize important points and supporting details, utilize an
organizational framework, know some personal shorthand method for abbreviating
information, and write quickly. Taking personal notes can help students actively follow the
lecture, select relevant information, and restate it in their own words. Given the importance
of note taking and its relationship to higher quiz scores, test scores, and grades (Boyle,
2011; Boyle & Rivera, 2012), your students must know how to listen effectively to obtain
the information for which you will hold them accountable.

If your students are encountering obstacles to effective listening, their learning may suffer.
Here are some barriers that often impede learning from lectures (Hopper 2016, p. 130,
cited in Strang, 2016):

Talking instead of listening.

Thinking of what you’re going to say instead of listening.
Mentally arguing with the speaker.
Thinking about something else while the speaker is talking.
Getting impatient with the speaker.
Giving in to a poor environment—too noisy, too hot, too hungry.
Dividing your attention—texting, finishing homework, staring at someone else in the
class.
Not listening actively—not taking notes, not asking questions, and so on.
Not being motivated to listen—thinking the subject is boring.
Being distracted by the speaker’s mannerisms, voice, or appearance.

1062
 BONUS Instructional Strategy 12.5: Time Management Evaluation

Fortunately, Hopper (2016, pp. 131–132, cited in Strang, 2016) provided some

1063
suggestions your students can use to improve their listening skills:

Before you even get to class, be prepared—complete all assigned readings and
coursework, and bring all needed materials with you.
Sit as close to the front of the room as you can.
Get to class on time—if not early.
Establish and maintain eye contact with the speaker throughout the lecture.
Listen for verbal cues. (These can be specific words, such as “first,” “then,”
“however,” or “my main point is . . . ”—or, they can be found in the speaker’s tone
of voice or level of enthusiasm.)
Watch the speaker’s gestures and other non-verbal behaviors.
Have your notebook (and pen or pencil), tablet, or laptop ready at all times.
Respond to and reflect on the lecture as it proceeds. As questions come to mind, jot
them down to ask later.
Eliminate distractions (such as those mentioned above) . . . and steer yourself away
from them!

Source: Hopper (2016). Reprinted with permission.

Bragstad and Stumpf (1987) identified note-taking steps with key words and procedures
that students can learn to help them recall lecture and textbook material. Model the steps
that follow, offer examples of poorly written and well-written notes, and then allow
students opportunities to practice with feedback. (Do not use your students’ own work as
examples of poor notes.) Students can take notes from a lecture or textbook and then work
in small groups to discuss what they did for each step. You can use students’ notes in the
note shrink quiz box (see Step 2) to construct quizzes to test understanding of the lecture or
textbook material. The following steps are recommended to improve students’ note-taking
skills:

STEP 1: Note-take, which requires taking notes of important facts during the lecture.
STEP 2: Note shrink, wherein students survey their notes, identify important points
and “thought chunks,” and record chunks in a quiz box.
STEP 3: Note talk, in which students put the content into their own words.
STEP 4: Note think, which entails linking the new information to existing knowledge
and experiences.
STEP 5: Note review, which schedules 10 minutes a day for going over the notes.

1064
 These students are writing out notes as they listen. How can you help your students
develop better listening and note-taking skills?

iStock/monkeybusinessimages

Finally, Susan Vogel (1997), a leading researcher in postsecondary learning disabilities,

offered the following suggestions, which are useful in helping students learn and remember
information. You can put these steps in a handout for students to help them remember
how to take notes more effectively:

Color code, enlarge, underline, and highlight your notes to learn the material.
Copy your notes over if writing helps you memorize.
Rehearse, either orally or in writing, material to be mastered.
Write out concepts in full.
Read your notes, silently or aloud.
Paraphrase or explain concepts to a friend.

Think about strategies you have used in the past to learn and remember information
presented in text or during lectures. How are they similar to what has been presented here?
What additional strategies have you used to help retain information that was presented?
How might you share the information presented here, along with strategies that you have
used successfully, to your students?

1065
TECH notes

1066
Electronic Calendars as Time Management Tools
For students like Colleen, who habitually turn in assignments late, electronic calendars can be useful tools
for time management. Programs such as Google Calendar or one of the many inexpensive smartphone
calendar apps help students organize their schedules so that they can complete assignments on time. For
example, Colleen has a paper that is due November 15 for her English I class. Noting that date on a
calendar is all well and good, but Colleen is better served by breaking the assignment into manageable steps
and placing each event into her electronic calendar. For example,

Begin research on topic on October 1.

Create an outline based on the research by October 10.
Annotate the outline by October 20.
Write first draft by October 30.
Revise the draft by November 10.
Edit the revision by November 12.
Turn in the paper on November 15.

Electronic calendars can send out alerts when a deadline is approaching, often in the form of an e-mail or
text message. Of course, students must pay attention to the calendars as deadlines approach, and parents can
help by entering important dates on their calendars as well. Numerous products are available for such
purposes. To see a listing of the more popular family-based calendars, simply type “family electronic
calendars” into your favorite search engine. Techdialogue (2013) offered these suggestions for using Google
Calendar for the classroom, but they apply to any electronic calendar with similar features.

1. Lesson plans and objectives can be added quickly from any computer (and most mobile devices)
with internet access.
2. As teachers get more experienced using Google Calendar, they can embed their calendars on their
classroom websites.
3. Advanced users can add their Google Calendar to their smart phones and help students and parents
subscribe to the classroom calendar so that they can set up reminders on their devices.
4. Educators can use Google Calendars to share schedules with colleagues, from computer lab
schedules to athletics practice.

Think about your needs as a student and how electronic calendars can help you develop more efficient
study skills. Then project ahead to how you might use this technology in your own classroom to help your
students plan schedules and become more efficient learners.

Have students keep a record of how their time was spent for one week. Then you can perform an analysis of
their time management with them so you can set up a plan to address any problems the students are having
with time. BONUS Instructional Strategies 12.5 and 12.6 offer some concrete ideas for promoting better
time management.

1067
What Are Ways to Facilitate Memorization and Test Taking?
Students need memorization skills to facilitate the learning of information. For example,
they will be asked to memorize a great deal of information in various subject areas and to
reproduce that information on tests and in class discussions. Therefore, it is vital for
students to possess strategies that help them learn, store, and retrieve information. Research
studies have shown that students with learning problems tend to exhibit difficulties with
short-term and working memory that result from ineffective information-processing
abilities (Johnson, Humphrey, Mellard, Woods, & Swanson, 2010). Their problems stem
from a lack of efficient memory strategies (chunking, organizing), a lack of automaticity
with basic knowledge (computational facts, sight words), and inefficient self-regulation
(meta-memory) strategies.

You can help students improve their memory skills by (a) teaching them how to create
mml:mnemonic devices to assist them in memorizing and recalling content, such as lists of
information, important people, and steps in a procedure; (b) discussing how they can
remember some information by creating mental images—have them provide specific
examples of images they create; (c) teaching them to “chunk” related information for easier
memorization and recall—this necessitates discussing the concepts of compare and contrast;
and (d) giving them opportunities to recite information through verbal rehearsal—you can
do this in student-mediated groups or in a whole group setting. Clearly, if your students
with special needs are to learn, retain, and recall content information, they have to know
and apply strategies to facilitate these cognitive, or thinking, processes. Now let’s look at
some ways to help students recall information and take tests successfully.

1068
BONUS Instructional Strategy 12.6: Developing and Implementing a Scheduling
Plan

1069
Teaching Memorization and Test-Taking Skills
Memorizing information in preparation for tests requires reviewing the material frequently
and committing it to memory. Memory strategies that enhance recall, such as listing,
categorizing, drawing, visualizing, alphabetizing, devising acronyms, applying
mml:mnemonic strategies, and creating associations, are techniques that students with good
study skills use.

There are several ways teachers can help their students become better test takers. Hoover
and Patton (2007) offered the following suggestions:

Show students how to take different types of tests.

Explain different methods of study and types of materials necessary to study for
objective and essay tests.
Review completed tests with students, highlighting test-taking errors.
Explore test-taking procedures with students, and explain different types of questions.
Identify and discuss key vocabulary terms found in test instructions, such as compare,
contrast, match, and evaluate.
Teach students general strategies to use when taking tests: Review the entire test,
know the time allotted for test completion, recognize the point values of specific test
items, read and reread the directions and test questions, identify key words in
questions, and respond to more difficult items after answering the easier items.
Teach students specific strategies to use when taking multiple-choice tests: Know the
number and kind of answers to select, remember the question, narrow down the
possible correct answers by eliminating obviously incorrect ones, and record each
answer carefully.

Earlier, we mentioned that mml:mnemonic strategies can be helpful when preparing to take
tests. One such strategy is called PIRATES, which has been researched extensively and
proven to be effective. Table 12.5 illustrates how PIRATES can be taught to help students
develop efficient test-taking skills.

We conclude this chapter with an example of how educators can collaborate to meet the
needs of a student who has a visual impairment. These students need to be able to access
the curriculum, including content-area material, and be prepared in the area of study skills
as well. To accomplish both of these objectives, educators must consider the individual
needs of each student and the adaptations necessary to promote successful learning. The
Working Together feature provides information about technology considerations that need
to be planned in sufficient time so that the student is able to start learning along with his or
her peers when the school bell rings in the fall.

1070
1071
WORKING together

1072
Collaborating to Teach Students with Visual
Impairments
Most teachers need assistance when they are working with students who have sensory disabilities. Access to
the general education curriculum for these students is of great importance, so consultation about their needs
is a critical part of a special educator’s and general educator’s job. Professionals collaborating in their work
with students who are blind or visually impaired should address the following issues. Together, these
professionals can make decisions about materials, Braille text, and grading. Susan J. Spungin, an
internationally renowned expert on the education and rehabilitation of individuals who are blind or visually
impaired, offers suggestions to general education teachers who have students who are blind or visually
impaired in their classroom.

Consider the child as more like other children than different from them. Talk with the child about
his or her interests and experiences and expect the child to follow rules that are appropriate to his or
her developmental level.
Always let a visually impaired child know when you are approaching or leaving. Identify yourself by
name, especially if the child doesn’t know you well. Never make a game of having a child guess who
you are. To do so can be confusing, frightening, or frustrating to a child.
Briefly describe aspects of the environment that might be of importance or interest to the child that
he or she cannot see.
Always ask before providing physical assistance. If the child cannot understand words, offer your
hand or arm for assistance. If the child does not know you well, touch him or her only on the hands
or forearms, as you might touch another person in a social situation. Reserve hugging and close
physical contact for children who know you well, especially if the child is older than preschool age.
Use words like “blind” or “visually impaired” in normal conversation with the child, but only when
they are important to the topic being discussed. Feel free to use words like “look” and “see,” just as
you would with any other child.
When walking with a child, encourage him or her to hold your arm near or above the elbow and to
use a cane, if he or she has one. A young child might hold your wrist or forefinger. Discourage hand
holding as a means of providing travel assistance; help the child understand that it is a way of
expressing affection and is different from travel assistance.

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Questions
1. What are some considerations for teaching students who have visual impairments?
2. How should teachers collaborate to ensure students with visual impairments can access the
curriculum?
3. Which of the items on this list did you already know? What information is new to you?
4. If you learn that you are to have a student who is blind or visually impaired in your classroom,
where would you go for assistance? What questions might you have?

Source: Spungin (2013).

1074
Summary
Content-area instruction is the focus of upper elementary and secondary teaching. Students
use textbooks to learn content, listen to teachers lecture on subjects, and engage in activities
that help them apply their knowledge. Study skills become increasingly important and are
crucial at the secondary level because students must (a) manage their time efficiently to
study notes from class and the textbook, (b) memorize material, and (c) take tests that
enable them to advance to the next grade level and eventually graduate from high school.
Yet we know that students with special needs demonstrate a variety of difficulties in
learning and studying content that interfere with their ability to access and master content-
area material. For example, reading and understanding textbooks are often major
difficulties for students with reading problems. Acquiring information through lectures and
learning this information well enough to take tests successfully are challenging for many
struggling students. For content-area instruction, we discussed instructional techniques to
facilitate student learning in the areas of content-area vocabulary and concepts, self-
monitoring of reading comprehension, textbook reading, and student participation. For
study skills, techniques were identified for time management, listening and note taking,
and memorization and taking tests.

1075
Review THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Let’s review the learning objectives for this chapter. If you are uncertain and cannot “talk
through” the answers provided for any of these questions, reread those sections of the
chapter.

What difficulties do students demonstrate with content-area instruction?

Some students are slow readers orally and silently, have limited sight vocabularies,
have trouble decoding words with inflectional endings and multisyllabic words,
and/or have difficulty constructing mental images of text descriptions and structures.
They have particular difficulty when they attempt to summarize text, generate and
answer different types and levels of questions, draw inferences, and monitor their
comprehension. They may also struggle to understand derivational, denotative, and
connotative meanings and to apply word meanings across content areas.

How can teachers teach content-area vocabulary and concepts?

When using textbooks, students will benefit from using graphic organizers and
comprehension monitoring strategies. They should learn to decode the meaning of
unfamiliar words through mapping, associations, and context clues. Teachers can
foster student participation with class discussion guides and questioning. Students
can also participate in learning by conducting research, using anchors to promote
understanding, and using technology to create multimedia projects.

How can teachers teach students to monitor their reading comprehension?

Teachers can help students master the steps in comprehension monitoring, which are
(a) activating background knowledge, (b) clarifying the purposes for reading, (c)
identifying the important information, (d) summarizing information, (e) engaging in
self-questioning about the text, (f) using text structure formats to comprehend text,
and (g) correcting problems when comprehension is inadequate.

How can students learn from textbook instruction?

Students can benefit from explicit instruction that helps them recognize and use text
structures and features that aid comprehension, such as introductions, outlines,
objectives, headings, boldface type, graphics, and focus questions. Because textbooks
are the materials used most often by content-area teachers as the basis for their
instruction, selecting textbooks is an important consideration for teachers and
students.

How can teachers promote student participation?

1076
Teachers can include all students in class discussions through questioning strategies
that facilitate discussions and by requiring students to write their responses and share
their ideas within a small group. Teachers should work among small groups checking
for understanding, modeling how to respond to questions, and asking probing
questions to stimulate student thinking.

How can teachers help students with difficulties in study skills?

Teachers can help students to audit their time by having them use electronic
calendars and other useful devices. Students can also be taught how to learn content
by color-coding, enlarging, underlining, highlighting, and rewriting their notes.
Finally, teachers can suggest tips for being more astute test takers.

What are ways to facilitate memorization and test taking?

There are numerous ways to help students improve their memory skills, such as (a)
teaching students how to create mml:mnemonic devices to assist them in memorizing
and recalling content such as lists of information, important people, and steps in a
procedure; (b) discussing how some information can be remembered by creating
mental images—have students provide specific examples of images they create; and
(c) teaching students to “chunk” related information for easier memorization and
recall—this necessitates discussing the concepts of compare and contrast, where
students must attend to specific categorical features to be able to state how things are
similar and how they are different. Strategies such as PIRATES can also be helpful.

Test your understanding of chapter content. Take the practice quiz. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

1077
Revisit the Opening Challenge
Check your answers to the Reflection Questions from the Opening Challenge and revise
them on the basis of what you have learned.

1. What difficulties might students in both teachers’ classes exhibit with regard to
content-area instruction and study skills?
2. How can the teachers effectively work with their students to help them become
efficient learners in content-area instruction and study skills?
3. How can these teachers provide adapted lessons to students who require intensive
intervention, while keeping the rest of the class busy with relevant work?
4. How can study skills assessment be used to identify how students, including
struggling students, become more efficient learners?

1078
Key Terms
anchored instruction, 546
connotative meanings, 528
content-area instruction, 562
denotative meanings, 528
expository text, 528
hierarchical charts, 529
semantic maps, 530
signal words, 542
Venn diagrams, 529
working memory, 555

Review key terms with eFlashcards. edge.sagepub.com/bryant

1079
Professional Standards and Licensure
For a complete description of Professional Standards and Licensure, please see Appendix on
page 569.

1080
CEC Initial Preparation Standards
Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge
Standard 4: Assessment
Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

1081
INTASC Core Principles
Standard 1: Learner Development
Standard 2: Learning Differences
Standard 4: Content Knowledge
Standard 6: Assessment
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction
Standard 8: Instructional Strategies
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

1082
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge
I. Understanding Exceptionalities: Human development and behavior
III. Delivery of Services to Students: Background knowledge

1083
Common Core State Standards

1084
Reading
Literacy
Craft and Structure
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas
Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity

1085
Writing
Text Types and Purposes
Production and Distribution of Writing
Research to Build and Present Knowledge
Range of Writing

Review ➡ Practice ➡ Improve

Get the tools you need to sharpen your study skills. Access practice quizzes, eFlashcards, video, and
multimedia: edge.sagepub.com/bryant

1086
1087
Appendix: Professional Standards and Licensure and
Common Core State Standards

1088
Chapter 1

1089
CEC Standards

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1090
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards.

1091
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Basic concepts in special education, including:

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, as well as the incidence and prevalence of

various types of disabilities
The nature of behaviors, including frequency, duration, intensity, and degrees of
severity
The classification of students with disabilities

II. Legal and Societal Issues

Federal laws and legal issues related to special education, including:

Public Law 94-142

Public Law 105-17
Section 504
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Important legal issues

The school’s connections with the families, prospective and actual employers, and
communities of students with disabilities—for example:
Parent partnerships and roles

Cultural and community influences on public attitudes toward individuals with

disabilities

Historical movements/trends affecting the connections between special education and

the larger society—for example:
Inclusion
Transition
Advocacy
Accountability and meeting educational standards

III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities

Background knowledge, including:

1092
 Conceptual approaches underlying service delivery to students with disabilities
Placement and program issues such as early intervention; least restrictive
environment; inclusion; role of individualized education program (IEP) team; due
process guidelines; and others

Curriculum and instruction and their implementation across the continuum of education
placements, including:

The individualized family service plan (IFSP)/individualized education program

(IEP) process
Career development and transition issues as related to curriculum design and
implementation

1093
Chapter 2

1094
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1095
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards.

1096
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Social and emotional development and behavior.
Language development and behavior.
Cognition.
Physical development, including motor and sensory.

Characteristics of students with disabilities, including the influence of:

Cognitive factors.
Affective and social-adaptive factors, including cultural, linguistic, gender, and
socioeconomic factors.
Genetic, medical, motor, sensory, and chronological age factors.

Basic concepts in special education, including:

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, as well as the incidence and prevalence of

various types of disabilities.
The causation and prevention of disability.
The nature of behaviors, including frequency, duration, intensity, and degrees of
severity.
The classification of students with disabilities.

1097
Chapter 3

1098
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1099
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards.

1100
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Human development and behavior as related to students with disabilities, including:

Social and emotional development and behavior.

Language development and behavior.
Cognition.
Physical development, including motor and sensory.

Characteristics of students with disabilities, including the influence of:

Cognitive factors.
Affective and social-adaptive factors, including cultural, linguistic, gender, and
socioeconomic factors.
Genetic, medical, motor, sensory, and chronological age factors.

Basic concepts in special education, including:

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, as well as the incidence and prevalence of

various types of disabilities.
The causation and prevention of disability.
The nature of behaviors, including frequency, duration, intensity, and degrees of
severity.
The classification of students with disabilities.

1101
Chapter 4

1102
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

1103
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards.

1104
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Human development and behavior as related to students with disabilities, including:

Social and emotional development and behavior.

Language development and behavior.
Cognition.
Physical development, including motor and sensory.

Characteristics of students with disabilities, including the influence of:

Cognitive factors.
Affective and social-adaptive factors, including cultural, linguistic, gender, and
socioeconomic factors.
Genetic, medical, motor, sensory, and chronological age factors.

Basic concepts in special education, including:

Definitions of all major categories and specific disabilities including attention

deficit/hyperactivity disorder, as well as the incidence and prevalence of various types
of disabilities.
The causation and prevention of disability.
The nature of behaviors, including frequency, duration, intensity, and degrees of
severity.
The classification of students with disabilities.

II. Legal and Societal Issues

Federal laws and legal issues related to special education, including:

Section 504.

The school’s connections with the families, prospective and actual employers, and
communities of students with disabilities, for example:

Teacher advocacy for students and families, developing student self-advocacy.

Parent partnerships and roles.

1105
III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities
Background knowledge, including:

Placement and program issues.

Assessment, including:

Use of assessment for screening, diagnosis, placement, and the making of

instructional decisions.

1106
Chapter 5

1107
CEC

Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.0 Beginning special education professionals create safe, inclusive, culturally responsive
learning environments so that individuals with exceptionalities become active and effective
learners and develop emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-
determination.

Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

6.0 Beginning special education professionals use foundational knowledge of the field and
their professional Ethical Principles and Practice Standards to inform special education
practice, to engage in lifelong learning, and to advance the profession.

Standard 7: Collaboration
7.0 Beginning special education professionals collaborate with families, other educators,
related service providers, individuals with exceptionalities, and personnel from community
agencies in culturally responsive ways to address the needs of individuals with
exceptionalities across a range of learning experiences.

1108
INTASC

Standard 3: Learning Environments

The teacher works with others to create environments that support individual and
collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in
learning, and self-motivation.

Standard 7: Planning for Instruction

The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals
by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the
needs of each learner.

Standard 10: Leadership and Collaboration

The teacher seeks appropriate leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for
student learning, to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school
professionals, and community members to ensure learner growth, and to advance the
profession.

1109
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
KnowledgeSpecial

II. Legal and Societal Issues

Federal laws and legal issues related to special education, including:

Public Law 105-17

The school’s connections with the families, prospective and actual employers, and
communities of students with disabilities, for example:

Parent partnerships and roles

Cultural and community influences on public attitudes toward individuals with
disabilities

Historical movements/trends affecting the connections between special education and the
larger society, for example:

Inclusion
Advocacy
Accountability and meeting educational standards

III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities

Background knowledge, including:

Conceptual approaches underlying service delivery to students with disabilities

Placement and program issues such as early intervention; least restrictive
environment; inclusion; role of individualized education program (IEP) team; due
process guidelines; and others

Curriculum and instruction and their implementation across the continuum of education
placements, including:

The individualized family service plan (IFSP)/individualized education program

(IEP) process
Instructional development and implementation
Instructional format and components

Structuring and managing the learning environment, including

1110
Structuring the learning environment Professional roles, including
Specific roles and responsibilities of teachers
Communicating with parents, guardians, and appropriate community collaborators

1111
Chapter 6

1112
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.0 Beginning special education professionals create safe, inclusive, culturally responsive
learning environments so that individuals with exceptionalities become active and effective
learners and develop emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-
determination.

Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0 Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and specialized
curricula to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 4: Assessment
4.0 Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of assessment and data-
sources in making educational decisions.

Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

6.0 Beginning special education professionals use foundational knowledge of the field and
their professional Ethical Principles and Practice Standards to inform special education
practice, to engage in lifelong learning, and to advance the profession.

Standard 7: Collaboration
7.0 Beginning special education professionals collaborate with families, other educators,
related service providers, individuals with exceptionalities, and personnel from community
agencies in culturally responsive ways to address the needs of individuals with
exceptionalities across a range of learning experiences.

1113
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards.

Standard 3: Learning Environments

The teacher works with others to create environments that support individual and
collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in
learning, and self-motivation.

Standard 4: Content Knowledge

The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline
accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

Standard 6: Assessment
The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in
their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s
decision making.

Standard 7: Planning for Instruction

The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals
by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

1114
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the
needs of each learner.

Standard 10: Leadership and Collaboration

The teacher seeks appropriate leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for
student learning, to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school
professionals, and community members to ensure learner growth, and to advance the
profession.

1115
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Basic concepts in special education, including:

The classification of students with disabilities

II. Legal and Societal Issues

Federal laws and legal issues related to special education, including:

Public Law 94-142

Public Law 105-17
Section 504
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Important legal issues

The school’s connections with the families, prospective and actual employers, and
communities of students with disabilities—for example:
Parent partnerships and roles
Cultural and community influences on public attitudes toward individuals with
disabilities
Interagency agreements

Cooperative nature of the transition-planning process

Historical movements/trends affecting the connections between special education and

the larger society—for example:
Inclusion
Transition
Advocacy
Accountability and meeting educational standards

1116
Chapter 7

1117
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.0 Beginning special education professionals create safe, inclusive, culturally responsive
learning environments so that individuals with exceptionalities become active and effective
learners and develop emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-
determination.

Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0 Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and specialized
curricula to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

5.0 Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a repertoire of evidence-
based instructional strategies to advance learning of individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 6: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

6.0 Beginning special education professionals use foundational knowledge of the field and
their professional Ethical Principles and Practice Standards to inform special education
practice, to engage in lifelong learning, and to advance the profession.

Standard 7: Collaboration
7.0 Beginning special education professionals collaborate with families, other educators,
related service providers, individuals with exceptionalities, and personnel from community
agencies in culturally responsive ways to address the needs of individuals with
exceptionalities across a range of learning experiences.

1118
INTASC

Standard 4: Content Knowledge

The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline
accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

Standard 7: Planning for Instruction

The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals
by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

Standard 8: Instructional Strategies

The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners
to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to
apply knowledge in meaningful ways.

1119
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

II. Legal and Societal Issues

Historical movements/trends affecting the connections between special education and the
larger society, for example:

Inclusion
Application of technology
Advocacy
Accountability and meeting educational standards

III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities

Background knowledge, including:
Conceptual approaches underlying service delivery to students with disabilities
Integrating best practices from multidisciplinary research and professional literature
into the educational setting

Curriculum and instruction and their implementation across the continuum of education
placements, including:

Instructional development and implementation

Teaching strategies and methods
Instructional format and components
Technology for teaching and learning in special education settings

Structuring and managing the learning environment, including:

Structuring the learning environment

1120
Chapter 8

1121
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0 Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and specialized
curricula to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 4: Assessment
4.0 Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of assessment and data-
sources in making educational decisions.

1122
INTASC

Standard 1: Content Pedagogy

He or she must understand the central concept and structure of discipline must be created
in such a way that students can learn from it effectively.

Standard 3: Diverse Learners

The teacher must know that the students have different capabilities of learning and based
on that must train them.

Standard 8: Assessment
The teacher assesses the students formally or informally to evaluate the social, intellectual,
and physical development of the students.

1123
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

III. Delivery of Services to Students with Disabilities

Assessment, including:

Use of assessment for screening, diagnosis, placement, and the making of instruction
decisions.
Procedures and test materials, both formal and informal, typically used for pre-
referral, screening, referral, classification, placement, and ongoing program
monitoring.
How to select, construct, conduct, and modify informal assessments.

1124
Chapter 9

1125
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 2: Learning Environments

2.0 Beginning special education professionals create safe, inclusive, culturally responsive
learning environments so that individuals with exceptionalities become active and effective
learners and develop emotional well-being, positive social interactions, and self-
determination.

Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0 Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and specialized
curricula to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

1126
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards

Standard 3: Learning Environments

The teacher works with others to create environments that support individual and
collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in
learning, and self-motivation.

Standard 4: Content Knowledge

The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline
accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

Standard 6: Assessment
The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in
their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s
decision making.

Standard 8: Instructional Strategies

The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners
to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to
apply knowledge in meaningful ways.

Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice

1127
The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the
needs of each learner.

1128
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Human development and behavior as related to students with disabilities, including:

Social and emotional development and behavior.

III. Delivery of Services to Students

Curriculum and instruction and their implementation across the continuum of educational
placements, including:

Instructional development for implementation.

Teaching strategies and methods.
Instructional format and components.

Assessment, including:

How to select, construct, conduct, and modify informal assessments.

Structuring and managing the learning environment, including:

Classroom management techniques.

Ethical considerations inherent in behavior management.

Professional roles, including:

Influence of teacher attitudes, values, and behaviors on the learning of exceptional

students.

Communicating with parents, guardians, and appropriate community collaborators.

1129
Chapter 10

1130
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0 Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and specialized
curricula to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 4: Assessment
4.0 Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of assessment and data-
sources in making educational decisions.

Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

5.0 Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a repertoire of evidence-
based instructional strategies to advance learning of individuals with exceptionalities.

1131
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards.

Standard 4: Content Knowledge

The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline
accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

Standard 6: Assessment
The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in
their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s
decision making.

Standard 7: Planning for Instruction

The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals
by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

Standard 8: Instructional Strategies

The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners
to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to
apply knowledge in meaningful ways.

1132
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the
needs of each learner.

1133
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Characteristics of students with disabilities, including the influence of:

Cognitive factors
Genetic, medical, motor, sensory, and chronological age factors

III. Delivery of Services to Students

Curriculum and instruction and their implementation across the continuum of educational
placements, including:

Instructional development for implementation

Teaching strategies and methods
Instructional format and components

Assessment, including:

How to select, construct, conduct, and modify informal assessments

Structuring and managing the learning environment. Professional roles, including:

Specific roles and responsibilities of teachers

1134
Common Core State Standards

Reading: Key Ideas

Literacy:

CCRA.R.1 Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical
inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support
conclusions drawn from the text.

CCRA.R.2 Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development;
summarize the key supporting details and ideas.

CCRA.R.3 Analyze how and why individuals, events, or ideas develop and interact over
the course of a text.

Craft and Structure:

CCRA.R.4 Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determining
technical, connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices
shape meaning or tone.

CCRA.R.5 Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs,
and larger portions of the text (e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to each other
and the whole.

CCRA.R.6 Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text.

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas:

CCRA.R.7 Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats,
including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words.

CCRA.R.8 Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, including the
validity of the reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence.

CCRA.R.9 Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to
build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take.

Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity:

CCRA.R.10 Read and comprehend complex literary and informational texts

independently and proficiently.

1135
Writing
Text Types and Purposes:

CCRA.W.1 Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts

using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

CCRA.W.2Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and

information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis
of content.

CCRA.W.3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using

effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences.

Production and Distribution of Writing:

CCRA.W.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization,
and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.

CCRA.W.5Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing,

rewriting, or trying a new approach.

CCRA.W.6Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and to
interact and collaborate with others.

Research to Build and Present Knowledge:

CCRA.W.7 Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects based on focused
questions, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.

CCRA.W.8 Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, assess the
credibility and accuracy of each source, and integrate the information while avoiding
plagiarism.

CCRA.W.9 Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis,

reflection, and research.

Range of Writing:

CCRA.W.10 Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and
revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks,
purposes, and audiences.

1136
Chapter 11

1137
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0 Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and specialized
curricula to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 4: Assessment
4.0 Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of assessment and data-
sources in making educational decisions.

Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

5.0 Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a repertoire of evidence-
based instructional strategies to advance learning of individuals with exceptionalities.

1138
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards.

Standard 4: Content Knowledge

The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline
accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

Standard 6: Assessment
The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in
their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s
decision making.

Standard 7: Planning for Instruction

The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals
by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

Standard 8: Instructional Strategies

The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners
to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to
apply knowledge in meaningful ways.

1139
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the
needs of each learner.

1140
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Human development and behavior as related to students with disabilities, including:

Cognition

Characteristics of students with disabilities, including the influence of:

Cognitive factors
Affective and social-adaptive factors, including cultural, linguistic, gender, and
socioeconomic factors

III. Delivery of Services to Students

Background knowledge, including:

Integrating best practices from multidisciplinary research and professional literature

into the educational setting

Curriculum and instruction and their implementation across the continuum of educational
placements, including:

Instructional development and implementation

Teaching strategies and methods
Instructional format and components Assessment, including
How to select, construct, conduct, and modify informal assessments

1141
Common Core State Standards

Mathematical Practices
Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.
Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.
Model with mathematics.
Use appropriate tools strategically.
Attend to precision.
Look for and make use of structure.
Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.

Domains
Counting and Cardinality K.CC
Operations and Algebraic Thinking K, 1,2,3,4,5.OA
Number and Operations in Base Ten K, 1,2,3,4,5.NBT
Number and Operations—Fractions 3,4,5.NF
Ratios and Proportional Relationships 6,7.RP
The Number System 6,7,8.NS
Expressions and Equations 6,7,8.EE
Functions 8,HS.F
Measurement and Data K,1,2,3,4,5.MD
Geometry K,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,HS.G
Statistics and Probability 6,7,8,HS.SP
Number and Quantity HS
Algebra HS
Modeling HS

1142
Chapter 12

1143
CEC

Standard 1: Learner Development and Individual Learning

Differences
1.0 Beginning special education professionals understand how exceptionalities may interact
with development and learning and use this knowledge to provide meaningful and
challenging learning experiences for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 3: Curricular Content Knowledge

3.0 Beginning special education professionals use knowledge of general and specialized
curricula to individualize learning for individuals with exceptionalities.

Standard 4: Assessment
4.0 Beginning special education professionals use multiple methods of assessment and data-
sources in making educational decisions.

Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

5.0 Beginning special education professionals select, adapt, and use a repertoire of evidence-
based instructional strategies to advance learning of individuals with exceptionalities.

1144
INTASC

Standard 1: Learner Development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of
learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic,
social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally
appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and
communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet
high standards.

Standard 4: Content Knowledge

The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline
accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

Standard 8: Instructional Strategies

The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners
to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to
apply knowledge in meaningful ways.

Standard 6: Assessment
The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in
their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s
decision making.

Standard 7: Planning for Instruction

The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals
by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

1145
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others
(learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the
needs of each learner.

1146
Praxis II: Education of Exceptional Students: Core Content
Knowledge

I. Understanding Exceptionalities
Human development and behavior as related to students with disabilities, including:

Language development and behavior.

Cognition.
Physical development.

Characteristics of students with disabilities, including the influence of:

Cognitive factors.
Affective and social-adaptive factors.

III. Delivery of Services to Students

Background knowledge, including:

Integrating best practices from multidisciplinary research and professional literature

into the educational setting.

Curriculum and instruction and their implementation across the continuum of educational
placements, including:

Instructional development and implementation.

Teaching strategies and methods.
Instructional format and components.
Technology for teaching and learning in special education settings.

1147
Common Core State Standards

Reading: Key Ideas

Literacy:

CCRA.R.1 Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical
inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support
conclusions drawn from the text.

CCRA.R.2 Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development;
summarize the key supporting details and ideas.

CCRA.R.3 Analyze how and why individuals, events, or ideas develop and interact over
the course of a text.

Craft and Structure:

CCRA.R.4 Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determining
technical, connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices
shape meaning or tone.

CCRA.R.5 Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs,
and larger portions of the text (e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to each other
and the whole.

CCRA.R.6 Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text.

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas:

CCRA.R.7 Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats,
including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words.

CCRA.R.8 Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, including the
validity of the reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence.

CCRA.R.9 Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to
build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take.

Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity:

CCRA.R.10 Read and comprehend complex literary and informational texts

independently and proficiently.

1148
Writing
Text Types and Purposes:

CCRA.W.1 Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts

using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

CCRA.W.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and
information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis
of content.

CCRA.W.3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using

effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences.

Production and Distribution of Writing:

CCRA.W.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization,
and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.

CCRA.W.5 Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing,

rewriting, or trying a new approach.

CCRA.W.6 Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and to
interact and collaborate with others.

Research to Build and Present Knowledge:

CCRA.W.7 Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects based on focused
questions, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.

CCRA.W.8 Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, assess the
credibility and accuracy of each source, and integrate the information while avoiding
plagiarism.

CCRA.W.9 Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis,

reflection, and research.

Range of Writing:

CCRA.W.10 Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and
revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks,
purposes, and audiences.

1149
Glossary

ability grouping
A form of acceleration wherein students of comparable abilities work together in
courses or activities in which they excel

acceleration
An approach that allows gifted and talented students to move through the curriculum
at faster rates than their peers who learn in more typical ways

access to the general education curriculum

A requirement of IDEA ’04; gives students with disabilities the right to receive
evidence-based instruction in the general education curriculum, to the greatest extent
possible

accommodations
Supports to compensate for disabilities; adjustments to assignments or tests

acquisition stage of learning

Stage of learning in which learners may not know how to perform a skill, and the aim
is for the individual to learn how to perform it

acronym
A memory aid that consists of a word made from the first letters of the words that
convey the information to be learned

acrostic
A memory aid that consists of a sentence wherein the first letters of the words stand
for both the items to be recalled and their proper order

active listening
A method of listening that involves ways to listen and respond to communication
partners more effectively

active process assessment

Flexible interviewing where the student discusses aloud what is being thought during
computation

ADAPT framework
Steps used to differentiate instruction; provides questions to assist teachers in making
instructional and evaluation decisions for individual students

1150
adequate yearly progress
The progress of students toward their end-of-year goals, as tracked by the use of
assessment data

advance organizer
Activities to prepare students for the lesson’s content

advanced placement courses

Classes that provide more in-depth course content and college credit

affixes
Prefixes and suffixes

age equivalents
Derived developmental scores reported in years and months

alternative portfolios
Schoolwork that becomes part of the documentation about some students’ progress
at school; usually replaces high-stakes tests for students with disabilities

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Antidiscrimination legislation guaranteeing basic civil rights to people with
disabilities

analytical evaluation scale

Scoring that is broken down to consider specific elements; contrast with use of a
holistic evaluation scale, wherein student work is considered as a whole

anchored instruction
An instructional technique that begins with an event or problem situation (a video or
movie can be the anchor). The video is used to provide background information
about the event or problem situation and to create a context that contributes to a
shared experience among students to facilitate learning

anorexia
Intense fear of gaining weight, disturbed body image, and chronic absence or refusal
of appetite for food, causing severe weight loss (25% of body weight)

application stage of learning

Stage of learning in which the aim is for students to use learning and extend it to new
situations

array of services
Constellation of special education services, personnel, and educational placements

1151
articulation problems
Abnormal production of speech sounds

Asperger’s syndrome
One of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) wherein cognition is usually in the
average or above-average range

assistive technologist
A related services provider who assists with the selection, acquisition, or use of
assistive technology

assistive technology (AT)

Equipment (devices) or services that help compensate for an individual’s disabilities

Assistive Technology Act of 2004 (ATA)

Law that facilitates increased accessibility through technology

assistive technology device

A unit such as an item, piece of equipment, or product system that helps compensate
for an individual’s disabilities

assistive technology services

A service that assists an individual with a disability regarding AT devices

association-processing level
The vocabulary acquisition level wherein words are thought of in terms of synonyms,
definitions, or contexts

asthma
The most common chronic health condition among children, resulting in difficulty
breathing

astigmatism
A refractive error, that is, a problem with how the eye focuses light

at risk
Students who have experiences, living conditions, or characteristics that have been
shown to contribute to school failure

attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A condition characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention; included in
the “other health impairments” category in DSM-IV-TR

audience
In writing, the person(s) who will read the paper

1152
audience sense
In writing, the process for determining the probable reader

audiologist
A related services provider who diagnoses hearing losses and auditory problems

augmentative and alternative communication devices (aug com)

Methods for communicating, such as communication boards, communication books,
sign language, and computerized voices; assistive technology that helps individuals
communicate, including devices that actually produce speech

authentic assessments
Performance measures that use work generated by the student

authentic text
Nonfiction and fictional literature

autism
One of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD); ranges from low functioning to high
functioning

autistic savant
An individual who displays many behaviors associated with autism but also possesses
discrete abilities and unusual talents

automaticity
Practicing skills until they require less cognitive processing

basal textbook
The textbook that is used by the classroom teacher to teach subject-area content

basals
Textbooks adopted by school districts to serve as a primary source for subject-area
content

base-ten
Decimal numeral system that has 10 as its base

base word
See root word

behavior intervention plan

Includes a functional assessment and procedures to prevent behavioral infractions and
to intervene if they occur

1153
behavioral strategies
Include techniques to increase or decrease targeted behaviors

benchmark
In assessment, a predetermined standard for success or failure

bilingual education
Instruction that is provided in two languages

Braille
A system of reading and writing that uses dot codes embossed on paper; tactile
reading. In 1824, Louis Braille created a precursor to the method used today

brainstorm
To think of several ideas related to a topic, write notes as one thinks, and use the
notes to generate further ideas

bulimia
Chronically causing oneself to vomit or otherwise remove food to limit weight gain

checking for understanding

During a lesson, periodically determining whether students are learning the content

child find
A requirement of IDEA ’04 that educators help refer and identify children and youth
with disabilities

childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD)

One of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) wherein the individual has typical
development until about the age of 5 or 6

chromosomal abnormality
A gene disorder

chunking
Organizing information by groups or topics

classroom management
Purposeful planning, delivery, and evaluation of techniques and procedures that
ensure a classroom environment conducive to teaching and learning

clinical interview
A procedure to examine a student’s knowledge of and thinking about how to solve
problems

1154
clinical teaching cycle
Sequenced instruction, reteaching if necessary, and informal assessment procedures,
including assessment of academic and conversational language proficiency

closed-circuit television (CCTV)

An assistive visual input technology that uses a television to increase the size of
objects or print

coexisting disability
The situation of having more than one disability; comorbidity

cognitive development
Understanding and using declarative, procedural, and conceptual knowledge

cognitive disabilities or mental retardation

A disability characterized by impaired intellectual functioning, limited adaptive
behavior, need for supports, and initial occurrence before age 18; intellectual
disabilities

collaboration
Professionals working in partnerships to provide educational services

collaborative consultation
A partnership between the general education and special education teachers, tapping
the expertise of both to provide appropriate services to students with disabilities

community-based instruction (CBI)

Teaching functional skills in real-life situations or in environments where they occur

comprehension-processing level
The vocabulary acquisition level wherein knowledge of word associations can be used
to place words in categories, create sentences, and generate multiple word meanings

computational fluency
Knowing and using efficient methods for accurate computing

concepts
A general idea or understanding; a crucial word or a few words that are critical for
understanding the content

conceptual knowledge
Understanding ideas and relationships

conflict
A disagreement of interests or ideas

1155
congenital
Present at birth or originating during early infancy

connotative meaning
An associated meaning added to the primary meaning

construct validity
A form of technical adequacy in assessment that reflects whether tests provide results
that are associated with the construct being measured

content-area instruction
Teaching students subject knowledge in areas such as social studies, science, and
literature

content validity
A form of technical adequacy in assessment that reflects whether tests contain items
that come from a legitimate source and meet basic statistical criteria

contingent observation
A behavior management approach in which a disruptive student is removed from an
activity but is still able to observe the activity

continuum of services
Pattern in which each level of special education services is more restrictive than the
one before, and services come in a lock-step sequence

convention skills
In writing, the skills associated with spelling, punctuation, and capitalization;
mechanics

convergent, lower order questions

Questions that usually have one answer and start with who, what, where, or when

cooperative learning
A grouping practice in which small, mixed-ability groups work collaboratively to
complete activities

core curriculum
Content that is taught to all students in the general education classroom

coteaching
Team teaching by general education and special education teachers

criterion-referenced interpretations
Interpretations of assessment measures for purposes of comparing performance to

1156
 standards that signal mastery of the content being tested

criterion-related validity
A form of technical adequacy in assessment that has to do with whether tests produce
results similar to established tests, either presently (concurrent criterion-related
validity) or in the future (predictive criterion-related validity)

criterion-specific rewards
A reward system in which students earn privileges only when they reach desirable
levels of the target behavior

critical thinking
Reasoning to learn new concepts, ideas, or problem solutions

cues
Visual or verbal prompts provided to increase the likelihood of correct student
responses

cultural characteristics
Beliefs, norms, and customs that differ within and between groups

culture
Way of perceiving the world and of interacting within it

curriculum-based measurement (CBM)

A direct measurement system used to monitor students’ progress mastering basic
academic skills

data-based decision making

Used to identify students who require additional instruction and to determine
whether intensive intervention supports are effective

declarative knowledge
Understanding of factual information

decodable text
Text that contains words made up of the sounds and patterns that students have
mastered

decoding
Identifying unknown words by using knowledge of letter-sound correspondences

deductive reasoning
Reasoning from the general to the specific and problem solving

1157
denotative meaning
Literal, dictionary meaning

derived scores
Normative scores (such as age equivalents, grade equivalents, ratio IQs, percentiles,
and standard scores) into which raw scores are converted

developmental disabilities
Severe disabilities that often combine intellectual and physical problems; often used
interchangeably with multiple-severe disabilities

deviations from print

In oral reading, words that are not identified correctly

diagnostic teaching
Giving problems and asking students questions to determine their thinking

differentiated curriculum
For gifted and talented students, different learning experiences beyond those
provided to typical learners through the general education curriculum

differentiated instruction
Provision of an individualized array of instructional interventions

differentiating instruction
Instruction that is responsive to the diverse needs of all students with a focus on
curriculum, instructional adaptations, services, and instruction intensity

direct instruction
Teacher-directed instruction that focuses on using explicit, systematic procedures
such as modeling, practice opportunities, pacing, error correction, and progress
monitoring

disabilities
Results of impairments or medical conditions

discrepancy formulas
Calculations used to determine the gap between a student’s achievement and her or
his potential; used to identify students with learning disabilities

discrimination
The ability to distinguish one item (such as a letter, number, letter sound, math sign,
state, or piece of lab equipment) from another

distributive practice

1158
 Practice opportunities presented over time on skills that have been taught

divergent, higher order questions

Questions that require students to make inferences, to analyze or synthesize
information, and to evaluate content

drafting
In writing, the stage in which the author attempts to put words on paper using the
planning and organization information developed during prewriting

due process hearing

Noncourt proceeding before an impartial hearing officer, used when parents and
school personnel disagree on a special education issue

duration recording
An observational system to measure how long a discrete target behavior occurs

dyscalculia
A disorder in learning mathematics skills and concepts

dysgraphia
A disorder in writing that involves problems with handwriting, spelling, and
composition

dyslexia
A language-based reading disability

e-books
Electronic versions of textbooks allowing for the application of universal design for
learning

ecological assessment
An assessment approach that explores the student’s relationship to his or her
environment, rather than simply focusing on student strengths and deficits

editing
In writing, the stage in which writers focus on the mechanical aspects of spelling,
capitalization, and punctuation

Education for All Handicapped Children Act

See Public Law (PL) 94-142

efficacy
The power to produce an effect

1159
engaged time
The amount of time that students are involved in learning

English language learners (ELLs) or English learners (ELs)

Students who are learning English as their second (or third) language

enrichment
Addition, to the traditional curriculum, of further topics and skills for the instruction
of gifted and talented students

epilepsy or seizure disorders

A tendency to experience recurrent seizures resulting in convulsions; caused by
abnormal discharges of neurons in the brain

error correction
The teacher’s provision of immediate feedback to correct error responses

event recording
An observational system to measure each occurrence of a discrete behavior (that is, a
behavior with an observable beginning and end, such as hand raising)

evidence-based practices
Instruction proved effective through rigorous research; also known as validated
practices

executive functioning
Ability to self-monitor by using working memory, inner speech, attention, and
rehearsal

exempt
In high-stakes testing, a student who does not have to participate in testing

expanded notation
Shows place value representations of numerals

explicit, systematic instruction

Teachers model the task and provide extensive feedback as students work through
multiple opportunities to practice and respond

externalizing behaviors
Behaviors directed toward others (such as aggressive behaviors)

factual knowledge
Information that is based on facts and is memorized, retained, and recalled as part of
learning

1160
family systems approach
An approach in which families’ needs and support are defined according to resources,
interactions, functions, and the life cycle

fidelity
Following the protocol or lesson steps as developed for the instructional practice;
ensuring the research measures are valid and reliable

flexible grouping practices

Same-ability groups and mixed-ability groups for instructional purposes

form
In writing, the type of written product (such as a letter, story, essay, shopping list, or
poem)

free appropriate public education (FAPE)

Ensures that students with disabilities receive necessary education and services
without cost to the family

frustration reading level

The level at which the student has less than 90% word recognition and less than 90%
comprehension

full inclusion or pull-in programming

Special education or related services delivered exclusively in the general education
classroom

function words
Words such as on, in, and from that are relatively easy for most students to learn
because their presence helps students make sense of sentences and because they
account for about half of the words seen in text

functional behavioral assessment (FBA)

Behavioral evaluations, interviews, observations, and environmental manipulations
conducted to determine the exact nature of problem behaviors

functional capability
Student strengths related to specific tasks

functional dissonance
Conflict between what a student is being asked to do and what the student can do

functional skills
Skills used to manage a home, cook, shop, commute, and organize personal living

1161
 environments with the goal of independent living; also known as life skills

general vocabulary
Words that are used on a regular basis during conversation

generalization stage of learning

Stage of learning in which the aim is for mastered skills to be employed across all
appropriate situations

generation-processing level
Vocabulary acquisition level wherein words can be used for discussion purposes or in
activities

gifted and talented

Students who are identified at the preschool, elementary, or secondary level as
possessing demonstrated or potential abilities that give evidence of high performance
capability

grade equivalent
Derived developmental score reported in years and tenths of years

grade skipping
Process in which students advance to a grade ahead of their classmates of the same
age

graphic organizers
Visual aids to help students organize, understand, see relationships, and remember
important information

group homes
Community-based living arrangements in which a small number of adults with
disabilities live together and receive supports they need for independence

guided practice
A teacher’s providing students with multiple opportunities to respond and practice

hand over hand

Sign language for individuals with deaf-blindness wherein signs are conveyed through
touch

handicap
A challenge or barrier imposed by others, or by society, because of a condition or
disability

heterogeneity

1162
 A great variety, such as a wide range of strengths and abilities in a group

hierarchical charts
Charts on which broader concepts are listed first and then connected to smaller,
supporting concepts

high-frequency words
The most commonly occurring words in text

high-incidence disabilities
Special education categories with the most students

high-stakes assessments
State and district-wide assessments to ensure that all students are making satisfactory
progress

holistic evaluation scale

Evaluation scale in which a single, overall rating is assigned to achievement in
learning the curriculum; contrast with the use of an analytical evaluation scale

home-bound instruction
Special education services delivered to the student’s home, usually as a consequence
of the student’s fragile health

honors sections
An example of ability grouping

hyperactivity
Impaired ability to sit or concentrate for long periods of time

I-message
A communication technique that involves stating the behavior of concern, the effect
of the behavior on the person sending the I-message, and the feelings that the person
sending the I-message has as a result

impulsivity
Impaired ability to control one’s own behavior

inattention
Inability to pay attention or focus

inclusive education
Educational setting in which students with disabilities have access to the general
education curriculum, participate in school activities alongside students without
disabilities, and attend their neighborhood school

1163
independent practice
Practice that does not require direct teacher supervision or guidance; may occur in
the classroom or as homework

independent reading level

The reading level at which the student has at least 95% word recognition and at least
95% comprehension

independent study
Study of curriculum topics in greater depth or exploration of a topic that is not part
of the general education curriculum

individualized education program (IEP)

Management tool to identify needed services and to specify and organize them in
detail; developed through collaboration among general and special educators,
administrators, medical professionals, related services providers, the student’s family,
and (if appropriate) the student who will receive special education services

individualized family service plan (IFSP)

Management tool to identify and organize services and resources for infants and
toddlers (birth to age 3) and their families

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

The special education law that protects the rights of students with disabilities to a free
appropriate public education; originated with PL 94-142 in 1975

inferential thinking skills

Reasoning skills

informal reading inventories (IRI)

Unique reading tests that consist of graded word lists and graded passages and for
which test scores are reported in terms of grade equivalents

information processing
The flow of information that leads to understanding, knowledge, and the ability to
act on information

input adaptations
How students access test stimuli and questions

inquiry-based approach
An approach to teaching mathematics wherein students interact with their teachers
and peers to develop multiple solution strategies for problems

1164
in-school supervision
Removing a student from one or more classes and requiring him or her to spend the
time in a designated school area

instructional activity
A lesson that teaches and reinforces skills and concepts; one of four instructional
adaptations included in the ADAPT framework described in this book

instructional content
The skills and concepts that are taught; one of four instructional adaptations
included in the ADAPT framework described in this book

instructional delivery
How an activity is taught, including grouping, instructional steps, presentation, and
practice; one of four instructional adaptations included in the ADAPT framework
described in this book

instructional materials
Instructional aids such as textbooks, kits, hardware, software, and manipulatives; one
of four instructional adaptations included in the ADAPT framework described in this
book

instructional reading level

The reading level at which the reader has either 90% to 94% word recognition and
90% to 100% comprehension or 95% word recognition and 90% to 94%
comprehension

intellectual and developmental disabilities

Significant subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with
deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Score on a standardized test that is supposed to reflect learning ability

intensity of supports
The level of assistance needed for individuals to function as independently as
possible; often described as intermittent, limited, extensive, or pervasive

interactional behaviors
Ways in which people interact with one another across cultures

interdependent group contingency

Arrangement in which individuals earn reinforcement when they achieve a goal

1165
 established for the group

interim alternative educational setting (IAES)

A special education placement to ensure progress toward IEP goals, assigned when a
serious behavioral infraction necessitates removal from current placement

internalizing behaviors
Behaviors directed inward (e.g., withdrawn, anxious, depressed)

internships
A form of enrichment instruction

interval recording
A system designed to measure the number of intervals of time in which continuous,
highly frequent behavior occurs during the observation period

intraindividual differences
In assessment, the strengths and weaknesses a person exhibits across test scores

irregular words
Words in which some or all of the letters do not make their common sounds

itinerants
Professionals who work in different locations

keyword method
A mml:mnemonic device that involves linking information, such as a word, with
response information, such as the word’s definition. The information is reconstructed
either pictorially or verbally

language delays
Slowed development of language skills; may or may not result in language
impairments

language different
Students who are just beginning to learn a second language or are using nonstandard
English

language impairment
Difficulty in mastering, or inability to master, the various systems of rules in
language, which then interferes with communication

least restrictive environment (LRE)

Educational placement of students with disabilities that provides as much inclusion
in the core curriculum, and as much integration with typical learners, as possible and

1166
 appropriate

legibility
The extent to which what is written can be deciphered or understood

letter combinations
Two or more consecutive letters that represent a single sound (/sh/) or multiple
sounds (/bl/) in words

letter-sound correspondence
Association of a common sound with specific letters or letter combinations in a word

level of concern
Amount of student interest in the instruction

long-term memory
The permanent storage of information

loudness
An aspect of voice, consisting of the intensity of the sound produced while speaking

low-incidence disabilities
Special education categories with relatively few students

macroculture
The overarching cultural factors exhibited by the society at large

mainstreaming
A term formerly used to signify including students with disabilities in school activities
alongside students who do not have disabilities

maintenance stage of learning

The stage of learning in which the aim is for the mastered skills to remain at the same
level of performance as during the proficiency stage

manifestation determination
Determination of whether a student’s disciplinary problems are due to her or his
disability

massed practice
Extra practice of a skill to ensure mastery

medically fragile
A term used to describe the status of individuals with health disabilities

1167
mental retardation
See intellectual and developmental disabilities

mentorships
Arrangement in which students with special interests pair with adults who have
expertise in those areas

microculture
A group, within the larger society, whose members share similar language, belief
systems, and values

mixed-ability grouping structure

Arrangement of students into groups whose members are performing at various levels
on the skills targeted for instruction

modeling
A demonstration of how to perform the steps involved in solving a problem

modifications
Adjustments to assignments or tests that reduce the requirements

morpheme
The smallest unit of language that conveys meaning

multicultural education
Instruction that provides students with ways to see themselves reflected in the
curriculum, as well as to learn about others

multidisciplinary teams
Groups of professionals with different areas of expertise, assembled to meet the
special needs of individual students

multiple means of action and expression

Encouraging students to respond in different ways, in accordance with their strengths

multiple means of engagement

Involving students in activities by using a variety of modes of representation and
expression to address their interests

multiple means of representation

Presenting information in various formats to reduce or avoid sensory and cognitive
barriers to learning

multisyllable word recognition

Recognition of words that have two or more syllables

1168
multitiered instructional support
Tiered levels of increasingly intensive intervention at the primary, secondary, and
tertiary levels

National Instructional Materials Standard (NIMAS)

A standard in the IDEA ’04 regulations requiring states to provide instructional
materials in accessible formats to students with disabilities (e.g., electronic versions of
textbooks)

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act mandating higher
standards for both students and teachers, including an accountability system

norm-referenced interpretations
Interpretations of assessment measures for purposes of examining performance

normal curve
Theoretical construct of the typical distribution of human traits such as intelligence;
also known as a bell-shaped curve

normative sample
The people who are given a test and whose scores provide a basis with which later test
takers’ scores are compared

number sense
Good intuition about numbers and the relationships among them

observation
In assessment, watching students do something, thinking about what they are doing,
determining why they are doing it, and identifying what the behavior means to the
students and those around them

occupational therapist (OT)

A related services provider who directs activities that improve muscular control and
develop self-help skills

on-task behavior
Behavior focused on the task at hand

orientation and mobility specialist

A related services provider who teaches individuals who are blind or have low vision
techniques to move safely and independently at school and in the community

orthopedic impairments

1169
 The term used in IDEA ’04 for physical disabilities or physical impairments

other health impairments

In DSM-IV-TR, a category that consists of health conditions that create special needs
and disabilities but are not described specifically in any other category; also known as
special heath care needs

outcome assessments
Measurements that allow teachers and others to check the results of instruction

overlearn
To continue to practice beyond the point of mastery

overrepresentation
The assignment, to a special education category, of more students from a diverse
group than would be expected on the basis of the proportion of that diverse group in
the overall population of students

pacing
Providing instruction at an appropriate rate to keep students engaged in learning and
to promote understanding

paraeducators
See paraprofessionals

paraprofessionals
Teacher assistants who work in a supportive role under the supervision of licensed
professionals

partial products
Partitioning quantities to help students focus on place value

pedagogy
Instructional practices, teaching

peer conferencing
Students discussing each other’s written products; considered an effective feedback
and editing activity in the writing process

peer or expert consultation

Teachers observing their peers providing interventions to learners, such as English
language learners, who need supplemental instruction

peer tutoring
A grouping practice wherein pairs of students work on their skills, usually for extra

1170
 practice

percentiles
Scores reported on norm-referenced tests that indicate the percentage of scores
(determined from a normative sample) that fall below a person’s raw score; percentile
rank

perinatal
During birth

peripheral vision
The outer area of a person’s visual field

pervasive developmental disorder—not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS)

One of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD); the category used when not all three
ASD characteristics (problems with communication, social interaction, and repetitive
or manneristic behaviors) are present or when they are mild

phonograms
Parts of a word to which consonants or blends are added to make a word (examples
include an, ip, and un); also known as rimes

phonological awareness (PA)

One’s sensitivity to, or explicit awareness of, the phonological structure of words in
one’s language

physical features of the text

Headings, tables, bold-faced terms, chapter organizers and summaries, and the like

physical therapist (PT)

A related services provider who treats physical disabilities through many nonmedical
means and works to improve motor skills

pitch
An aspect of voice; its perceived high or low sound quality

planned ignoring
Deliberate, systematic withdrawal of attention by the individual from whom
attention is sought

postnatal
After birth

prenatal
Before birth

1171
prereferral process
Steps taken before the actual referral of a child to special education

prevalence
Total number of cases at a given time

prewriting
The writing stage that involves activities, such as planning and organizing, that are
conducted by the writer prior to writing

prior knowledge
What a student already knows about a topic

procedural knowledge
Understanding of rules and procedures

process assessment
Procedures used to determine the manner in which students derive a particular
answer when solving a problem

proficiency stage of learning

The stage of learning in which the aim is for the learner to perform the skill
accurately and quickly

project-based learning
A learning approach wherein students investigate relevant problems and discuss their
work with other students

prompts
See cues

Public Law (PL) 94-142

Originally passed in 1975 to guarantee a free appropriate public education to all
students with disabilities; also known as the Education for All Handicapped Children
Act (EHA)

publishing
In writing, the stage in which the author’s work is complete and is publicly shared in
some format

pullout programs
Part-time special services provided outside of the general education classroom, such as
in a resource room

purpose

1172
 In writing, the reason for writing (e.g., to convey a message, to make a request, or to
express feelings)

reading comprehension
The ability to understand what is read

reading fluency
The ability to read text accurately, quickly, and (if reading aloud) with expression

reading vocabulary
Word comprehension

recreational therapist
A related services provider who assesses leisure function and provides therapeutic
recreation and leisure education

recursive
In writing, the act of moving back and forth between stages as one writes and
polishes one’s work

reinforcement
The application of an event that increases the likelihood that the behavior it follows
will occur again. Thus reinforcement is functionally related to an increase in
frequency of that behavior

related services
Special education services from a wide range of disciplines and professions

reliability
In assessment, the consistency of measurement results

resistant to treatment
A defining characteristic of learning disabilities. Validated methods typically applied
in general education settings are not adequate to bring about sufficient learning; the
student requires more intensive and sustained explicit instruction

response to intervention (RTI)

A multitiered prereferral method of applying increasingly intensive interventions; can
be used to identify students with learning disabilities and provide intensive
instruction to struggling students

Rett syndrome
One of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) that has a known genetic cause and
occurs only in girls

1173
revising
In writing, the stage in which authors make changes to the sequencing and structure
of the written work to refine the content

rewards
Representations of targeted improvement, including tangible items, privileges, free
time, or honors

rimes
See phonograms

root word
The primary lexical unit of a word; also known as the base word

rules
Procedures that must be followed

same-ability grouping structure

Groups in which all students are performing at a similar level

school counselor
A related services provider who provides psychological and guidance services

school nurse
A related services provider who assists with medical services at school, delivers health
services, and designs accommodations for students with special health care needs

scientifically based
(or evidence-based) instruction Instructional practices employed in schools that are
based on findings from research studies that involved systematic, rigorous procedures
using experimental or quasiexperimental research designs

screening
The use of assessment data to identify quickly and efficiently who is struggling in a
particular area

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

First law to outline the basic civil rights of people with disabilities

self-advocacy
Capacity to understand, ask for, and explain one’s need for accommodations;
expressing one’s rights and needs

self-determination
Ability to identify and achieve goals for oneself

1174
semantic maps
Visual display of a map or web of related words, vocabulary, or concepts

semantically related groups

Groups of words with meaningful relationships

service manager
A case coordinator who oversees the implementation and evaluation of IFSPs

short-term memory
The temporary store of information that is tapped for immediate use

sickle-cell anemia
A hereditary blood disorder that inhibits blood flow; African Americans are most at
risk for this health impairment

sight word recognition

The ability to read a word automatically when encountering it in text or in a list of
words

signal words
Words that indicate the use of a text structure (for example, first, second, and third for
sequence and on the other hand for contrast)

signals
Visual, auditory, and verbal cues that teachers use to gain student attention

silent reading fluency

The number of words read at a certain comprehension level at a certain reading level

sociogram
A depiction of peer relationships in graphic form

special education
Individualized education and services for students with disabilities and sometimes for
students who are gifted and talented

special education categories

System used in IDEA ’04 to classify disabilities among students

specialized vocabulary
Words that have multiple meanings depending on the context

specific praise
Complimenting or verbally rewarding others for their accomplishments

1175
speech impairment
A disability characterized by abnormal speech that is unintelligible, is unpleasant, or
interferes with communication

speech/language pathologist (SLP)

A related services provider who diagnoses and treats speech or language impairments

sponge
Activities that students can complete independently and are intended to “soak up”
time

statement of transition services

A component of IEPs for students age 16 or older to help them move to adulthood

stay put provision

Prohibits students with disabilities from being expelled because of behavior associated
with their disabilities

strategy instruction
The use of cognitive strategies to facilitate the learning process

structural analysis
Using knowledge of word structure to decode unknown words

student-centered learning
Learning in which students are actively engaged in hands-on tasks, discussions, and
decision making

stuttering
The lack of fluency in an individual’s speech pattern, often characterized by
hesitations or repetitions of sounds or words; dysfluency; a speech impairment

survey batteries
Compilations of tests that assess different areas and provide an overview of
achievement

survey tests
Tests that survey, or assess, numerous areas

systems of supports
Networks of supports that everyone develops to function optimally in life

target behavior
A specific behavior, either positive or inappropriate, that the teacher focuses on to
increase or decrease that behavior

1176
teacher assistance team process
A collaborative approach in which the team discusses a student’s problem, identifies
possible interventions, and assists the teacher as needed in implementing strategies

teacher-directed instruction
At the secondary level, teachers providing lectures on textbook content and students
reading their textbooks to identify important facts and concepts in preparation for
weekly tests

teacher presence
The use of assertive behaviors, teacher proximity, and nonverbal communication to
manage student behavior and promote a positive classroom environment in which
effective instruction can occur

teacher proximity
The teacher positioning himself or herself close to a student to prevent or eliminate
problem behavior

technical vocabulary
Words that are used in a particular content area

think aloud
The teacher saying out loud the steps he or she is taking while solving a problem

time sampling
Recording the number of intervals in which a target behavior occurs during the
period of observation

timeout-seclusion
For severe, out-of-control behavior, placement of the pupil in an isolated room

tone
In writing, the “voice” of a written product, which can be lighthearted, serious,
optimistic, pessimistic, and so forth

traffic patterns
Paths that students frequently follow as they move about the classroom

transition
The interval of time occurring prior to, during, or after instruction within the
classroom and between locations within the school

typical learners
Students and individuals without disabilities

1177
unexpected underachievement
A defining characteristic of learning disabilities; poor school performance cannot be
explained by other disabilities or limited potential

universal design
Barrier-free architectural and building designs that meet the needs of everyone,
including people with physical challenges; materials and instructions designed in a
way to allow access for all students, including those with sensory, motor, and
cognitive disabilities

universal design for learning (UDL)

Design that increases access to the curriculum and instruction for all students

universal screening
Testing of everyone, particularly newborns, to determine the existence or risk of
disability

validated practices
Thoroughly researched or evidence-based practices; scientifically validated instruction

validity
The extent to which an assessment device measures what it is supposed to measure

Venn diagrams
Intersecting shapes that show how concepts are similar and how they are different

vocational rehabilitation counselor

A professional who provides training, career counseling, and job placement services

with-it-ness
A teacher’s awareness of what is going on in his or her classroom at all times

word family
A base word and its derivatives

words correct per minute

A measure of reading fluency, the number of words a student reads accurately in one
minute

working memory
The simultaneous processing and storing of information

1178
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CHAPTER 10. TEACHING LITERACY

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Bryant, B. R., Bryant, D. P., Hammill, D. D., & Sorrells, A. M. (2004). Characteristic
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Bryant, B. R., Wiederholt, J. L., & Bryant, D. P. (2012). Gray Diagnostic Reading Test
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CHAPTER 11. TEACHING MATHEMATICS

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Index

ABC log. See Antecedent Behavior Consequence (ABC) log

Ability grouping, 168, 287–288
Accelerated instruction, 168–169
ACCEPTS program curriculum, 407
Access to general education curriculum, 21, 31, 34, 49, 185–186, 257–258
active-participation activities, 282, 283 (figure)
ADAPT framework and, 264–267
adaptations for instructional material and, 295, 296 (table)
advance organizer activities and, 279–280, 285, 286 (table)
assistive technology devices/services for, 295–307
chunking of information and, 282
closure activities and, 284, 285, 286 (table)
clustering technique and, 272
cooperative learning and, 289–293, 290–291 (table)
critical thinking and, 273–275, 274 (table), 277 (table)
definition of, 258
delivering instruction, techniques for, 279–286
differentiated instruction, continuum of, 258, 259 (figure)
direct instruction and, 278–279
discussion/engagement, promotion of, 281, 282
elaboration technique and, 272
error-correction procedure and, 267, 282, 287
flexible small groups and, 287
grouping practices and, 286, 293
guided practice and, 267, 282, 286 (table)
independent practice and, 283–284, 286 (table)
information, presentation of, 281–282, 285, 286 (table)
instructional components and, 278–279
instructional techniques and, 272–273, 277–278 (tables)
keyword method and, 272
knowledge, types of, 270–272, 277 (table)
learning stages and, 275–277, 278 (table), 280
level of student concern and, 281
mixed-ability groups and, 288
mml:mnemonic devices and, 272–273
modeling and, 267, 281, 287
on-task behavior and, 281, 282
one-to-one groupings and, 288

1251
 paced instruction and, 267, 287
peer tutoring and, 288–289
planning for instruction and, 267–279
practice opportunities and, 282, 285, 286 (table)
progress monitoring and, 284, 285, 286 (table)
question strategy and, 281, 283, 284 (table), 286 (table)
reflective questions and, 285, 286 (table)
response-dependent questioning strategy and, 283, 284 (table)
same-ability grouping and, 287–288
strategy instruction and, 279
textbooks/instructional materials, guidelines for, 293–295
universal design for learning and, 258–263, 305–306
whole group instruction and, 287
See also Inclusive education; Instructional practices; Special education services
Accessibility:
assessments, modification of, 348–359
phased-in accessibility requirement and, 18 (table)
promotion of, 107–108
See also Access to general education curriculum; Accommodations; Assistive
technology devices
Accommodations, 44
Americans With Disabilities Act provisions and, 20
assessments and, 18 (table), 246
asthma and, 94, 95
implementation, teacher responsibility for, 23 (table)
medically fragile individuals and, 91
public building accessibility and, 19
Section 504 provisions and, 19
See also Adaptations for assessments; Assistive technology (AT); Assistive
technology devices
Achievement gap, 22, 153–154, 156
Acquisition stage of learning, 275, 278 (table)
Acronyms, 7, 181, 273, 562
Acrostics, 273
Active listening, 179–180
Active-participation activities, 282, 283 (figure)
Active process assessment, 265
ADAPT (Ask/Determine/Analyze/Propose/Test) framework, 5, 7, 7 (table),
217–218, 264
access to general education curriculum and, 264–267
adaptations, proposal/implementation of, 265–266
arithmetic combinations and, 485–487

1252
 assessments, adapting test input and, 357–358
assistive technology and, 303–304
content-area instruction, evidence-based strategies and, 531–534
core curriculum, setting specific demands and, 264–265
coteaching strategies in action and, 191–193
descriptive observations, Antecedent Behavior Consequence log and, 388–391,
389 (figure)
differentiated instruction and, 218–219
group presentations, creation of, 551–553
instructional activity adaptations and, 265, 266
instructional content adaptations and, 265, 266
instructional delivery adaptations and, 265, 266–267
instructional materials adaptations and, 265, 266, 267
KWLS chart, construction of, 539–541
oral reading fluency and, 454–455
positive reinforcement systems and, 396–397
prerequisite skills, determination of, 265
progress monitoring and, 256
reading difficulties and, 268–269
response to intervention and, 218–220
steps in, 264–267
student strengths/struggles, analysis of, 265
word problem solving instruction and, 516–517
See also Inclusive education; Instructional practices; Professional collaboration
Adaptations for assessments, 348
academic qualifications and, 353
ADAPT framework and, 357–358
adaptation issues and, 354–356
alternative assessments and, 357–359
assessment issues and, 353–354
categories of, 350–357
curricular content adaptations and, 353
English language learners and, 356
high-stakes testing and, 353–356
input adaptations and, 351, 357–358
location adaptations and, 352–353
output adaptations and, 351–352
parental involvement/support and, 349–350
time/schedule adaptations and, 352
universal design for assessment and, 348–349
See also Accommodations; Assessments
Adaptations for instructional materials, 295, 296 (table)

1253
Adaptive behaviors, 69, 71, 74
Adaptive instructional practices, 34, 36, 236 (table)
Adequate yearly progress (AYP), 228, 245, 317–318, 328
Advance organizer activities, 279–280, 285, 286 (table)
Advanced placement (AP) courses, 168
Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010, 19 (table)
Age equivalents, 326–327
Aggressive behaviors, 75–77, 78
Airasian, P. W., 274
Alberto, P. A., 394
Alcohol use, 73, 136, 153
Alternative assessments based on alternative achievement standards (AA-AAS),
357–358
Alternative assessments based on grade-level achievement standards (AA-GLAS), 359
Alternative assessments based on modified achievement standards (AA-MAS),
358–359
American Association of Neurological Surgeons (AANS), 113
American Association of University Women (AAUW), 166, 168
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), 69,
73
American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), 69
American Foundation for the Blind (AFB), 123
American Macular Degeneration Foundation (AMDF), 120
American Psychiatric Association (APA), 8, 53, 61, 65, 67, 70, 98
American Psychological Association, 416
American Sign Language (ASL), 114, 116
See also Sign language
American Society of Neuroradiology (ASN), 125
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), 60, 61, 116, 118
Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, 18 (table), 19
anti-discrimination provisions of, 19–20
architectural codes and, 113
daily life, impacts on, 20
disabilities, broad definition of, 20
normalization concept and, 20
participation in community life and, 20
Section 504 provisions and, 19
universal design and, 259
Americans With Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA) of 2008, 19 (table)
Analytical evaluation scale, 337, 339 (figure)
Anchored instruction strategy, 546–550, 548 (table), 550 (table)
Anderson, L. W., 274

1254
Anorexia nervosa, 77
Antecedent Behavior Consequence (ABC) log, 388–391, 389 (figure), 402, 406
Anxiety disorders, 77, 78
Application stage of learning, 276–277, 278 (table)
Arkansas Department of Education Special Education Unit, 91, 108
Arlington Central School District Board of Education v. Murphy (2006), 23
Array of services, 35
Articulation problems, 61, 62 (table)
Artiles, A. J., 10
Ashlock, R. B., 494
Asperger’s syndrome, 97, 97 (figure), 101
See also Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)
Assessments, 313–314
accommodations in, 18 (table)
achievement tests, 328, 332
active process assessment, 265, 331
ADAPT framework and, 357–358
adaptation categories/procedures for, 350–357
adequate yearly progress, determination of, 317–318
alternative assessments and, 18 (table), 101, 228, 229, 246, 357–359
analytical evaluation scale and, 337, 339 (figure)
authentic assessments and, 246–247
behavioral assessments and, 343–344
benchmarks and, 228, 246, 318–320, 319 (table), 331, 332
checklists and, 337, 338 (figure)
classroom teachers, role of, 316
clinical interviews and, 481, 485, 490, 512
criterion-referenced tests and, 328–329, 329–330 (figures)
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 322–323
cumulative folders and, 315, 342
curriculum-based measurement and, 32, 219, 225, 247, 328, 344–347, 348
(figure)
diagnostic assessments and, 332–333
ecological assessments and, 332–333
exemption from testing and, 354
formative assessment and, 246, 315
functional behavior assessment, 18 (table), 244–245, 369, 401, 402
grading purposes and, 316–317, 323
high-stakes assessments and, 88, 101, 317–318
holistic evaluation scale and, 337, 339 (figure)
informal reading inventories and, 328
input adaptations and, 351, 357–358

1255
 intelligence tests and, 69–71, 322
interviews and, 334–337
intra-individual differences and, 326
legislative protections and, 322–323
norm-referenced tests and, 325–328, 327 (table)
normative sample and, 325–326
observation and, 314, 333–334, 333 (figure)
output adaptations and, 351–352
parental involvement and, 349–350
passive process assessments and, 330–331, 337
peer performance and, 334
portfolio assessment and, 247, 342–343
process assessments and, 330–331, 337
program eligibility, determination of, 316
progress monitoring tools and, 318–322, 319 (table), 321 (figure), 328–329
purposes of, 314–322
rating scales and, 337, 339 (figures)
relative standing, determination of, 315
reliability of, 324
rubrics and, 337, 339 (figures), 340–341 (table), 341
school records and, 342
screening process and, 215, 219, 221 (table), 318, 331–332
state/district testing, participation in, 18 (table), 22, 31, 228
strengths/weaknesses, identification of, 314–315
student response systems and, 184
student strategies, testing for, 329–331
survey tests and, 332
technical adequacy of, 324–325
universal design for, 348–349
universal screening and, 215, 221 (table)
validity of, 324, 345
work sample analysis procedure and, 341–342
See also Behavior intervention plans (BIPs); Data-based decision making;
Direct assessment systems; Progress monitoring; Response to intervention
(RTI)
ASSET social skills program, 407
Assistive technologist role, 302, 304–305
Assistive Technology Act (ATA) of 2004, 18 (table), 23–24, 302
Assistive technology (AT), 24, 29, 51, 235, 236 (table), 237, 295
barriers to functioning, removal of, 24
functional capability and, 295–296
home-bound/hospital instruction and, 94–95

1256
 inclusion practices and, 34
information technology, access to, 24–25, 57
integration, considerations in, 305–306
literacy instruction and, 451–452
multiple-severe disabilities and, 103–104
robotics and, 112
supportive nature of, 72
See also Assistive technology devices
Assistive technology devices, 24, 72, 297
ADAPT framework and, 303–304
adaptive environments and, 299
adaptive toys/games and, 299
apps and, 57, 299, 300–301 (figure)
assistive technology services and, 297–298, 302, 304–305
augmentative and alternative communication devices and, 104, 298–299
closed-circuit television and, 301
communication devices and, 298–299, 302 (table), 408
computer access devices and, 299
deaf/hard of hearing students and, 117, 119–120
definition of, 24, 117
device loan programs and, 18 (table)
digital texts, availability of, 57
Dragon Dictate software, 298, 303
e-books and, 296, 296 (table), 297, 301 (table)
financial loans for, 18 (table), 24
high-tech/low-tech options and, 297
instructional aids and, 299, 301–302, 301–302 (table)
instructional apps/software and, 299, 300–301 (figure)
listening aids and, 302 (table)
mathematics access and, 302 (table)
mobile devices, utility of, 57
mobility devices and, 298, 302 (table)
positioning/seating devices and, 298
reading access and, 301 (table)
Section 504 coverage and, 135–136
selection guidelines for, 237, 296, 300–301 (figure)
speech output options and, 57
speech-to-text/text-to-speech technology and, 451
student needs, technology match and, 117
study skills aids and, 302 (table)
time management tools and, 559
training on, 305

1257
 voice recognition software and, 297, 298
word prediction programs and, 447
writing access and, 301 (table)
See also ADAPT framework; Assistive technology (AT); National Instructional
Materials Standard (NIMAS)
Assistive technology services, 297–298, 302, 304–305
Association for Retarded Citizens (ARC), 28
Asthma, 13, 48, 90 (figure), 92 (table), 93–94, 95
Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA), 93
Astigmatism, 122
At-risk schools, 156–157
At-risk students, 105, 153
academic opportunities, limited access to, 153
achievement gap and, 153–154, 156
at-risk schools and, 156–157
career prospects and, 154
collaborative education approaches and, 158
contributory conditions and, 153, 154–157
differentiated instruction and, 158
difficult living conditions and, 153
health care services, limited access to, 155–156, 157
highly qualified teachers and, 157
homelessness and, 154–155
limited life experiences and, 153
mental health issues and, 153
migrant status and, 155
multidisciplinary teams and, 158
poverty and, 153, 154, 156
readiness to learn and, 154
at risk, definition of, 153–154
risk prevention, strategies for, 157–158
universal screening/intervention and, 158
See also Special learning needs
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 14, 15 (table), 18 (table), 20, 48,
64
assessment of, 332–333
characteristics of, 66–67, 67 (table)
coexisting disabilities and, 66, 68
definitions of, 64, 65 (table)
hyperactivity and, 65, 66–67, 67 (table)
impulsivity and, 65, 67, 67 (table)
inattention and, 67, 67 (table)

1258
 inclusive educational opportunities and, 88
instructional strategies for, 65
key facts about, 64
other health impairments category and, 65 (table), 66, 68, 89
prescription medications and, 68
prevalence of, 64, 68, 95
social skill deficits and, 66
special education services and, 64, 66
treatments for, 68
types of, 65–66
See also High-incidence disabilities
Atwell, N., 444
Au, K. H., 141
Audience, 442, 443, 444, 447
Audiogram scores, 115, 118
Audiology services, 29, 225, 235, 236 (table)
Auditory discrimination, 429
Aug com devices. See Augmentative and alternative communication devices (AAC)
Augmentative and alternative communication devices (AAC), 104, 298–299
Aura, 111
Authentic assessments, 246–247
Autism, 15 (table), 18 (table), 21, 45 (figure), 95–96, 97
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
early recognition of, 90
fragile X syndrome and, 72
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
prevalence of, 87, 96
See also Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)
Autism Society of America (ASA), 48
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), 15 (table), 47, 48, 95–96
alternative assessments and, 101
Asperger’s syndrome and, 97, 97 (figure), 101
characteristics of, 99–101
childhood disintegrative disorder and, 97, 97 (figure)
definition of, 96–97, 97 (figure), 98 (table)
echolalia and, 100
inclusive educational opportunities and, 101
mathematics instruction and, 470–471, 472 (table)
pervasive developmental disorder-not-otherwise specified and, 97, 97 (figure)
prevalence of, 87, 87 (figure), 96, 101
repetitive patterns of behavior and, 98–99 (tables), 99, 100–101
Rett syndrome and, 97, 97 (figure)

1259
 severity, categories of, 97, 98–99 (tables)
social communication impairments and, 98–99 (tables), 99, 100
See also Autism; Low-incidence disabilities
Automaticity, 151, 431, 436, 486, 561
Ayllon, T., 275
Azrin, N. H., 275

Baldwin, L. J., 164

Bardack, S., 139
Barrish, H. H., 398
Basal textbooks, 293
Base-ten system, 476, 482
Base words, 436, 528
Bauer, S., 530
Bay-Williams, J. M., 478, 484, 486, 497, 501
Beckmann, S., 468
Behavior intervention plans (BIPs), 18 (table), 244, 402–404
functional behavior assessment and, 18 (table), 244–245, 403, 404–405
interim alternative educational settings and, 244, 249
manifestation determination process and, 244
stay-put provision and, 244
violent/out of control students and, 244
See also Individualized education program (IEP); Positive behavioral strategies;
School violence; Social skills development; Special education services
Behavioral strategies:
classroom rules, clear posting of, 394
contingent observation strategy and, 393
contractual agreements and, 394–395, 398 (figure)
criterion-specific rewards and, 394, 395 (table)
disability-related behaviors and, 23 (table), 244
functional behavior assessments and, 18 (table), 244–245, 369, 401, 402
I-message technique and, 183, 376
in-school supervision strategy and, 400–402
interdependent group contingencies and, 397–398
interim alternative educational settings and, 244, 249
manifestation determination and, 244
motivational practices, implementation of, 368–371
multitiered systems of support and, 214, 215–216, 344–345, 401–402
planned ignoring/ignore strategy and, 392–393
positive behavioral interventions/supports and, 215, 401–402
problem behaviors, assessment of, 385, 392
redirecting inappropriate behavior and, 393

1260
 reinforcement strategy and, 394, 396–397
schoolwide behavioral support and, 401
self-regulation techniques and, 398–399, 400 (figure)
time-out/seclusion time-out strategy and, 400
time sampling and, 387 (table)
See also Behavior intervention plans (BIPs); Behaviors; Classroom management;
Positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS); Positive behavioral
strategies; Reward systems; Social skill development
Behaviors:
adaptive behaviors, 69, 71, 74
aggressive behaviors, 75–77, 78
deficit behaviors and, 8, 9
diagnostic assessment of, 332–333
disability-related behaviors and, 23 (table), 244
excessive behaviors and, 8
externalizing behaviors, 75–77, 78
hyperactivity and, 8, 65, 66–67, 67 (table), 75, 76
impulsivity and, 8, 65, 67, 67 (table), 75
inattention and, 67, 67 (table)
internalizing behaviors, 77, 78
manifestation determination and:
misbehavior, goals of, 384–385, 385 (table)
on-task behavior and:
problem behaviors, assessment of, 385–392
stay put provision and:
target behavior and:
See also Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); Behavior
intervention plans (BIPs); Behavioral strategies; Disabilities;
Emotional/behavioral disorders (EBDs); Positive behavioral strategies; Social
skill development
Belgrave, F. Z., 372
Belgrave, J., 372
Bell curve, 9, 10 (figure)
Benchmarks, 228, 246, 318–320, 319 (table), 331, 332
Benkstein, P., 530
Bias, 11, 163, 317
Bilingual special education, 150
See also Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students; Language skills;
Multicultural special education; Special learning needs
Bilingualism, 139, 147 (table)
Bley, N., 484, 492, 502
Blindness, 15 (table), 47, 61

1261
 adventitious blindness and, 122
congenital blindness and, 122
definition of, 121 (table), 122
global positioning system technology and, 124
guide dogs/service animals and, 124
hand over hand sign language and, 128
Hoover cane and, 123–124, 297
orientation and mobility services and, 29, 31, 51, 236 (table)
prevalence of, 124
See also Deaf-blindness; Vision; Visual disabilities
Blood disorders, 90 (figure), 91, 93 (table)
See also Other health impairments; Sickle-cell anemia
Bode, P., 142
Borthwick-Duffy, S., 70, 71, 73
Boulder Valley School District Office of Advanced Academic Services, 163–164, 165
Bradley, V. J., 71, 73
Bragstad, B. J., 560
Braille system, 20, 51, 59, 123
Brain injury. See Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Brainstorming, 283, 444
Brdiczka, O., 558
Brown, J. E., 150, 152
Brown, L., 351
Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 17
Bryant, B. R., 266, 301, 304, 319, 331, 351, 428, 443, 468, 469, 484, 507, 515,
537
Bryant, D. P., 266, 428, 468, 469, 484, 507, 515, 537, 550
Bulgren, J. A., 544
Bulimia nervosa, 77
Bullying, 66, 75, 77, 415–416
See also School violence; Social skills development
Buntinx, W. H. E., 70, 71, 73
Bureau of Indian Education, 45, 145, 177
Bureau of International Information Programs, 113
Burlington School Committee v. Department of Education (1985), 23
Bush, G. H. W., 19
Bush, G. W., 23

Campbell, B., 161

Cancers, 90 (figure), 91, 92–93 (table)
Canter, L., 378
Carlson, D. J., 150

1262
Carnine, D. W., 484
Carter v. Florence County School District 4 (1993), 23
Casareno, A. B., 538
Cassel, P., 384
CAST Universal Design for Learning, 259, 261, 262, 306, 348, 417, 457, 517, 554
Categories of disabilities. See Special education categories
Cedar Rapids School District v. Garret F. (1999), 23
Center for Head Injury Services, 126
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 73, 101, 125
Cerebral palsy (CP), 12, 88, 90, 103, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table), 111, 112–113,
114
Chapman, C., 166, 167
Checking for understanding (CFU), 184, 282, 334
Checklists, 337, 338 (figure)
Child abuse, 13, 111
Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative, 95
Child find requirement, 14, 224
Childhood cancers, 90 (figure), 91, 92–93 (table)
Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD), 97, 97 (figure)
Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD), 28,
64
Children’s Defense Fund (CDF), 13, 155, 157
Chinn, P. C., 140
Choi, H. -S., 550
Chromosomal abnormality, 72–73
Chronic illnesses, 90 (figure), 92, 92–93 (table)
Chunking of information, 282, 556
Cirino, P. T., 150
Civil Rights movement, 17
Clarke, B., 468
Classification. See Special education categories
Classroom management:
externalizing behaviors and, 75–77, 78
physical classroom arrangements and, 382–383
rules, clear posting of, 394
traffic patterns and, 383
transition time, procedures for, 380–381
with-it-ness and, 383–384
See also Behavior intervention plans (BIPs); Behavioral strategies; Behaviors;
Positive behavioral strategies; Reward systems; Social skills development
Clean intermittent catheterization (CIC), 23 (table)
Clinical interviews, 481, 485, 490, 512

1263
Clinical teaching cycle, 195, 196 (table)
Closed-circuit television (CCTV), 301
Cloud, N., 185
Clustering technique, 272, 498
Coaching strategy, 410, 412–413
Coexisting disabilities, 65, 66, 68
Cohen, M. R., 412
Colburn, L. K., 550
Collaboration, 176
See also Collaboration-consultation model; Cooperative learning; Family
involvement; Professional collaboration; Related services
Collaboration-consultation model, 186–189
example application of, 188–189
follow-up and, 189
gaining entry/establishing goals and, 187
implementation of recommendations and, 187
intervention recommendations and, 187
problem identification and, 187
progress monitoring/evaluation and, 187
See also Professional collaboration
Collaborative strategic reading (CSR), 150, 439–440
Common Core of Data (CCD), 45, 60, 117, 145
Common Core State Standards (CCSS):
alternative assessments and, 359
concepts/skills, specification of, 266
English language learners and, 143
high-stakes assessments and, 317–318, 353
instructional content, challenging nature of, 88
mathematics instruction and, 466, 595
problem solving skills and, 511
reading key ideas, 591–592, 598
rubrics and, 337, 340–341 (table), 341
special education students and, 88
writing process and, 592–593, 599
Communication process, 59, 60, 61 (table)
active listening and, 179–180
assistive technology devices and, 302 (table)
conflict resolution and, 183
electronic devices for, 408
encoding/decoding of messages and, 179
listening skills and, 179–180
nonverbal communication and, 181–182

1264
 roadblocks in, 376, 377 (table)
verbal communication skills and, 180–181
written communication skills and, 181
See also Augmentative and alternative communication devices (AAC); Autism
spectrum disorders (ASDs); Listening; Positive behavioral strategies;
Professional collaboration; Social skills development
Community-based instruction (CBI), 27
job skills training and, 31, 35, 36
paraprofessionals and, 198
Community-based living arrangements, 102
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processes (CTOPP-2), 332
Computational fluency, 276, 481
Concepts, 271
Conceptual knowledge, 271, 277 (table)
Concrete-semiconcrete-abstract (CSA) instructional routine, 468–470, 469 (table)
Conflict, 182
Conflict resolution skills, 182–183
Congenital conditions, 12, 90 (figure), 92 (table), 108 (table), 116, 122
Conners scale, 333, 344
Connotative meaning, 528
Consortium for Evidence-Based Early Intervention Practices, 53
Construct validity, 324
Content-area instruction, 525–527
ADAPT framework and, 532–534, 539–540, 546, 547, 551–553
anchored instruction strategy and, 546–550, 548 (table), 550 (table)
character maps, construction of, 537, 537 (figure)
class discussions and, 546–547, 548–550
connotative/denotative meanings and, 528
content-area vocabulary/concepts, instruction strategies for, 528–534
core curriculum and, 265
evidence-based strategies and, 531, 538, 539
expository texts and, 528, 541–542
gifted/talented students and, 530, 531
graphic organizers and, 529–530, 542
KWLS chart, construction of, 538, 539–541
meaning, understanding of, 527
prior knowledge and, 167, 273, 439, 441, 527–528, 536, 538
question exploration guide and, 543, 544 (figure)
reading comprehension, self-monitoring of, 527–528, 534–538
semantic feature analysis and, 531, 532 (table)
semantic maps, construction of, 536, 536 (figure)
signal words and, 542

1265
 struggling students, difficulties of, 527–528
student participation/engagement and, 543, 545–547
technical vocabulary/concepts and, 529–531
text perusal strategy and, 542, 548–550
textbook-based instruction and, 540–545
universal design for learning framework and, 554–555
visual impairments and, 562–564
vocabulary/concept knowledge, difficulties with, 527
What’s Old/What’s New strategy and, 543, 545
See also Curricula; Instructional practices; Literacy instruction; Mathematics
instruction; Reading process; Study skills; Writing process
Content validity, 324
Contingent observation strategy, 393
Continuum of services, 35
Convergent/lower-order questions, 273, 275
Cook, L., 191
Cooperative learning, 289–293, 290–291 (table), 530
Copeland, S. R., 1
Corbett, C., 168
Core curriculum, 265
Coteaching model, 34–35, 178, 189–191
ADAPT framework and, 191–193
alternative teaching and, 190, 191–193
benefits of, 194–195
combined knowledge/expertise, enhanced instruction and, 190
coteaching partnership, establishment of, 193
highly qualified teachers and, 234–235
instructional plan, development of, 193–194
one teaches/one assists arrangement and, 190
one teaches/one observes arrangement and, 190
parallel teaching and, 190
research on, 194–195
station teaching and, 190, 191–193
student needs, identification of, 193
student performance, monitoring of, 194
team teaching and, 190
variations of partnerships in, 190–191
See also ADAPT (Ask/Determine/Analyze/Propose/Test) framework;
Professional collaboration
Coulter, D. L., 70, 71, 73
Council for Children with Behavior Disorders, 400
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Professional Standards, 569, 570, 571, 572,

1266
573–574, 576–577, 578, 579–580, 583, 586
Counselors. See School counselors
Countoon technique, 399, 400 (figure)
Craig, E. M., 70, 71, 73
Criterion-referenced tests, 328–329
Criterion-related validity, 324
Criterion-specific rewards, 394, 395 (table)
Critical thinking, 273–275, 274 (table), 277 (table)
Cruikshank, K. A., 274
Cues, 267, 279
Cuillos, S., 319
Cultural characteristics, 185
Cultural perspective, 10–11
Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students, 138–140, 139 (table), 140
(figure)
cultural characteristics, culturally responsive teaching and, 185
culturally aware teaching, effective collaboration and, 184–185
gifted/talented education, underrepresentation in, 163–164
language difficulties vs. learning disabilities and, 146, 148, 148 (table),
226–227, 322–323
mathematics, language/symbols of, 471–473
social skills instruction, cultural differences and, 371–373
special education classrooms, disproportionate representation in, 144–146, 145
(table), 371–372
writing assistance for, 445
See also At-risk students; English language learners (ELLs); Multicultural special
education
Culturally responsive teaching, 146, 148, 152, 164, 184–185, 371–373
Culture:
characteristics of, 185
cultural identity, learning of, 141, 372
cultural perspectives and, 10–11
culturally responsive teaching and, 146, 148, 152, 184–185
definition of, 140–141
dialects of language and, 63
learning, styles/patterns of, 141
macrocultures and, 138
microcultures and, 138
multicultural education and, 142
See also Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students; Culturally
responsive teaching; Multicultural special education; Racial/ethnic groups
Cumulative folders, 315, 342

1267
Curricula:
alternative curricula and, 31
core curriculum and, 265
curricular modifications and, 150, 152
differentiated curriculum and, 166
general education curriculum, access to, 21, 31, 49
holistic evaluation scale and:, 337, 339 (figure)
independent study and, 169, 530
segregated specialized programs and, 49
social skills curricula and, 405–408, 407 (figure)
textbooks/instructional materials, guidelines for, 293–295
See also Access to general education curriculum; ADAPT
(Ask/Determine/Analyze/Propose/Test) framework; Content-area instruction;
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM); Differentiated curriculum;
Differentiated instruction; Enrichment opportunities
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM), 32, 219, 225, 247, 328, 344–345
correct calculations per minute chart, 347, 348 (figure)
data collection/analysis systems for, 347
design of, 346–347
progress monitoring charting and, 347, 348 (figure)
purposes of, 346
response to intervention procedures and, 344–345
Cystic fibrosis (CF), 90 (figure), 91, 92 (table)

Darrough, R. L., 507

Data-based decision making, 215, 221 (table), 225, 227
See also Assessments; Evidence-based practices
Day, R. M., 284
Deaf-Blind Census, 128
Deaf-blindness, 15 (table), 44, 127
case example of, 87–88, 128
characteristics of, 128
communication skills, development of, 128
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
definition of, 127, 127 (table)
hand over hand signing and, 128
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
manual communication, forms of, 128
multiple disabilities and, 127
prevalence of, 87 (figure), 128
residual hearing/vision and, 127
types of, 127

1268
 See also Deaf/hard of hearing disabilities; Low-incidence disabilities
Deaf/hard of hearing disabilities, 114
academic achievement and, 119
age of onset and, 116
American Sign Language and, 114
assistive technology devices and, 117, 119–120
audiogram scores and, 115, 118
characteristics of, 118–120
cochlear implants and, 120, 237
cognitive impairments and, 119
conductive hearing loss and, 116
decibel measurements and, 118, 119 (figure)
definition of, 114–115, 115 (table)
language acquisition, bilingual-bicultural approach to, 116
postlingual deafness and, 117
prelingual deafness and, 116
prevalence of, 120
sensorineural hearing loss and, 116, 120
signed English and, 114
special education services, eligibility for, 115
types/dimensions of hearing loss and, 116–117
See also Deaf-blindness; Deafness; Hearing impairments; Sign language
Deafness, 14, 15 (table), 47, 49, 51
cochlear implants and, 120
congenital deafness and, 12
deaf-blindness and, 15 (table), 44, 87 (figure)
hand over hand sign language and, 128
interpretation services and, 29
language acquisition, bilingual-bicultural approach to, 116
postlingual deafness and, 117
prelingual deafness and, 116
See also Deaf-blindness; Deaf/hard of hearing disabilities; Hearing; Sign
language
Decodable texts, 433
Decoding process, 179
Deficit perspective, 9–10, 102
Denotative meaning, 528
Deo, Y. J., 319
Depression, 77, 78, 153
Derived scores, 326
Deshler, D. D., 544, 563
Developmental delay, 15 (table), 44, 105, 355

1269
 characteristics of, 106
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
definition of, 105, 106 (table)
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
prevalence of, 87 (figure), 106–107
types of, 105
See also Low-incidence disabilities
Developmental disabilities, 15 (table)
See also Developmental delay; High-incidence disabilities; Intellectual and
developmental disabilities; Low-incidence disabilities; Pervasive developmental
disorder-not-otherwise specified (PDD-NOS)
Devlin, K. T., 502
Diabetes, 90 (figure), 91–92 (tables)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), 8
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and, 64, 65 (table), 67 (table)
autism spectrum disorders and, 97, 98 (table)
intellectual and developmental disabilities and, 70 (table)
learning disabilities and, 53, 54 (table)
Diagnostic assessments, 332
broad-based content assessments and, 332–333
conditions/disabilities, diagnosis of, 332–333
ecological assessments and, 332–333
global achievement measures and, 332
phonics skills and, 332
phonological awareness abilities and, 332
reading ability and, 332
special education services, eligibility determination and, 333
See also Assessments
Diagnostic teaching, 485, 489
Differentiated curriculum, 166
Differentiated instruction, 158, 161, 166–168, 167 (figure), 217
collaborative instruction and, 292–293
continuum of, 258, 259 (figure)
English language learners and, 262–263
instructional activities and, 218
instructional content and, 218
instructional delivery and, 218
instructional materials and, 218
presentation strategies and, 263
response strategies and, 263
scheduling strategies and, 262
setting strategies and, 262–263

1270
 See also Access to general education curriculum; Universal design for learning
(UDL)
Digital media, 260
Direct assessment systems, 246
authentic assessments and, 246–247
curriculum-based measurement and, 32, 219, 225, 247
portfolio assessment and, 247
See also Assessment
Direct instruction, 278–279
Disabilities, 7
behavioral problems and, 23 (table)
biological causes of, 12, 13
childhood illnesses and, 13
chromosomal abnormality and, 72–73
coexisting disabilities and, 65, 66
congenital conditions and, 12, 90 (figure), 92 (table), 108 (table), 116, 122
cultural perspective on, 10–11
deficit perspective on, 9–10
definitions of, 7–8
dyslexia and, 55
environmental causes of, 13
group home placements and, 102
intellectual and developmental disabilities, 11, 15 (table), 68–69
least restrictive environment and, 26–27, 31, 34, 235, 237
manifestation determination and, 244
maternal diseases/infections and, 12
misdiagnosis/placement mistakes and, 371
onset, timing of, 12–13
postnatal disabilities and, 12–13
pre/perinatal disabilities and, 12
prevalence of, 14, 15 (table)
sociological perspective on, 11
special education categories of, 14, 15 (table)
stay-put provision and, 244
toxins, exposure to, 13
typical learners, myth of, 9–10, 10 (figure)
universal design and, 259–260, 262
See also Assistive technology (AT); Assistive technology devices; Disabled
population; Free appropriate public education (FAPE); Health impairments;
High-incidence disabilities; Inclusive education; Learning disabilities (LDs);
Low-incidence disabilities; Special education; Special education categories;
Special education services; Special learning needs

1271
Disabled population:
demographics of, 14, 16
inconsistent opportunities for, 16
minority status of, 12
normal learners, myth of, 9–10, 10 (figure)
special education categories and, 14, 15 (table)
special education services, origins of, 14, 16–17
See also Disabilities; High-incidence disabilities; Inclusive education; Low-
incidence disabilities; Special education; Special education categories; Special
education services; Special learning needs
Discipline. See Behavior intervention plans (BIPs); Behavioral strategies; Classroom
management; Positive behavioral strategies
Discrimination, 11, 12
anti-discrimination laws and, 18–19 (table), 19–20
nondiscriminatory testing and, 322–323
See also English language learners (ELLs); Multicultural special education;
Racial/ethnic groups
Discriminatory ability, 270, 277 (table)
Distributive practice, 284
Divergent/higher-order questions, 275
Diversity, 6
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 63, 138–140, 139 (table), 140
(figure)
language difficulties vs. learning disabilities and, 146, 148, 148 (table),
226–227
See also At-risk students; Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students;
Multicultural special education; Racial/ethnic groups
Doe v. Withers (1993), 23
Dougherry, B., 507
Down syndrome, 12, 72–73
Doyle, M. B., 198
Drafting stage, 425, 445
instructional strategies for, 446
struggling students, characteristics of, 445–446
See also Literacy instruction; Writing process
Dragon Dictate software, 298, 303
Dreikurs, R., 384
Drug use, 19 (table), 136, 153
Dual sensory impairment. See Deaf-blindness
Due process hearings, 21, 23 (table)
Duration recording, 387 (table)
Dyer, S., 161

1272
Dyscalculia, 467
Dysgraphia, 428–429
Dyslexia, 55, 427–428

e-books, 296, 296 (table), 297, 301 (table)

Early interventions. See Individualized family service plans (IFSPs)
Earned time, 380
Echolalia, 100
Ecological assessment, 332–333
Editing stage, 425, 449–450
instructional strategies for, 450–451
proofreading and, 449
struggling students, characteristics of, 450
See also Literacy instruction; Writing process
Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) of 1975/1986, 18 (table), 21
Educational Testing Service (ETS), 359
Efficacy, 34
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 2001, 18 (table), 22, 88, 234
Ellison, B., 88
Emmer, E. T., 383
Emotional/behavioral disorders (EBDs), 14, 15 (table), 45 (figure), 47, 75
academic achievement and, 78–79
aggressive tendencies and, 75–77, 78
anorexia/bulimia and, 77
antisocial behavior and, 78
anxiety disorders and, 77, 78
characteristics of, 78–79
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
definition of, 75, 79
depression and, 77, 78
externalizing behaviors and, 75–77, 78
hyperactivity and, 75, 76
impulsivity and, 75, 78
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
internalizing behaviors and, 77, 78
interventions for, 78, 79
multitiered systems of support and, 402
peer support and, 78
prevalence of, 79
schizophrenia and, 77
social skill deficits and, 78–79
types of, 75–77

1273
 See also Behavioral strategies; Behaviors; High-incidence disabilities
Engaged time, 282
English as a second language (ESL), 133, 139
English language learners (ELLs), 63, 133, 139, 142–144
assessment strategies for, 185
bilingual special education and, 150
bilingualism and, 147 (table), 150
collaborative intervention strategies and, 195–196, 196 (table)
collaborative strategic reading and, 150
differentiated instruction, strategies for, 262–263
errors, role of, 147 (table)
high-stakes testing, adaptations for, 356
higher level thinking skills and, 147 (table)
language acquisition process, realities/misconceptions about, 146, 147 (table)
language acquisition, varying rates of, 147 (table)
language development, continuum of, 150, 151–152 (table)
language difficulties vs. learning disabilities and, 146, 148, 148 (table),
226–227, 322–323
linguistic supports for, 150
phonics skills and, 433
response to intervention and, 150
semilingualism and, 147 (table)
state/district testing, participation in, 246
validated language instruction practices for, 150
See also Multicultural special education; Special learning needs
English learners (ELs), 63
Enrichment opportunities, 168, 169, 530
independent study and, 169
internships and, 169
mentorships and, 169
motivational practices, implementation of, 369
See also Gifted/talented students
Epilepsy, 13, 95, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table), 111
Epilepsy Foundation of America (EFA), 95
Equal opportunity to learn, 149
Error analysis procedure, 342
Error-correction procedures, 267, 282, 287
Espelage, D. L., 415
Esra, P., 58
Ethnicity. See Race/ethnicity
Evaluation. See Assessments; Data-based decision making; Direct assessment systems
Event recording, 387 (table)

1274
Evertson, C. M., 383
Evidence-based practices, 31–32
content-area instruction and, 531–534
curriculum-based measurement and, 32
progress monitoring and, 32
proven interventions, features of, 32
response to intervention and, 32, 53–54, 217
See also Progress monitoring; Scientifically-based instruction; Validated
instructional practices
Executive functioning, 473
Exemption from testing, 354
Expanded notation, 498, 499
Expert consultation, 195
Explicit systematic instruction, 32, 55, 74, 267, 289
Expository texts, 528, 541–542
Externalizing behaviors, 75–77, 78
Eyesight. See Blindness; Vision; Visual impairments

Face value, 486

Factual knowledge, 270, 277 (table)
Family involvement, 28–29
assessments, parental involvement in, 349–350
assistive technology devices, training on, 305
collaborative partnerships, establishment of, 158, 202–203, 203 (table)
collaborative partnerships, need for, 203
family systems approach and, 204–206
home-school communication and, 180, 208–209
individualized education programs and, 231–233, 249
interpreter services and, 233
parent-teacher conferences and, 206–208, 206–207 (table)
strategies for, 205
technology, experience/comfort level with, 305
See also Family systems approach
Family systems approach, 204–206
Family therapy services, 29
Farrell, E., 16
Federation of Families for Children’s Mental Health (FFCMH), 28–29
Feedback:
error-correction procedure and, 267, 282
peer consultation and, 195
peer tutoring and, 288–289
Fetal alcohol effects (FAE), 73

1275
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 73
Fidelity to instructional practices, 215
Figueroa, R., 185
Fisher, D., 231
Flexible grouping practices, 287
Foegen, A., 468
Forest Grove School District v. T. A. (2009), 23
Form in writing, 442, 446
Forness, S. R., 76
Fragile X syndrome, 72
Free appropriate public education (FAPE), 20, 21, 23 (table), 26
assistive technology and, 24, 237
related services and, 235, 237
Free time, 380
Frequency of sound, 118
Frey, N., 231
Friend, M., 189, 191
Full inclusion, 34, 35, 36
Full understanding, 487, 489
Functional behavior assessment (FBA), 18 (table), 244–245, 369, 401, 402, 403,
404–405
See also Behavior intervention plans (BIPs); Positive behavioral strategies; Social
skills development
Functional capability, 27, 295–296
Functional Evaluation for Assistive Technology, 304
Functional skills, 471, 472 (table)

Gallaudet, T. H., 16
Gallistel, C. R., 475
Games, 290–291, 299, 397, 430
Garber-Miller, K., 545
Garcia, S. B., 184, 185
Gardner, H., 160
Garret F. case, 22, 23 (table)
Gelman, R., 475
Gender gap, 166
General education:
at-risk schools and, 156–157
coteaching situations and, 34–35
phased-in accessibility and, 18 (table)
special education, comparison with, 25
state/district testing, participation in, 18 (table), 22, 31

1276
 typical learners, myth of, 9–10, 10 (figure)
See also Access to general education curriculum; Enrichment opportunities;
Inclusive education; Instructional practices; Professional collaboration; Special
education; Special learning needs
General vocabulary, 151 (table)
Generalization stage of learning, 276, 278 (table), 482
Gersten, R., 484
Gersten, T., 468
Giangreco, M. F., 198
Gifted/talented (GT) students, 159
ability grouping and, 168
accelerated instruction and, 168–169
advanced placement courses and, 168
characteristics of, 160–162, 162 (table), 163–164, 165 (table)
content-area instruction, strategies for, 530
cooperative learning and, 530, 531
culturally/linguistically diverse students, underrepresentation of, 163–164, 165
(table)
culturally responsive teaching and, 164
differentiated curriculum and, 166
differentiated instruction and, 161, 166–168, 167 (figure)
disabilities, twice-exceptional students and, 164, 166
dysfunctional perfectionism and, 161, 162
early college entrance programs and, 168
enrichment opportunities and, 168, 169, 530
female students and, 166
flexible learning environments and, 162
giftedness, definition of, 159, 160 (table)
global giftedness and, 160
grade skipping process and, 168
growth mindset, emphasis on, 168
honors sections and, 169
independent study and, 169, 530
internships and, 169
mentorships and, 169
multiple intelligences theory and, 160, 161 (table)
paradoxical learners and, 164
perspective analysis and, 530
prevalence of, 48, 162–163
protections/rights for, 159
sensitivity to criticism and, 162
types of, 160, 161 (table)

1277
 underidentification of, 163
See also General education; Special learning needs
Glasser, W., 373
Global positioning system (GPS) technology, 124
Golden, N., 407
Goldenberg, C., 150
Gollnick, D. M., 140
Good Behavior Game, 398
Gordon, T., 376
Grade equivalent, 327–328
Grade skipping process, 168
Grading process, 316–317
grading charts and, 323
leniency errors and, 317
logic errors and, 317
personal bias errors and, 317
See also Assessments
Graham, S., 440, 441, 453
Graphic organizers (GOS), 150
character maps, 537, 537 (figure)
grading charts, 323
hierarchical charts and, 509, 529
KWLS charts, 538
mapping diagrams and, 509–510, 509 (figure)
mathematical relationships, visualization of, 509–510
observation form, 333 (figure), 334
semantic maps, 272, 530, 536, 536 (figure)
sociograms, 409, 409 (figure)
Venn diagrams, 509, 529–530
Gregory, G. H., 166, 167
Grossman, H., 11
Group home placements, 102
Grouping practices:
flexible grouping, 287
heterogeneity and, 54, 55–56
interdependent group contingencies and, 397–398
mixed-ability grouping, 288
one-to-one groupings and, 288
peer tutoring and, 288–289
same-ability grouping, 168, 287–288
whole group instruction and, 287
Guide dogs, 124

1278
Guided practice, 267, 282, 286 (table), 470
Guiding Eyes for the Blind, 124

Hallahan, D. P., 11
Hammill, D. D., 351, 428, 443, 468, 469
Hand over hand sign language, 128
Handicapping process, 12
Handwriting legibility, 452–453
Harchik, A. E., 418
Harkin, T., 20
Harris, K. C., 179, 181, 182
Harris, K. R., 440, 441
Hartman, P., 515, 550
Hasbrouck, J., 435
Health care access rates, 155–156, 157
Health impairments, 89–90
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and, 89, 95
chromosomal abnormality and, 72–73
chronic illnesses and, 90 (figure), 91, 92–93 (table)
congenital conditions and, 12, 90 (figure), 92–93 (table), 108 (table), 116, 122
infectious diseases and, 90 (figure), 92, 93 (table)
medically fragile individuals and, 91
prevalence of, 45 (figure), 47, 87, 87 (figure), 89, 95
special health care needs, organizational scheme for, 90, 90 (figure)
See also Low-incidence disabilities; Other health impairments
Health, S. B., 141
Hearing:
audio-to-text translation and, 24
audiology services and, 29, 225, 235, 236 (table)
hard of hearing category and, 14, 15 (table), 47
See also Deafness; Hearing impairments
Hearing impairments, 44, 49, 103
birth defect of, 120
cochlear implants and, 120, 237
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
prevalence of, 87 (figure)
See also Deaf/hard of hearing disabilities; Low-incidence disabilities
Heart defects, 90 (figure), 92 (table)
Hendrickson, J. M., 284
Hepatitis B, 90 (figure), 93 (table)
Heron, T. E., 179, 181, 182

1279
Hertz (Hz), 118
Heterogeneity, 54, 55–56
Hezel, J. S., 407
Hierarchical charts, 509, 529
High-frequency words, 432
High-incidence disabilities, 14, 15 (table), 43–44, 45 (figure), 47, 50–51, 51 (figure)
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and, 64–68
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144
emotional/behavioral disorders and, 75–79
identification process, over/underrepresentation issues and, 45–46
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure)
intellectual and developmental disabilities and, 68–74
learning disabilities and, 44, 45 (figure), 52–59
physical disabilities and, 46–47
special education categories and, 47, 48–49
special education services, varying need for, 46–47
speech/language impairment and, 45 (figure), 59–64
student success, collaborative instructional practices and, 52
See also Disabilities; Low-incidence disabilities; Special education categories
High school completion rates, 243
High-stakes assessments, 88, 101, 317–318
Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA) of 2008, 259
Higher-order questions. See Divergent/higher-order questions; Questions
Highly qualified teachers, 18 (table), 157, 234–235
Hill, C., 168
HIV/AIDS, 12, 90 (figure), 93 (table), 94, 95
Holistic evaluation scale, 337, 339 (figure)
Holmes, B., 407
Home-bound/hospital instruction, 94–95
Homelessness, 154–155, 206
Homework, 283–284, 286 (table), 335, 350, 394
Honig v. Doe (1988), 23
Honors sections, 169
Hoover cane, 123–124, 297
Hoover, J. J., 526, 552, 562
Hoover, R., 123
Hopkins, B. I., 275
Hopper, C. H., 558, 560
Horner, R. H., 401
Horton, G., 407
Hoskyn, M., 279
Hospital instruction. See Home-bound/hospital instruction

1280
Howe, S. G., 16
Hudson, F., 186
Hudson, P., 478
Hughes, C. A., 71, 563
Hughes, K., 484
Human diversity. See Diversity
Hur, S. -J., 550
Hurley-Chamberlain, D., 191
Hyperactivity, 8, 65, 66–67, 67 (table), 75, 76

I-message technique, 183, 376

IDEA. See Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1990/1997/2004
Identification procedures, 27
learning disabilities and, 53, 58
racial/ethnic groups, over/underrepresentation issues and, 45–46
response to intervention system and, 53–54, 215
See also Individualized education program (IEP); Multicultural special
education; Special education; Special education categories; Special education
services; Special learning needs
Idol, L., 178, 180, 187
IFSP. See Individualized family service plans (IFSPs)
Illnesses. See Health impairments; Other health impairments
Impulsivity, 8, 65, 67, 67 (table), 75, 78
In-school supervision strategy, 400–402
Inattention, 67, 67 (table)
Inclusive education, 3–6, 33
adaptive instructional practices and, 34, 36
assistive technology and, 34
continuum of services and, 35
coteaching situations and, 34–35
debate about, 35–36
diversity, fact of, 6
free appropriate public education and, 26, 35
full inclusion, 34, 35, 36
general education classes, participation in, 35, 36
general education curriculum, access to, 21, 31, 34
high-incidence disabilities and, 88, 89 (figure)
inclusion decisions, guidelines for, 36
individualized education interventions and, 5
intensity of supports and, 69, 72
least restrictive environment, 26–27, 31, 34, 35
low-incidence disabilities and, 88, 89 (figure)

1281
 mainstreaming and, 9, 10 (figure)
modifications and, 87, 135, 150, 152
origins of inclusion practice and, 33–34
pull-in programs and, 34
pullout programs and, 35
segregated specialized programs and, 33–34, 49, 50
self-advocacy and, 233
self-determination and, 233
support systems and, 69, 71–72, 73, 74
typical role models, value of, 34
universal design for learning and, 34
visual disabilities and, 123
See also Access to general education curriculum; ADAPT
(Ask/Determine/Analyze/Propose/Test) framework; Disabilities; General
education; High-incidence disabilities; Instructional practices; Low-incidence
disabilities; Multicultural special education; Professional collaboration; Special
education; Special education services; Special learning needs
Independent practice, 283–284, 286 (table)
Independent reading level, 436
Independent study, 169, 530
Individual transition plans (ITPs), 18 (table), 241, 242 (table), 243
Individualized education program (IEP), 18 (table), 28, 220, 240
accountability for, 228–229
assessment adaptations and, 228, 229, 246
assessment/review of, 228–229, 232 (table), 245–247, 249
assessment teams and, 225, 232 (table), 250–251
assistive technology, need assessment for, 24, 237
child find requirement and, 224
communication process and, 232 (table), 241
data-based decision making and, 225, 227
development of program step in, 227
education leadership tasks and, 232 (table)
education professionals, roles of, 229–231, 232, 232 (table), 241, 249–251
eligibility determination step in, 226
family involvement in, 28, 231–233, 249
flexible constellation of services and, 247–248, 249
general education curriculum, access to, 31, 185–186
general education teachers and, 186
identification step in, 225
implementation step in, 228
interim educational placements and, 244, 249
interpreter services and, 233

1282
 key components of, 240–241
legal requirements for, 221, 248–250
multidisciplinary teams and, 231
portfolio assessments and, 343
prereferral step and, 223–224, 232 (table), 247
process/steps in, 222, 222–223 (figure)
purpose of, 220
record keeping tasks and, 232 (table), 249–250
referral step in, 224, 232 (table)
related services, mandated provision of, 22, 23 (table), 29, 235, 236 (table)
student involvement in, 233–234
student success, collaborative instructional practices and, 52
team members for, 229–234, 230 (table), 232 (table), 249
template for, 241, 242 (table)
transition components/services and, 225, 228, 241, 242 (table), 243–244
See also Behavior intervention plans (BIPs); Inclusive education; Special
education; Special education services; Special learning needs
Individualized family service plans (IFSPs), 18 (table), 28, 239, 248
development of, 227, 228
early intervention programs and, 239
key components of, 239
service managers, role of, 239
transition to preschool programs and, 239
See also Individualized education program (IEP)
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1990/1997/2004, 12, 18
(table), 20
access to general education curriculum and, 31
assistive technology, need assessment and, 237
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, definition of, 64, 65 (table)
autism and, 96
child find requirement and, 14, 224
court decisions on, 21–22, 23 (table)
developmental delay and, 105, 106 (table)
due process hearings and, 21, 23 (table)
emotional/behavioral disorders, definition of, 75, 76 (table)
evidence-based practices and, 32
functional behavior assessments and, 244–245
general provisions of, 21
gifted/talented students and, 159, 162
health impairments and, 89, 90
highly qualified teachers and, 234–235
individualized education programs, legal requirements for, 221, 248–250

1283
 initial version of, 20–21
intellectual and developmental disabilities, definition of, 70 (table)
intellectual disabilities and, 11
learning disabilities, definition of, 53, 54 (table)
least restrictive environment and, 26–27
limited English proficiency and, 226
mathematics difficulties/disabilities and, 467
multiple-severe disabilities and, 102, 103 (table)
other health impairments and, 91, 91 (table)
physical problems and, 90
positive behavioral interventions/supports and, 401
private school placement and, 23
racial/ethnic groups, over/underrepresentation issues and, 45–46
related services, funding for, 29
related services, mandated provision of, 22, 235, 236 (table)
response to intervention and, 32
Section 504 provisions and, 19
state/district testing, participation in, 246
stay-put provision and, 244
traumatic brain injury and, 125, 126 (table)
universal design for learning and, 262
Infectious diseases, 90 (figure), 92, 93 (table)
Informal reading inventories (IRIs), 328
Information processing, 56, 57, 59
Input adaptations, 257, 351
Instructional activity adaptations, 265, 266
Instructional content adaptations, 265, 266
Instructional delivery adaptations, 265, 266–267
Instructional materials adaptations, 265, 266, 267
Instructional practices:
active-participation activities and, 282, 283 (figure)
adaptations for instructional materials and, 295, 296 (table)
adaptive practices and, 34, 36, 236 (table)
advance organizer activities and, 279–280, 285, 286 (table)
anchored instruction and, 546–550, 548 (table), 550 (table)
checking for understanding and, 184, 282
chunking of information and, 282, 556
clinical teaching cycle and, 195, 196 (table)
closure activities and, 284, 285, 286 (table)
clustering technique and, 272
collaborative consultation model and, 186–189
concept analysis process and, 271

1284
conceptual knowledge and, 271, 277 (table)
cooperative learning and, 289–293, 290–291 (table)
coteaching and, 34–35, 178, 189–194
critical thinking and, 273–275, 274 (table), 277 (table)
culturally responsive teaching and, 146, 148, 152, 164, 184–185
data-based decision making and, 215, 221 (table), 225, 227
delivering instruction, techniques for, 279–286
diagnostic teaching and, 485, 489
differentiated instruction and, 158, 161, 166–168, 167 (figure)
direct instruction and, 278–279
discriminatory ability and, 270, 277 (table)
distributive practice an, 284
elaboration technique and, 272
engaged time and, 282
error correction and, 267, 282, 287
evidence-based/scientifically-based instruction and, 31–32, 215
explicit systematic instruction and, 32, 55, 74, 267, 289
factual knowledge and, 270, 277 (table)
fidelity to, 215
graphic organizers and, 150, 272
grouping practices and, 286–293
guided practice and, 282, 286 (table)
independent practice and, 283–284, 286 (table)
information, presentation of, 281–282, 285, 286 (table)
instructional components and, 278–279
learning stages and, 275–277, 278 (table), 280
level of student concern and, 281
manipulative materials and, 16
massed practice and, 282
metacognitive knowledge and, 271–272
mml:mnemonic devices and, 272–273
modeling and, 267, 281
multiple means of action and expression and, 260, 261 (table)
multiple means of engagement and, 260–261, 261 (table)
multiple means of representation and, 260, 261–262, 261 (table)
multitiered instructional support and, 214, 215–216
paced instruction and, 267
pedagogy and, 259
peer tutoring and, 288–289
planning for instruction and, 267–279
practice opportunities and, 282, 285, 286 (table)
procedural knowledge and, 271, 277 (table)

1285
 progress monitoring and, 284, 285, 286 (table)
question strategy and, 273, 275, 283, 284 (table), 285, 286 (table)
resistant to treatment and, 55
rules, teaching of, 277 (table), 376–379, 394
strategy instruction and, 279
student-centered learning and, 371, 372
textbooks/instructional materials, guidelines for, 293–295
think aloud technique and, 265, 267, 281, 469, 481, 499
universal design and, 259–260, 262
validated instructional practices and, 32, 148, 150
whole group instruction and, 287
See also ADAPT (Ask/Determine/Analyze/Propose/Test) framework; Assistive
technology (AT); Bilingual special education; Community-based instruction
(CBI); Content-area instruction; Curricula; Evidence-based practices; General
education; Inclusive education; Learning process; Special education
Instructional reading level, 293
Intellectual and developmental disabilities, 11, 15 (table), 68–69
adaptive behaviors and, 69, 71, 74
characteristics of, 73–74
cognitive functioning and, 69–70, 73–74
definitions of, 69–72, 70 (table)
Down syndrome and, 72–73
explicit systematic instruction and, 74
fetal alcohol syndrome and, 73
fragile X syndrome and, 72
generic supports and, 72
genetic abnormalities and, 72–73
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
intelligence quotient scores and, 69–71
intensity of supports and, 69, 72
key facts about, 69
mild disability category and, 70
moderate disability category and, 70
natural supports and, 72, 74
nonpaid supports and, 72
PKU/phenylketonuria and, 73
prevalence of, 74
profound disability category and, 71
severe disability category and, 71
specialized supports and, 72
support needs areas and, 71, 74
support systems and, 69, 71–72, 73, 74

1286
 types of, 72–73
See also Developmental disabilities; High-incidence disabilities; Intellectual
disability
Intellectual disability, 11, 19 (table), 45 (figure), 47, 49
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
language delays and, 63
See also Disabilities; High-incidence disabilities; Intellectual and developmental
disabilities; Low-incidence disabilities
Intelligence quotient (IQ), 69–71, 322
Intensity of supports, 69, 72
extensive supports, 72
intermittent supports, 72
limited supports, 72
multitiered instructional support and, 214, 215–216, 344–345, 401–402
pervasive supports, 72
Interdependent group contingencies, 397–398
Interest inventory, 368
Interim alternative education setting (IAES), 19 (table), 244, 249
Intermittent supports, 72
Internalizing behaviors, 77, 78
Internet access, 24–25, 57
Internships, 169
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) standards,
569, 570, 571, 572–573, 574–575, 577–579, 580, 581, 584, 586–587
Interval recording, 387 (table), 388, 388 (figure)
Interviews, 334–335
case history, collection of, 335
clinical interviews and, 481, 485, 490, 512
role-play interviews and, 336–337
teacher/student subjects of, 335
think-aloud interviews and, 335–336
See also Assessments; Job interviews
Iowa Test of Basic Skills, 315
Irregular words, 431, 432
Irving Independent School District v. Tatro (1984), 23
Itard, J. M. G., 14
Itinerant staff, 30

Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act of 1988, 159, 160
(table)
Jigsaw technique, 283, 290–291

1287
Job interviews, 412
Job skills training, 31, 35, 36
Johnson, A. P., 444
Johnson-Harris, K. M., 555
Johnson, L. J., 203
Johnstone, C. J., 348
Jordan, N. C., 476
Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, 109, 109 (figure), 111 (table), 112

Kaplan, D., 476

Karp, K. S., 478, 484, 486, 497, 501
Kauffman, J. M., 11, 157
Keller, H., 87–88, 128
Keyword method, 272
Kim, S. A., 319, 515
Kinder, D., 484
Kinzer, C. K., 550
Klingner, J. K., 147, 148
Knitzer, J., 76
Knowledge, 270
conceptual knowledge and, 271, 277 (table)
critical thinking and, 273–275, 274 (table), 277 (table)
discriminatory ability and, 270, 277 (table)
factual knowledge and, 270, 277 (table)
linguistic knowledge and, 511
metacognition and, 271–272, 279
prior knowledge, activation of, 167, 273, 439, 441, 527, 536, 538
procedural knowledge and, 271, 277 (table), 511
schematic knowledge and, 511
semantic knowledge and, 511
strategic knowledge and, 511
word problem solutions, knowledge needed for, 511
See also Learning process; Meaning; Understanding
Koury, G., 530
Krathwohl, D. R., 274
Kutz, M., 161
KWLS (know/want to know/learned/still need to learn) charts, 538

Labels. See Special education categories

Lanan-Thompson, S., 150
Language delays, 63
Language different students, 63, 133, 138–140, 139 (table), 140 (figure)

1288
Language impairment, 44, 45 (figure), 47
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
definitions of, 60, 61 (table)
dialects and, 63
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
language delays and, 63
language different students and, 63
language difficulties vs. learning disabilities and, 146, 148, 148 (table),
226–227, 322–323
learning disabilities, co-occurrence with, 59, 60 (figure)
pragmatics errors and, 62
prevalence of, 45 (figure), 51 (figure), 60 (figure), 63–64
semantics errors and, 62
syntax errors and, 62
See also Deaf/hard of hearing disabilities; High-incidence disabilities; Language
skills; Speech impairment
Language skills, 59
continuum of language development and, 150, 151–152 (table)
decodable texts and, 433
decoding process and, 179
dyslexia and, 55
language acquisition, realities/misconceptions about, 146, 147 (table)
language delays and, 63
language different students and, 63, 133, 138–140, 139 (table), 140 (figure)
phonograms and, 432, 433
phonological awareness and, 331, 332
semantic maps and, 272
semantically related groups and, 529
signal words and, 542
See also Bilingualism; Language impairment; Literacy instruction; Literature;
Reading process; Sign language; Speech; Vocabulary acquisition; Writing
process
Lavoie, R., 208
Lead poisoning, 13
Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA), 28, 48
Learning disabilities (LDs), 15 (table), 51, 52
academic characteristics and, 55–57, 56 (table)
ADAPT framework and, 268–269
attention difficulties and, 56
behavioral characteristics and, 56 (table), 148 (table)
cost to educate and, 58
definitions of, 53–54, 54 (table)

1289
 dyscalculia and, 467
dysgraphia and, 428–429
dyslexia and, 55
effort-accomplishment relationship and, 56
explicit systematic instruction and, 55
generalizations, difficulty with, 56–57
identification procedures and, 19 (table), 32, 53, 58, 344–345
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure)
information processing difficulties and, 56, 57, 59
intensive individualized interventions and, 55
language acquisition process and, 146, 148, 148 (table), 226–227, 322–323
learning disabled students, characteristics of, 55–58, 56 (table)
mathematics learning disabilities and, 55
misidentification of, 58
mobile devices, utility of, 57
peer rejection and, 58
pervasive underachievement and, 54, 55
prevalence of, 44, 45 (figure), 47, 50, 51 (figure), 59, 60 (figure)
reading difficulties and, 55, 268–269
resistance to treatment and, 55
response to intervention, early intervention and, 53–54, 58–59, 344–345
social characteristics and, 56 (table), 58
specific learning disabilities and, 49, 89 (figure)
speech/language impairments, co-occurrence with, 59, 60 (figure)
strategies for learning and, 56, 57
types of, 54–55
unexpected underachievement and, 55–56
written expression disabilities and, 55
See also Disabilities; High-incidence disabilities; Learning process; Special
learning needs
Learning process:
acquisition stage of, 275, 278 (table)
application stage of, 276–277, 278 (table)
automaticity and, 151, 431, 436, 486, 561
brainstorming and, 283, 444
checking for understanding and, 184, 282, 334
chunking and, 282, 556
cooperative learning and, 289–293, 290–291 (table), 530
critical thinking and, 273–275, 274 (table), 277 (table)
culture and, 141
direct instruction and, 278–279
engaged time and, 282

1290
 error correction procedures and, 267, 282, 287
executive functioning and, 473
factual knowledge and, 270, 277 (table)
generalization stage of, 276, 278 (table)
information processing and, 56, 57, 59
Learning Ready strategy and, 374–375, 374 (figure)
maintenance stage of, 276, 278 (table)
massed practice and, 282
proficiency stage of, 275–276, 278 (table)
scaffolded learning and, 319, 320, 417, 441, 442, 475
stages of, 275–277, 278 (table), 280
strategy instruction and, 279
student-centered learning and, 371, 372
typical learners and, 9–10, 10 (figure)
universal design and, 262
See also Bilingual special education; Graphic organizers; Instructional practices;
Language skills; Learning disabilities (LDs); Mastery learning; Meaning;
Memory; Progress monitoring; Project-based learning; Special learning needs;
Understanding; Universal design for learning (UDL); Vocabulary acquisition;
Writing process
Learning Ready strategy, 374–375, 374 (figure)
Least restrictive environment (LRE), 26–27, 31, 34, 235, 237
Lee, C., 279
Legibility, 452–453
Lenz, B. K., 544
Letter combinations, 426, 431, 432
Letter-sound correspondence, 426, 427, 430–431, 432, 433
Level of concern, 281
Lewandowski, J. A., 373
Licciardello, C. C., 418
Life skills, 27, 49
Limb deficiencies/loss, 109, 109 (figure), 111 (table), 112
Limited English proficient (LEP), 139, 143, 226
Limited supports, 72
Listening:
active listening and, 179–180
assistive technology devices and, 302 (table)
conflict resolution and, 183
decoding process and, 179
listening to others activity and, 411, 412 (figure)
study skills and, 552–553, 555, 558–560
See also Communication process

1291
Listening-to-others activity, 411, 412 (figure)
Literacy instruction, 423–425
assistive technology resources and, 451–452
auditory discrimination and, 429
decodable texts and, 433
drafting stage of writing and, 445–446
dysgraphia and, 428–429
dyslexia and, 427–428
early explicit reading instruction, value of, 425
editing stage of writing and, 449–451
handwriting skill and, 427
integrated literacy lessons and, 453, 456–458
literacy-rich childhoods and, 424
overlearning and, 453
phonemic awareness and, 429–430
phonics skills and, 332, 425, 430–433, 434
phonological awareness and, 425, 425 (figure), 429–430
prewriting stage of writing and, 442–444
prior knowledge, activation of, 441
publishing stage of writing and, 451–453
reading components and, 425, 425 (figure), 429–440
reading comprehension and, 425, 425 (figure), 434–435, 438–440
reading difficulties and, 426–429
reading fluency and, 425, 425 (figure), 433–436, 435 (table)
reading vocabulary and, 425, 425 (figure), 436–437
revision stage of writing and, 446–449
Self-Regulated Strategy Development approach and, 440–442
spelling skills and, 427, 433
story mapping and, 453, 456 (figure)
universal design for learning and, 457–458
word identification and, 425 (figure), 436–437
word meanings, picture associations and, 438
word prediction software and, 447
writing conferences and, 441, 442
writing process, stages of, 440–453
written communication, instruction in, 427–429
See also Content-area instruction; Reading comprehension; Reading fluency;
Reading process; Vocabulary acquisition; Writing process
Literature:
decodable texts and, 433
high-frequency words and, 432
physical features of texts and, 528, 536

1292
 See also Language skills; Literacy instruction; Vocabulary acquisition; Writing
process
Little, T. D., 71
Livingston, R. B., 317, 339, 343
Lloyd, J. W., 194
Locuniak, M. N., 476
Loeber, R., 415
Long-term memory, 473, 555
Loudness of speech, 61
Lovitt, T. C., 275, 389
Low-incidence disabilities, 14, 15 (table), 47, 50–51, 51 (figure), 85–86
autism spectrum disorders and, 87 (figure), 95–101
case examples of, 87–88
characteristics of, 87–89
deaf-blindness and, 87–88, 87 (figure), 89 (figure), 127–128
deaf/hard of hearing disabilities and, 114–120
developmental delay and, 87 (figure), 88, 89 (figure), 105–107
hearing impairments and, 87 (figure), 88, 89 (figure)
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure)
intensive special education supports and, 88–89
multiple disabilities and, 87 (figure), 88, 89 (figure)
multiple-severe disabilities and, 47, 87, 88, 101–105
orthopedic impairments and, 87 (figure), 88, 89 (figure)
other health impairments and, 87 (figure), 89–95, 90 (figure)
physical disabilities and, 107–114
prevalence of, 86–87, 87 (figure)
traumatic brain injury and, 87 (figure), 88, 89 (figure), 125–126
visual disabilities and, 87 (figure), 120–124
See also Disabilities; High-incidence disabilities; Special education categories
Lower-order questions. See Convergent/lower-order questions; Questions
Luckasson, R., 70
Luiselli, J. K., 418

Macrocultures, 138
Mainstream students, 9, 10 (figure)
Mainstreaming, 33
Maintenance stage of learning, 276, 278 (table)
Manifestation determination, 244
Manipulative materials, 16, 472, 477, 478 (figure), 490, 498, 499, 503, 507
Marquis, J. G., 544
Marsh, L., 468
Massed practice, 282

1293
Mastery learning, 276
criterion-referenced tests and, 328–329
massed practice and, 282
overlearning and, 453
Mastropieri, M. A., 178, 272, 277
Mathematics instruction, 465–466
active process assessment and, 265
ADAPT framework and, 485–487, 516–517
adaptations for instructional materials and, 295, 296 (table)
addition strategies/combinations and, 483 (table), 488, 491, 496 (table)
algebraic content instruction and, 505–511
algebraic equations, solving of, 508, 509–510, 509 (figure)
algebraic expressions and, 469
algebraic reasoning and, 505, 506–507, 506–507 (tables), 515
alternative algorithms and, 498–499
arithmetic combinations, ADAPT framework and, 485–487
arithmetic combinations and, 480–482, 483–484 (table), 504
arithmetic combinations, instructional strategies and, 483–484 (table),
488–489
arithmetic properties and, 506, 506 (table)
arithmetic properties, insufficient understanding of, 474
assistive technology devices and, 302 (table)
autism spectrum disorders and, 470–471, 472 (table)
base-ten system and, 476, 482
bean stick computation and, 498, 499 (figure)
clustering strategy and, 498
collaborative mathematics instruction and, 510–511
computational fluency and, 276, 481
concrete-semiconcrete-abstract instructional routine and, 468–470, 469
(table), 503
counting skills and, 475, 476, 477, 479, 481
criterion-referenced test for, 329
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 471–473
decimals and, 501, 502, 503–504, 505, 518
demonstration plus permanent model intervention and, 499–500, 503
division strategies/combinations and, 484 (table), 489, 497 (table), 498, 499
dyscalculia and, 467
early number development, difficulties with, 476
early number development, instruction in, 475–480
error patterns, remedial techniques and, 492, 493–494 (table)
estimation strategies, 498
evidence-based interventions practices and, 470–471

1294
executive functioning and, 475
expanded notation strategy and, 498, 499
face value and, 486
fact families and, 508, 508 (figure)
fact numbers and, 477, 479, 481, 482
fractions and, 469, 501, 502, 503–504, 518
front-end strategy and, 498
functional skills and, 471, 472 (table)
fundamental understanding, insufficient development of, 474
generalization, encouragement of, 482, 495, 500–501
geometry instruction and, 515
graphic organizers and, 509–510
graphing calculator use and, 507
guided practice and, 470
instructional issues and, 474–475
instructional materials for, 477, 478 (figure), 490, 503, 506, 515
integers and, 501
invented strategies and, 494, 496–497 (table)
key questions strategy and, 500
language/symbols of mathematics and, 471–473, 474 (table), 475, 477, 490,
502, 506
learning/practice/mastery, insufficient opportunities for, 474–475
magnitude comparison and, 476, 479
manipulatives for, 16, 472, 477, 478 (figure), 490, 498, 499, 503, 507
mathematics concepts, early understanding of, 475–476
mathematics difficulties and, 471–475, 502
mathematics learning disabilities and, 55, 467–471, 502
memory issues and, 473–474, 481
money instruction and, 505
multiplication strategies/combinations and, 484 (table), 488–489, 497 (table),
504
number sense and, 467, 468, 475–476, 502
number writing, quick write and, 479–480
object comparison/grouping and, 477
order of operations and, 508–509
part-part-whole relationships and, 480, 512
partial products strategy and, 498
percentages and, 501, 502, 505, 517–519
pictorial representation of abstractions, software for, 495
place value concepts and, 468, 476, 482, 484, 486–487, 489–491
position names and, 486
predictive mathematics skills and, 468, 469 (table)

1295
 problem solving strategies and, 505, 511–517
process assessments and, 330–331
progress monitoring and, 477, 488, 490, 515
question framework, algebraic reasoning and, 507, 507 (table)
rational numbers and, 501–505
reading/writing numerals and, 477
real-world problems and, 501, 511
renaming and, 491, 501
response to intervention and, 468–469
reversals and, 480
rounding strategy and, 497–498
scaffolded learning and, 475
scope-and-sequence chart example, 329, 329–330 (figures)
sequence of instruction approach and, 500–501
severe cognitive disabilities and, 471, 472 (table)
struggling students, attributes of, 466–475
subtraction strategies/combinations and, 483–484 (table), 488, 491, 496
(table), 499
teen numbers and, 479, 490–491
think aloud procedure and, 469, 481, 499
transition to place value and, 487
Unifix cubes software and, 495
universal design for learning lesson and, 517–519
whole-number computation and, 491–501
word problem strategies and, 468, 511–517
See also Content-area instruction
Mathes, P. G., 150
Mayer, R. E., 274, 511, 512
Mazzocco, M. M. M., 502
McConnell, S., 407
McDuffie, K. A., 178
Meaning:
connotative meaning, 528
denotative meaning, 528
information processing and, 56, 57, 59
motivation, meaningful activities and, 370–371
semantically related groups and, 529
See also Knowledge; Understanding
Medically fragile individuals, 91
Memory:
acronyms and, 273
acrostics and, 273

1296
 cognitive impairment and, 73–74
executive functioning and, 473
keyword method and, 272
learning disabilities and, 57
long-term memory, 473, 555
mathematics skill and, 473–474
mml:mnemonic devices and, 272–273
short-term memory, 555
study skill development and, 555–556, 561–562
working memory, 473, 555
Mental retardation (MR), 11, 19 (table), 49, 69
See also Intellectual and developmental disabilities; Intellectual disability
Mentorships, 169
Mercer, A. R., 500
Mercer, C. D., 452, 500, 563
Mercury poisoning, 13
Metacognition, 271–272, 279
Microcultures, 138
Migrant status, 155
Miller, S. P., 478
Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia (1972), 17
Misbehavior. See Behavioral strategies; Behaviors; Positive behavioral strategies
Mixed-ability grouping, 288
Mml:Mnemonic devices, 272, 441
acronyms and, 273
acrostics and, 273
keyword method and, 272
order of operations and, 509
study skills and, 556, 561
See also Memory
Modeling, 267, 281, 287, 399, 441
Modifications, 87, 135, 150, 152
Momentary time sampling, 387 (table)
Monitoring. See Progress monitoring
Montessori, M., 16
Motivation. See Premack Principle; Reward systems
Mraz, M. E., 529, 531
Mühlhäuser, M., 558
Multicultural education, 142
Multicultural special education, 146
bilingual special education and, 150
collaborative strategic reading technique and, 150

1297
 culturally responsive teaching and, 146, 148, 152
curricular modifications and, 150, 152
English language learners and, 146, 147 (table), 150
equal opportunity to learn and, 148, 149
goal of, 146
language acquisition process, realities/misconceptions about, 146, 147 (table)
language development, continuum of, 150, 151–152 (table)
language difficulties vs. learning disabilities and, 146, 148, 148 (table),
226–227
linguistic support and, 150
response to intervention and, 150
validated language instruction practices and, 150
See also Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students; English language
learners (ELLs); Special education services; Special learning needs
Multidisciplinary teams, 29, 30, 51, 158
assistive technology, role of, 237
highly qualified teachers and, 18 (table), 157, 234–235
individualized education programs and, 231, 238
related services/service providers and, 235–237, 236 (table)
special education services and, 234–238
See also Professional collaboration; Special education services
Multiple disabilities, 44, 47
case example of, 88
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
deaf-blindness and, 127
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
prevalence of, 87 (figure)
See also Low-incidence disabilities; Multiple-severe disabilities
Multiple intelligences theory, 160, 161 (table)
Multiple means of action and expression, 260, 261 (table)
Multiple means of engagement, 260–261, 261 (table)
Multiple means of representation, 260, 261–262, 261 (table)
Multiple sclerosis (MS), 109 (figure), 110–111 (table)
Multiple-severe disabilities, 47, 87, 101, 101–102
assistive technology, role of, 103–104
augmentative and alternative communication devices and, 103
case example of, 88
cerebral palsy and, 103
characteristics of, 103–104
deficit perspective and, 102
definition of, 102, 103 (table)
group home placements and, 102

1298
 heart disease and, 103
instructional procedures/services, development of, 102
outlook for, 102
prevalence of, 104–105
seizure disorders and, 103
support systems, development of, 102, 103–104
types of, 103
vision/hearing disorders and, 103
See also Low-incidence disabilities; Multiple disabilities
Multitiered systems of support (MTSS), 214, 215–216, 344–345, 401–402
Mundschenk, N. A., 555
Murawski, W. W., 195
Muscular dystrophy (MD), 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table)
Muscular/skeletal conditions, 109, 109 (figure), 111 (table), 112
See also Physical disabilities

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 153, 356, 426

National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), 159
National Association of School Nurses (NASN), 237
National Center and State Collaborative, 359
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 45, 60, 79, 101, 139, 143, 144,
145, 154, 177
National Center for Homeless Education (NCHE), 154, 155
National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO), 357, 358, 359
National Center on Intensive Intervention (NCII), 258
National Center on Secondary Education and Transition (NCSET), 243
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 466, 480, 501, 505, 507,
511
National Council on Disability (NCD), 24, 25
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY), 103
National Human Genome Research Institute, 96
National Infant and Toddler Child Care Initiative, 105
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), 95
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), 66, 99, 100
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 53, 54 (table)
National Library of Virtual Manipulatives (NLVM), 503, 507
National Mathematics Advisory Panel (NMAP), 466, 501, 505
National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition, 76
National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, 402
National Reading Panel, 425
National Society for the Gifted and Talented, 161
Nelson, K. L., 263, 271

1299
Neuromotor impairments, 109, 109 (figure), 110–111, 110–111 (table)
See also Physical disabilities
Nevin, A., 178, 180, 187
New England Asylum for the Blind, 16
Nieto, S., 142
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, 18 (table), 22
academic achievement, improvement in, 22
achievement gap, closing of, 22
adequate yearly progress and, 228, 245, 317–318, 328
alternate assessments and, 228, 229, 357
gifted/talented students and, 160 (table)
high stakes testing and, 88
highly qualified teachers and, 234
paraprofessionals, credentials for, 197
standards-assessments alignment and, 156
state/district testing, participation in, 22, 31, 228, 246
students with disabilities and, 22, 88
See also Evidence-based practices
Non-English proficient, 139
Noncategorical approach, 15 (table), 50, 105, 106
Norm-referenced tests, 325
age equivalents and, 326–327
derived scores and, 326
grade equivalents and, 327–328
Likert-style rating system and, 326
local norms and, 325
mean scores and, 326
national scores and, 325
normative samples and, 325
peer performance, comparisons and, 334
percentiles and, 326, 327 (table)
raw scores and, 326–327
representativeness, demographic information and, 325–326
software, results reporting and, 325
standard scores and, 326, 327 (table)
statistical standard deviations and, 326
See also Assessments
Normal curve, 9, 10 (figure)
Normalization concept, 18 (table), 20
Normative sample, 325–326
Normative scores, 315
Note-taking skills, 552, 553, 555, 558–561

1300
Number sense, 467, 468, 475–476, 502
Numbered Heads Together strategy, 283

Obamacare. See Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010

Obremski, S., 71
Observation, 314, 333
Antecedent Behavior Consequence log and, 388–391
behavior analysis and, 386–389, 387 (table)
checking for understanding and, 334
descriptive observation and, 388
duration recording and, 387 (table)
event recording and, 387 (table)
interval recording and, 387 (table), 388, 388 (figure)
momentary time sampling and, 387 (table)
observation form and, 333 (figure)
peer performance, comparisons of, 334
teacher observations and, 333–334
Occupational therapy (OT) services, 29, 185, 235, 236 (table), 298
Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, 44, 144
Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), 14, 31, 35, 44, 48, 50, 101, 144,
229, 230, 240, 242, 243
Ogle, D. M., 538
On-task behavior, 281, 282
Oral reading fluency, 433, 454–455
Orientation and mobility services, 29, 31, 51, 236 (table), 302 (table)
Orosco, M. J., 150
Orthopedic impairments, 15 (table), 44, 46, 47
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
definition of, 10 (table), 108
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
prevalence of, 87 (figure)
See also Low-incidence disabilities; Physical disabilities
Ortiz, A. A., 195, 196
Ortiz, S. O., 150, 152, 226
Other health impairments, 48, 65 (table), 66, 68
asthma and, 13, 48, 90 (figure), 92 (table), 93–94, 95
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and, 89, 95
blood disorders and, 90 (figure), 91, 93 (table)
characteristics of, 94–95
childhood cancers and, 90 (figure), 91, 92–93 (table)
chronic illnesses and, 90 (figure), 92, 92–93 (table)
congenital heart condition and, 90 (figure), 92 (table)

1301
 culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
cystic fibrosis and, 90 (figure), 91, 92 (table)
definition of, 91, 91 (table)
diabetes and, 90 (figure), 91–92 (tables)
epilepsy and, 13, 95
hepatitis B and, 90 (figure), 93 (table)
HIV/AIDS and, 12, 90 (figure), 93 (table), 94, 95
home-bound/hospital instruction and, 94–95
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
infectious diseases and, 90 (figure), 92, 93 (table)
medically fragile individuals and, 91
prevalence of, 45 (figure), 47, 87, 87 (figure), 95
sickle-cell anemia and, 48, 90 (figure), 95, 96
special health care needs, organizational scheme for, 90, 90 (figure)
STORCH infections, 90 (figure), 91, 93 (table)
tuberculosis and, 90 (figure), 91, 92 (table)
See also Health impairments; Low-incidence disabilities
Output adaptations, 351–352
Overlearning, 453
Overrepresentation, 144–146, 145 (table)
Overton, T., 335

Paced instruction, 267, 287

Paolucci-Whitcomb, P., 178, 180, 187
Paradoxical learners, 164
Paraeducators. See Paraprofessionals
Paraprofessionals, 29, 176, 180, 196, 197–198
assistive technology devices, training on, 305
collaborative partnership, roles in, 198–200, 201 (table)
community-based instruction and, 198
credentials for, 197
cultural/linguistic connections, development of, 197
demand/need for, 198
roles/responsibilities of, 197, 198–200
supervision of, 201–202
teachers’ tasks and, 200
training of, 202
See also Professional collaboration; Related services
Parent advocacy groups, 28–29, 34
Parent-teacher conferences, 206–208, 206–207 (table)
conferences stage and, 207
postconference stage and, 207

1302
 preconference stage and, 206–207
See also Family involvement; Individualized education program (IEP);
Professional collaboration
Parrish, T., 58
Partial products, 498
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC), 318, 349
Partnerships. See Family involvement; Family systems approach; Individualized
education program (IEP); Professional collaboration; Related services
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. See Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010
Patton, J. R., 526, 552, 562
Pedagogy, 259
Peer consultation, 195
Peer-forum technique, 373
Peer-nominating techniques, 408–409
Peer revision process, 448–449
Peer tutoring, 78, 288–289
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania (1972), 17
Percentiles, 326, 327 (table)
Perinatal stage, 12, 111
Peripheral vision, 121
Perkins Institute, 16
Pervasive developmental disorder-not-otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), 97, 97
(figure)
Pervasive supports, 72
Pfannenstiel, K. H., 507
Phonics skills, 332, 425, 430–433, 434
See also Literacy instruction; Reading process
Phonograms, 432, 433
Phonological awareness (PA), 331, 332, 425, 425 (figure), 429–430
Physical disabilities, 46–47, 9107
accessibility, promotion of, 107–108, 113
aura before seizures and, 111
cerebral palsy and, 12, 88, 90, 103, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table), 111,
112–113, 114
characteristics of, 112–113
definition of, 108, 108 (table)
epilepsy and, 13, 95, 109, 110 (table), 111
juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and, 109, 109 (figure), 111 (table), 112
limb deficiencies/loss and, 109, 109 (figure), 111 (table), 112
multiple sclerosis and, 109 (figure), 110–111 (table)
muscular dystrophy and, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table)

1303
 muscular/skeletal conditions and, 109, 109 (figure), 111 (table), 112
neuromotor impairments and, 109, 109 (figure), 110–111, 110–111 (table)
orthopedic disabilities and, 108, 108 (table)
polio and, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table)
preictal stage in seizure disorders and, 111
prevalence of, 113–114
seizure disorders and, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table), 111, 112
skeletal disorders and, 109, 109 (Figure)
spinal cord disorders and, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table)
types of, 109–112, 109 (figure), 110–111 (table)
See also Low-incidence disabilities
Physical features of texts, 528, 536
Physical therapy (PT) services, 29, 31, 185, 235, 236 (table), 298
Pintrich, P. R., 274
PIRATES test-taking strategy, 562, 563 (table)
Pitch in speech, 61
Pitch of sound, 118
Pittel, A., 530
PKU (Phenylketonuria), 73
Planned ignoring, 392–393
Polio, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table)
Porterfield, J., 484
Portfolio assessment, 247, 342–343
Position names, 486
Positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS), 215, 401–402
See also Behavioral strategies; Positive behavior strategies
Positive behavioral strategies, 31, 78, 365–367
ADAPT framework and, 389–391, 396–397
alternate data sources and, 392
behavior identification/description and, 386
behavior intervention plans and, 402–405
classroom arrangement practices and, 382
classroom observation and, 384
classroom rules, clear posting of, 394
classroom traffic patterns and, 383
communication, clear/consistent massages and, 375–382
communication, roadblocks to, 376, 377 (table)
contingent observation strategy and, 393
contractual agreements and, 394–395, 398 (figure)
criterion-specific rewards and, 394
cultural/linguistic diversity, responsiveness to, 371–373
daily schedule, explanation of, 379–380

1304
 effective directions, provision of, 380
functional behavior assessment and, 18 (table), 244–245, 369, 401, 402, 403,
404–405
in-school supervision strategy and, 400–402
interdependent group contingencies and, 397–398
Learning Ready strategy and, 374–375, 374 (figure)
meaningful activities, examples of, 370–371
misbehavior, goals of, 384–385, 385 (table)
motivational practices, implementation of, 368–371, 380
multitiered systems of support and, 401–402
observational techniques, behavior data analysis and, 386–389, 387 (table),
388 (figure)
peer-forum technique and, 373
physical classroom arrangements and, 382–383
planned ignoring strategy and, 392–393
positive behavioral interventions/supports and, 215, 401–402
positive learning communities, fostering of, 369–371
positive reinforcement strategy and, 394, 396–397
problem behaviors, assessment of, 385–392
problem behaviors, instructional strategies for, 392–404
prosocial behaviors and, 384–385
redirecting inappropriate behavior and, 393
rules/consequences, clear explanation of, 376–379
schoolwide positive behavior support and, 401
seating arrangements and, 383
Self-regulation techniques and, 398–399, 400 (figure)
specific praise, judicious use of, 381–382
student-centered learning and, 371, 372
student information collection, teacher role in, 367–368, 372–373
student interest inventory and, 368
student meetings and, 373
student relationships/communication, encouragement of, 367–375
teacher effectiveness, optimization of, 375–382
time-out/seclusion time-out strategy and, 400
transition time, procedures for, 380–381
with-it-ness and, 383–384
See also Behavior intervention plans (BIPs); Behavioral strategies;
Communication process; Positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS)
Positive learning communities, 369–371
Postnatal stage, 12, 111
Postsecondary educational opportunities, 243
Practice opportunities:

1305
 checking for understanding and, 184, 282, 334
engaged time and, 282
error-correction procedures and, 267, 282, 287
guided practice and, 267, 282, 286 (table), 470
independent practice and, 283–284, 286 (table)
massed practice and, 282
Pragmatics errors, 62
PRAXIS Subject Assessments, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 576, 577, 578, 579, 581,
584–585, 587
Prefixes, 436
Preictal stage, 111
Premack Principle, 380
Prenatal stage, 12, 111
Prereferral process, 27, 223–224, 243 (table), 247
See also Individualized education program (IEP)
Prevalence of disabilities, 14, 48
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and, 64, 68
autism spectrum disorders and, 87, 87 (figure), 96, 101
deaf-blindness and, 87 (figure), 128
deaf/hard of hearing disabilities and, 120
developmental delay and, 87 (figure), 106–107
emotional/behavioral disorders and, 79
high-incidence disabilities and, 44, 45 (figure), 50–51, 51 (figure)
intellectual and developmental disabilities and, 74
learning disabilities and, 44, 45 (figure), 47, 50, 51 (figure), 59
low-incidence disabilities and, 50–51, 51 (figure), 86–87, 87 (figure)
multiple-severe disabilities and, 104–105
other health impairments and, 45 (figure), 47, 87, 87 (figure), 89, 95
physical disabilities and, 113–114
speech/language impairments and, 45 (figure), 51 (figure), 60 (figure), 63–64
traumatic brain injury and, 87 (figure), 126
visual disabilities and, 87 (figure), 124
See also Disabilities; High-incidence disabilities; Low-incidence disabilities;
Special education
Prewriting stage, 425, 442–444
brainstorming and, 444
instructional strategies for, 443–444
list construction and, 444
self-writing strategy and, 443–444
struggling students, characteristics of, 443
writing literature exercise and, 444
See also Literacy instruction; Writing process

1306
Price, K. M., 263, 271
Prior knowledge, 167, 273, 439, 441, 527, 536, 538
Private school placements, 23 (table)
Problem solving instruction, 410, 412–413, 414 (table)
See also Word problems
Procedural knowledge, 271, 277 (table)
Process assessments, 330
active process assessments and, 265, 331
passive process assessments and, 330–331, 337
think-aloud interviews and, 335–337
See also Assessments; Progress monitoring
Professional collaboration, 175–176
active listening and, 179–180
alternative programs/services and, 196 (table)
assessment strategies, multiple contexts and, 185
at-risk students, responsive education teams and, 158
characteristics of, 176–179
clinical teaching cycle and, 195, 196 (table)
collaboration-consultation model for, 186–189
communication skills for, 179–182, 205, 206
conflict resolution skills and, 182–183
consultation competencies and, 184–185
content-area instruction, sensory disabilities and, 563–564
coteaching model for, 34–35, 178, 189–195
cultural/linguistic diversity, attunement to, 184–185
English language learners, collaborative intervention strategies and, 195–196,
196 (table)
family involvement, collaborative partnerships and, 202–209
family systems approach and, 204–206
formal/informal collaborations and, 176
general education services, special needs students and, 185–186
gifted/talented students and, 530
home-school communication and, 208–209
inclusive educational opportunities and, 176–178
individualized education programs and, 185, 229–231, 232, 232 (table)
listening skills and, 179–180
mathematics instruction and, 510–511
multidisciplinary teams and, 29, 30, 51, 158
need for, 185–186
nonverbal communication and, 181–182
paraprofessionals, role of, 176, 196, 197–202
parent-teacher conferences and, 206–208, 206–207 (table)

1307
 participants, cooperative behaviors of, 178
peer/expert consultation and, 195
prerequisite skills for, 179–185
shared problem solving and, 178
shared responsibility and, 178
social media resources and, 181
special education students, general education placements and, 176, 177 (table)
student success, collaborative instructional practices and, 52
teacher assistance team process and, 195, 196 (table)
verbal communication skills and, 180–181
video technology and, 180, 181
voluntary involvement and, 178–179
written communication skills and, 181
See also ADAPT (Ask/Determine/Analyze/Propose/Test) framework; Related
services
Professional standards/licensure:
Council for Exceptional Children standards and, 273–274, 276–277, 278,
279–280, 283, 286, 569, 570, 571, 572
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium standards and,
569, 570, 571, 572–573, 574–575, 577–579, 580, 581, 584, 586–587
PRAXIS Subject Assessments overview and, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 576,
577, 578, 579, 581, 584–585, 587
Proficiency stage of learning, 275–276, 278 (table)
Progress monitoring, 32, 215, 284, 285
ADAPT framework and, 256
aim checks and, 321–322, 321 (figure)
benchmark checks and, 318–320, 319 (table)
criterion-referenced tests and, 328–329
curriculum-based measurement and, 32, 219, 225, 247, 328
daily checks and, 319 (table), 320
decision rule, intervention changes and, 322
individualized education programs, accountability measures and, 228, 232
(table), 245–247
placements, flexibility in, 247–248
response to intervention and, 215, 219, 221 (table), 318
tools for, 318–322, 319 (table), 321 (figure)
unit checks and, 319 (table), 320–321
See also Assessments; Evidence-based practice; Individualized education
program (IEP)
Prompts, 267, 287
Prosocial behaviors, 384–385
Public Law (PL) 94-142, 18, 21

1308
Public Law (PL) 95-561, 160
Public Law (PL) 99-457, 239
Public Law (PL) 100-297, 159, 160
Public Law (PL) 100-407, 24
Public Law (PL) 101-476, 21
Public Law (PL) 107-110, 160
Public Law (PL) 108-364, 23–24
Public transportation instruction, 31
Publishing stage, 425, 451
instructional strategies for, 453
struggling students, characteristics of, 452–453
See also Literacy instruction; Writing process
Pugach, M. C., 203
Pull-in programs, 34
Pullen, P. C., 11, 452
Pullout programs, 35, 133
Purcell, C., 160
Purpose for writing, 447

Questions:
convergent/lower-order questions, 273, 275
diagnostic teaching and, 485, 489
discussion/engagement, promotion of, 281
divergent-higher-order questions, 275
input adaptations and, 257, 351
reflective questions and, 285, 286 (table)
response-dependent questioning strategy, 283, 284 (table)

Racial/ethnic groups:
achievement gap and, 153–154
cultural identity, learning of, 141, 372
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 138–140, 139 (table), 140
(figure)
culturally responsive teaching and, 146, 148, 152, 164, 184–185, 371–373
culture, definition of, 140–141
learning process, cultural factors in, 141
multicultural education and, 142
poverty and, 154
sickle-cell anemia and, 95, 96
special education, over/underrepresentation issues and, 45–46, 79, 144–146,
145 (table), 371–372
See also Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students; English language

1309
 learners (ELLs); Multicultural special education
Ramineni, C., 476
Raskind, M., 304
Rating scales, 337, 339 (figures)
Reading comprehension, 425, 438
collaborative strategic reading strategy and, 439–440
instruction in, 439–440
prior knowledge, activation of, 439
repeated reading exercise and, 434–435
self-monitoring of, 527–528, 534–538
story mapping and, 453, 456 (figure)
struggling readers, characteristics of, 439, 440
See also Literacy instruction; Reading fluency; Reading process; Reading
vocabulary
Reading fluency, 247, 425, 425 (figure), 433
ADAPT framework and, 454–455
adaptations for instructional materials and, 295, 296 (table)
deaf/hard of hearing students and, 119
development of, 434–435
independent reading level and, 436
influential factors in, 435
informal reading inventories and, 328
instruction in, 435–436
oral reading fluency and, 433, 454–455
prosody and, 433
silent reading fluency and, 433
visual disabilities and, 123
words correct per minute measure of, 435, 435 (table)
See also Literacy instruction; Reading process
Reading process:
ADAPT framework and, 268–269, 303–304
assistive technology devices and, 301 (table), 303–304
auditory discrimination and, 429
collaborative strategic reading technique and, 150
components of, 425, 425 (figure), 429–440
independent reading and, 436
informal reading inventories and, 328
instructional reading level and, 293
integrated literacy lessons and, 453, 456–458
letter combinations and, 426, 431, 432
letter-sound correspondence and, 426, 427, 430–431, 433
phonemic awareness and, 429–430

1310
 phonics skills and, 332, 425, 430–433, 434
phonological awareness and, 331, 332, 425, 425 (figure), 429–430
reading difficulties and, 55, 268–269
sight word recognition and, 148 (table), 431, 432, 435, 436
See also Content-area instruction; Language skills; Literacy instruction;
Literature; Reading comprehension; Reading fluency; Reading vocabulary;
Vocabulary acquisition; Writing process
Reading vocabulary, 425, 436
instruction in, 437
struggling readers, characteristics of, 436–437
word meanings, picture associations and, 438
See also Reading comprehension; Reading process; Vocabulary acquisition
Recreation therapy (RT) services, 29, 236 (table)
Recursive writing, 425
Reeve, A., 70
Referral process, 224, 232 (table)
opportunities to learn and, 148, 149
See also Identification procedures; Individualized education program (IEP)
Rehabilitation Act. See Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Rehabilitation counseling, 29, 236 (table)
Reinforcement, 275, 394, 396–397
Related services, 29, 235
adaptive physical education and, 236 (table)
audiology services and, 29, 225, 235, 236 (table)
costs of, 235–236
diagnostic/evaluation services and, 236 (table)
individualized education program specifications and, 29
itinerant staff and, 30
mandated services and, 22, 23 (table), 235, 236 (table)
multidisciplinary teams and, 29, 30, 235–237
occupational therapy and, 29, 185, 235, 236 (table)
orientation and mobility services and, 29, 31, 51, 236 (table)
paraprofessionals and, 29
physical therapy and, 29, 31, 185, 235, 236 (table)
recreation therapy and, 29, 236 (table)
rehabilitation counseling and, 29, 236 (table)
school counseling and, 29, 236 (table)
school nursing and, 29, 112, 235, 236 (table)
segregated specialized programs and, 33
social work services and, 29, 153, 185, 236 (table)
speech/language pathology services and, 29, 34, 59, 63, 185, 225, 235, 236
(table)

1311
 speech therapy and, 31, 34, 185, 235, 236 (table)
transportation services and, 29, 236 (table)
vocational education/work study and, 29
See also Assistive technology (AT); Assistive technology devices;
Paraprofessionals; Special education; Special education services
Reliability, 324
alternate forms reliability and, 324
assessment instrument/scores and, 324
internal consistency reliability and, 324
interscorer agreement/interobserver reliability and, 324
test-retest reliability and, 324
See also Assessments; Validity
Reschly, D. J., 58
Residual vision, 121
Resistant to treatment, 55
Resource room instruction, 35
Response to intervention (RTI), 32, 214–215
ADAPT framework and, 218–220
components/instructional features of, 219, 221 (table)
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 150
curriculum and, 221 (table)
curriculum-based measures and, 344–345
data-based decision making and, 215, 221 (table)
differentiated instruction and, 217–219, 258
evidence-based instruction and, 217
grouping arrangements and, 221 (table)
identification/evaluation processes and, 215
instructional time allotment and, 221 (table)
learning disabilities and, 53–54, 58–59, 215
learning disability identification process and, 344–345
mathematics interventions and, 468–469
multitiered systems of support and, 214, 215–216, 401–402
positive behavioral interventions/supports and, 215
prereferral process and, 223
progress monitoring and, 215, 219, 221 (table), 318–322
Tier 1/primary tier and, 216–219, 221 (table), 320
Tier 2/secondary tier and, 219, 221 (table), 320
Tier 3/tertiary tier and, 219, 221 (table), 320
tiers of instructional support in, 216, 216 (figure)
universal screening process and, 215, 219, 221 (table), 318
See also Individualized education program (IEP); Special education services
Rett syndrome, 97, 97 (figure)

1312
Revising stage, 425, 446
instructional strategies for, 447–449
peer revision process and, 448–449
struggling students, characteristics of, 446
See also Literacy instruction; Writing process
Reward systems:
criterion-specific rewards, 394, 395 (table)
earned/free time and, 380
interdependent group contingency and, 397–398
learning process and, 275
motivational practices, implementation of, 368–371
Premack Principle and, 380
reinforcement and, 275
specific praise and, 381–382
See also Behavioral strategies
Reynolds, C. R., 317, 339, 343
Rieth, H. J., 550
Riggs, C. G., 200
Rimes. See Phonograms
Rivera, D. P., 207
Roberts, G., 484
Robotics, 112
Rodgers, C. R., 376
Role-play interviews, 336–337
Role-playing, 399, 409–410
Root words, 436, 528
Rosa’s Law of 2010, 11, 19 (table)
Rose, C. A., 415
Ross, S. H., 486
Rowley v. Hendrick Hudson School District (1982), 23
Rubrics, 337, 339 (figures), 340–341 (table), 341
Rules/procedures, 277 (table), 376–379, 394
Runyan, M., 88

Safe school environments, 413–416

Same-ability grouping, 168
Saunders, M., 398
Scaffolded learning, 319, 320, 417, 441, 442, 475
Schalock, R. L., 71, 73
Schizophrenia, 77
School counseling, 29, 236 (table)
School nursing services, 29, 112, 235

1313
School social work services, 29, 153, 185, 236 (table)
School violence:
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders and, 66
behavior intervention plans and, 244
bullying and, 66, 75, 77, 415–416
disability-related behaviors and, 244
in-school supervision strategy and, 400–402
interim alternative educational placements and, 19 (table)
safe school environments, guidelines for, 413–414
teacher victimization and, 416
See also Behavior intervention plans (BIPs)
Schoolwide positive behavior support (SWPBS), 401
Schumaker, J. B., 407, 544, 563
Scientifically-based instruction, 215
fidelity to instructional practices and, 215
peer-review process and, 215
See also Evidence-based practices; Validated instructional practices
Screening process, 215, 219, 221 (table), 318, 331–332
Scruggs, T. E., 178, 272, 277
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 18 (table), 221
assistive technology devices and, 135–136
asthma and, 13
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and, 64, 68
education services, provision of, 136, 138, 220–222
eligibility assessment and, 316
normalization concept and, 20
physical/cognitive needs and, 135–138
public buildings, access to, 19
rights focus of, 19, 20
school activities, full participation in, 19
Section 504 Plan and, 136–138, 137 (figure)
Segregated specialized programs, 33–34, 49, 50
Seguin, E., 16
Seizure disorders, 13, 103, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table), 111, 112
Self-advocacy, 233
Self-determination, 233
Self-help skills, 49
Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) approach, 440–442
discussing writing process and, 441
independent writing and, 442
memorizing writing strategies and, 441
modeling writing practices and, 441

1314
 prior knowledge, development/activation of, 441
supported writing process and, 441–442
writing conferences, engagement in, 442
See also Literacy instruction; Writing process
Self-regulation techniques, 398–399, 400 (figure)
Semantic maps, 272, 530, 536, 536 (figure)
Semantically related groups, 529
Semantics, 62
Semel, E. M., 471
Semilingualism, 147 (table)
Service animals, 124
Service managers, 239
Services. See Related services; Special education services
Shamberger, C., 191
Sheldon, J., 407
Sherman, J. A., 407
Short-term memory, 555
Sickle-cell anemia, 48, 90 (figure), 95, 96
Sight. See Vision; Visual disabilities
Sight word recognition, 148 (table), 431, 432, 435, 436
Sign language:
American Sign Language and, 114, 116
hand over hand signing and, 128
interpreters, provision of, 23 (table)
language acquisition, bilingual-bicultural approach to, 116
prelingual deafness and, 116
signed English and, 114
See also Deaf/hard of hearing disabilities; Deafness; Language skills
Signal words, 542
Signed English, 114
Silbert, J., 484
Silent reading fluency, 433
Singer, M., 88
Single numeral, 482, 486
Skeletal disorders, 109, 109 (figure)
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC), 318
Smith, D. D., 205, 207, 275, 413
Smith v. Robinson (1984), 23
Social media resources, 181
Social skills development, 404
Antecedent Behavior Consequence log and, 406
bullying and, 415–416

1315
 coaching strategy and, 410, 412–413
communication devices and, 408
curricula for, 405–408, 407 (figure)
job interviews, practice for, 412
learning-related social skills, difficulties in, 471
listening-to-others activity and, 411, 412 (figure)
peer relationships, identification of, 408–409
problem solving/decision making, instruction in, 410, 412–413, 414 (table)
role-playing activities and, 409–410
safe school environments, guidelines for, 413–414
social competence and, 404–405
social skill tasks and, 405, 406 (table)
sociograms and, 409, 409 (figure)
sociometric surveys and, 408–409
universal design for learning activity and, 417–418
See also Behavioral strategies; Positive behavioral strategies
Social work services, 29, 153, 185, 236 (table)
Sociograms, 409, 409 (figure)
Sociological perspective, 11
SoRelle, D., 319
Sorrells, A. M., 428
Special education, 25–26
access to general education curriculum and, 21, 31, 34, 49
alternative curricula and, 31
array of services and, 35
collaboration-consultation model and, 186–189
community-based instruction and, 27
continuum of services and, 35
coteaching practices and, 34–35
court cases about, 17, 17 (table), 23 (table)
definition/purpose of, 25, 32
disabilities, categories of, 14, 15 (table)
due process hearings and, 21, 23 (table)
evidence-based practice and, 31–32
family involvement and, 28–29
free appropriate public education and, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26
functional capability/life skills and, 27
general education, comparison with, 25
high school completion rates and, 243
highly qualified teachers and, 18 (table), 157, 234–235
identification procedures for, 27
inconsistent opportunities, excluded learners and, 16–17

1316
 individualized education programs and, 18, 22, 24, 28
individualized family service plans and, 18, 28
intensity of supports and, 69, 72
interim alternative education settings and, 19 (table), 244, 249
least restrictive environment and, 26–27, 31
legislation on, 17–25, 18–19 (table)
mandatory school attendance requirements and, 16
modifications and, 87, 135, 150, 152
origins of, 14, 16–17
over/underrepresentation issues and, 45–46, 79, 144–146, 145 (table)
placement array for, 23, 26–27, 31
prereferral process and, 27
private school placements and, 23 (table)
progress monitoring and, 32
pull-in programs and, 34
pullout programs and, 35, 133
resistant to treatment and, 55
resource room instruction and, 35
segregated specialized programs and, 33–34, 49, 50
self-advocacy and, 233
self-determination and, 233
state/district testing, participation in, 18 (table), 22, 31
stay-put provision and, 244
universal design and, 259–260, 262
See also ADAPT (Ask/Determine/Analyze/Propose/Test) framework; Assistive
technology (AT); Assistive technology devices; Disabilities; Evidence-based
practices; High-incidence disabilities; Inclusive education; Instructional
practices; Low-incidence disabilities; Multicultural special education; Related
services; Response to intervention (RTI); Universal design for learning (UDL)
Special education categories, 14, 15 (table), 47–48
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 64–68
autism spectrum disorders, 95–101
deaf-blindness, 127–128
deaf/hard of hearing disabilities, 114–120
development of, 49
developmental delay, 105–107
emotional/behavioral disorders, 75–79
instructional interventions and, 49
intellectual and developmental disabilities, 68–74
learning disabilities, 52–59
multiple-severe disabilities, 47, 87, 88, 101–105
noncategorical approach and, 15 (table), 50, 105, 106

1317
 other health impairments category and, 48, 65 (table), 66, 68, 89–95
physical disabilities, 107–114
preferred terminology for, 48–49
prevalence of disabilities and, 50–51, 51 (figure)
segregated specialized programs and, 49, 50
severity of disability and, 49–50
speech/language impairment, 59–64
traumatic brain injury, 125–126
visual disabilities, 120–124
See also Disabilities; High-incidence disabilities; Low-incidence disabilities;
Multicultural special education; Special education
Special education services, 213–214
behavior intervention plans and, 244–245
differentiated instruction and, 217–218
evidence-based instruction and, 217
flexible constellation of services and, 247–248
high school completion rates and, 243
highly qualified teachers and, 18 (table), 157, 234–235
individual transition plans and, 18 (table), 241, 243
individualized education programs and, 240–241, 242 (table)
individualized education programs, assessment/review of, 228–229, 232
(table), 245–247
individualized family service plans and, 239
multidisciplinary teams and, 231, 234–238
postsecondary programs, participation in, 243
scientifically-based instruction and, 215
See also Access to general education curriculum; ADAPT
(Ask/Determine/Analyze/Propose/Test) framework; Individualized education
program (IEP); Related services; Response to intervention (RTI); Universal
design for learning (UDL)
Special health care needs. See Health impairments; Other health impairments
Special learning needs, 133–134
assistive technology devices and, 135–136
bilingual special education and, 150
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 138–140, 139 (table), 140
(figure)
culturally/linguistically diverse students, disproportionate representation of,
144–146, 145 (table)
culturally responsive teaching and, 146, 148, 152, 164, 184–185, 371–373
culture, definition of, 140–141
English as a second language and, 133
learning process, cultural factors in, 141

1318
 limited English proficient and, 139, 143
multicultural education and, 142
Section 504 accommodations/adaptations plan and, 136–138, 137 (figure)
Section 504 services, qualifying for, 135–136
See also At-risk students; English language learners (ELLs); Gifted/talented
(GT) students; Inclusive education; Multicultural special education; Special
education; Special education services
Specialized segregated programs, 33–34, 49
Specific learning disabilities, 49
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
See also Learning disabilities (LDs)
Specific praise, 381–382
Speech, 59
loudness of, 61
pitch of, 61
See also Language skills; Speech impairment; Speech therapy services
Speech impairment, 14, 15 (table)
articulation errors and, 61, 62 (table)
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (figure)
definitions of, 60, 61 (table)
incidence statistics for, 44, 45 (figure), 47
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
learning disabilities, co-occurrence with, 59, 60 (figure)
prevalence of, 45 (figure), 51 (figure), 60 (figure), 63–64
stuttering and, 31, 61
types of, 61, 62 (table)
voice problems and, 15 (table), 61
See also High-incidence disabilities; Language impairment; Speech
Speech/language pathology services (SLP), 29, 34, 59, 63, 185, 225, 235, 236 (table)
Speech therapy services, 31, 34, 185, 235, 236 (table)
Spina bifida, 109, 109 (figure)
Spinal cord disorders, 109, 109 (figure), 110 (table)
Spungin, S. J., 564
St. Rose, A., 168
Stanford Achievement Test (SAT), 315
Star, J. R., 468
Stay-put provision, 244
Steimle, J., 558
Stein, M., 484
STORCH (syphilis/toxoplasmosis/rubella/cytomegalovirus/Herpes) infections, 90
(figure), 91, 93 (table)

1319
Stowitschek, C. E., 284
Stowitschek, J. J., 284
Strang, T., 558, 560
Strategy instruction, 279
Structural analysis, 454
Student-centered learning, 371, 372, 528
Student interest inventory, 268
Student meetings, 373
Student response systems, 184
Study skills, 526, 547, 550
chunking of information and, 556, 561–562
electronic calendar tool and, 559
listening skills and, 552–553, 555, 558–560
memorization skills and, 555–556, 561–562
mml:mnemonic devices, creation of, 556, 561
note-taking skills and, 552, 553, 555, 560–561
PIRATES test-taking strategy and, 562, 563 (table)
rehearsal strategy and, 556
study skills questionnaire and, 556, 556–557 (table)
test-taking strategies and, 556, 562–563, 563 (table)
time management skills and, 557–558, 559
working memory and, 555
See also Content-area instruction
Study skills assistive technology devices, 302 (table)
Stumpf, S. M., 560
Stuttering, 31, 61
Suffixes, 436
Sugai, G., 401
Sullivan, A., 87–88, 128
Supports. See Assistive technology devices; Feedback; Inclusion; Intensity of supports;
Response to intervention (RTI); Systems of supports
Survey tests, 332
Swanson, H. L., 195, 279
Swearer, S. M., 415
Syntax errors, 62
Systematic instruction. See Explicit systematic instruction
Systems of supports, 71–72
assistive technology services/devices and, 72
core goals of, 71–72
definition of, 71
generic supports and, 72
intellectual and developmental disabilities and, 71–72

1320
 natural supports and, 72
nonpaid supports and, 72
specialized supports and, 72
support needs areas and, 71
See also Intensity of supports

Tannenbaum, A. J., 164

Target Behavior, 8, 394, 410
Task Force on Violence Directed Against Teachers, 416
Tassé, M. J., 70, 71
Taylor, R. L., 346
Teacher assistance team process, 195, 196 (table)
Teacher-directed instruction. See Direct instruction; Instructional practices
Teams. See Cooperative learning; Multidisciplinary teams; Professional collaboration;
Related services
Tech Act. See Assistive Technology Act (ATA) of 2004
Technical vocabulary, 528–530
Technology. See Assistive technology (AT); Assistive technology devices
Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988, 24
Test of Phonological Awareness (TOPA-2+), 331
Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE-2), 332
Test-taking strategies, 556, 562–563, 563 (table)
See also Assessments
Text messages, 376
Textbook-based instruction, 540–545
Textbooks, 293
Texts. See Language; Literature; Reading process; Vocabulary acquisition; Writing
process
Think-aloud interviews, 335–336
Think aloud procedure, 265, 267, 281, 469, 481, 499
Think-Pair-Share-Write strategy, 283
Thompson, J. R., 71
Thompson, S. J., 348
Thornton, C., 484, 492, 502
Thousand, J., 231
Thurlow, M. L., 348
Tiered levels of support. See Multitiered systems of support (MTSS); Response to
intervention (RTI)
Time management skills, 557–558
Time-out/seclusion time-out strategy, 400
Time sampling, 387 (table)
Timothy W. v. Rochester, New Hampshire School District (1989), 23

1321
Tindall, G., 435
Title IX, 160
Todis, J., 407
Tone in writing, 442, 446
Torgesen, J., 331
Tourette’s syndrome, 14
Traffic patterns, 383
Transition services:
adults with disabilities, life-long needs of, 243–244
assessed need for, 225
high school completion rates and, 243
individual transition plans and, 18 (table), 241, 242 (table), 243
individualized education programs and, 225, 228, 241, 242 (table), 243–244
postsecondary education, participation in, 243
preschool, transition to, 239
school-to-work transition projects and, 18 (table)
See also Individualized education program (IEP)
Transition time, 380–381
Transition to place value, 487
Transportation services, 29, 236 (table)
public transportation instruction and, 31
See also Related services
Traumatic brain injury (TBI), 15 (table), 18 (table), 21, 44, 47, 125
characteristics of, 125–126
definition of, 125, 126 (table)
early diagnosis/treatment of, 126
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 177 (table)
prevalence of, 87 (figure), 126
symptoms of, 126, 126 (table)
types of, 125
See also Low-incidence disabilities
Troutman, A. C., 394
Tuberculosis (TB), 90 (figure), 91, 92 (table)
Turnbull, A., 208
Tyler, N. C., 205, 413
Typical learners, 9–10, 10 (figure)

Understanding:
checking for, 184, 282, 334
concepts and, 271
conceptual knowledge and, 271, 277 (table)
connotative meaning and, 528

1322
 critical thinking and, 273–275, 274 (table), 277 (table)
full understanding and, 487, 489
information processing and, 56, 57, 59
prior knowledge and, 167, 273, 439, 441, 527, 536, 538
student response systems and, 184
See also Assessments; Knowledge; Learning process; Meaning
Unexpected underachievement, 55–56
Universal design, 259–260
assessment modifications and, 348–349
barriers to learning, minimization of, 262
See also Universal design for learning (UDL)
Universal design for learning (UDL), 34, 258–259
digital media and, 260
English literature lesson and, 554–555
integrated literacy lessons and, 457–458
Lesson Builder example, 306–307
multiple means of action/expression and, 260, 261 (table)
multiple means of engagement and, 260–261, 261 (table)
multiple means of representation and, 260, 261–262, 261 (table)
social skills instruction and, 417–418
universal design concept and, 259–260
Universal screening process, 215, 221 (table)
U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), 119
U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM), 115, 121, 126

Vacca, J. L., 529, 531

Vacca, R. T., 529, 531
Validated instructional practices, 32, 148, 150
Validity, 324
assessment instruments/scores and, 324, 345
construct validity, 324
content validity, 324
criterion-related validity, 324
fidelity to lesson steps and, 215
See also Evidence-based practices; Validated practices
Van de Walle, J. A., 478, 484, 486, 497, 501
Vaughn, S., 150, 484
Venn diagrams, 509, 529–530
Video technology, 180, 181, 249
Violence. See School violence
Vision:
astigmatism and, 122

1323
 hyperopia and, 122
myopia and, 122
peripheral vision and, 121
visual acuity and, 121
See also Blindness; Visual disabilities
Visual acuity, 121
Visual disabilities, 15 (table), 44, 47, 49, 103, 120
adventitious blindness and, 122
blindness, definitions of, 121 (table), 122
Braille system and, 20, 51, 59, 123
characteristics of, 122–124
congenital blindness and, 122
content-area instruction and, 563–564
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 144–146, 145 (table)
deaf-blindness and, 15 (table), 44
definition of, 120–121, 121 (table)
guide dogs/service animals and, 124
hand over hand sign language and, 128
Hoover cane and, 123–124
inclusive educational opportunities and, 88, 89 (figure), 123, 177 (table)
literacy development and, 123
mobility issues and, 123–124
peripheral vision and, 121
prevalence of, 87 (figure), 124
residual vision and, 121
text-to-audio translation and, 24
types of, 121–122
visual acuity and, 121
See also Blindness; Low-incidence disabilities; Vision
Visual displays, 272
Vocabulary acquisition:
content-area vocabulary and, 272
general vocabulary and, 151 (table)
high-frequency words and, 432
irregular words and, 431, 432
keyword method and, 272
mml:mnemonic devices and, 272–273
reading vocabulary and, 425, 436–438
root/base words and, 436, 528
semantic maps and, 272
semantically related groups and, 529
structural analysis and, 454

1324
 technical vocabulary and, 528–530
word families and, 528
See also Language skills; Learning process; Literacy instruction; Literature;
Reading process; Writing process
Vocational education services, 29
Vocational Rehabilitation Act. See Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Vogel, S., 561
Voice. See Speech; Speech impairment

Walker, H. M., 407

Walker, J., 407
Walpport-Glawron, H., 545
Walther-Thomas, C., 194
Weapons offenses, 19 (table)
Wehmeyer, M., 71
Weihenmayer, E., 88
Weiss, M. P., 194
White, N. A., 415
Wiig, E. H., 471
“Wild child” case, 14, 16
Willson, V., 317, 339, 343
With-it-ness, 383–384
Wittrock, M. C., 274
Witzel, B., 468
Wolf, M. M., 398
Wolfgang, C. H., 385
Woodcock Johnson IV Test of Achievement (WJ-IV), 332
Woodcock Reading Mastery Test, third edition (WRMT-III), 332
Word families, 528
Word prediction software, 447
Word problems, 468, 511–517
ADAPT framework and, 516–517
difficulties with, 511–512
equations, algebraic reasoning and, 515
knowledge needed for, 511, 512
problem solving, instruction in, 512–515
story problems and, 512
types of, 512
See also Mathematics instruction
Words correct per minute measure, 435, 435 (table)
Work sample analysis procedure, 341–342
Work study opportunities, 29

1325
Working memory, 473, 555
World Health Organization (WHO), 124
Writing conferences, 441, 442
Writing process:
ADAPT framework and, 303–304
assistive technology resources and, 301 (table), 303–304, 451–452
audience and, 442, 443, 444, 447
culturally/linguistically diverse students and, 445
drafting stage and, 425, 445–446
dysgraphia and, 428–429
editing stage and, 425, 449–451
form and, 442, 446
handwriting legibility and, 452–453
integrated literacy lessons and, 453, 456, 458
physical features of texts and, 528, 536
prewriting stage and, 425, 442–444
prior knowledge, development/activation of, 441
publishing stage and, 425, 451–453
purpose for writing and, 447
recursive writing process and, 425
revising stage and, 425, 446–449
Self-Regulated Strategy Development approach and, 440–442
signal words and, 542
story mapping and, 453, 456 (figure)
tone/voice and, 442, 446
word prediction programs and, 447
written communication, instruction in, 427–429
See also Communication process; Content-area instruction; Language skills;
Literature; Reading process; Vocabulary acquisition
Written expression disabilities, 55

Yates, J. R., 195, 226

Yell, M. L., 135

Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School District (1993), 23

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