Carolingian Empire
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The Carolingian Empire (800–887) was a Frankish-
dominated empire in Western and Central Europe Carolingian Empire
during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Universum Regnum, Romanorum
Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the sive Francorum Imperium, Imperium
Franks since 751 and as kings of the Lombards in Italy Christianum (Latin)
from 774. In 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was 800–887
crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III in an effort
to transfer the status of Roman Empire from the
Byzantine Empire to Western Europe. The Carolingian
Empire is sometimes considered the first phase in the
history of the Holy Roman Empire.[3]
After a civil war (840–843) following the death of
Emperor Louis the Pious, the empire was divided into
autonomous kingdoms, with one king still recognised
as emperor, but with little authority outside his own
kingdom. The unity of the empire and the hereditary The Carolingian Empire at its greatest extent
right of the Carolingians continued to be in 814
acknowledged. In 884, Charles the Fat reunited all the Frankish realms and marches
Carolingian kingdoms for the last time, but he was Tributary states
deposed by the Frankish nobility in 887 and died in
Capital Metz,[1] Aachen
888 and the empire immediately fractured. With the
only remaining legitimate male of the dynasty a child, Official languages Medieval Latin
the nobility elected regional kings from outside the Common languages Frankish
dynasty or, in the case of the eastern kingdom, an Old Gallo-
illegitimate Carolingian. The illegitimate line Romance
Old French
continued to rule in the east until 911, while in the Old Saxon
western kingdom the legitimate Carolingian dynasty Old High German
was restored in 898 and ruled until 987 with an Old Dutch
interruption from 922 to 936. Old Frisian
Gallo-Italic
languages
The population of the empire was roughly between 10 Old Occitan
and 20 million people.[2] Its heartland was Francia, the Slavic languages
land between the Loire and the Rhine, where Aachen,
Religion Christianity
which Charlemagne chose as his primary residence, (official)
was located. In the south it crossed the Pyrenees and Emperor
bordered the Emirate of Córdoba and, after 824, the • 800–814 Charlemagne (first)
Kingdom of Pamplona; to the north it bordered the • 881–887 Charles the Fat
kingdom of the Danes; to the west it had a short land (last)
border with Brittany, which was later reduced to a
Historical era Middle Ages
tributary; and to the east it had a long border with the
Slavs and the Avars, who were eventually defeated and • Coronation of 25 December 800
their land incorporated into the empire. In southern Charlemagne
• Division after the 10 August 843
Italy, the Carolingians' claims to authority were Treaty of Verdun
disputed by the Byzantines and the vestiges of the • Deposition of Charles 17 November 887
Lombard kingdom in the Principality of Benevento. In the Fat
its day, it was known by various Latin names; the term Area
"Carolingian Empire" arose later. [2]
1,200,000 km2
(460,000 sq mi)
Population
Nomenclature • [2] 10,000,000–
20,000,000
The term "Carolingian Empire" is a modern
Currency Denarius
convention and was not used by its contemporaries.
The language of official acts in the empire was Latin. Preceded by Succeeded by
The empire was referred to variously. The term
Francia West
universum regnum was used to refer to "the whole
Avar Khaganate Francia
kingdom", as opposed to the regional kingdoms. The Middle
Kingdom of the
commonly used term Romanum imperium ("Roman Lombards Francia
empire") was referring to the Roman traditions of Saxons East
imperial statehood in general, wile the more complex Merovingian Francia
dynasty Holy
term Romanorum sive Francorum imperium,
Roman
sometimes with Romanum (Roman) replacing Empire
Romanorum (of the Romans) and atque (and) replacing
sive (or), was used to refer to the "empire of the
Romans and Franks", thus providing the basis for the modern historiographical terms such as Franko-
Roman Empire or Frankish-Roman Empire. The term imperium christianum was also used, referring to
the "Christian empire".[4][5]
History
Rise of the Carolingians (732–768)
Though Charles Martel chose not to take the title of king (as his son Pepin III would) or emperor (as his
grandson Charlemagne), he was the absolute ruler of virtually all of today's continental Western Europe
north of the Pyrenees. Only the remaining Saxon realms, which he partly conquered, Lombardy, and the
Marca Hispanica south of the Pyrenees were significant additions to the Frankish realms after his death.
Martel cemented his place in history with his defense of Christian Europe against a Muslim army at the
Battle of Tours in 732. The Iberian Saracens had incorporated Berber light horse cavalry with the heavy
Arab cavalry to create a formidable army that had almost never been defeated. Christian European forces,
meanwhile, lacked the powerful tool of the stirrup. In this victory, Charles earned the surname Martel
("the Hammer").[6] Edward Gibbon, the historian of Rome and its aftermath, called Charles Martel "the
paramount prince of his age".
Pepin III accepted the nomination as king by Pope Zachary in about 741. Charlemagne's rule began in
768 at Pepin's death. He proceeded to take control of the kingdom following his brother Carloman's
death, as the two brothers co-inherited their father's kingdom. Charlemagne was crowned Roman
Emperor in the year 800.[1]
Expansion of the Franks
Reign of Charlemagne (768–814)
The Carolingian Empire during the reign of Charlemagne covered
most of Western Europe, as the Roman Empire once had. Unlike the
Romans, whose imperial ventures between the Rhine and the Elbe
lasted fewer than twenty years before being cut short by the disaster
at Teutoburg Forest (9 AD), Charlemagne defeated the Germanic
resistance and extended his realm to the Elbe more lastingly,
influencing events almost to the Russian Steppes.
Charlemagne's reign was one of near-constant warfare, participating
in annual campaigns, many led personally. He defeated the Lombard
Kingdom in 774 and annexed it into his own domain by declaring
himself 'King of the Lombards'. He later led a failed campaign into
Spain in 778, ending with the Battle of Roncevaux Pass, which is
considered Charlemagne's greatest defeat. He then extended his
domain into Bavaria after forcing Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria, to renounce
any claim to his title in 794. His son, Pepin, was ordered to campaign against
the Avars in 795 since Charlemagne was occupied with Saxon revolts.
Eventually, the Avar confederation ended in 803 after Charlemagne sent a
Bavarian army into Pannonia. He also conquered Saxon territories in wars
and rebellions fought from 772 to 804, with such events as the Massacre of
Verden in 782 and the codification of the Lex Saxonum in 802.[6][7]
The Dorestad Brooch,
Prior to the death of Charlemagne, the Empire was divided among various
Carolingian-style
members of the Carolingian dynasty. These included King Charles the
cloisonné jewelry from c.
Younger, son of Charlemagne, who received Neustria; King Louis the Pious, 800. Found in the
who received Aquitaine; and King Pepin, who received Italy. Pepin died with Netherlands, 1969.
an illegitimate son, Bernard, in 810, and Charles died without heirs in 811.
Although Bernard succeeded Pepin as king of Italy, Louis was made co-
emperor in 813, and the entire Empire passed to him with Charlemagne's death in the winter of 814.[8]
Reign of Louis the Pious and Civil War (814–843)
Louis the Pious' reign as Emperor was unexpected; as the third son of Charlemagne, he was originally
crowned King of Aquitaine at three years old.[9] With the deaths of his older siblings, he went from 'a boy
who became a king to a man who would be emperor'.[9] Although his reign was mostly overshadowed by
the dynastic struggle and resultant civil war, as his epithet states, he was highly interested in matters of
religion. One of the first things he did was 'ruling the people by law and with the wealth of his piety',[10]
namely by restoring churches. "The Astronomer"[a] stated that, during his kingship of Aquitaine, he 'built
up the study of reading and singing, and also the
understanding of divine and worldly letters, more quickly
than one would believe.'[11] He also made significant effort to
restore many monasteries that had disappeared prior to his
reign, as well as sponsoring new ones.[9]
Louis the Pious' reign lacked security; he often had to
struggle to maintain control of the Empire. As soon as he
heard of the death of Charlemagne, he hurried to Aachen,
where he exiled many of Charlemagne's trusted advisors,
such as Wala. Wala and his siblings were children of the
youngest son of Charles Martel, and so were a threat as a Detailed map of the Carolingian Empire
potential alternative ruling family. [12] Monastic exile was a at its greatest extension (814) and
tactic Louis used heavily in his early reign to strengthen his subsequent partition of 843 (Treaty of
position and remove potential rivals. [12] In 817 his nephew, Verdun)
King Bernard of Italy, rebelled against him due to discontent
with being the vassal of Lothar, Louis' eldest son.[13] The
rebellion was quickly put down by Louis, and by 818 Bernard of Italy was captured and punished - the
punishment of death was commuted to blinding. However, the trauma of the procedure ending up killing
him two days later.[14] Italy was brought back into Imperial control. In 822 Louis' show of penance for
Bernard's death greatly reduced his prestige as Emperor to the nobility – some suggest it opened him up
to 'clerical domination'.[15] Nonetheless, in 817 Louis had established three new Carolingian kingships for
his sons from his first marriage: Lothar was made King of Italy and co-Emperor, Pepin was made King of
Aquitaine, and Louis the German was made King of Bavaria. His attempts in 823 to bring his fourth son
(from his second marriage), Charles the Bald into the will was marked by the resistance of his eldest sons.
Whilst this was part of the reason for strife amongst Louis' sons, some suggest that it was the appointment
of Bernard of Septimania as chamberlain which caused discontent with Lothar, as he was stripped of his
co-Emperorship in 829 and was banished to Italy (although it is not known why; The Astronomer simply
states that Louis 'dismissed his son Lothar to go back to Italy'[16]) and Bernard assumed his place as
second in command to the emperor.[12] With Bernard's influence over not only the emperor, but the
empress as well, further discord was sowed amongst prominent nobility. Pepin, Louis' second son, too,
was disgruntled; he had been implicated in a failed military campaign in 827, and he was tired of his
father's overbearing involvement in the ruling of Aquitaine.[12] As such, the angry nobility supported
Pepin, civil war broke out during Lent in 830, and the last years of his reign were plagued by civil war.
Shortly after Easter, his sons attacked Louis' empire and dethroned him in favour of Lothar. The
Astronomer stated Louis spent the summer in the custody of his son, 'an emperor in name only'.[12] The
following year Louis attacked his sons' kingdoms by drafting new plans for succession. Louis gave
Neustria to Pepin, stripped Lothar of his Imperial title and granted the Kingdom of Italy to Charles.
Another partition in 832 completely excluded Pepin and Louis the German, making Lothar and Charles
the sole benefactors of the kingdom, which precipitated Pepin and Louis the German revolting in the
same year,[12] followed by Lothar in 833, and together they imprisoned Louis the Pious and Charles.
Lothar brought Pope Gregory IV from Rome under the guise of mediation, but his true role was to
legitimise Lothar and his brothers' rule by deposing and excommunicating Louis.[12] By 835, peace was
made within the family, and Louis was restored to the Imperial throne at the church of St. Stephen in
Metz. When Pepin died in 838, Louis crowned Charles king of Aquitaine, whilst the nobility elected
Pepin's son Pepin II, a conflict which was not resolved until 860 with Pepin's death. When Louis the
Pious finally died in 840, Lothar claimed the entire empire irrespective of the partitions.
As a result, Charles and Louis the German went to war against Lothar. After losing the Battle of
Fontenay, Lothar fled to his capital at Aachen and raised a new army, which was inferior to that of the
younger brothers. In the Oaths of Strasbourg, in 842, Charles and Louis agreed to declare Lothar unfit for
the imperial throne. This marked the east–west division of the Empire between Louis and Charles until
the Verdun Treaty. Considered a milestone in European history, the Oaths of Strasbourg symbolize the
birth of both France and Germany.[17] The partition of Carolingian Empire was finally settled in 843 by
and between Louis the Pious' three sons in the Treaty of Verdun.[18]
After the Treaty of Verdun (843–877)
Lothar received the imperial title, the kingship of Italy, and the territory between the Rhine and Rhone
Rivers, collectively called the Central Frankish Realm. Louis was guaranteed the kingship of all lands to
the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, which was called the Eastern Frankish Realm
which was the precursor to modern Germany.[19] Charles received all lands west of the Rhone, which was
called the Western Frankish Realm.
Lothar retired Italy to his eldest son Louis II in 844, making him co-emperor in 850. By the Treaty of
Prüm (855), Lothar divided his kingdom into three parts: the Italian territory already held by Louis
remained his, the territory of the former Kingdom of Burgundy was granted to his third son Charles of
Burgundy, and the remaining territory for which there was no traditional name was granted to his second
son Lothar II, whose realm was named Lotharingia.[20]
Louis II, dissatisfied with having received no additional territory upon his father's death, allied with his
uncle Louis the German against his brother Lothar and his uncle Charles the Bald in 858. Lothar
reconciled with his brother and uncle shortly after. Charles was so unpopular that he could not raise an
army to fight the invasion and instead fled to Burgundy. He was only saved when the bishops refused to
crown Louis the German king. In 860, Charles the Bald invaded Charles of Burgundy's kingdom but was
repulsed. Lothar II ceded lands to Louis II in 862 for support of a divorce from his wife, which caused
repeated conflicts with the pope and his uncles. Charles of Burgundy died in 863, and his kingdom was
inherited by Louis II.
Lothar II died in 869 with no legitimate heirs, and his kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald
and Louis the German in 870 by the Treaty of Meerssen. Meanwhile, Louis the German was involved in
disputes with his three sons. Louis II died in 875, and named Carloman, the eldest son of Louis the
German, his heir. Charles the Bald, supported by the pope, was crowned both king of Italy and emperor.
The following year, Louis the German died. Charles tried to annex his realm too, but was defeated
decisively at Andernach, and the Kingdom of the eastern Franks was divided between Louis the Younger,
Carloman of Bavaria and Charles the Fat.
Decline (877–888)
The empire, after the death of Charles the Bald, was under attack
in the north and west by the Vikings and was facing internal
struggles from Italy to the Baltic, from Hungary in the east to
Aquitaine in the west. Charles the Bald died in 877 crossing the
Pass of Mont Cenis, and was succeeded by his son, Louis the
Stammerer as king of the Western Franks, but the title of emperor
lapsed. Louis the Stammerer was physically weak and died two
years later, his realm being divided between his eldest two sons:
Louis III gaining Neustria and Francia, and Carloman gaining
Copy of the Ludwigslied, an epic
Aquitaine and Burgundy. The Kingdom of Italy was finally
poem celebrating the victory of
granted to King Carloman of Bavaria, but a stroke forced him to Louis III of West Francia over the
abdicate Italy to his brother Charles the Fat and Bavaria to Louis Vikings
of Saxony. Also in 879, Boso of Vienne founded the Kingdom of
Lower Burgundy in Provence.
In 881, Charles the Fat was crowned emperor while Louis III of Saxony and Louis III of Francia died the
following year. Saxony and Bavaria were united with Charles the Fat's Kingdom, and Francia and
Neustria were granted to Carloman of Aquitaine who also conquered Lower Burgundy. Carloman died in
a hunting accident in 884 after a tumultuous and ineffective reign, and his lands were inherited by Charles
the Fat, effectively recreating the empire of Charlemagne.
Charles, suffering what is believed to be epilepsy, could not secure the kingdom against Viking raiders,
and after buying their withdrawal from Paris in 886 was perceived by the court as being cowardly and
incompetent. The following year his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia, the illegitimate son of King Carloman
of Bavaria, raised the standard of rebellion. Instead of fighting the insurrection, Charles fled to Neidingen
and died the following year in 888, leaving a divided entity and a disorderly succession.
Divisions of the Empire
Divisions in 887–888
The Empire of the Carolingians was divided: Arnulf maintained Carinthia, Bavaria, Lorraine and modern
Germany; Count Odo of Paris was elected King of Western Francia (France), Ranulf II became King of
Aquitaine, Italy went to Count Berengar of Friuli, Upper Burgundy to Rudolph I, and Lower Burgundy to
Louis the Blind, the son of Boso of Arles, King of Lower Burgundy and maternal grandson of Emperor
Louis II. The other part of Lotharingia became the duchy of Burgundy.[21]
Partitions of the Carolingian Empire
Demographics
Division of Charlemagne's empire in Carolingian successor state of Middle
three kingdoms ruled by his grandsons Francia was divided into three kingdoms
in 855.
When Charles of Provence died in 863, Carolingian successor states in 870
his kingdom was partitioned between after the Treaty of Mersen, which
Lotharingia and Louis the II's Empire. divided Lotharingia between East
Francia and West Francia
The study of demographics in the early Middle Ages is a notably difficult task. In his comprehensive
Framing the Early Middle Ages, Chris Wickham suggests that there are currently no reliable calculations
for the period regarding the populations of early medieval towns.[22] What is likely, however, is that most
cities of the empire did not exceed the 20–25,000 speculated for Rome during this period.[22] On an
empire-wide level, populations expanded steadily from 750 to 850 AD.[23] Figures ranging from 10 to 20
million have been offered, with estimates being devised based on calculations of empire size and
theoretical densities.[24] Recently, however, Timothy Newfield challenges the idea of demographic
expansion, criticising scholars for relying on the impact of recurring pandemics in the preceding period of
541-750 AD and ignoring the frequency of famines in Carolingian Europe.[25]
A study using climate proxies such as the Greenland Ice core sample 'GISP2' has indicated that there may
have been relatively favourable conditions for the empire's early years, although several harsh winters
appear afterwards.[26] Whilst demographic implications are observable in contemporary sources, the
extent of the impact of these findings on the empire's populations is difficult to discern.
Ethnicity
Studies of ethnicity in the Carolingian Empire have been largely limited. However, it is accepted that the
empire was inhabited by major ethnic groups such as Franks, Alemanni, Bavarians, Thuringians, Frisians,
Lombards, Goths, Romans, Celts, Basques and Slavs. Ethnicity was just one of many systems of
identification in this period and was a way to show social status and political agency. Many regional and
ethnic identities were maintained and would later become significant in a political role. Regarding laws,
ethnic identity helped decide which codes applied to which populations, however these systems were not
definitive representations of ethnicity as these systems were somewhat fluid.[27]
Gender
Evidence from Carolingian estate surveys and polyptychs appears to suggest that female life expectancy
was lower than that of men in this period, with analyses recording high ratios of males to females.[28]
However, it is possible this is due to a recording bias.
Government
The government, administration, and organization of the Carolingian Empire were forged in the court of
Charlemagne in the decades around the year 800. In this year, Charlemagne was crowned emperor and
adapted his existing royal administration to live up to the expectations of his new title. The political
reforms wrought in Aachen were to have an immense impact on the political definition of Western
Europe for the rest of the Middle Ages. The Carolingian improvements on the old Merovingian
mechanisms of governance have been lauded by historians for the increased central control, efficient
bureaucracy, accountability, and cultural renaissance.
The Carolingian Empire was the largest western territory since the fall of Rome, but historians have come
to suspect the depth of the emperor's influence and control. Legally, the Carolingian emperor exercised
the bannum, the right to rule and command, over all of his territories. Also, he had supreme jurisdiction in
judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both the Church and the poor. His
administration was an attempt to organize the kingdom, church, and nobility around him, however, its
efficacy was directly dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and support of his subjects.
Military
Almost every year between the accession of Charles Martel and the conclusion of the wars with the
Saxons Frankish forces went on campaign or expedition, often into enemy territory.[29] Charlemagne
would, for many years, gather an assembly around Easter and launch a military effort that would typically
take place through the summer as this would ensure there were enough supplies for the fighting force.[30]
Charlemagne passed regulations requiring all mustered fighting men to own and bring their own
weapons; the wealthy cavalrymen had to bring their own armour, poor men had to bring spears and
shields, and those driving the carts had to have bows and arrows in their possession.[30] In regards to
provisions, men were instructed not to eat food until a specific location was reached, and carts should
carry three months worth of food and six months worth of weapons and clothing along with tools.[31]
Preference was shown towards mobility warfare in place of defence-in-depth infrastructure; captured
fortifications were often destroyed so they could not be used to resist Carolingian authority in the
future.[32] After 800 and during the reign of Louis the Pious, efforts of expansion dwindled. Tim Reuter
has shown that many military efforts during Louis' reign were largely defensive and in response to
external threats.[29]
9th century mosaic of Charlemagne receiving a Banner from Saint Peter (top) and a modern rendition of the
same banner (bottom)
It had long been held that Carolingian military success was based
on the use of a cavalry force created by Charles Martel in the
730s.[33] However, it is clear that no such "cavalry revolution"
took place in the Carolingian period leading up to and during the
reign of Charlemagne.[34] This is because the stirrup was not
Carolingian dynasty banner
known to the Franks until the late eighth century and soldiers on according to the osprey men at
horseback would therefore have used swords and lances for arms
striking and not charging.[35] Carolingian military success rested
primarily on siege technologies and excellent logistics.[34]
However, large numbers of horses were used by the Frankish military during the age of Charlemagne.
This was because horses provided a quick, long-distance method of transporting troops, which was
critical to building and maintaining such a large empire.[36] The importance of horses to the Carolingian
military is revealed through the Revised version of the Royal Frankish Annals.[37] The annals mention
that whilst Charlemagne was on campaign in 791 "there broke out such a pestilence among the horses [...]
that barely a tenth out of so many thousands are said to have survived."[38] Shortage of horses played a
role in preventing Carolingian forces from continuing a campaign against the Avars in Pannonia.[31]
The Frankish royal bodyguards, the continuation of the Merovingian institution of the antrustion, were
consciously modelled on Late Roman precedents. These guards were organized into schola and entitled
scholares, and used armour based on Late Roman and early Byzantine models. Frankish artistic
depictions of these bodyguards also mirrored Late Roman traditions.[39]
Palaces
No permanent capital city existed in the empire, the itinerant court
being a typical characteristic of all Western European kingdoms at
this time. Some palaces can, however, be distinguished as
locations of central administration. In the first year of his reign,
Charlemagne went to Aachen (French: Aix-la-Chapelle; Italian:
Aquisgrana). He began to build a palace there in the 780s, with
original plans being thought up perhaps as soon as 768.[40] The
palace chapel, constructed in 796, later became Aachen Cathedral.
During the 790s when construction picked up at Aachen
Charlemagne's court became more centred compared with the
770s where court so often found itself located in tents during
campaigning.[41] Though Aachen was certainly not intended to be
a sedentary capital it was built in the political heartland of Carolingian warrior on a war horse
Charlemagne's realm to act as a meeting place for aristocrats and (8th - 10th century) with lance,
churchmen so that patronage might be distributed, assemblies round shield, chainmail and
spangenhelm in the Coronation Hall
held, laws written, and even where scholarly churchmen gathered
of the Aachen City Hall in June 2014
for the purposes of learning.[42] Aachen was also a centre for on the occasion of the exhibition
information and gossip being pulled in from across the Empire by "Charlemagne - power, art,
courtiers and churchmen alike.[41] Of course, despite being the treasures"
centre of Charlemagne's government, until his later years, his
court moved often and made use of other palaces at Frankfurt,
Ingelheim and Nijmegen. The use of such structures would signal
the beginnings of the palace system of government used by the
Carolingian court throughout reigns of many Carolingian
rulers.[43] Stuart Airlie has suggested that there were over 150
palaces throughout the Carolingian World which would provide
the setting for court activity.[41]
Palaces were not merely locations of administrative government
but also stood as important symbols. Under Charlemagne their
excellence was a translation of the treasure built up from conquest
into a symbolic permanence as well as exclaiming royal
authority.[43][41] Einhard suggested the construction of so-called
'public buildings' was a testament to Charlemagne's greatness and
likeness to the emperors of antiquity and this connection was
certainly capitalised upon by the imagery of palace decorations.
Ingelheim is a particular example of such symbolism and thus the
Interior of the Palatine Chapel in
importance of the palace system in more than mere governance.
Aachen, Germany
The palace chapel is written to have been 'lined with images from
the Bible' and the hall of the palace 'decorated with a picture cycle
celebrating the deeds of great kings' including rulers of antiquity as well as Carolingian rulers such as
Charles Martel and Pippin III.[43][41]
Louis the Pious used the palace system much to the same effect as Charlemagne during his reign as king
of Aquitaine, rotating his court between four winter palaces throughout the region.[43] During his reign as
Emperor he used Aachen, Ingelheim, Frankfurt, and Mainz which were almost always the locations for
general assemblies held 'two or three [times] a year in the period 896–28...' and while he was not an
immobile ruler, his reign has certainly been described as more static.[43] In this way the palace system can
also been seen as a tool of continuity in governance. After the splintering of the Empire the palace system
continued to be used by succeeding Carolingian rulers with Charles the Bald centring his power at
Compiègne,[44] where the palace chapel was dedicated to the Virgin Mary in 877, something remarked on
as a sign of continuity with Aachen's Mother of God chapel.[45] For Louis the German, Frankfurt has
been deemed his own 'neo-Aachen' and Charles the Fat's palace at Sélestat in Alsace was designed
specifically to imitate Aachen.[45]
The palace system as an idea for Carolingian central administration and governance has been challenged
by historian F. L. Ganshof, who argued that the palaces of the Carolingians "contained nothing
resembling the specialised services and departments available at the same period to the Byzantine
emperor or the caliph of Baghdad."[46] However, further reading in the works of Carolingian historians
such as Matthew Innes, Rosamond McKitterick, and Stuart Airlie suggest that the use of palaces were
important in the evolution of Carolingian governance and Janet Nelson has argued that "palaces are
places from which power emanates and is exercised..." and the importance of palaces to Carolingian
administration, learning, and legitimacy has been widely argued.[47]
Household
The royal household was an itinerant body (until c. 802) which moved around the kingdom making sure
good government was upheld in the localities. The most important positions were the chaplain (who was
responsible for all ecclesiastical affairs in the kingdom), and the count of the palace (Count palatine) who
had supreme control over the household. It also included more minor officials e.g. chamberlain,
seneschal, and marshal. The household sometimes led the army (e.g. Seneschal Andorf against the
Bretons in 786).
Possibly associated with the chaplain and the royal chapel was the office of the chancellor, head of the
chancery, a non-permanent writing office. The charters produced were rudimentary and mostly to do with
land deeds. There are 262 surviving from Charles’ reign as opposed to 40 from Pepin’s and 350 from
Louis the Pious.
Officials
There are 3 main offices which enforced Carolingian authority in the localities:
The Comes (Latin: count). Appointed by Charles to administer a county. The Carolingian Empire (except
Bavaria) was divided up into between 110 and 600 counties, each divided into centenae which were
under the control of a vicar. At first, they were royal agents sent out by Charles but after c. 802 they were
important local magnates. They were responsible for justice, enforcing capitularies, levying soldiers,
receiving tolls and dues and maintaining roads and bridges. They could technically be dismissed by the
king but many offices became hereditary. They were also sometimes corrupt although many were
exemplary e.g. Count Eric of Friuli. Provincial governors eventually evolved who supervised several
counts.
The Missi Dominici (Latin: dominical emissaries). Originally appointed ad hoc, a reform in 802 led to the
office of missus dominicus becoming a permanent one. The Missi Dominici were sent out in pairs. One
was an ecclesiastic and one secular. Their status as high officials was thought to safeguard them from the
temptation of taking bribes. They made four journeys a year in their local missaticum, each lasting a
month, and were responsible for making the royal will and capitularies known, judging cases and
occasionally raising armies.
The Vassi Dominici. These were the king’s vassals and were usually the sons of powerful men, holding
‘benefices’ and forming a contingent in the royal army. They also went on ad hoc missions.
Legal system
Around 780 Charlemagne reformed the local system of administering justice and created the scabini,
professional experts on the law. Every count had the help of seven of these scabini, who were supposed to
know every national law so that all men could be judged according to it.
Judges were also banned from taking bribes and were supposed to use sworn inquests to establish facts.
In 802, all law was written down and amended (the Salic law was also amended in both 798 and 802,
although even Einhard admits in section 29 that this was imperfect). Judges were supposed to have a copy
of both the Salic law code and the Ripuarian law code.
Most people in the Carolingian Empire lived under a legal code that directly copied from Roman law.[48]
Coinage
Coinage had a strong association with the Roman Empire, and
Charlemagne took up its regulation with his other imperial duties.
The Carolingians exercised controls over the silver coinage of the
realm, controlling its composition and value. The name of the
emperor, not of the minter, appeared on the coins. Charlemagne
worked to suppress mints in northern Germany on the Baltic Sea.
A denarius minted by Prince
Adelchis of Benevento in the name
Subdivision of Emperor Louis II and Empress
Engelberga, showing the expansion
The Frankish kingdom was subdivided by Charlemagne into three of Carolingian authority in southern
separate areas to make administration easier. These were the inner Italy which Louis achieved
"core" of the kingdom (Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy) which
were supervised directly by the missatica system and the itinerant
household. Outside this was the regna where Frankish administration rested upon the counts, and outside
this was the marcher areas where ruled powerful governors. These marcher lordships were present in
Brittany, Spain, and Bavaria.
Charles also created two sub-kingdoms in Aquitaine and Italy, ruled by his sons Louis and Pepin
respectively. Bavaria was also under the command of an autonomous governor, Gerold, until his death in
796. While Charles still had overall authority in these areas they were fairly autonomous with their own
chancery and minting facilities.
Placitum generalis
The annual meeting, the Placitum Generalis or Marchfield, was held every year (between March and
May) at a place appointed by the king. It was called for three reasons: to gather the Frankish host to go on
a campaign, to discuss political and ecclesiastical matters affecting the kingdom and to legislate for them,
and to make judgments. All important men had to go to the meeting and so it was an important way for
Charles to make his will known. Originally the meeting worked effectively however later it merely
became a forum for discussion and for nobles to express their dissatisfaction.
Oaths
The oath of fidelity was a way for Charles to ensure loyalty from all his subjects. As early as 779 he
banned sworn guilds between other men so that everyone took an oath of loyalty only to him. In 789 (in
response to the 786 rebellion) he began legislating that everyone should swear fidelity to him as king,
however in 802 he expanded the oath greatly and made it so that all men over age 12 swore it to him.
Capitularies
Capitularies were the written records of decisions made by the Carolingian kings in consultation with
assemblies during the eighth and ninth century.[49] The name comes from the Latin 'Capitula' for
'Chapters' and refers to the way these records were taken and written up, in a chapter by chapter style.
They are regarded as being 'amongst the most important sources for the governance of the Frankish
Empire in the eight and ninth century' by Sören Kaschke.[50] The use of capitularies represent a change in
the pattern of contact between the king and his provinces in the Carolingian period. The contents of
capitularies could include a wide range of topics, including royal orders, instructions for specific officials,
deliberations of assemblies on both secular and ecclesiastical affairs as well as additions and alterations to
the law.
Primary evidence shows that capitularies were copied and disseminated all throughout Charlemagne's
empire, however there is insufficient evidence to suggest the efficacy of the capitularies and whether they
were actually put into practice throughout the realm. As Charlemagne became increasingly stationary, the
amount of capitularies produced increased, this was particularly noticeable after the General Admonition
of 789.
There has been debates over the purpose of capitularies. Some historians argue that the capitularies were
nothing more than a 'royal wish-list' while others argue for capitularies representing the basis of a
centralised state.[49] Capitularies were implemented through the use of the 'missi', royal agents who
would travel around the Carolingian kingdom, usually in pairs of a secular missi and ecclesiastical missi,
reading out copied out versions of the latest capitularies to assemblies of people. The missi also had other
roles such as handling complex local disputes and can be argued to have been crucial to the success of
both capitularies and the expansion of Charlemagne's influence.
Some notable capitularies from Charlemagne's reign are:
The Capitulary of Herstal of 779: Dealt with both ecclesiastical and secular topics, placing
importance on the importance of paying Tithes, the role of the Bishop and outlining the
intolerance of forming an armed following in Charlemagne's empire.
Admonitio Generalis of 789: One of the most influential Capitularies of Charlemagne's time.
Consisted of over 80 chapters, including many laws on religion.
The Capitulary of Frankfurt of 794: Speaks out against adoptionism and iconoclasm.
The Programmatic Capitulary of 802. This shows an increasing sense of vision in society.
The Capitulary for the Jews of 814, delineating the prohibitions of Jews engaging in
commerce or money-lending.
Religion and the Church
Charlemagne aimed to convert all those in the Frankish kingdom to Christianity and to expand both his
empire and the reach of Christianity. The 789 Admonitio Generalis pronounced Charlemagne responsible
for the salvation of his subjects and set out standards of education for the clergy, who previously had been
mostly illiterate.[51]
Intellectuals of the time began to be concerned with eschatology, believing 800 A.D. to be 6000 AM
based on calculations from Eusebius and Jerome. Intellectuals such as Alcuin reckoned that the
Charlemagne's coronation as emperor on Christmas Day 800 marked the beginning of the seventh and
final age of the world.[52] These concerns may explain why Charlemagne aimed to have everyone engage
in acts of penance.
Emperors
For other Carolingian kings, see List of Frankish kings. For the later emperors, see Holy Roman Emperor.
Name Date of imperial coronation Date of death Contemporary coin or seal
Charlemagne 25 December 800 28 January 814
Louis the Pious 1st: 11 September 813[53] 20 June 840
2nd: 5 October 816
Lothair I 5 April 823 29 September 855
1st: Easter 850
Louis II 12 August 875
2nd: 18 May 872
Charles the Bald 29 December 875 6 October 877
Charles the Fat 12 February 881 13 January 888
Legacy
Carolingians in historiography
Despite the relatively short existence of the Carolingian Empire when compared to other European
dynastic empires, its legacy far outlasts the state that had forged it. In historiographical terms, the
Carolingian Empire is seen as the beginning of 'feudalism'; or rather, the notion of feudalism held in the
modern era. Though most historians would be naturally hesitant to assign Charles Martel and his
descendants as founders of feudalism, it is obvious that a Carolingian 'template' lends to the structure of
central medieval political culture.[54] Yet some argue against this assumption; Marc Bloch disdained this
hunt for feudalism's birth as 'the idol of origins'.[55] A concerted effort can be noted by Carolingian
authors, such as Einhard, to establish a shift in continuity from the Merovingian to the Carolingian, likely
where no such groundbreaking difference between the two ever existed.[54]
Symbolism of the dynasty
The unifying power of Charlemagne and his descendants
have been wielded by a succession of European rulers to
bolster their own regimes; much in the same vein as
Charlemagne echoed elements of Augustus in his rising years.
The Ottonian dynasty which succeeded the title of Holy
Roman Emperor magnified distant ties to the Carolingians to
legitimise their dynastic ambitions as 'successors'.[54] Four of
the five Ottonian emperors to rule also crowned themselves in
Charlemagne's palace in Aachen, likely to establish a
continuity between the Carolingians and themselves. Even
with their dynasty originating from Charlemagne's arch-foe Carolingian Empire superimposed over
Saxony, Ottonians still linked their dynasty to the contemporary European national
[56] boundaries
Carolingians, through direct and indirect means. Further
iconography of Charlemagne himself was utilised in later
medieval periods, where he is depicted as a model knight and paragon of chivalry.
See also
Carolingian Renaissance
Carolingian architecture
Carolingian art
List of Carolingian monasteries
Notes
a. An unknown anonymous author, see Vita Hludovici
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44. McKitterick 1983, p. 22.
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Works cited
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0-5215-6366-6.
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German, 817-876 (https://books.google.com/books?id=oyiTg0wgl58C). Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press.
Hooper, Nicholas; Bennett, Matthew (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: the
Middle Ages. ISBN 978-0-5214-4049-3.
King, P. D. (1987). Charlemagne : translated sources. Lambrigg, Kendal, Cumbria: P.D.
King. ISBN 0-9511-5030-8. OCLC 21517645 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21517645).
McKitterick, Rosamond (1983). The Frankish Kingdoms Under the Carolingians, 751-987 (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=wtNnAAAAMAAJ). Harlow: Longman.
McKitterick, Rosamond (2008). Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity (https://
books.google.com/books?id=kxb8kR4hvbQC). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nelson, Janet L. (2019). King and Emperor: A New Life of Charlemagne (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=ePujDwAAQBAJ). Oakland: University of California Press.
Reuter, Timothy (2013) [1991]. Germany in the Early Middle Ages c. 800–1056 (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=GfvJAwAAQBAJ). London and New York: Routledge.
Reuter, Timothy (2006). Medieval Polities and Modern Mentalities (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=oGsN0Xbo-ZoC). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1394-
5954-9.
Scholz, Bernhard Walter, ed. (1970). Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and
Nithard's Histories (https://books.google.com/books?id=sTzl6wFjehMC). University of
Michigan Press. ISBN 0472061860.
Watts, Edward J. (2021). The Eternal Decline and Fall of Rome: The History of a Dangerous
Idea (https://books.google.com/books?id=O30_EAAAQBAJ). New York: Oxford University
Press.
West, Charles (2023). The Fall of a Carolingian Kingdom: Lotharingia, 855–869 (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=Sp_UEAAAQBAJ). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Further reading
Bowlus, Charles R. (1995). Franks, Moravians, and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle
Danube, 788-907 (https://books.google.com/books?id=x5x0BAAAQBAJ). Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press.
Chandler, Tertius; Fox, Gerald (1974). 3000 Years of Urban Growth (https://archive.org/detai
ls/3000yearsofurban0000chan). New York and London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-1278-
5109-9.
Schutz, Herbert (2004). The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and
Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=8ZJONlzdyPsC). Leiden-Boston: Brill.
External links
The Making of Charlemagne's Europe (768–814) (http://www.charlemagneseurope.ac.uk)
(freely available database of prosopographical and socio-economic data from Carolingian
legal documents, produced and maintained by King's College London)
