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Researching Virtual Worlds

This volume presents a wide range of methodological strategies that are

designed to take into account the complex, emergent, and continually shift-
ing character of virtual worlds. It interrogates how virtual worlds emerge as
objects of study through the development and application of various meth-
odological strategies. Virtual worlds are not considered objects that exist
as entities with fixed attributes independent of our continuous engagement
with, and interpretation of, them. Instead, they are conceived of as com-
plex ensembles of technology, humans, symbols, discourses, and economic
structures, ensembles that emerge in ongoing practices and specific situa-
tions. A broad spectrum of perspectives and methodologies is presented:
Actor-Network-Theory and post-Actor-Network-Theory, performativity
theory, ethnography, discourse analysis, Sense-Making Methodology, visual
ethnography, multi-sited ethnography, and Social Network Analysis.

Ursula Plesner is Associate Professor at the Department of Organization,

Copenhagen Business School, Denmark.

Louise Phillips is Professor of Communication Studies at the Department of

Communication, Business and Information Technologies, Roskilde Univer-
sity, Denmark.
Routledge Studies in New Media and Cyberculture

1 Cyberpop 9 Mobile Technology and Place

Digital Lifestyles and Commodity Edited by Gerard Goggin and
Culture Rowan Wilken
Sidney Eve Matrix
10 Wordplay and the Discourse of
2 The Internet in China Video Games
Cyberspace and Civil Society Analyzing Words, Design, and Play
Zixue Tai Christopher A. Paul

3 Racing Cyberculture 11 Latin American Identity in

Minoritarian Art and Cultural Online Cultural Production
Politics on the Internet Claire Taylor and Thea Pitman
Christopher L. McGahan
12 Mobile Media Practices,
4 Decoding Liberation Presence and Politics
The Promise of Free and Open The Challenge of Being
Source Software Seamlessly Mobile
Samir Chopra and Scott D. Dexter Edited by Kathleen M. Cumiskey
and Larissa Hjorth
5 Gaming Cultures and Place
in Asia-Pacific 13 The Public Space of Social
Edited by Larissa Hjorth and Media
Dean Chan Connected Cultures of the
Network Society
6 Virtual English Thérèse F. Tierney
Queer Internets and Digital
Creolization 14 Researching Virtual Worlds
Jillana B. Enteen Methodologies for Studying
Emergent Practices
7 Disability and New Media Edited by Ursula Plesner and
Katie Ellis and Mike Kent Louise Phillips

8 Creating Second Lives

Community, Identity and Spatiality
as Constructions of the Virtual
Edited by Astrid Ensslin and
Eben Muse
Researching Virtual Worlds
Methodologies for Studying
Emergent Practices

Edited by Ursula Plesner and

Louise Phillips
First published 2014
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Simultaneously published in the UK
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
© 2014 Taylor & Francis
The right of the editors to be identified as the author of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Organizing through empathy /
edited by Kathryn Pavlovich and Keiko Krahnke.
pages cm. — (Routledge studies in management, organizations, and
society ; 25)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Organizational effectiveness. 2. Empathy. 3. Interpersonal
relations. 4. Leadership—Moral and ethical aspects. I. Pavlovich,
Kathryn. II. Krahnke, Keiko.
HD58.9.O746 2013
658.4'094—dc23
2013005593
ISBN: 978-0-415-62444-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-10464-4 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

List of Figures and Tables vii

Acknowledgments ix

1 Introduction: Approaching the Study of Virtual Worlds 1

URSULA PLESNER AND LOUISE PHILLIPS

2 Virtual Worlds as Emerging Cyber-Hybrids:

Accounting for the Travel between Research Sites
with Actor-Network-Theory 16
URSULA PLESNER

3 Presence in Virtual Worlds: Mediating a Distributed,

Assembled and Emergent Object of Study 34
DIXI LOUISE STRAND

4 Understanding Cyborgism: Using Photo-Diary Interviews

to Study Performative Identity in Second Life 53
ULRIKE SCHULTZE

5 Designing Childhoods: Ethnographic Engagements in

and around Virtual Worlds 76
MINNA RUCKENSTEIN

6 A Situated Video Interview Method: Understanding

the Interplay between Human Engagement and the Power
of Scripted Animations of a Virtual World 95
SISSE SIGGAARD JENSEN

7 Comparing Novice Users’ Sense-Making Processes in

Virtual Worlds: An Application of Dervin’s
Sense-Making Methodology 121
CARRIELYNN D. REINHARD AND BRENDA DERVIN
vi Contents
8 Exploring Stakeholders of Open-Source Virtual Worlds
through a Multimethod Approach 145
ZEYNEP YETIS, ROBIN TEIGLAND AND PAUL M. DI GANGI

Notes 175
Contributors 177
Index 181
Figures and Tables

3.1 The following table summarizes the three approaches

to presence in the research literature 37
4.1 Identity performance in virtual worlds 58
4.2 Photo-diary entry—Angela getting a foot massage 65
4.3 Excerpt from photo-diary interview 67
6.1 Video interview foci and questions to consider 101
6.2 Different views in the video interview, 1 107
6.3 Different views in the video interview, 2 108
6.4 Snapshot 1 from situated video interview 110
6.5 Snapshot 2 from situated video interview 111
6.6 Snapshot 3 from situated video interview 112
6.7 Snapshot 4 from situated video interview 113
6.8 Snapshot 5 from situated video interview 114
6.9 Snapshot 6 from situated video interview 115
7.1 Dervin’s Sense-Making Methodology Triangle Metaphor 126
7.2 Core set of SMM interviewing queries 127
7.3 Interview excerpt 130
7.4 Jakob’s City of Heroes interview, mapped to
SMM Triangle map 131
7.5 Comparing Jakob’s and Sofie’s sense-makings in
City of Heroes 136
7.6 Comparing Jakob’s and Sofie’s sense-makings in Second Life 137
8.1 OpenSimulator Core Developer meeting 147
8.2 Conducting an interview with a member of the OpenSimulator
community 156
8.3 Table 1—Thirty most characteristic words per
stakeholder group—period 1 162
8.4 Network structure of OpenSimulator Developer
mailing list—period 1 164
viii Figures and Tables
8.5 Table 2—Network structural position measures
(Burt 2004; Hanneman and Riddle 2005) 165
8.6 Table 3—Network measures—period 1 166
8.7 Collapsed node structure: Left without core and
right with core—period 1 167
8.8 Table 4—A multimethod approach, challenges, and solutions 169
Acknowledgments

The development of the main themes of the book and the interest in
researching virtual worlds as socio-technical ensembles emerging in ongo-
ing practices and specific situations emanate from a collective, collaborative
and interdisciplinary research project, “Sense-Making Strategies and User-
Driven Innovation in Virtual Worlds: New Market Dynamics, Social and
Cultural Innovation, and Knowledge Construction” (2008–12). The project
was based at Roskilde University and Copenhagen Business School under
the leadership of Professor Sisse Siggaard Jensen, one of the contributors to
the book. We would like to thank Sisse Siggaard Jensen and all the mem-
bers of the research team for fruitful meetings and productive collaboration.
We would also like to thank the Danish Strategic Research Council (KINO
committee) for funding the project (grant no. 09–063261). Finally, thanks
to our reviewers and colleagues who have given valuable feedback on the
chapters and to Emil Krastrup Husted for assistance with the preparation
of the manuscript.
This page intentionally left blank
1 Introduction
Approaching the Study of Virtual Worlds
Ursula Plesner and Louise Phillips

A field of practice and scholarship has developed over the last ten years
around “virtual worlds”; initially it was mostly concerned with defining
what the information technological platforms known as virtual worlds
were or could become (e.g., Bainbridge 2009; Heudin 2004), but it has
increasingly focused on their role in practice and the complex socio-techni-
cal arrangements to which they belong (e.g., Heider 2009; Sonvilla-Weiss
2009). The present book engages in discussions of how we may under-
stand emergent practices in and around virtual worlds with a focus on the
crafting of methodologies that pinpoint the connections between techno-
logical elements and affordances, peoples’ engagement and sense-making,
and discursive patterns and visions. A central point of the book is that
if we recognize how methods perform (Law and Urry 2004), it is neces-
sary to pay attention to how the methods we use in the study of virtual
worlds contribute to enacting them as particular phenomena. This book
about methodology, then, is not about what virtual worlds are, or how
particular methods are best suited to study them, but about how virtual
worlds emerge as objects of study through the development and application
of various methodological strategies. When virtual worlds are not consid-
ered objects that exist as entities with fixed attributes independent of our
continuous engagement with them and interpretation of them, a possible
consequence is to work with a very open approach to virtual worlds. In
this introductory chapter, virtual worlds are referred to as complex ensem-
bles of technology, humans, symbols, discourses, and economic structures,
ensembles that emerge in ongoing practices and specific situations. Such a
formulation is less a definition of virtual worlds than it is an approach to an
amorphous field. This entails that engagement in research on virtual worlds
can be expected to address a large variety of empirical phenomena relat-
ing to virtual worlds, going beyond how they are built, what takes place
“inside” them, or how people use them.
The more fixed definitions of virtual worlds that can be found in the
virtual worlds literature have direct implications for how it is conceivable
to approach a study of them and which elements it seems relevant to focus
on. This follows from highlighting specific characteristics of the IT platform.
2 Ursula Plesner and Louise Phillips
For instance, virtual worlds have been defined as “crafted places inside
computers that are designed to accommodate large numbers of people”
(Castronova 2004, 4), a wording that points to the “placeness” of those
worlds and to their potential social uses. They have also been conceptualized
as “[a] synchronous, persistent network of people, represented as avatars,
facilitated by networked computers” (Bell 2008, 2), a definition which high-
lights the individuals engaged in social interaction. Both these definitions
resonate with the idea of “virtual worlds as places of human culture realized
by computer programs through the Internet” (Boellstorff 2010, 126). Yet
another attempt at pinning down the meaning of virtual worlds defines them
as “[I]nternet-based simulated environments that emulate the real world and
are intended for users to inhabit and interact within them through avatars”
(Hua and Haughton 2008, 889). This definition points to the mirrorlike
aspects of virtual worlds and hints at the potential correspondence between
phenomena inside and outside virtual worlds. Finally, a common way of
defining virtual worlds is to enlist several characteristics that must be ful-
filled in order for us to identify something as a virtual world:

The online journal Virtual Worlds Review defines a virtual world as ‘an
interactive simulated environment accessed by multiple users through
an online interface.’ Six essential features are prescribed: shared space
(multiple users), a graphical user interface, immediacy (“interaction
takes place in real time”), interactivity (“the world allows users to
alter, develop, build, or submit customized content”), persistence (“the
world’s existence continues regardless of whether individual users are
logged in”), and socialization, or a sense of community. (McDonough
et al. 2010, 9).

All these definitions point to relevant aspects of the IT platforms labeled

“virtual worlds,” and to their specific affordances (Gibson 1986; Hutchby
2001). However, rather than aiming to contribute to refining definitions of
virtual worlds—that is, what virtual worlds are—the aim of this book is to
offer methodological strategies for capturing the situated practices in and
around virtual worlds and hence treat virtual worlds as phenomena that are
constituted in situations and practices and that emerge as particular objects
of analysis in the research process.

SITUATIONS AND PRACTICES OF ENGAGING

WITH VIRTUAL WORLDS

Some of the IT platforms central to the empirical investigations in the

chapters of this book are Second Life, Habbo Hotel, City of Heroes, and
the OpenSimulator Developer community. But the chapters are not simply
 Introduction 3
studies of the characteristics of these platforms and the activities they afford.
Instead, they share the assumption that, as an object of analysis, any vir-
tual world is a moving target, and our knowledge about them is highly
dependent on the work we put in to defining and delineating them. As a con-
sequence, all chapters direct their attention to the processes of researching
virtual worlds in a continuous interplay with the actors and technological
elements that co-constitute these worlds. The chapters aim to open up the
concept of virtual worlds by examining how they are made and remade
through specific practices where technological affordances, symbolic enti-
ties, and social and interpretive processes become intertwined. Although the
chapters develop different methodologies and thus different vocabularies,
many of them articulate this ambition. For instance, in Chapter 7, Reinhard
and Dervin ask what happens when the agency of the person engages with
the structures of the virtual world. And in Chapter 3, Strand insists that
we refrain from starting with a fixed definition of the technology in ques-
tion (virtual worlds, three-dimensional [3D] Internet, or the Metaverse);
rather, we should begin our empirical investigations by looking at the very
practices, situations, and events in which a particular phenomenon occurs,
asking openly what appears and what emerges.
The aim of this book is to make a distinct contribution to methodologi-
cal discussions in the field of virtual worlds research—and studies of new
media technologies more generally. It is not to add to the large number
of books on virtual worlds that seek to explain virtual world technologies
and practices and to apply various theoretical perspectives to capture the
specificity of virtual worlds. Most of these books pay relatively little atten-
tion to methodologies for the study of virtual worlds. There are notable
exceptions to this—for instance, a volume by Boellstorff et al. (2012) on
the use of ethnographic methods in virtual worlds, and the extensive review
of methods in which Bainbridge (2009) discusses a range of methods that
can be applied within virtual worlds. For instance, Bainbridge details how
experimental methods can be used to test reactions of people acting through
their avatars to scenarios such as environmental catastrophes, conflict reso-
lution in war zones, and so on. He also describes how observations can be
used to study collaboration, the social consequences of bad behavior, or
the implications of experimental architecture. To take a third example, he
outlines how quantitative methods can be used to measure social dynamics
in-world. In all these cases, what is presented are methodologies for study-
ing practices within virtual worlds, whereby the researcher is “inside” them,
for instance, embodied in an avatar. In contrast, the chapters of this book
seek to engage methodologically with both online and offline phenomena
and practices. This ties into the authors’ shared approach to virtual worlds
as elusive objects of analysis that are co-constituted through actors’ and
researchers’ engagement with one another and with particular situations
and practices relating to virtual worlds.
4 Ursula Plesner and Louise Phillips
RESEARCHING VIRTUAL WORLDS AS ENSEMBLES OF
TECHNOLOGY, HUMANS, SYMBOLS, AND DISCOURSES

The distinction drawn above, between online and offline, may be a way of
talking about particular empirical domains in focus, but no sharp distinc-
tion between the two is upheld in the methodological contributions of this
book. Few virtual world researchers operate with an understanding of ‘the
virtual’ and ‘the real’ as two different domains. Virtual worlds, it is argued,
are both virtual and real (Schroeder 2002, 2012) and the virtual is not the
opposite of real. As Schultze (Chapter 4) states, such a distinction belongs to
a representational view of reality. In her view, the online/offline distinction
is out of sync with empirical observations of experiences of entanglement.
Thus, to understand empirical phenomena in and around virtual worlds, we
should avoid distinguishing a priori between physical and digital material-
ity. Although this type of methodological ambition is discussed to varying
degrees in the following chapters, the whole book can be seen as part of
a tendency to dissolve the in-world/out-world dichotomy in the study of
virtual worlds (see also Plesner, Chapter 2), both on a theoretical and a
methodological level (Lehdonvirta 2010; Taylor 2006). The contribution of
Ruckenstein (Chapter 5) in this endeavour is to interrogate the question of
how virtual worlds are interwoven with economic value pursued in corpo-
rate practices by ethnographically studying uses of a virtual world along with
studying the technological development processes in the company behind
that virtual world. Yetis and colleagues (Chapter 8) have a similar interest
in how a virtual world is developed by stakeholders with various affiliations,
with a focus on the resources they bring to the development work and the
particular parts of the virtual world that are cultivated by them.
The book’s contribution does not consist in reiterating the obvious, that a
dichotomous way of understanding virtual worlds may be problematic—but
in presenting specific methodologies that can be used to generate multi-
faceted accounts of the situations and practices that bring virtual worlds
into being. To make this contribution, several chapters construct virtual
worlds as complex ensembles of technology, humans, symbols, discourses,
and other elements and devise methodologies that capture the interwoven-
ness of these elements. Thus, they seek to address the challenges described
by Lehdonvirta (2010) who criticizes much scholarship on virtual worlds for
holding onto an image of virtual worlds as independent “mini-societies”. As
he writes, “[t]hus far, the typical strategy for authors (myself included) to
deal with this has been to treat the caveats as links or interaction between
the real world and the virtual world. This strategy attempts to address the
issues while still clinging on to the dichotomous model.” Many chapters of
the present book transcend the online/offline, virtual/real divide through
multi-sited and multimodal research strategies, which move between sites
relating to the creation and recreation of virtual worlds, focusing on prac-
tices in specific situations. In this way, they try to capture how technology,
humans, symbols, and discourses are linked together in practice.
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