Thermodynamics - A Sustainable source of

energy

Abstract:
Thermodynamics is the science of the relationship
between heat, work, temperature, and energy. In broad terms,
thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to
another and from one form to another. The application of thermodynamic
principles begins by defining a system that is in some sense distinct from
its surroundings. For example, the system could be a sample of gas inside
a cylinder with a movable piston, an entire steam engine,
a marathon runner, the planet Earth, a neutron star, a black hole, or even
the entire universe. In general, systems are free to exchange heat, work,
and other forms of energy with their surroundings.

A system’s condition at any given time is called its thermodynamic state.

For a gas in a cylinder with a movable piston, the state of the system is
identified by the temperature, pressure, and volume of the gas. These
properties are characteristic parameters that have definite values at each
state and are independent of the way in which the system arrived at that
state. The behaviour of a complex thermodynamic system, such as Earth’s
atmosphere, can be understood by first applying the principles of states
and properties to its component parts—in this case, water, water vapour,
and the various gases making up the atmosphere. By isolating samples of
material whose states and properties can be controlled and manipulated,
properties and their interrelations can be studied as the system changes
from state to state.

 Important Laws of Thermodynamics:

1. The zeroth law of thermodynamics:

When two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, the first two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each
other. This property makes it meaningful to use thermometers as
the “third system” and to define a temperature scale.

2. The first Law of Thermodynamics:

 Also known as the law of conservation of energy, this shows the
change in a system’s internal energy is equal to the difference
between heat added to the system from its surroundings and work
done by the system on its surroundings.

3. The Second Law of thermodynamics:

Heat does not flow spontaneously from a colder region to a hotter
region, or, equivalently, heat at a given temperature cannot be
converted entirely into work. Consequently, the entropy of a closed
system, or heat energy per unit temperature, increases over time
toward some maximum value. Thus, all closed systems tend toward
an equilibrium state in which entropy is at a maximum and no
energy is available to do useful work.

4. The Third Law Of thermodynamics:

The entropy of a perfect crystal of an element in its most stable
form tends to zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
This allows an absolute scale for entropy to be established that,
from a statistical point of view, determines the degree of
randomness or disorder in a system.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium:

A particularly important concept is thermodynamic equilibrium,

in which there is no tendency for the state of a system to
change spontaneously. For example, the gas in a cylinder with
a movable piston will be at equilibrium if the temperature and
pressure inside are uniform and if the restraining force on the
piston is just sufficient to keep it from moving. The system can
then be made to change to a new state only by an externally
imposed change in one of the state functions, such as the
temperature by adding heat or the volume by moving the
piston. A sequence of one or more such steps connecting
different states of the system is called a process. In general, a
system is not in equilibrium as it adjusts to an abrupt change in
its environment.

When a balloon bursts, the compressed gas inside is suddenly

far from equilibrium, and it rapidly expands until it reaches a
new equilibrium state. However, the same final state could be
achieved by placing the same compressed gas in a cylinder
with a movable piston and applying a sequence of many small
increments in volume (and temperature), with the system
being given time to come to equilibrium after each small
increment. Such a process is said to be reversible because the
system is at (or near) equilibrium at each step along its path,
and the direction of change could be reversed at any point.
Experiment: Thermodynamic laws applied on human bodies
Humans breathe in oxygen and eat food, which is composed of
carbohydrates, fats, oils and proteins. The carbohydrates are converted
into glucose, the proteins into amino acids, and the fats into fatty acids.
The blood then transports these, together with oxygen, to the cells, where
enzymes, which are biological catalysts, convert the glucose into pyruvic
acid, through the process of glycolysis. The fatty and most of the amino
acids are converted into aceto acetic acid. These are changed into acetyl
Co-A, and with further oxidation, produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
carbon dioxide and water. This entire process is called the Krebs cycle.
ATP generates the energy that could be potentially used by the cells. The
energy is stored in the phosphate bond when adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) is transformed to adenosine triphosphate, and is dissipated when
ATP is converted into ADP. When the energy is released it takes the form
of heat, and this is transferred by the blood, around the body. Energy is
also transferred from the cells to their surroundings by conduction
because of the thermal gradient created between the cells and their
environment. Thermal energy loss from the body is achieved through
conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation from the skin, and
through respiration. In humans energy is transferred to the surroundings
at the skin’s interface with the air outside. Since cooling results, this
implies that a temperature gradient exists between the body’s core and
the skin’s surface. This body temperature is stable as long as the
production of energy equals the energy loss. Living organisms are also
thermodynamics entities, in which thermal processes are characterized by
energy flows and fluxes both within the body, and between the body and
its environment. For people to survive, the core body temperature has to
be maintained within a narrow temperature range of 35-400C. The normal
body temperature is 370C. However, this is the core temperature. There is
a temperature gradient as one move away from the core. Hence, not only
is there a temperature drop between a person and their external
environment, but also there is one within the body. What is the relevance
of physics in a discussion on energy and metabolism? Physics underpins
the biochemical processes that provide us with energy. Although this
chapter is not concerned with biochemical processes, we will look at how
physics, through the laws of thermodynamic, relates to metabolic
processes.

First Law of thermodynamics and the Human Body:

For an energy balance, under steady-state conditions where the core body
temperature and the ambient temperature remain constant, the quantity
of energy produced will equal the quantity of energy dissipated. Hence, it
is possible to invoke the First law of thermodynamics to the body. The
total energy produced in the body is called the metabolic rate (dM). It is
related to the total metabolic energy production of the body (dH), and the
external work done by the body (dW), by the expression: dM = dH + dM.
There is an obvious analogy if this is compared with the expression for the
First Law. dH varies from one person to another, and depends on the
activity engaged in, and on, the body’s surface area. On average, the
body’s surface area is about 1.84 m2; the average male mass is 65-70 kg
and the average female mass 55 kg. For a sedentary person the metabolic
rate is about 100 W, and is 400 W for a person engaged in heavy physical
work.

Second law of thermodynamics and the human body:

If a metabolic process occurs in a particular direction, does it also occur in

the reverse manner? The Second law helps to explain both the direction
and attainment of equilibrium in metabolic processes, and now it can be
seen that the entropy change can assist in the understanding of the
direction that a metabolic process will take. It also tells us whether that
particular process will occur. In the oxidation of glucose amount of energy
is ‘wasted’2. Thus, the process is not 100 % efficient. The ‘waste’ is the
production of energy as heat – a prerequisite for maintaining the core
body temperature. This ‘wasted’ energy is the driving force for the
direction in which a metabolic process should go. The idea of potential
energy is a useful direction it will occur. If one drops a body, its potential
energy is transformed into kinetic energy and then into heat, sound and,
possible, light. As a result, the entropy of the surroundings (i.e. Universe)
will increase. The change in entropy is a function of the energy transferred
from the body. If the entropy tells us the direction of a spontaneous
change, it would be useful to develop the criteria, from energetic
considerations, for the propensity of a system to provide ‘free energy’ to
do useful work. The criterion is provided by the idea of the, Gibbs free
energy, G. Since the First law of thermodynamics can be represented as
dQ = dU + p·dV,

Where p and dV is the pressure and the change in volume, and the
Second law by dS = dQ/T, then T·dS = dU + p·dV, Where dS is the change
in entropy related to a change in energy, dQ. Therefore, the change in
internal energy is dU = T·dS - p·dV
Conclusion:

The sweeping generality of the constraints imposed by the

laws of thermodynamics makes the number of potential
applications so large that it is impractical to catalogue
every possible formula that might come into use, even in
detailed textbooks on the subject. For this reason, students
and practitioners in the field must be proficient in
mathematical manipulations involving partial derivatives
and in understanding their physical content.

One of the great strengths of classical thermodynamics is

that the predictions for the direction of spontaneous
change are completely independent of the microscopic
structure of matter, but this also represents a limitation in
that no predictions are made about the rate at which a
system approaches equilibrium. In fact, the rate can be
exceedingly slow, such as the spontaneous transition
of diamonds into graphite. Statistical thermodynamics
provides information on the rates of processes, as well as
important insights into the statistical nature of entropy and
the second law of thermodynamics.