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Chapte r
NUMERAL
SYSTEMS
N umeral systems are sets of symbols and the
rules for using them to represent numbers,
which are used to express how many objects
are in a given set. Thus the idea of “oneness”
can be represented by the Roman numeral I,
by the Greek letter alpha α (the first letter) used
as a numeral, by the Hebrew letter aleph ( אthe
first letter) used as a numeral, or by the modern
numeral 1, which is Hindu-Arabic in origin.
THE ADOPTION OF
PLACE-VALUE SYSTEMS
Very likely the earliest system of written sym-
bols in ancient Mesopotamia was a system
of symbols for numbers. Modern numeral
systems are place-value systems—that is, the
value of the symbol depends upon the position
26 COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
NUMERAL SYSTEMS
or place of the symbol in the representation;
for example, the 2 in 20 and 200 represents
two tens and two hundreds, respectively. Most
ancient systems, such as the Egyptian, Roman,
Hebrew, and Greek numeral systems, did not
have a positional characteristic, and this com-
plicated arithmetical calculations.
While most ancient systems lacked this posi-
tional characteristic, other systems—including
the Babylonian, one version each of the Chinese
and Indian, as well as the Mayan system—
did employ the principle of place value. As
This ancient Babylonian clay tablet shows mathematical problems in
cuneiform—a reminder of one of the earliest written numeral systems to
employ the principle of place value. Print Collector/Hulton Archive/
Getty Images COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
27
The Number System and Common and Decimal Fractions
previously mentioned, the most commonly used
numeral system today is the decimal-positional
numeral system, the decimal referring to the
use of 10 symbols—0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9—to
construct all numbers. This was an invention of
the Indians, perfected in the medieval Islamic
world. Because this system was translated into
Arabic prior to its introduction into Europe by
traveling merchants around the 13th century, it is
commonly known as the Hindu-Arabic system.
The two other common positional sys-
tems are used in computers and computing
science, namely the aforementioned binary
system, with its two symbols—0 and 1—and a
hexadecimal, or base-sixteen, system, with 16
symbols—0, 1, 2,…, 9, A, B,…, F.
ROMAN NUMERALS AND
THE MIDDLE AGES
Adoption of the Hindu-Arabic system met resis-
tance due to the widespread use of the Roman
numeral system during the 13th century when it
was introduced to Europe. The Roman numeral
system, in which letters represent numbers,
was dominant in Europe for nearly 2,000 years.
Roman numerals are hard to manipulate, how
how-
ever, and mathematical calculations generally
28 COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
NUMERAL SYSTEMS
were done on an abacus. As the fortunes of
the Roman Empire declined, however, a rising
interest in mathematics developed elsewhere,
in India and among Arab scholars. Gradually,
the superior Hindu-Arabic system was learned
by the Europeans, and eventually it replaced
the Roman system.
COMPUTATIONS IN ROMAN
AND HINDU-ARABIC
NUMERALS
The Roman system, like others that are not based on
the principle of position, does not provide an efficient
and easy method of computation. This led to its gradual
replacement by more useful place-value systems, such as
the decimal or binary systems. Here are some examples of
computations using the Roman system. Equivalent com-
putations using the Hindu-Arabic system are alongside.
COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
29
The Number System and Common and Decimal Fractions
Indian mathematicians were especially
skilled in arithmetic, methods of calcula-
tion, algebra, and trigonometry. Aryabhata
calculated pi to a very accurate value of
3.1416, and Brahmagupta and Bhaskara II
advanced the study of indeterminate equa-
tions. Because Indian mathematicians were
not concerned with such theoretical prob-
lems as irrational numbers, they were able to
make great strides in algebra. Their decimal
place-valued number system, including zero,
was especially suited for easy calculation.
Indian mathematicians, however, lacked
interest in a sense of proof. Most of their
results were presented simply as useful tech-
niques for given situations, especially in
astronomical or astrological computations.
One of the greatest scientific minds of
Islam was al-Khwarizmi, who introduced
the name ((al-jabr
al-jabr)) that became known as
al-jabr
algebra. Consequently, the numbers famil-
iar to most people are still referred to as
Arabic numerals. Arab mathematicians also
translated and commented on Ptolemy’s
astronomy before it was brought to the atten-
tion of Europeans. Islamic scholars not only
translated the works of Euclid, Archimedes,
30 COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
RIGHT RUNNING HEAD
Aryabhata (476–550? CE) was an important Indian mathematician and
astronomer who made an early calculation of the value of pi to four decimal
places. Sheila Terry/Science Source
COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
31
The Number System and Common and Decimal Fractions
Apollonius, and Ptolemy into Arabic but
advanced beyond what the Greek mathema-
ticians had done to provide new results of
their own.
Roman numerals can still be seen to this day on the faces of clocks,
in the front matter of books, and often simply for decorative purposes.
Mircea Maties/Shutterstock.com
32 COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
NUMERAL SYSTEMS
By the end of the 8th century the influ-
ence of Islam had extended as far west as
Spain. It was there, primarily, that Arabic,
Jewish, and Western scholars eventually
translated Greek and Islamic manuscripts
into Latin. By the 13th century, original
mathematical work by European authors
had begun to appear.
Despite being replaced in mathemat-
ics by the Hindu-Arabic numeral system,
Roman numerals are still sometimes used
today. Some examples of items on or in
which Roman numerals still appear include
clock faces and books, for numbering intro-
ductory pages and chapters.
COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
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