Medical Physics I

2/12/2025 1
 1. Motion on a straight line
1.1 Measurements, Standards and Units
1.2. Displacements; Average Velocity
1.3. Instantaneous Velocity
1.4. Acceleration
1.5. Finding the Motion of an Object
1.6. The Acceleration of Gravity and Falling
Objects

2/12/2025 2
 1.1. Measurements, Standards
and Units
Physical quantities are classified into:
• fundamental quantities such as mass, length,
time and
• derived quantities such as velocity,
acceleration, force, energy….

2/12/2025 3
 Systems of units
• British system of unit or FPS unit
• CGS Units
• International system of unit or SI Units

2/12/2025 4
 Systems of units
SI system FPS system CGS system
Physical quantity Unit Symbol Unit Symbol Unit symbol
Length Meter m Foot ft Centimeter cm
Mass Kilogram kg Pound lb Gram g
Time Second s Second s Second s
Electric current Ampere
Temperature Kelvin
Amount of Mole
substance
Luminous Candela
intensity

2/12/2025 5
 Scientific notation
A number is said to be in scientific notation
when it is written as a number between 1 and
10, times a power of 10.
For example 521 can be written as 5.21 × 102, or
a small number like 0.000000521 can be written
as 5.21 × 10-7.

2/12/2025 6
 Prefixes
Power Prefix Symbol Power Prefix Symbol

101 deca da 10−1 deci d

102 hecto h 10−2 centi c

103 Kilo k 10−3 milli m

106 Miga M 10−6 micro µ

109 Giga G 10−9 nano n

1012 tera T 10−12 pico p

2/12/2025 7
 Dimensions and units for some
derived quantities

2/12/2025 8
 Conversion of units
To convert quantities from a unit system to another,
we can use the following systematic method:
• Multiply the quantity to convert by one
• Rearrange the conversion factor in quotient equal
to 𝟏 that allows the elimination of the unit from
which we want to convert
• Replace this form in the first step

2/12/2025 9
 Example 1.1
Convert 100 𝑓𝑡 into meters. The conversion
factor between the two units is given by: 1𝑓𝑡 =
0.3048 𝑚
Solution:
100𝑓𝑡 = 100𝑓𝑡 × 1
0.3048𝑚
100𝑓𝑡 × = 30.48𝑚
1𝑓𝑡

2/12/2025 10
 Example 1.2
Convert the velocity of 24 𝑚/𝑠 into 𝑘𝑚/ℎ. We
have 1 𝑘𝑚 = 103 m and 1 ℎ = 3600 𝑠
Then
24𝑚
24𝑚ൗ𝑠 = × (1) × (1)
𝑠
24𝑚 1𝑘𝑚 3600𝑠
24𝑚ൗ𝑠 = × 3 × = 86.4𝑘𝑚Τℎ
𝑠 10 𝑚 1ℎ

2/12/2025 11
 Example 1.3
The skin is the largest organ in the human body;
for a human adult the average area of the skin
surface is about 1.8 𝑚2, how much squared foot
is this area? Given that 1foot = 0.3048m
Solution:
1ft2 = (0.3048)2m2
2
1𝑓𝑡
𝐴 = 1.8𝑚2 × = 19𝑓𝑡 2
0.3048 2 𝑚2

2/12/2025 12
 Example 1.4
An ampoule contains a solution of drug of
300𝜇𝑔/5𝑚𝑙, convert this dose into 𝑔/𝑙
Solution
300𝜇𝑔 300 × 10−6 𝑔
= −3
= 0.06𝑔/𝑙
5𝑚𝑙 5 × 10 𝑙

2/12/2025 13
 1.2. Displacement – Average velocity
Displacement: is the change in the position:
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Average velocity: is the displacement over an
elapsed time ∆𝑡.
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 −𝑥𝑖
𝑣ҧ = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖

2/12/2025 14
 Example 1.5

In the figure above if the object moves from

2/12/2025 15
 Example 1.6
a car is at 𝑥1 = 600 𝑚 when 𝑡1 = 5𝑠 and at 𝑥2 =
500 𝑚 when 𝑡2 = 15𝑠 its average velocity is:
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 500 − 600 𝑚
𝑣ҧ = = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 15 − 5 𝑠
= −10 𝑚Τ𝑠

2/12/2025 16
 1.3. Instantaneous velocity
Instantaneous velocity: The instantaneous
velocity is determined by computing the average
velocity for an extremely short time interval:
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = lim =
∆𝑡=0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2/12/2025 17
 Example 1.7
The motion of an object is given by the
equation: 𝑥 (𝑡) = 2 + 3𝑡 - 2𝑡2
Where 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 and 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
Find the velocity of the object at 𝑡 = 5 𝑠.
What is its average velocity between the two
instants 𝑡1 = 3𝑠 and 𝑡2 = 5𝑠?

2/12/2025 18
 Solution
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 3 − 4𝑡; then at the instant 𝑡 = 5𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 3 - 4 × 5 = -17 𝑚/𝑠
At t1 =3s: 𝑥1= 2 + 3 × 3 - 2 × 32 = -7 𝑚
At 𝑡2 = 5𝑠: 𝑥2 = 2 + 3 × 5 - 2 × 52 = -33𝑚
Then the average velocity is:
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 −33 + 7 𝑚
𝑣ҧ = = = = −13 𝑚Τ𝑠
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 5−3 𝑠

2/12/2025 19
 1.4. Acceleration
The Average acceleration is the change of velocity
over an interval of time ∆𝑡:
∆𝑣
𝑎ത =
∆𝑡
The Instantaneous acceleration is the rate change
of velocity over an extremely short time interval.
∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = lim =
∆𝑡=0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2/12/2025 20
 Example 1.8
The motion of an object is given by the
equation: 𝑥(𝑡) = 27𝑡 - 4𝑡2
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 and 𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. Find the
acceleration of the object at 𝑡 = 5𝑠.
Answer:
𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑎= = 27 − 8𝑡 = −8 𝑚Τ𝑠 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2/12/2025 21
 1.5. Finding the motion of an object
• If the initial position and velocity are known,
their later values can then be found from the
acceleration.
• When the acceleration is constant, we can find
the equations of motion. In this case the
average and the instantaneous accelerations
are equal and the following equations are
obtained:

2/12/2025 22
 Finding the motion of an object

2/12/2025 23
 Finding the motion of an object
Note that if the initial position 𝑥𝑜 and velocity 𝑣𝑜
are taken at the initial time 𝑡𝑜 = 0, then ∆𝑡 = 𝑡-𝑡𝑜
will be simply 𝑡, equations (2) , (3) and (4) are
written as follows:
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (2’),
1 2
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 3’
2
𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 = 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (4’)

2/12/2025 24
 Example 1.9
A car, initially at rest at a traffic light, accelerates
at 2𝑚/𝑠2 when the light turns green. After 4
seconds what are its velocity and position?

2/12/2025 25
 Solution
we can use Equations (2) and (3) to find the
velocity and the displacement.
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎∆𝑡 = 0 + 2𝑚. 𝑠 −2 × 4𝑠 = 8𝑚𝑠 −1
1 1
∆𝑥 = 𝑣0 ∆𝑡 + 𝑎∆𝑡 = 0 + 2𝑚𝑠 −2 × 4𝑠 2
2
2 2
= 16𝑚
After 4s the car has reached a velocity of 8m.s-1
and is 16m far from the light.

2/12/2025 26
 1.6. Free falling objects
Falling objects undergo an acceleration, which we
attribute to gravity. If gravity is the only factor
affecting the motion of an object falling near the
earth’s surface, and air resistance is either absent or
negligibly small, it is found that:
1. The gravitational acceleration is the same for all
falling objects, no matter what their size or
composition or mass.
2. The gravitational acceleration is constant. It
does not change as the object falls
2/12/2025 27
 Free falling objects
• An object initially thrown upward has also the
gravity acceleration . Its velocity steadily
decreases in magnitude until it becomes zero
at the highest point reached.
• Free falling problems can be solved using the
equations of motion in a straight line (which is
on the vertical direction) with a constant
acceleration equal to 9.80 𝑚. 𝑠-2

2/12/2025 28
 Free falling objects
The equations of Free falling objects can be
summarized in the following table:

2/12/2025 29
 Free falling objects
A ball is dropped from 84 m above the ground.
(a) when does the ball strike the ground? (b)
what is its velocity and its speed when it strikes
the ground?

2/12/2025 30
 Solution
a) Let choose the positive axis is upward,
1
∆𝑥 = 𝑔∆𝑡 2 (The initial velocity is zero) then
2

2 −84𝑚
∆𝑥 = −2
= 4.14𝑠
−9.80𝑚𝑠
b) 𝑣 = 𝑔∆𝑡 = −9.80𝑚𝑠 −2 × 4.14𝑠 =
− 40.6𝑚𝑠 −1 . Then the ball hits the ground
with a speed of 40.6 𝑚𝑠-1
2/12/2025 31
 Chapter 2
Motion in two dimensions
2.1. An introduction to vectors
2.2. The velocity in two dimensions
2.3. The acceleration in two dimensions

2/12/2025 32
 2.1. An introduction to vectors
Physical quantities can be classified as:
• Scalars: it is a simple number (with unit) such
as mass, distance, speed,…
• vectors. a vector quantity is defined with both
a magnitude (which is a number with unit)
and a direction; such as force, displacement,
velocity,….

2/12/2025 33
 The component of vector
• A vector is defined with a magnitude and a
direction.
• The magnitude is given by the length of the
vector and the direction by a positive angle.
(Fig a)

2/12/2025 34
 The component of vector
Ԧ resolved in (𝑥, 𝑦)
A vector 𝐴is
plane into two components (Fig.
b)
𝐴𝑥 is the component on the 𝑥
axis and
𝐴𝑦 is the component on the 𝑦
axis, where:
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃
And
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃

2/12/2025 35
 The component of vector
• If the vector is defined in the (𝑥, 𝑦) plane by
its components 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴y , then the
magnitude and the direction of the vector are:
2 2 −1
𝐴𝑦
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = tan +𝐶
𝐴𝑥
• 𝐶 is a correction of the angle which depend on
the quadrant where the vector is located

2/12/2025 36
 The component of vector
• C = 0 if the vector is in
the first quadrant
• C = 180° if the vector is
in the first quadrant
• C = 180° if the vector is
in the first quadrant
• C = 360° if the vector is
in the first quadrant

2/12/2025 37
 Example 2.1
A person walks 1 𝑘𝑚 due east. If the person
then walks a second kilometer, what is the final
distance from the starting point if the second
kilometer is walked : (a) due east; (b) due west;
(c) due south?
We will call the first displacement 𝐴Ԧ and the
second 𝐵 .

2/12/2025 38
 Solution
𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵
(a) Since 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 are in the
same direction,
𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 2𝐴 = 2 𝑘𝑚.
The vector 𝐶Ԧ is directed due
east.
(b) 𝐶 = 𝐴 – 𝐵 = 0
(c) 𝐶 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 = 2𝐴2 ,
𝐶 = 2𝐴 = 2𝑘𝑚
𝑪 points toward the southeast

2/12/2025 39
 Example 2.2
Find the components of the vectors
𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 if 𝐴= 2 and 𝐵 = 3
Solution:
𝐴 𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 are positive:
𝐴 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos  = 2 cos 30° = 2(0.866)
= 1.73
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 2 sin 30° = 2 (0.500) =
1.00
From Fig.2.7b, 𝐵𝑥 is positive and 𝐵𝑦
is negative:
cos 45° = sin 45° = 0.707,
𝐵𝑥 = 3 cos 45° = 3 (0.707) = 2.12
𝐵𝑦 = -3 sin 45° = -3 (0.707) = -2.12
2/12/2025 40
 Adding vectors
Adding vectors using components:
1. Find the components of each vector to be
added
2. Add the 𝑥 - and 𝑦 -components separately
3. Find the resultant vector.
𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴Ԧ

2/12/2025 41
 Adding vectors

2/12/2025 42
 Subtracting vectors
The negative of a vector is a
vector of the same magnitude
pointing in the opposite
direction. Here 𝐷 = 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵
𝐷 = 𝐴Ԧ + −𝐵 = 𝐵 − 𝐴Ԧ

2/12/2025 43
 Example 2
𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑥ො + 𝑦,
ො 𝐵 = 4𝑥ො + 7𝑦ො
(a) Find the components of 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵
(b) Find the magnitude of 𝐶Ԧ and its angle𝜃 with
respect to the positive 𝑥 axis

2/12/2025 44
 Solution
(a) 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑥ො + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑦ො
𝐶Ԧ = 2 + 4 𝑥ො + 1 + 7 𝑦ො = 6𝑥ො + 8𝑦ො
Thus Cx = 6 , and Cy = 8
(b) 𝐶 2 = 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 = 62 + 82 = 100
𝐶= 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 = 100 = 10
From Fig. we see that the angle 𝜃
satisfies:
𝐶𝑦 8
tan 𝜃 = = = 1.33
𝐶𝑥 6
𝜃 = tan−1 (1.33) = 53.1°

2/12/2025 45
 Multiplying vector by scalar
Multiplying a vector by 3
increases its magnitude by
a factor of 3, but does not
change its direction

2/12/2025 46
 Chapter 3
Newton’s laws of motion
3.1 Force and weight
3.2 Density
3.3 Newton’s 1st law
3.4 Equilibrium
3.5 Newton’s 3rd law
3.6 Newton’s 2nd law
3.7 Some Examples of Newton’s Laws
3.8 Friction

2/12/2025 47
 3.1. Force and weight
• A force is a vector quantity, it represents the ability to
produce motion or to cause an object to change its
state of motion.
• Two kinds of forces can be distinguished:
1. A field force is a force that acts through an empty
space ( gravitational force, electric force, magnetic
force,…)
2. A contact force acts through a contact point or
surface ( pushing or pulling, friction force, tension on
a string, reaction force,…)
• 𝐹Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹Ԧ1 + 𝐹Ԧ2 + 𝐹Ԧ3 + ⋯ = σ 𝐹Ԧ

2/12/2025 48
 Force and weight
The weight is the magnitude of the gravitational
force exerted by the earth on an object of mass 𝑚:
𝑤=𝑚×𝑔
Where 𝑔 is the of gravity acceleration.
The mass is a quantity of matter. From mechanical
point of view it is a resistance to the motion named
inertia which measures the difficulty to move or to
change the state of motion of an object.

2/12/2025 49
 3.2. Density
The density: is defined as the ratio of mass to
the volume:
𝑚
𝜌= 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝑣
Example 3.1
A cylindrical rod of aluminum has a radius 𝑅 =
1.2 𝑐𝑚 and a length L = 2𝑚. What is its mass?

2/12/2025 50
 Example 3.1
Solution

2/12/2025 51
 3.3. Newton’s first law
Newton’s first law states that: Every object continues in a
state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless it is compelled to change that state by forces
acting upon it.
If there is no force on an object or no net force,
An object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion
continue to move with constant velocity.
𝐹Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑣 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡
ቐ 𝑜𝑟
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2/12/2025 52
 3.4. Equilibrium
• From newton’s first law the state of an object
remains unchanged whenever the net force
on the object is zero in this case the object is
said to be in equilibrium.
• The first law applies to objects in uniform
motion as well as to objects at rest

2/12/2025 53
 3.5. Newton’s third law
• If one object exerts a force
F on a second, then the
second object exerts an
equal but opposite force -F
on the first.
• The reaction force is
opposite in direction to
the action force.

2/12/2025 54
 Example 3.2
A woman has a mass of 60 𝑘𝑔.
She is standing on a floor and
remains at rest. Find the
normal force exerted on her
by the floor.
Solution:
𝑤 + 𝐹Ԧ𝑁 = 0, ⇨ 𝑤 = −𝐹Ԧ𝑁
𝑚
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 60𝑘𝑔 × 9.8 2
𝑠
= 588𝑁

2/12/2025 55
 3.6.Newton’s second law
• The second law states that: Whenever there is
a net force acting on an object , this object
will undergoes an acceleration in the same
direction as the force.
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
• The proportionality constant m is the inertial
mass of the object.

2/12/2025 56
 Example 3.3.
A child pushes a sled across a frozen pond with a
horizontal force of 20 𝑁. Assume friction is negligible.
a) If the sled accelerates at 0.5 ms-2, what is its
mass?
b) Another child with a mass of 60 𝑘𝑔 sits on the
sled. What acceleration, the same force produces
now?

2/12/2025 57
 Solution
a) the net force exerted on the sled is a horizontal
force with a magnitude of 𝐹 = 20𝑁
According to the second law:
𝐹 20𝑁
𝑚= = −2
= 40𝑘𝑔
𝑎 0.5𝑚𝑠
b) The total mass of the sled becomes:
𝑚 = 40 𝑘𝑔 + 60𝑘𝑔 = 100 𝑘𝑔
Then the acceleration is:
𝐹 20𝑁
a= = = 0.2𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑚 100𝑘𝑔
2/12/2025 58
 3.7. Friction
• Friction is a force that always acts to
resist the motion of one object on
another
• Frictional forces can exist between solid
surfaces or between fluids (viscous
forces).
• The use of lubricating liquid such as oil,
greatly reduces friction
• Knees or other leg joints, really, are
lubricated by synovial fluid, which is
squeezed through the cartilage lining the
joints when they move.

2/12/2025 59
 Types of friction
We distinguish two types of friction:
1. Static friction, between two surfaces at rest.
2. Kinetic friction, between two surfaces one
moves against the other.

2/12/2025 60
 Static friction

2/12/2025 61
 Static friction
• The maximum static friction 𝒇𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒙 is the
maximum value of static friction force
• 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 has the following properties:
1. 𝒇𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒙 is independent of the contact area.
2. For a given pair of surfaces 𝒇𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒙 is proportional
to the normal force N:
𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
𝜇𝑠 is the coefficient of static friction and 𝑵 is the
magnitude of the normal force.

2/12/2025 62
 Static friction
The coefficient of static friction 𝜇𝑠 depends on:
• The nature of the two surfaces in contact
• Their cleanliness and smoothness
• The amount of moisture present

2/12/2025 63
 Kinetic friction
• The force necessary to keep an object sliding
at constant velocity is smaller than that
required to start it moving.
• Thus the sliding or kinetic friction 𝒇k is less
than 𝒇𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒙.
• The kinetic friction is independent of the
contact area, it satisfies:
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁

2/12/2025 64
 Kinetic friction
• Here 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of kinetic friction
and is determined by nature of the two
surfaces.
• 𝜇𝑘 is nearly independent of the velocity (since
𝑓𝑘 < 𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 then 𝜇𝑘 < 𝜇𝑠

2/12/2025 65
 Example 3.4
A 50 - 𝑁 block is on a flat, horizontal surface. (a)
If a horizontal force 𝑇 = 20 𝑁 is applied and the
block remains at rest ; what is the frictional
force? (b) the block starts to slide when 𝑇 is
increased to 40 𝑁. What is 𝜇𝑠 ? ( c) the block
continues to move at constant velocity if 𝑇 is
reduced to 32 𝑁. What is 𝜇𝑘 ?

2/12/2025 66
 Solution
a) Since the block remains at rest 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑇 = 20𝑁
b) 𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 40𝑁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁
𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 40𝑁
𝜇𝑠 = = = 0.8
𝐹𝑁 50𝑁
c) When the block is moving at constant
velocity with 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝐹𝑁
𝑓𝑘 32𝑁
𝜇𝑘 = = = 0.64
𝐹𝑁 50𝑁

2/12/2025 67
 Chapter 4
Statics
4.1. Introduction
4.2 Torque
4.3 Equilibrium of rigid bodies
4.4 The center of gravity
4.5 Stability and balance
4.6 Levers and mechanical advantage

2/12/2025 68
 4.1 Introduction
Statics is the study of the forces acting on an object (rigid
body ) that is in equilibrium and at rest. The importance
of Statics is to:
• Find the forces acting on various parts of engineering
structures, such as bridges or buildings, or of biological
structures, such as jaws, limbs, or backbones.
• Understand the force multiplication or mechanical
advantage obtained with simple machines, such as the
many levers found in the human body.

2/12/2025 69
 4.2 Torque
Torque is the ability of a
force to cause rotation
in figure 4.1 𝐹Ԧ2 = −𝐹Ԧ1
even though,
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹Ԧ1 + 𝐹Ԧ2 = 0
The rotation of the seat is
due to the Torque.

2/12/2025 70
 Torque
The torque is proportional
to the magnitude of the
force, to the distance from
the axis of rotation and
the direction of the force
and to the angle between
them.

2/12/2025 71
 Torque
the magnitude of the
torque about the point P
is:
𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
r is the distance from the
pivot P to the point where
the force acts on the
object and 𝜃 is the angle
from the direction of 𝑟Ԧ to
the direction of 𝐹Ԧ

2/12/2025 72
 Example 4.1
A mechanic holds a wrench 0.3 𝑚 from the
center of a nut. How large is the torque applied
to the nut if he pulls at right angles to the
wrench with a force of 200 𝑁?
Solution:
Since he exerts the force at right angles to the
wrench, the angle 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 90°, and sin 𝜃 = 1 , Thus
the torque is:
𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 = 0.3𝑚 × 200𝑁 1 = 60𝑁 𝑚

2/12/2025 73
 Finding the magnitude of a torque
using the lever arm
• Draw a line parallel to the
force through the force’s
point of application called
the force’s line of action.
• Draw a perpendicular line
from the rotation axis to
the line of action.
• The distance from the axis
to the line of action along
this perpendicular line is
the lever arm (r⊥).

2/12/2025 74
 Finding the magnitude of a torque
using the lever arm
𝜏 = 𝑟˔ . 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹˔
Where:
𝑟˔ = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 and 𝐹˔ = 𝐹 sin 𝜃

2/12/2025 75
 The cross product
The vector product or cross
product of two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and
𝐵 is a vector 𝐶Ԧ which is
written as :𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵
the magnitude of the vector
𝐶Ԧ is: 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
The direction of the vector𝐶Ԧ
is specifies by the right-hand
rule.

2/12/2025 76
 Example 4.2
The vectors in the figure
are all in the plane of the
page. Find the magnitude
and direction of :
a) 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐴Ԧ
b) 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵
c) 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐶Ԧ

2/12/2025 77
 Solution
a) 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴. 𝐴 sin 0° = 0
The cross product of any parallel vectors is zero
b) 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝐵 sin 90° = 4 × 5 × 1 = 20
Ԧ
We rotate our right palm from 𝐴toward 𝐵. Our right
thumb then points out of the page.
c) 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴. 𝐶 sin 30° = 4 × 5 × 0.5 = 10
using the right hand rule, our thumb points into the
page.

2/12/2025 78
 Couples
• A Couple is the total torque of
a pair of forces with equal
magnitudes but opposite
directions acting along
different lines of action.
• Couples do not exert a net
force on an object even
though they do exert a net
torque.
• The net torque is
independent of the choice of
the point from which
distances are measured.

2/12/2025 79
 Example 4.3
Two forces with equal
magnitudes but opposite
directions act on an object
with different lines of
action. Find the net
torque on the object
resulting from these
forces.

2/12/2025 80
 Solution
The torque resulting from the force at 𝑥1 is:
𝜏1 = 𝑥1 𝐹
The torque about P resulting from the force at
𝑥2
𝜏2 = −𝑥2 𝐹
The net torque is:
𝜏 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 = 𝑥1 𝐹 − 𝑥2 𝐹
𝜏 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 𝐹 = −𝑙𝐹
2/12/2025 81
 4.3. Equilibrium of rigid body
Two conditions for a rigid body to be in static
equilibrium:
1. Translational equilibrium: The net force on
the rigid body must be zero:
σ 𝐹Ԧ = 0
2. Rotational equilibrium : The net torque on
the rigid body about any point must be zero:
σ 𝜏Ԧ = 0
2/12/2025 82
 Example 4.4
Two children of weights 𝑤1 and 𝑤2 are balanced
on a board pivoted about its center.
(a) What is the ratio of their distances 𝑥2/𝑥1
from the pivot?
(b) If 𝑤1 = 200 𝑁, 𝑤2 = 400 𝑁 and 𝑥1 = 1 𝑚, what
is 𝑥2?
(For simplicity, we assume the board to be
weightless; this will not affect the result.)

2/12/2025 83
 Solution
a)The force 𝑵 is zero:
𝑁 = 𝑤 1 + 𝑤2
𝜏1 = 𝑥1 𝑤1 and 𝜏2 = −𝑥2 𝑤2
Rotational equilibrium:
𝜏 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 = 0
𝑥1 𝑤1 − 𝑥2 𝑤2 = 0
𝑥2 𝑤1
=
𝑥1 𝑤2
𝑤
b) 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 1 = (1𝑚) ×
𝑤2
200𝑁
= 0.5𝑚
400𝑁

2/12/2025 84
 Applications to muscles and joints
Generally a muscle is
attached, via tendons, to two
different bones . The points of
attachment are called
insertions. The two bones are
flexibly connected at a joint,
such as those at the elbow,
knee and ankle. A muscle
exerts a pull when its fiber
contract under stimulation by
a nerve, but it cannot exert a
push.

2/12/2025 85
 Example 4.4
A model for the forearm in the
position shown in the figure is a
pivoted bar supported by a
cable. The weight 𝒘 of the
forearm is 12 𝑁 and can be
treated as concentrated at the
point shown. Find the tension 𝑇
exerted by the biceps muscle
and the force 𝐸 exerted by the
elbow joint.

2/12/2025 86
 Solution
σ 𝐹 = 0, then 𝑇 - 𝐸 – 𝑤 = 0
Calculating torques about the pivot P:
𝑬 produces no torque.
𝒘 produces a torque:
𝜏𝑤 = −0.15 × 𝑤
𝑻 produces a torque:
𝜏 𝑇 = 0.05 × 𝑇
At equilibrium the total torque is :
- 0.15𝑤 + 0.05𝑇 = 0
0.15𝑤 0.15 × 12
𝑇= = = 36𝑁
0.05 0.05
Replacing in the first equation:
𝐸 = 𝑇 - 𝑤 = 36 𝑁 - 12 𝑁 = 24 𝑁

2/12/2025 87
 4.4. The center of gravity
• The weight of a body can
be considered as a force
acting through a single
point called the center of
gravity or center of mass.
• The torque produced by
the weight of a rigid body
is equal to that due to a
concentrated object of
the same weight placed
at its center of gravity .

2/12/2025 88
 The center of gravity
Locating the center of
gravity:
• For regular shapes: The C.
G. is at its geometric
center.
• For less symmetric objects
the C.G can be calculated
mathematically or located
experimentally

2/12/2025 89
 Calculating the position of the center
of gravity:
The total torque about a
pivot 𝑂 is
𝜏 = 𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2
Torque due to weight
concentrated at the center of
gravity X:
𝜏 = 𝑋 𝑤1 + 𝑤2
𝑋 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 = 𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2
𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2
𝑋=
𝑤1 + 𝑤2

2/12/2025 90
 Example 4.5
A weightless plank 4 𝑚
long has one concrete
block at the left end,
another at the center, and
two blocks at the right
end. Find its center of
gravity?

2/12/2025 91
 Solution
The total weight is: 𝑤 = 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 + 𝑤3 = 𝑤0
Then center of gravity is:
𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2 0 + 2𝑚 × 𝑤0 + 4𝑚 × 2𝑤0
𝑋= =
𝑤 4𝑤0
10𝑚 × 𝑤0
= = 2.5𝑚
4𝑤0
The center of gravity is between the center of
the plank and the heavier end.

2/12/2025 92
 4.5. Stability and balance
Balance is a physical ability
to control equilibrium and
Stability is the degree of
balance
Types of balance: dynamic
and static
Base of support: is the
supporting area beneath the
object that includes the
points of contact with the
supporting surface and the
area between them.

2/12/2025 93
 Stability criteria
The major factors that affect the
object’s stability and balance are:
1. The area of the support
2. The mass of the object
3. Position of the center of
gravity
4. The height of the center of
gravity

2/12/2025 94
 4.6. Levers and mechanical
advantages
Simple machines, such as levers, pulleys are
designed to reduce the force needed to lift a
heavy load. In each case there is an applied
force𝑭𝒂 and a load force 𝑭𝑳 .
Mechanical advantage:
𝐹𝑙
𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝐹𝑎

2/12/2025 95
 Lever
• A lever in its simplest form is a rigid bar used
with a fulcrum.
• The fulcrum is the point or support on which a
lever pivots.
• Three classes of levers can be distinguished:

2/12/2025 96
 Classes of levers

2/12/2025 97
 Levers
If the load and applied forces are
perpendicular to the lever arm in
equilibrium, their ratio is equal to the ratio
of 𝑥𝑎 and 𝑥𝐿 (distances from the fulcrum),
then :
𝐹𝐿 𝑥𝑎
𝑀. 𝐴 = =
𝐹𝑎 𝑥𝐿
With the forces at right angle to the lever
the M.A. of class III levers < 1 ,and of class II
levers >1.
2/12/2025 98
 Levers in human body
In human body, muscles, bones and joints act
together to form levers.
• Bones act as lever arms.
• Joints act as pivots.
• Muscles provide the applied forces to move
loads.
• Load forces are often the weights of the body
parts that are moved or forces needed to lift,
push or pull things outside our bodies.

2/12/2025 99
 Example of levers in the human body

2/12/2025 100
 Example 4.6
Suppose the load force 𝐹𝐿 on a class one lever
has a magnitude of 2000𝑁. A person exerts a
force 𝐹𝑎 = 500𝑁 to balance the load.
a) What is the ratio of the distances 𝑥𝑎 and 𝑥𝐿 ?
b) What is the mechanical advantage of this
lever?

2/12/2025 101
 Solution
a) The torque due to 𝐹𝑎 is:
𝜏𝑎 = - 𝑥𝑎 𝐹𝑎
And the torque due to 𝐹𝐿 is
𝜏𝐿 = 𝑥𝐿 𝐹𝐿
For balance, these must sum to zero, so:
𝑥𝐿𝐹𝐿 - 𝑥𝑎𝐹𝑎 = 0 and
𝑥𝑎 𝐹𝐿 200𝑁
= = =4
𝑥𝐿 𝐹𝑎 500𝑁
(b) The mechanical advantage of the lever is:
𝑀. 𝐴. = 𝐹𝐿/𝐹𝑎 = 4

2/12/2025 102
 Chapter 5
Work and energy
5.1 Work
5.2 Kinetic Energy
5.3 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces
5.4. Power

2/12/2025 103
 5.1 Work
The work done by a constant force
𝐹Ԧ is defined as
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 . 𝑠
Where, 𝑠 is the displacement and
𝐹𝑠 the component of the force on
the direction of the displacement.
If the force and the displacement
make an angle 𝜃, then 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃,
and the work can be written as:
𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑠 . cos 𝜃
The S.I unit of work is the Joule (J).
1J = 1𝑘𝑔𝑚2𝑠-2 =1 N.m

2/12/2025 104
 Work
Work can be positive, negative, or zero as
illustrated in the figure below

2/12/2025 105
 Example 5.1
A 600 𝑁 force is applied by a
man to a dresser that moves
2𝑚. Find the work done if
the force and displacement
are:
a) parallel
b) at right angles
c) oppositely directed ; we
may imagine that the
dresser is being slowed
and brought to rest

2/12/2025 106
 Solution
a) 𝐹Ԧ and 𝑠Ԧ are parallel, so 𝜃 = 0° and cos(0) = 1 .
The work is: 𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑠. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= (600 𝑁) × (2𝑚) × (1) = 1200 𝐽
b) 𝐹Ԧ and 𝑠Ԧ are perpendicular, so 𝜃 = 90° and
cos(90°) = 0
𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =(600 𝑁) × 2𝑚 × 0 = 0
c) 𝐹Ԧ and 𝑠Ԧ are opposite, so 𝜃 = 180° and cos(180°)
= -1. The work then is:
𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 600 𝑁 × 2𝑚 × -1 = - 1200 𝐽
2/12/2025 107
 5.2 Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of an object of mass 𝑚 and
velocity v is defined by:
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Example: A car of mass 𝑚 = 1200 𝑘𝑔 moving with a
speed of 120 𝑘𝑚/ℎ, what is its kinetic energy?
𝐾 = 1 2 × 1200 𝑘𝑔 × 33.3 𝑚. 𝑠-1 2= 665 𝐾𝑗
1
𝐾 = × 1200𝑘𝑔 × 33.3. 𝑠 −1 2 = 665𝑘𝐽
2

2/12/2025 108
 The work-energy principle
The change in the kinetic energy of an object
(final kinetic energy minus the initial kinetic
energy) is equal to the total work (W) done on it
by all the acting forces
∆𝐾 = 𝑊
• K > Ko if W > 0
• K < Ko if W < 0
• K = Ko if W = 0
2/12/2025 109
 Example 5.2
A woman pushes a car, initially at
rest, toward a child by exerting a
constant horizontal force 𝐹Ԧ of
magnitude 5 𝑁 through a
distance of 1 𝑚. (a) How much
work is done on the car? (b) What
is its final kinetic energy? (c) If the
car has a mass of 0.1 𝑘𝑔 what is
its final speed? (Assume no work
is done by frictional forces)

2/12/2025 110
 Solution
𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑠 = 5𝑁 × 1𝑚 = 5𝐽
𝐾 = 𝐾 𝑜 + 𝑊 = 0 + 5𝐽 = 5𝐽
1
The final kinetic energy is: 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 , so
2

2𝐾 2 × 5𝐽
𝑣= = = 10 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑚 0.1𝑘𝑔

2/12/2025 111
 5.3. Potential energy
The work done by the
gravitational force of an
object of mass 𝑚 raised
from an initial height ℎ𝑜to a
height ℎ is:
𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑜 - 𝑚𝑔ℎ
The potential energy is:
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
∆𝑈 = 𝑈 - 𝑈𝑜 = - 𝑊𝑔

2/12/2025 112
 Potential energy
The change in potential energy when an object
of mass 𝑚 is raised from an initial height ℎ𝑜to a
height ℎ is opposite to the work done by the
gravitational force:
∆𝑈 = 𝑈 - 𝑈𝑜 = - 𝑊𝑔

2/12/2025 113
 Total energy
𝑊𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊𝑎 + 𝑊𝑔
By the work-energy theorem:
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑊𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑊𝑎 + 𝑊𝑔
As 𝑊𝑔 = - (𝑈 – 𝑈𝑜)
Then 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 – (𝑈 - 𝑈𝑜) + 𝑊𝑎
𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑈𝑜 + 𝑊𝑎 (a)

2/12/2025 114
 Total energy
The total mechanical energy:
𝐸=𝐾+𝑈
Equation (a) becomes:
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 + 𝑊𝑎 or ∆𝐸 = 𝐸 - 𝐸𝑜 = 𝑊𝑎
If (𝑊𝑎= 0) and only the gravitational force is
doing work, then
∆𝐸 = 0 or 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑈𝑜 = 𝐾 + 𝑈

2/12/2025 115
 Example 5.3
A woman skis from rest
down a hill 20 𝑚 height. If
friction is negligible, what
is her speed at the bottom
of the slope?

2/12/2025 116
 Solution
As 𝑊𝑎 = 0, then the Mechanical energy is conserved:
𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸
𝐸 𝑜 = 𝐾𝑜 + 𝑈𝑜 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ (𝐾𝑜 = 0, because the initial speed is
zero)
1
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
(We can take 𝑈 = 0 at ℎ = 0, as a reference potential
energy)
1
Then 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸 becomes 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 0 = 0 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝑣 = 2𝑔ℎ = 2 × 9.80𝑚𝑠 −2 × 20𝑚 = 19.8𝑚𝑠 −1
2/12/2025 117
 5.4. Power
When a system develops work W during a
period of time ∆𝑡, the average power is defined
by :
𝑤
𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
∆𝑡
The units of the power is J/s expressed in SI
system, which is called Watt
Electrical energy is sold by kilowatt hour(𝒌𝑾 𝒉).
𝟏𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔𝑱

2/12/2025 118
 Example 5.4
A 70 - 𝑘𝑔 man runs up a flight of stairs 3𝑚 high
in 2𝑠. (a) How much work does he do against
gravitational forces? (b) what is his average
power output?

2/12/2025 119
 Solution
The man develops a work against the
gravitational force, then 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑛 = -𝑊𝑔
Since 𝑊𝑔= -∆𝑈,
Hence 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑛 = ∆𝑈= 𝑚𝑔ℎ = (70𝑘𝑔) × (9.80𝑚𝑠-2)×
(3𝑚) = 2060𝐽
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑛 2060𝐽
𝑃= = = 1030𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
∆𝑡 2𝑠

2/12/2025 120
 Chapter 6
Mechanics of non- viscous fluids
6.1. Archimedes’ Principle
6.2. The equation of continuity, Streamline
6.3. Bernoulli’s Equation
6.4. Static consequence of Bernoulli’s equation

2/12/2025 121
 6.1. Archimedes’ Principle
• Archimedes’ principle states that the
buoyant force 𝐵 on the object is equal
to the weight of the displaced fluid:
• Consider a solid of volume 𝑉 and
density 𝜌 completely submerged in a
fluid of density 𝜌𝑜. The fluid displaced
by the solid has a mass 𝑚𝐷 = 𝜌𝑜𝑉𝐷 ,
then it weighs 𝑤𝑜 = 𝑚𝐷𝑔 = 𝜌𝑜𝑉𝐷𝑔.
• The buoyant force is then:
𝐵 = 𝜌0 𝑉𝐷 𝑔

2/12/2025 122
 Example 6.1
A piece of metal of unknown
volume 𝑉 is suspended from a
string. Before submersion, the
tension in the string is 10𝑁. When
the metal is submerged in water
the tension is 8N. The water
density is 𝜌𝑜 = 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3. (a)
Calculate the buoyant force (b)
calculate the volume of the piece
of metal (c) What is the density of
the metal?

2/12/2025 123
 Solution
a) Before submersion (Fig. a)
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑤 = 𝑚 . g = 10𝑁
After submersion (Fig. b), since the object is in equilibrium:
𝑇𝑓 + 𝐵 - 𝑤 = 0
𝐵 = 𝑤 - 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑖 - 𝑇𝑓 = 10𝑁 - 8𝑁 = 2𝑁
a) 𝐵 = 𝜌𝑜 × 𝑉𝐷 × 𝑔.
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉 . Hence,
𝐵 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓
𝑉= =
𝜌0 . 𝑔 𝜌0 . 𝑔
a) The density of the piece of metal
𝑚 𝜌0 . 𝑇𝑖
𝜌= = = 5000 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝑉 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓

2/12/2025 124
 Partial submerged solids
If an object of volume 𝑉𝑠 is not completely immersed in a
fluid, the displaced volume
𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏
Vsub is the volume of the part of the solid below the top
surface of the fluid. Submerged fraction is defined by:
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝑉𝑠
𝐵=𝑤
𝜌0 𝑔𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑔𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝜌𝑠
=
𝑉𝑠 𝜌0

2/12/2025 125
 Example 6.2
The density of ice is 920𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 while that of sea
water is 1025 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3. What fraction of an
iceberg is submerged?
Solution:
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 902
= = = 0.89
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 1025
About 90 % of an iceberg is submerged in the
sea.

2/12/2025 126
 6.2. Equation of continuity
The flow rate 𝑄 is the volume of the fluid
flowing past a point in a channel per unit time.
∆𝑉
𝑄 = (𝒎𝟑/𝒔)
∆𝑡
For an incompressible fluid (𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) the
volume of fluid that passes any section of the
tube per second is unchanged. Thus the
equation of continuity can be written as:
𝑄1 = 𝑄2

2/12/2025 127
 Equation of continuity
Consider a section of the tube
(fig. a). In the time ∆𝑡 the fluid
moves the distance
∆𝑥 = 𝑣∆𝑡
And the volume of the fluid
crossing the tube is
𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡.
𝑄=𝐴𝑣
For a channel whose cross
section changes from 𝐴1 to 𝐴2
, the continuity equation:
𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2

2/12/2025 128
 Example 6.3
A water pipe leading up to a hose a radius of
1𝑐𝑚. Water leaves the hose at a rate of 3 litres
per minute.
1. Find the velocity of the water in the pipe.
2. The hose has a radius of 0.5 𝑐𝑚. What is the
velocity of the water in the hose?

2/12/2025 129
 Solution
1. 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣,
The flow rate is the same in the hose and in the pipe. Using 1 liter = 10-3 m3
and 1min = 60s
∆𝑉 3 × 10−3 𝑚
𝑄= = = 5 × 10−5 𝑚3 Τ𝑠
∆𝑡 60𝑠
Let the velocity and area in the pipe be 𝑣1 and 𝐴1, respectively. Then we have,
𝑄=𝐴𝑣
𝑄 𝑄 5 × 10−5 𝑚3 Τ𝑠 −1
𝑣1 = = 2= = 0.159𝑚𝑠
𝐴1 𝜋𝑟1 𝜋(0.01𝑚)2
2. The flow rate is constant, so 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2, and the velocity 𝑣2 in the hose
is
𝐴1 𝜋𝑟12
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 × = 𝑣1 × 2 = 0.637𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2 𝜋𝑟2

2/12/2025 130
 6.3. Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s equation can be used for the following
conditions:
1. The fluid is incompressible, then its density
remains constant.
2. The fluid is non-viscous (no mechanical energy is
lost).
3. The flow is streamline, not turbulent.
4. The velocity of the fluid at any point does not
change during the period of observation. (This is
called the steady-state assumption.)

2/12/2025 131
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s equation states that
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷 + 𝝆𝒗 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐
Bernoulli’s equation can be written between two
sections as:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

2/12/2025 132
 Specific forms of the Bernoulli’s
equation

2/12/2025 133
 6.4. Static consequences Bernoulli’s
equation
When the fluid is at rest
(𝒗 = 𝟎), Bernoulli’s
equation is written as:
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For example, from the
figure find the pressure at
a point 𝐵 in terms of the
pressure at surface and
the depth.

2/12/2025 134
 Static consequences Bernoulli’s
equation
At the surface 𝑆𝐴,
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
and at the surface 𝑆𝐵 ,
𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. Then
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵
or 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑦𝐴 - 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑
If 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 , then
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑

2/12/2025 135
 Static consequences Bernoulli’s
equation
• Calculating 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 at points 𝐵 and 𝐷 gives:
𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐵 = 𝑃𝐷 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝐷, since 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑦𝐷 then
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐷
• The surfaces of liquids at rest in connected
containers of any shape must be at the same
height if they are open to the atmosphere

2/12/2025 136
 Example 6.4
The pressure at the floor is measured to be normal
atmospheric pressure, its value is 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 𝑏𝑎𝑟.
How much is the pressure at a height of 1000 𝑚 ?
Given: The density of air at atmospheric pressure
and 0° 𝐶 is 𝜌 = 1.29 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚-3
Solution:
Here, 𝑑 = 1000 𝑚. Thus: 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑 = 1.013 ×
105 𝑃𝑎 + (1.29 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚-3) × (9.8 𝑚. 𝑠-2) × (1000𝑚) =
88.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2/12/2025 137
 Chapter 7
Viscous fluid
7.1 Viscosity
7.2. Flow in circulatory system
7.3 Flow resistance

2/12/2025 138
 7.1 Viscosity
The figure show two plates separated by a thin
fluid layer.
∆𝑣
𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴
∆𝑦
• 𝐹 is the force,
• 𝐴 the area of the plate
• ∆𝑣/∆𝑦 the velocity gradient
• “eta”)  is the coefficient of viscosity
• The S.I unit of viscosity is the 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚-1. 𝑠-1 = 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠

2/12/2025 139
 The relation between viscosity and
temperature

2/12/2025 140
 The relation between viscosity and
temperature
• As the temperature increases, viscosity
decreases for liquids.
• As the temperature increases, viscosity
increases for gases.
• Because viscous forces are usually small,
viscous fluids are often used as lubricants to
reduce friction.

2/12/2025 141
 Example 7.1
An air track used in physics lecture
demonstrations, supports a cart that rides on a
thin cushion of air 1𝑚𝑚 thick and 0.04 𝑚2 in
area. If the viscosity of the air is 1.8 × 10-5𝑃𝑎. 𝑠,
find the force required to move the cart at a
constant speed of 0.2 𝑚/𝑠.

2/12/2025 142
 Solution
The force required is:
∆𝑣
𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴
∆𝑦
0.2𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐹 = 1.8 × 10−5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 0.04 m 2
10−3 𝑚
= 1.44 × 10−4 𝑁

2/12/2025 143
 7.2 The flow in the circularity system
• The blood: Blood is constantly in motion. the
blood flows in a circulation system at almost the
same rate.
• Blood is considered as a uniform fluid with
viscosity 𝜂 = 2.084 × 10-5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 and a density 𝜌 =
1059.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 at normal body temperature.
• Blood accounts for 7 to 9 percent of the total
body weight. A person weighing 70 kg will have
about 4 to 6 liters of blood.

2/12/2025 144
 The flow in the circularity system
• The cardiovascular system: The
cardiovascular system includes
the heart (pump), and an
extensive system of arteries,
vascular beds containing
capillaries, and veins (vessels).

2/12/2025 145
2/12/2025 146
 7.3. The flow resistance
• The Flow resistance is defined in general, as:
∆𝑃
𝑄
• For non- viscous fluid,
𝑃1 = 𝑃2, then ∆𝑃 = 0 and 𝑅𝑓 is zero.
• For a viscous fluid, there is a ∆𝑃 between the
two cross sections,
∆𝑃 = 𝑃1 - 𝑃2 = 𝑅𝑓𝑄
2/12/2025 147
 The flow resistance
• For laminar flow,
8𝜂𝑙
𝑅𝑓 =
𝜋𝑅 4
• 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 are respectively the length and the
radius of the tube, 𝜂 is the viscosity of the
fluid.
• The unit of flow resistance is the 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 𝑚-3.

2/12/2025 148
 Example 7.2
The aorta of an average adult human has a radius 1.3 ×
10-2 𝑚. What are the resistance and the pressure drop
over a 0.2m distance, assuming a flow rate of 𝐴 = 10-4
𝑚3𝑠-1.
Solution:
8𝜂𝑙 8 2.084 × 10−3 𝑝𝑎. 𝑠 0.2𝑚
𝑅𝑓 = 4
=
𝜋𝑅 𝜋 1.3 × 10−2 𝑚 4
= 37.2 × 104 𝑝𝑎. 𝑠𝑚−3
The pressure drop over the distance 0.2 m is:
∆𝑃 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑄 = 37.2 × 104 Pa. s. 𝑚−3 10−4 𝑚3 𝑠 −1
= 3.72 𝑃𝑎

2/12/2025 149
 Flow resistance in blood vessels
1. Vessels in parallel:
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 1 1 ∆𝑃
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = + = ∆𝑃 + =
𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑃
An equivalent flow resistance is obtained by:
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑃 𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2
For N vessels in parallel:
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑃 𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓𝑁
For 𝑁 identical arteries, the equivalent flow resistance is:
𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑃 =
𝑁

2/12/2025 150
 Flow resistance in blood vessels
2. Vessels in series:
The total pressure drop between the ends of two vessels connected
in series is:
∆𝑃 = ∆𝑃1 + ∆𝑃2 = 𝑄 × 𝑅𝑓1 + 𝑄𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑄 × 𝑅𝑓1 + 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑄 + 𝑅𝑠
An equivalent flow resistance is:
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑓1 + 𝑅𝑓2
For N vessels in series
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑓1 + 𝑅𝑓2 + ⋯ 𝑅𝑓𝑁

2/12/2025 151
 Example 7.3
The radius of a single
capillary is 4 × 10-6𝑚 and
its length is 10-3𝑚. What is
the resistance of 4.73 ×
107 capillaries in the
mesenteric vascular bed
of a dog if they are
assumed to be parallel?

2/12/2025 152
 Solution
The resistance of one capillary is
8𝜂𝑙 8 2.084 × 10−3 𝑝𝑎. 𝑠 10−3 𝑚
𝑅𝑓 = 4
=
𝜋𝑅 𝜋 4 × 10−6 𝑚 4
= 2.073 × 1016 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠. 𝑚−3
For N = 4.73 × 107 capillaries in parallel
𝑅𝑓 2.073 × 1016
𝑅𝑃 = =
𝑁 4.73 × 107
= 4.38 × 105 𝑘𝑃𝑎. 𝑠. 𝑚−3

2/12/2025 153
 Chapter 8
Mirrors, Lenses and Imaging Systems
8.1. Lenses
8.2. The Human Eye
8.3. Optical Defects of the Eye

2/12/2025 154
 Introduction
Cameras, microscopes,
telescopes and the human
eye are examples of optical
systems that employ lenses
and in some cases mirrors.

2/12/2025 155
 1.8. Lenses
A lens is a piece of
transparent medium that
can focus a transmitted
beam of light so an image
is formed.
the lens in the human eye
is formed by a transparent
membrane filled with a
clear fluid.

2/12/2025 156
 Types of lenses
Converging lens Diverging lens
• thicker at its center than at • thicker at its edges than at
the edges the center
• bends light rays toward its • bend the rays outward bend
axis , it refracts parallel rays the rays outward so that
so that the image is formed they appear to come from a
at a focal point F’ beyond focal point F’ before the
the lens. lens.

2/12/2025 157
 The focal length
• The distance from the center of the lens to the
focal point is called focal length.
• The focal length is conventionally positive for
converging lens and negative for a diverging
lens.

2/12/2025 158
 The focal length
The focal length 𝑓 depends
on the index of refraction 𝑛
of the lens and on the radii
of curvature (𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2) of
its surfaces, it can be
calculated using the
lensmarker’s formula:
1 1 1
= 𝑛−1 +
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

2/12/2025 159
 The focal length
The following conventions are used to
characterize lens surfaces:
• A convex surface has a positive radius of
curvature.
• A concave surface has a negative radius of
curvature.
• A plane surface has an infinite radius of
curvature.
2/12/2025 160
 Thin lens formula
The image position 𝑠’ and the object position 𝑠
through a thin lens are related by the equation:
1 1 1
+ ′=
𝑆 𝑆 𝑓

2/12/2025 161
 Power of lens, Aberration
The power of the lens is the reciprocal of the
focal length f, (in Diopters: 1𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1𝑚-1):
1
𝑃=
𝑓
• For example, a lens of focal length 𝑓 = -20 𝑐𝑚
1
has a power 𝑃 = = −5 = 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
−0.20𝑚
• A short focal-length lens, which bends light
through large angle, has a large power.
2/12/2025 162
 Association of lenses
Two thin lenses with focal lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 placed next
to each other are equivalent to a single lens with a focal
length 𝑓 satisfying:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
1 1
Alternatively, with 𝑃1 = and 𝑃2 = , the power of
𝑓1 𝑓2
the pair of lenses is:
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷 𝟐
The powers of lenses in contact are simply added to find
the net power.
2/12/2025 163
 Aberration
• Any lens suffers from various kinds of
aberrations, which limit the sharpness of its
images.

2/12/2025 164
 Types of aberrations
1. Monochromatic aberrations or (spherical
aberrations): occur for light of single
wavelength. Light rays near the axis of the
lens are focused farther than the rays near
the edge and cause the image to have a small
diameter.

2/12/2025 165
 Types of aberrations
2. Chromatic aberration:
When an object is
illuminated with white
light, if its image on a
screen is in focus for one
colour component, it will
be slightly out of focus for
the others.

2/12/2025 166
 Eliminating aberration
Consider a doublet, two lenses in
contact. Lens 1 has two convex sides and
is made from crown glass. Lens 2 has
one flat side and one concave side and is
made from flint glass. All of the curved
surfaces have radii of curvature of 10
𝑐𝑚. In both types of glass, the refractive
index varies about 1 percent over the
visible spectrum. The powers P1 and P2
can be calculated using the lensmaker’s
equation:
1 1 1
𝑃 = = 𝑛−1 +
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

2/12/2025 167
 Eliminating aberration
The power of the two lenses when they are
placed next to each other is: 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2.
Calculating the Power for each lens using the
data available in the table below
Refractive index Power (Diopters)

Wave length Crown lens L1 Flint lens L2 P1 (crown) P2 (Flint) P = P1 + P2

Red (656 nm) 1.517 1.644 10.34 - 6.44 3.90

Yellow (589 nm) 1.520 1.650 10.40 - 6.50 3.90

Blue (486 nm) 1.527 1.664 10.54 - 6.64 3.90

2/12/2025 168
 Eliminating aberration
Crow lens:
1 1
Power of the red light: 𝑃1𝑅 = 1.517 − 1 + = 10.34 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 0.1
1 1
Power of the yellow light: 𝑃1𝑌 = 1.520 − 1 + = 10.40 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 0.1
1 1
Power of the Blue light: 𝑃1𝐵 = 1.527 − 1 + = 10.54 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 0.1
Flint lens:
1 1
Power of the red light: 𝑃2𝑅 = 1.644 − 1 − + = −6.44 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 ∞
1 1
Power of the yellow light: 𝑃2𝑌 = 1.650 − 1 − + = −6.50 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 ∞
1 1
Power of the Blue light: 𝑃2𝐵 = 1.664 − 1 − + = −6.64 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.1 ∞
Refractive index of some substances:
Medium Air Water Humors crystalline
Refractive index 1 1.333 1.336 1.437

2/12/2025 169
 Eliminating aberration

2/12/2025 170
 8.2. The human eye
The eyeball is roughly spherical
with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.
The ciliary muscles control the
shape and focal length of the
crystalline lens. When these
muscles are relaxed, the lens stays
flat, focusing light from distant
objects on the retina. When the
muscles contract, the lens
becomes more rounded, reducing
its focal length to focus on nearby
objects. This ability to adjust focal
length is called accommodation.

2/12/2025 171
 Power of Accommodation
The power of accommodation of the eye is the
maximum variation of its power for focusing on
near objects 𝑃𝑛 and distant (far) objects 𝑃𝑓.
𝐴 = 𝑃 𝑛 – 𝑃𝑓

2/12/2025 172
 Power of Accommodation
• At the far point (a person sees objects clearly at a distance 𝑥𝑓), the power
Pf of the eye is:
1 1
𝑃𝑓 = + , 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙: 𝐷 ≈ 2 𝑐𝑚
𝑥𝑓 𝐷
For a person with normal vision the far point is at the infinity (𝑥𝑓 = ), then its
power is:
1 1
𝑃𝑓 = + = 50 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
∞ 0.02
• When the eye adjusts its focal length so that it focuses on an object at the
near point (the object distance is 𝑥𝑛), the power of the eye is:
1 1
𝑃𝑛 = + , 𝑥𝑛: 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑥𝑛 𝐷
For a young adult with normal vision, 𝑥𝑛 = 25 𝑐𝑚, then,
1 1
𝑃𝑛 = + = 54 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.25𝑚 0.02𝑚
• For a young adult with normal vision 𝐴 = 54 - 50 = 4 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

2/12/2025 173
 The visual acuity
The acuity (clearness of images)
of a typical person is about 5 ×
10-4𝑟𝑎𝑑. Objects with smaller
angular separation cannot be
distinguished. Experiments
show that under optimal
conditions few people have an
acuity of twice of the diffraction
limit (2 × 10-4𝑟𝑎𝑑). Nobody can
reach the diffraction limit, this
failure is due to the structure of
the retina.

2/12/2025 174
 The Eye sensitivity
The minimum or threshold intensity needed to see
a flash of light depends on the wavelength. The
cornea is opaque to wavelengths shorter than 300
𝑛𝑚, and the crystalline lens to wavelengths below
380 𝑛𝑚, so ultraviolet light does not contribute to
vision. The sensitivity of the eye goes to zero rapidly
above 700 𝑛𝑚. The photosensitive molecules in the
rods an cones do not respond to the longer
wavelengths. The cones are active only in light-
adapted vision, while the rods are always active.

2/12/2025 175
 8.3. Optical defects of the eye
Four common optical defects ( myopia,
hypermetropia, presbyopia and astigmatism) of
the eye can be corrected by use of eyeglasses .
In three of these defects the glasses are used to
shift the apparent position of an object , so that
the defective eye is able to focus properly. In the
last ,astigmatism the glasses are used to correct
the distortion produced by the eye.

2/12/2025 176
 Myopia (or nearsightedness)
In this defect parallel light from a distant object is
focused by relaxed eye at a point before the retina. A
nearsighted person cannot focus clearly on an object
farther away than the far point located at a distance
𝑥f. This problem arises because the power of the eye
is too great. Diverging lenses with negative powers
will compensate for this defect.

2/12/2025 177
 Example 8.1
A nearsighted man has a far point at a distance
of 0.2𝑚. His power of accommodation is 4
𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠. (a) what power lenses does he need
to see distant objects? (b) What is his near point
without glasses? (c) what is his near point with
the glasses?

2/12/2025 178
 Solution
a) at 𝑥𝑓 = 0.2𝑚 then the power of the eye is
′ 1 1 1 1
𝑃𝑓 = + = + = 55 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑥𝑓 𝐷 0.2 0.02
For a far point at the infinity the power of the eye is
1 1
𝑃𝑓 = + = 50 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
∞ 0.02
A corrective lens of power 𝑃𝑐 should be used, where
𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑓′ = 𝑃𝑓
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑓 − 𝑃𝑓′ = 50 − 55 = −5 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
2/12/2025 179
Continue …
b) Given the power of accommodation:
𝐴 = 𝑃𝑛 − 𝑃𝑓
𝑃𝑛 = 𝐴 + 𝑃𝑓 = 4 + 55 = 59 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
The near point satisfying
′
1 1 1 1
𝑃𝑛 = ′ + = ′ + = 59 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑥𝑛 𝐷 𝑥𝑛 0.02
⇨ 𝑥𝑛′ = 0.11𝑚

2/12/2025 180
Continue …
c) With the eye glasses the power of the eye is
𝑃𝑛 = 𝐴 + 𝑃𝑓 = 4 + 50 = 54 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
which corresponds to
1 1
𝑃𝑛 = + = 54 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 ⇨ 𝑥𝑛 = 0.25𝑚
𝑥𝑛 0.02
= 25𝑐𝑚

2/12/2025 181
 Hypermetropia
( or farsightedness)
Hypermetropia s the opposite of myopia. Light from a
distant object focuses toward a point behind the
retina. When the Lens is adjusted by the ciliary
muscles to have its maximum power, closer objects
are blurred. Eyeglasses with converging lenses supply
the additional focusing power needed.

2/12/2025 182
 Example 8.2
a woman has his near point 1𝑚 from her eyes. What
power glasses does she require to bring her near point to
25 cm from her eyes?
Solution:
1 1 1 1
𝑥𝑛 = 1𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑛 = + = +
𝑥𝑛 𝐷 1𝑚 0.02
= 51 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
′
1 1 1 1
𝑥𝑛 = 25𝑐𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑛 = + = +
𝑥𝑛 𝐷 0.25 0.02
= 54 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
She need a glass of power +3 diopter (converging lens)
2/12/2025 183
 Presbyopia
Accommodation is reduced with age, which is
the result of a gradual weakening of the ciliary
muscle. The lens is less flexible. The near point
of a person who has normal vision as a young
adult eventually recedes enough so that
converging lenses are needed for closer work or
reading much like person with hypermetropia

2/12/2025 184
 Astigmatism
A person with astigmatism cannot focus on both
horizontal and vertical lines. Usually this is due to the
a cornea that is not perfectly spherical.

2/12/2025 185