Integration by partial
fractions
S Sial
Dept of Mathematics
LUMS
Fall 2020-2021
Outline
Integration by partial fractions
Integration by partial fractions
Recall
Integral
Z
1
dx = log |x + a| + C
x +a
Recall
Integral
Z
1
2
dx = tan−1(x) + C
x +1
Example
Evaluate the integral
−2
Z
I = dx
x2 − 1
Example contd
Trig substation
x = sec θ =⇒ dx = sec θ tan θd θ
and so
x 2 − 1 = tan2 θ
Example contd
By trig substitution
−2
Z
I = 2θ
sec θ tan θd θ
tan
Z
= −2 sec θd θ
Example contd
Then
I = − 2 log | sec θ + tan θ| + C
p
= − 2 log |x + x 2 − 1| + C
On the other hand
By partial fractions
Z
1 1
I = − dx
x +1 x −1
Which would you rather do?
Partial fractions idea
Break up rational functions into
simpler ones
Recall
Rational fns
Quotients of polynomial fns
Proper rational fns
Degree of the numerator less than degree of
denominator
Partial fractions
Example
3x − 5
Z
I = dx
x 2 − 2x − 3
Partial fractions
This would be easier if
3x − 5 3x − 5
=
x 2 − 2x − 3 (x − 3)(x + 1)
A B
= +
x −3 x +1
for some constants A , B .
Partial fractions
Find A and B by
A(x + 1) + B(x − 3) = 3x − 5
(A + B)x + (A − 3B) = 3x − 5
Partial fractions
Get
A=1
B =2
Partial fractions
And so
Z
1 2
I = + dx
x −3 x +1
which is easy.
Partial fractions
If the denominator is a product of
linear factors
Let
···
(a1x + b1)(a2x + b2) · · · (ak x + bk )
C1 C2 Ck
= + + ··· +
a1x + b1 a2x + b2 ak x + bk
Partial fractions
Example with repeated terms
Z
2x + 1
I = dx
(x − 2)2
Partial fractions
Partial fraction decomposition
2x + 1 A B
= +
(x − 2)2 x − 2 (x − 2)2
Partial fractions
To solve for A and B
A(x − 2) + B = 2x + 1 ⇒
A = 2, B = 5
Partial fractions
So the integral is
Z
2 5
I = + dx
x − 2 (x − 2)2
which can now be evaluated easily.
Partial fractions
Repeated linear factors
Let
···
(a1 x + b1 )n1 (a2 x + b2 )n2 · · · (ak x + bk )nk
(1) (2) (n )
C1 C1 C1 1
= + + +
a1 x + b1 (a1 x + b1 )2 (a1 x + b1 )(n1 )
(1) (2) (n )
C2 C2 C2 2
+ + +
a2 x + b2 (a2 x + b2 )2 (a2 x + b2 )(n2 )
···+
(1) (2) (n )
Ck Ck Ck k
+ +
ak x + bk (ak x + bk )2 (ak x + bk )(nk )
Partial fractions
Improper
Rational function called improper if degree of
numerator greater than or equal to that of
denominator.
Partial fractions
Make proper
Divide the polynomials.
Partial fractions
Example with improper rational
function
2x 2 + 3
Z
I = dx
x2 + 1
Integrand is improper so divide.
Partial fractions
Division
2x 2 + 3 1
= 2 +
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
Partial fractions
So the integral is
Z
1
I = 2+ dx
x2 + 1
which can now be evaluated.
Partial fractions
Example with irreducible term in
denominator
3x 2 − x
Z
I = dx
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)
Partial fractions
Partial fraction decomposition
3x 2 − x Ax + B C
= +
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1) x2 + 1 x −1
Partial fractions
To solve for A , B , C
(A+C )x 2 +(−A+B)x +(−B +C ) = 3x 2 −x
Partial fractions
Solving gives
A = 2, B = 1, C = 1
Partial fractions
So the integral is
Z
2x + 1 1
I = + dx
x2 + 1 x − 1
which can be easily evaluated.
Partial fractions
Repeated quadratic factors
Let’s see an example of repeated monomial
and repeated quadratic factors in class.
Problems
Problem 1
Z
x +1
I = dx
x(x + 2)
1 1
= log |x| + log |x + 2| + C
2 2
Problems
Problem 2
x2 + 1
Z
dx =
x 2(x + 2)
1 5 1
− log |x| + log |x + 2| − +C
4 4 2x
