GE6075 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN

ENGINEERING
Unit 2 - ENGINEERING ETHICS

Senses of “Engineering Ethics” – Variety of moral issues –

Types of inquiry Moral dilemmas – Moral Autonomy –
Kohlberg.s theory – Gilligan.s theory – Consensus and
Controversy – Models of professional roles -Theories about
right acton – Self-interest – Customs and Religion – Uses of
Ethical Theories
by
Dr.B.Monica Jenefer
HOD/CSE
Engineering Ethics- An OVERVIEW
Engineering Ethics is the actvity and
discipline aimed at
• Understanding the moral values that ought to
guide engineering profession or practcee
• Resolving moral issues in engineeringe and
• Justfying the moral judgments in engineering.
It deals with set of moral problems and issues
connected with engineering.
 Engineering Ethics…
• Engineering ethics is defned by the codes and standards
of conduct endorsed by engineering (professional)
societes with respect to the partcular set of beliefse
attudes and habits displayed by the individual or group.
• Another important goal of engineering ethics is the
discovery of the set of justfed moral principles of
obligatone rights and ideals that ought to be endorsed
by the engineers and apply them to concrete situatons.
Engineering is the largest profession and the decisions
and actons of engineers afect all of us
 Scope
The scope of engineering ethics is twofold:
1. Ethics of the workplace which involves the co-
workers and employees in an organizaton.
2. Ethics related to the product or work which
involves the transportatone warehousinge and
usee besides the safety of the end product and
the environment outside the factory.
 Approach
There are conventonally two approaches in the study
of ethics:
1. Micro-ethics which deals with decisions and
problems of individualse professionalse and
companies.
2. Macro-ethics which deals with the societal
problems on a regional/natonal level. For examplee
global issuese collectve responsibilites of groups
such as professional societes and consumer
 SENSES OF ENGINEERING ETHICS
There are two diferent senses (meanings) of engineering
ethicse namely the Normatve and the Descriptve senses. The
normatve sense include:
(a) Knowing moral valuese fnding accurate solutons to moral
problems and justfying moral judgments in engineering
practcese
(b) Study of decisionse policiese and values that are morally
desirable in the engineering practce and researche and
(c) Using codes of ethics and standards and applying them in
their transactons by engineers.

The descriptve sense refers to what specifc individual or

group of engineers believe and acte without justfying their
beliefs or actons.
 VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES
• It would be relevant to know why and how do
moral issues (problems) arise in a profession
or why do people behave unethically?
• The reasons for people including the employer
and employeese behaving unethically may be
classifed into three categories:
1. Resource Crunch
2. Opportunity
3. Attude
 1.Resource Crunch
• Poor attude of the employees set in due to
(a) Low morale of the employees because of dissatsfacton and downsizinge
(b) Absence of grievance redressal mechanisme
(c) Lack of promoton or career development policies or denied promotonse
(d) Lack of transparencye
(e) Absence of recogniton and reward systeme and
(f) Poor working environments.
• Giving ethics training for alle recognizing ethical conduct in work
placee including ethics in performance appraisale and encouraging
open discussion on ethical issuese are some of the directons to
promote positve attudes among the employees. To get frm and
positve efecte ethical standards must be set and adopted by the
senior managemente with input from all personnel.
 2. Opportunity
(a) Double standards or behavior of the employers towards the
employees and the public. The unethical behaviors of World Com
(in USA) Enron (in USA as well as India) executves in 2002
resulted in bankruptcy for those companiese
(b) Management projectng their own interests more than that of
their employees. Some organizatons over-emphasize short-term
gains and results at the expense of themselves and otherse
(c) Emphasis on results and gains at the expense of the employeese
and
(d) Management by objectvese without focus on empowerment
and improvement of the infrastructure. This is best encountered
by developing policies that allow ‘conscience keepers’ and whistle
blowers and appointng ombudsmane who can work
confdentally with people to solve the unethical problems
internally.
 3. Attude
(a) Poor attude of the employees set in due to
(a) Low morale of the employees because of dissatsfacton and
downsizinge
(b) Absence of grievance redressal mechanisme
(d) Lack of transparencye
(e) Absence of recogniton and reward systeme and
(f) Poor working environments.
• Giving ethics training for alle recognizing ethical conduct in work placee
including ethics in performance appraisale and encouraging open
discussion on ethical issuese are some of the directons to promote
positve attudes among the employees. To get frm and positve efecte
ethical standards must be set and adopted by the senior managemente
with input from all personnel.
 TYPES OF INQUIRIES
• The three types of inquiriese in solving ethical
problems are: normatve inquirye conceptual
inquirye and factual or descriptve inquiry.
1.Normatve Inquiry
2.Conceptual Inquiry
3.Factual or Descriptve Inquiry
• The three types of inquiries are discussed
below to illustrate the diferences and
preference.
 1. Normatve Inquiry
• It seeks to identfy and justfy the morally-desirable norms or
standards that should guide individuals and groups. It also has the
theoretcal goal of justfying partcular moral judgments. Normatve
questons are about what ought to be and what is goode based on
moral values. For examplee
1. How far does the obligaton of engineers to protect public safety
extend in any given situaton?
2. Whene if evere should engineers be expected to blow whistle on
dangerous practces of their employers?
3. Whose values ought to be primary in making judgment about
acceptable risks in design for a public transport system or a nuclear
plant? Is it of managemente senior engineerse governmente voters or
all of them?
4. When and why is the government justfed in interfering with the
organizatons?
5. What are the reasons on which the engineers show their obligatons
 2. Conceptual Inquiry
• It is directed to clarify the meaning of concepts or
ideas or principles that are expressed by words or
by questons and statements. For examplee
(a) What is meant by safety?
(b) How is it related to risk?
(c) What is a bribe?
(d) What is a profession?
• When moral concepts are discussede normatve
and conceptual issues are closely interconnected.
 3. Factual or Descriptve Inquiry
It is aimed to obtain facts needed for understanding and
resolving value issues. Researchers conduct factual inquiries using
mathematcal or statstcal techniques. The inquiry provide
important informaton on business realitese engineering practcee
and the efectveness of professional societes in fostering moral
conducte the procedures used in risk assessmente and
psychological profles of engineers. The facts provide not only the
reasons for moral problems but also enable us to develop
alternatve ways of resolving moral problems. For examplee
1. How were the benefts assessed?
2. What are procedures followed in risk assessment?
3. What are short-term and long-term efects of drinking water being
polluted? and
4. Who conducted the tests on materials?
 MORAL DILEMMAS
Defniton
Dilemmas are situatons in which moral reasons come into conficte or
in which the applicaton of moral values are problemse and one is not
clear of the immediate choice or soluton of the problems. Moral
reasons could be rightse dutese goods or obligatons. These situatons
do not mean that things had gone wronge but they only indicate the
presence of moral complexity. This makes the decision making
complex. For examplee a person promised to meet a friend and dinee
but he has to help his uncle who is involved in an accident —one has
to fx the priority.
There are some difcultes in arriving at the soluton to the problemse
in dilemma. The three complex situatons leading to moral dilemmas
are:
 MORAL DILEMMAS…..
1. The problem of vagueness: One is unable to distnguish
between good and bad (right or wrong) principle. Good
means an acton that is obligatory. For examplee code of
ethics specifes that one should obey the laws and follow
standards. Refuse bribe or accept the gife and maintain
confdentality
2. The problem of confictng reasons: One is unable to choose
between two good moral solutons. One has to fx prioritye
through knowledge or value system.
3. The problem of disagreement: There may be two or more
solutons and none of them mandatory. These solutons may
be beter or worse in some respects but not in all aspects.
One has to interprete apply diferent morally reasonse and
analyze and rank the decisions. Select the best suitablee
 Steps to Solve Dilemma
The logical steps in confrontng moral dilemma are:
1. Identfcaton of the moral factors and reasons. The
clarity to identfy the relevant moral values from among
dutese rightse goods and obligatons is obtained
(conceptual inquiry). The most useful resource in
identfying dilemmas in engineering is the professional
codes of ethicse as interpreted by the professional
experience. Another resource is talking with colleagues
who can focus or narrow down the choice of values.
2. Collecton of all informatone datae and facts (factual
inquiry) relevant to the situaton.
 Steps to Solve Dilemma……
3. Rank the moral optons i.e.e priority in applicaton through
value systeme and also as obligatorye all righte acceptablee not
acceptablee damaginge and most damaging etc. For examplee in
fulflling responsibilitye the codes give prime importance to
public safety and protecton of the environmente as compared
to the individuals or the employers (conceptual inquiry).
4. Generate alternate courses of acton to resolve the dilemma.
Write down the main optons and sub-optons as a matrix or
decision tree to ensure that all optons are included.
5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectvese
prioritese and suggestons on various alternatves.
6. Decide upon a fnal course of actone based on priority fxed or
assumed. If there is no ideal solutone we arrive at a partally
 MORAL AUTONOMY
• Moral autonomy is defned ase decisions and actons
exercised on the basis of moral concern for other
people and recogniton of good moral reasons.
• Alternatvelye moral autonomy means ‘self determinant
or independent’. The autonomous people hold moral
beliefs and attudes based on their critcal refecton
rather than on passive adopton of the conventons of
the society or profession.
• Moral autonomy may also be defned as a skill and
habit of thinking ratonally about the ethical issuese on
the basis of moral concern.
 MORAL AUTONOMY…..
• Periodical performance appraisalse tght-tme schedules and fear of
foreign competton threatens this autonomy.
• The attude of the management should allow lattude in the
judgments of their engineers on moral issues.
• If management views proftability is more important than consistent
quality and retenton of the customers that discourage the moral
autonomye engineers are compelled to seek the support from their
professional societes and outside organizatons for moral support.
• It appears that the blue-collar workers with the support of the union
can adopt beter autonomy than the employed professionals.
• Only recently the legal support has been obtained by the
professional societes in exhibitng moral autonomy by professionals
in this country as well as in the West.
 MORAL AUTONOMY…
The engineering skills related to moral autonomy are listed as follows:
1. Profciency in recognizing moral problems in engineering and ability to
distnguish as well as relate them to problems in lawe economicse and
religione
2. Skill in comprehendinge clarifyinge and critcally-assessing arguments on
diferent aspects of moral issuese
3. Ability to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on factse
4. Awareness of alternate responses to the issues and creatve solutons for
practcal difcultese
5. Sensitvity to genuine difcultes and subtletese including willingness to
undergo and tolerate some uncertainty while making decisionse
6. Using ratonal dialogue in resolving moral conficts and developing
tolerance of diferent perspectves among morally reasonable peoplee and
7. Maintaining moral integrity.
 MORAL AUTONOMY…
• Autonomy which is the independence in making
decisions and actonse is diferent from authority.
Authority provides freedom for actone specifed within
limitse depending on the situaton.
• Moral autonomy and respect for authority can coexist.
• They are not against each other.
• If the authority of the engineer and the moral
autonomy of the operator are in conficte a consensus
is obtained by the twoe upon discussion and mutual
understanding their limits.
 Kohlberg Theory
• Moral development in human being occurs over age and experience.
Kohlberg suggested there are three levels of moral developmente namely
pre-conventonale conventonale and post-conventonale based on the type of
reasoning and motvaton of the individuals in response to moral questons.
• In the pre-conventonal levele right conduct for an individual is regarded as
whatever directly benefts oneself. At this levele individuals are motvated by
obedience or the desire to avoid punishment or to satsfy their own needs or
by the infuence by power on them. All young children exhibit this tendency.
• At the conventonal levele people respect the law and authority. Rules and
norms of one’s family or group or society is acceptede as the standard of
morality. Individuals in this level want to please or satsfye and get approval
by others and to meet the expectatons of the societye rather than their self
interest (e.g.e good boye good girl). Loyalty is regarded as most important.
Many adults do not go beyond this level.
 Kohlberg Theory…..

• At the post-conventonal levele people are called

autonomous.
• They think originally and want to live by universally good
principles and welfare of others. They have no self-interest.
• They live by principled conscience. They follow the golden
rulee ‘Do unto others as you would have them do unto you’.
• They maintain moral integritye self-respect and respect for
others. Kohlberg believed that individuals could only
progress through these stagese one stage at a tme.
• He believed that most of the moral development occurs
through social interactons.
 Gilligan’s Theory
• Carol Gilligan found that Kohlberg’s theory had a strong
male bias.
• According to Gilligan’s studiese men had a tendency to
solve problems by applying abstract moral principles.
• Men were found to resolve moral dilemma by choosing
the most important moral rulee overriding other rules.
• In contraste women gave importance to preserve personal
relatonships with all the people involved.
• The context oriented emphasis on maintaining personal
relatonships was called the ethics of caree in contrast with
the ethics of rules and rights adopted by men.
• Gilligan revised the three levels of moral development of
Kohlberge as stages of growth towards ethics of caring.
 Gilligan’s Theory….
• The pre-conventonal levele which is same as that of Kohlberg’s frst
onee right conducte is viewed in a selfsh manner solely as what is
good for oneself.
• The second level called conventonal levele the importance is on not
hurtng otherse and willing to sacrifce one’s own interest and help
others.
• This is the characteristc feature of women. At the post-
conventonal levele a reasoned balance is found between caring
about others and pursuing the self-interest.
• The balance one’s own need and the needs of otherse is aimed
while maintaining relatonship based on mutual caring.
• This is achieved by context-oriented reasoninge rather than by
hierarchy of rules.
• The theories of moral development by Kohlberg and Gilligan difer
in the following respects.
 Gilligan’s Theory….
• The pre-conventonal levele which is same as that of Kohlberg’s
frst onee right conducte is viewed in a sefsh manner solely as what
is good for oneself.
• The second level called conventonal levele the importance is on
not hurtng otherse and willing to sacrifce one’s own interest and
help others.
• This is the characteristc feature of women. At the post-
conventonal levele a reasoned balance is found between caring
about others and pursuing the self-interest.
• The balance one’s own need and the needs of otherse is aimed
while maintaining relatonship based on mutual caring.
• This is achieved by context-oriented reasoninge rather than by
hierarchy of rules.
• The theories of moral development by Kohlberg and Gilligan difer
in the following respects.
Kohlberg Theory and Gilligan’s Theory
 MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ROLES
• Promoton of public good is the primary concern of the professional
engineers.
• There are several role models to whom the engineers are atracted.
These models provoke their thinkinge attudes and actons.
1.Savior :The engineer as a saviore save the society from povertye
illiteracye wastagee inefciencye ill healthe human (labor) dignity and
lead it to prosperitye through technological development and social
planning. For examplee R.L. Stevenson.
2.Guardian:He guards the interests of the poor and general public. As
one who is conversant with technology developmente is given the
authority beftng his expertse to determine what is best suited to
the society. For examplee Lawrence of Arabia (an engineer).
3.Bureaucratc Servant: He serves the organizaton and the employers.
The management of an enterprise fxes its goals and assigns the job
of problem solving to the engineere who accepts .
 MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ROLES …..

4. Social Servant: It is one who exhibits social responsibility. The engineer

translates the interest and aspiratons of the society into a realitye
remembering that his true master is the society at large. For examplee Sir
M.Viswesvarayya.
5. Social Enabler and Catalyst :One who changes the society through
technology. The engineer must assist the management and the society to
understand their needs and make informed decisions on the desirable
technological development and minimize the negatve efects of
technology on people and their living environment. Thuse he shines as a
social enabler and a catalyst for further growth. For examplee Sri Sundarlal
Bahuguna.
6. Game Player: He is neither a servant nor master. An engineer is an
assertve playere not a passive player who may carry out his master’s voice.
He plays a unique role successfully within the organizaton
 THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION (ETHICAL
THEORIES)
Uses and Criteria
The ethical theories are useful in many respects.
1. In understanding moral dilemma. They provide claritye consistencye
systematc and comprehensive understanding.
2. Ethical theories aid in identfying the moral consideratons or
reasons that consttute a dilemma.
3. Ethical theories provide a more precise sense of what kinds of
informaton are relevant to solving moral dilemmas.
4. It provides helpful practcal guidance in moral issues towards the
soluton. sometmes it ofer ways to rank the relevant moral
consideratons in order of importance and thereby provide at least
rough guidance in solving moral problems
 THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION (ETHICAL
THEORIES)…
5. The theories suggest a general priority of the obligaton to protect the
public
i)The special importance of rights to life and to informed consent
concerning risks to one’s life.
ii) the importance of dutes to protect the vulnerable public
iii) The degree of immorality involved in death and risk of death compared
to economic benefts to corporatons.
6. Justfying professional obligatons and decisionse and
7. By providing frameworks for development of moral arguments ethe
theories strengthen our ability to reach balanced and insightul judgments.
8. In relatng ordinary and professional morality. The theories augment the
precision with which we use moral terms and they provide frame works for
moral reasoning when discussing moral issues
9. It provides a systematc framework for comparing the alternatves.
Diferent criteria may be applied for evaluatng various ethical
theories and deciding upon the best

1. The theory must be clear and (coherent) formulated with

concepts that are logically connected.
2. It must be internally consistente i.e.e none of its principles
conficts with any other
3. The theory and its defense must depende only upon facts.
4. It must organize basic moral values in systematc and
comprehensive manner. It is to fx priority of values and provide
guidance in all situatons
5. It must provide guidance compatble with our moral convictons
(judgments) about concrete situatons. For examplee if an ethical
theory says that it is all right for engineers to make explosive
devices without the informed consent of the publice we can
conclude that the theory is inadequate.
• Theories and judgments are contnually adjusted to each
other untl we reach a refectve equilibrium. Most of the
theories converge towards the welfare of the humanity.
• The duty ethics and right ethics difer in great extent on
their emphasis. But they remain complementary always.

Ethical Theories/Approaches
Several ethical theories have been developed over diferent
tmese each of them stressing certain ethical principles or
features. Each stresses a view and many a tmese we fnd
that these theories converge and reinforce the ethicse in
deciding upon the actons and justfying the results.
 1. Utlitarian Theory
• .The term Utlitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy
• Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which laws
• were morally best.
• .They suggested that the standard of right conduct is maximizaton of
• good consequences. Good consequences mean either ‘utlites’ or the
• ‘balance of good over evil’.
• .This approach weighs the costs and benefts. Right actons are the ones
• that produce the greatest satsfacton of the preferences of the afected
• persons. In analyzing an issue in this approache we have to:
• .The term Utlitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy
• Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which laws
• were morally best. They suggested that the standard of right conduct is
• maximizaton of good consequences. Good consequences mean either
• ‘utlites’ or the ‘balance of good over evil’.
 1. Utlitarian Theory……..
• This approach weighs the costs and benefts. Right actons are the ones that
produce the greatest satsfacton of the preferences of the afected persons. In
analyzing an issue in this approache we have to:
(a) Identfy the various courses of acton available to us.
(b) Ask who will be afected by each acton and what benefts or harms will be
derived from each.
(c) Choose the acton that will produce the greatest benefts and the least harm.
The ethical acton is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number.
• The ACT UTILITARIAN theory proposed by J.S. Mill (1806-73) focuses on actonse
rather than on general rules. An acton is righte if it generates the most overall good
for the most people involved.
• The RULE UTILITARIAN theorye developed by Richard Brandt (1910-97)e stressed on
the rulese such as ‘do not steal’e ‘do no harm others’e ‘do not bribe’e as of primary
importance. He suggested that individual actons are right when they are required
by set . Hencee there was need to develop rule utlitarian theory to establish
morality and justcee in the transactons.
 1. Utlitarian Theory…
• The act utlitarian theory permited a few immoral actons.
Hencee there was need to develop rule utlitarian theory to
establish morality and justcee in the transactons.
• For examplee stealing an old computer from the employer will
beneft the employee more than the loss to the employer. As
per Acte utlitarian this acton is right. But rule utlitarian
observes this as wronge because the employee should act as
‘faithful agent or trustee of the employees’.
• In another examplee some undisciplined engineers are
terminated with the blame for the mistakes they have not
commited.
• The process is unfair although this results in promoton of
overall good.
 2. Duty Ethics theory
A. The duty ethics theorye proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) statese that actons are
consequences of performance of one’s dutes such ase ‘being honest’e ‘not cause sufering of
others’e ‘being fair to others including the meek and week’e ‘being grateful’e ‘keeping promises’
etc. The stress is on the universal principle of respect for autonomy i.e.e respect and ratonality of
persons. As per Kant we have dutes to ourselvese as we are ratonal and autonomous beings. We
have a duty not to commit suicide; a duty to develop our talents and a duty to avoid harmful
drugs. Kant insisted that moral dutes are categorical imperatves.
They are commands that we impose on ourselves as well as other ratonal beings. For examplee
we should be honest because honesty is required by duty. A businessman is to be honest because
honesty pays — in terms of profts from customers and from avoiding jail for dishonesty.
B. On the other hande the DUTY ethics theorye as enunciated by John Rawle gave importance to the
actons that would be voluntarily agreed upon by all persons concernede assuming impartality.
His view emphasized the autonomy each person exercises in forming agreements with other
ratonal people. Rawl proposed two basic moral principles; (1) each person is enttled to the most
extensive amount of liberty compatble with an equal amount for otherse and (2) diferences in
social power and economic benefts are justfed only when they are likely to beneft everyonee
including members of the most disadvantaged groups. The frst principle is of prime importance
and should be satsfed frst. Without basic libertes other economic or social benefts cannot be
sustained for long. The second principle insists that to allow some people with great wealth and
power is justfed only when all other groups are benefted. the business scenarioe for examplee
the free enterprise is permissible so far it provides the capital needed to invest and prospere
thereby making job opportunites to the public and taxes to fund the government spending on
the welfare schemes on the poor people
 2. Duty Ethics theory…..
C.W.D. Rosse the Britsh philosopher introduced the term prima facie
dutese which means dutes might have justfed exceptons. In facte most
dutes are prima facie ones; some may have obligatory or permissible
exceptons. Ross assumed that the prima facie dutes are intuitvely
obvious (self-evident)e while fxing priorites among dutes. He noted that
the principles such as ‘Do not kill’ and ‘protect innocent life’ involve high
respect for persons than other principles such ase ‘Do not lie’ (less
harmful). This theory is critcized on the facte that the intuitons do not
provide sufcient guideline for moral duty. He has listed various aspects
of Duty Ethics that refect our moral convictonse namely:
1. Fidelity : duty to keep promises.
2. Reparaton : duty to compensate others when we harm them.
3. Grattude : duty to thank those who help us.
4. Justce : duty to recognize merit.
5. Benefcence : duty to recognize inequality and improve the conditon of others.
6. Self-improvement : duty to improve virtue and intelligence.
7. Non-malfeasance : duty not to injure others.
 3. Rights Theory
• Rights are enttlement to act or to have another individual act in a certain way.
Minimallye rights serve as a protectve barriere shielding individuals from
unjustfed infringement of their moral agency by others. For every righte we have
a corresponding duty of noninterference.
• The RIGHTS approach to ethics has its roots in the 18th century philosopher
Immanuel Kante who focused on the individual’s right to choose for oneself.
People are not objects to be manipulated; it is a violaton of human dignity to use
people in ways they do not freely choose. Other rights he advocated are:
1. The right to access the truth: We have a right to be told the truth and to be
informed about maters that signifcantly afect our choices.
2. The right of privacy: We have the right to doe believee and say whatever we
choose in our personal lives so long as we do not violate the rights of others.
3. The right not to be injured: We have the right not to be harmed or injured
unless we freely and knowingly do something to deserve punishment or we freely
and knowingly choose to risk such injuries.
4. The right to what is agreed: We have a right to what has been promised by
those with whom we have freely entered into a contract or agreement
 3. Rights Theory…
• The RIGHTS theory as promoted by John Locke states that the actons are
righte if they respect human rights of every one afected. He proposed
the three basic human rightse namely lifee libertye and property. His views
were refected in the modern American societye when Jeferson declared
the basic rights as lifee libertye and pursuit of happiness.
• As per A.I. Melden’s theory based on rightse nature mandates that we
should not harm others’ lifee healthe liberty or property. Melden allowed
welfare rights also for living a decent human life. He highlighted that the
rights should be based on the social welfare system.
• Human rights: Human rights are explained in two formse namely liberty
rights and welfare rights. Liberty rights are rights to exercise one’s liberty
and stresses dutes on other people not to interfere with one’s freedom.
The four features of liberty rights (also called moral rights)e which lay the
base for Government Administratone are:
 3. Rights Theory……
1. Rights are natural in so far as they are not invented or created by
government.
2. They are universale as they do not change from country to country.
3. They are equal since the rights are the same for all peoplee irrespectve of
castee racee creed or sex.
4. They are inalienable i.e.e one cannot hand over his rights to another person
such as selling oneself to slavery.

Economic rights: In the free-market economye the very purpose of the

existence of the manufacturere the sellers and the service providers is to
serve the consumer.
– The consumer is eligible to exercise some rights.
– The consumers’ six basic rights are: Right to Informatone Right to Safetye
– Right to Choicee Right to be Hearde Right to Redressale and Right to Consumer
Educaton.
 4. The Virtue Theory

• This emphasizes on the character rather than

the rights or dutes. The character is the
patern of virtues (morally-desirable features).
The theory advocated by Aristotlee stressed on
the tendency to act at proper balance
between extremes of conducte emotone
desiree attudes to fnd the golden mean
between the extremes of ‘excess’ or
‘defciency’
 6. Justce (Fairness) Theory
• The justce or fairness approach to ethics has its roots in the
teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotlee who said
that “equals should be treated equally and unequals unequally.”
• The basic moral queston in this approach is: How fair is an
acton? Does it treat everyone in the same waye or does it show
favoritsm and discriminaton?
• Issues create controversies simply because we do not bother to
check the fairness or justce.
• Favoritsm gives benefts to some people without a justfable
reason for singling them out; discriminaton imposes burdens on
people who are no diferent from those on whom burdens are
not imposed.
 5. Self-realizaton Ethics
• Right acton consists in seeking self-fulfllment.
• In one version of this theorye the self to be
realized is defned by caring relatonships with
other individuals and society.
• In another version called ethical egoisme the
right acton consists in always promotng what
is good for oneself.
• No caring and society relatonships are
assumed
 Self-interest
• Self-interest is being good and acceptable to oneself. It is
pursuing what is good for oneself.
• It is very ethical to possess self-interest.
• As per utlitarian theorye this interest should provide for
the respect of others also.
• Duty ethics recognizes this aspect as dutes to ourselves.
• Then only one can help others. Right ethicist stresses
our rights to pursue our own good.
• Virtue ethics also accepts the importance of self-respect
as link to social practces.
 Religion
• Religions have played major roles in shaping moral views
and moral valuese over geographical regions. Christanity
has infuenced the Western countriese Islam in the Middle-
East countriese Buddhism and Hinduism in Asiae and
Confucianism in China.
• Furthere there is a strong psychological link between the
moral and religious beliefs of people following various
religions and faiths. Religions support moral responsibility.
• They have set high moral standards. Faith in the religions
provides trust and this trust inspires people to be moral.
• The religions insist on tolerance and moral concern for
others. Many professionals who possess religious beliefs
are motvated
 Religion …
• Each religion lays stress on certain high moral standards. For
examplee Hinduism holds polytheistc (many gods) viewe and
virtues of devoton and surrender to high order.
• Christanity believes in one deity and emphasizes on virtues of
Lovee Faithe and Hope. Buddhism is non-theistc and focuses on
compassion and Islam on one deity and adherence of ishan
(piety or pursuit of excellence) and prayer.
• Judaism stresses the virtue of ‘tsedakah’ (righteousness). But
many religious sects have adopted poor moral standardse e.g.e
many religious sects do not recognize equal rights for women.
• The right to worship is denied for some people.
• People are killed in the name of or to promote religion.
• Thuse conficts exist between the ‘secular’ and religious people
and between one religion and another.
 References
1. htps://sites.google.com/site/drtgnanasekaran/course-materials
2. Mike W. Martn and Roland Schinzingere “Ethics in Engineering”e Tata McGraw Hille
New Delhie 2003.
3. Govindarajan Me Natarajan Se Senthil Kumar V. Se “Engineering Ethics”e Prentce
Hall of Indiae New Delhie 2004.
4. Charles B. Fleddermanne “Engineering Ethics”e Pearson Prentce Halle New Jerseye
2004.
5. Charles E. Harrise Michael S. Pritchard and Michael J. Rabinse “Engineering Ethics
– Concepts and Cases”e Cengage Learninge 2009
6. John R Boatrighte “Ethics and the Conduct of Business”e Pearson Educatone New
Delhie 2003
7. Edmund G Seebauer and Robert L Barrye “Fundametals of Ethics for Scientsts and
Engineers”eOxford University Presse Oxforde 2001
8. Laura P. Hartman and Joe Desjardinse “Business Ethics: Decision Making for
Personal Integrityand Social Responsibility” Mc Graw Hill educatone India Pvt.
Ltd.eNew Delhi 2013.
9. World Community Service Centree „ Value Educaton.e Vethathiri publicatonse
Erodee 2011
Thank U 