ASSIGNMENT FINAL REPORT

Qualification BTEC Level 5 HND Diploma in Computing

Unit number and title Unit 19: Data Structures and Algorithms

Submission date 8/12/2024 Date Received 1st submission

Re-submission Date Date Received 2nd submission

Student Name Nguyen Viet Tien Student ID BH00785

Class SE06204 Assessor name Nguyen Thanh Trieu

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 Table of content

I. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 12
II. Contents ................................................................................................................................................... 13
1. Definition of Abstract Data Type .......................................................................................................... 13
2. Create a design specification for data structures, explaining the valid operations that can be carried
out on the structures................................................................................................................................ 14
2.1 Linked List ....................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 Stack ............................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3 Queue ............................................................................................................................................. 27
3. Determine the operations of a memory stack and how it is used to implement function calls in a
computer .................................................................................................................................................. 33
3.1 What is memory stack .................................................................................................................... 33
3.2 The operations of a memory stack................................................................................................. 34
3.3 How memory stack is used to implement function calls in a computer ........................................ 36
4. Specify the abstract data type for a software stack using an imperative definition. .......................... 40
4.1 What is a software stack?............................................................................................................... 40
4.2 Example stack implementation using array or linked list .............................................................. 41
5. Illustrate, with an example, a concrete data structure for a First in First out (FIFO) queue. .............. 46
5.1 Introduction FIFO ........................................................................................................................... 46
5.2 Define the Structure of FIFO queue ............................................................................................... 47
6. Compare the performance of two sorting algorithms. ........................................................................ 59
6.1 Introducing the two sorting algorithms: Bubble sort and Selection sort ...................................... 59
6.2 Comparison between Bubble sort and Selection sort ................................................................... 63
6.3 Provide a concrete example to demonstrate the differences in performance between Bubble
sort and Selection sort ......................................................................................................................... 64
7. Examine the advantages of encapsulation and information hiding when using an ADT. ................... 67
7.1 What is Encapsulation? .................................................................................................................. 67
7.2 The advantages of encapsulation and information hiding when using an ADT. ........................... 69
8. Analyse the operation, using illustrations, of two network shortest path algorithms, providing an
example of each ....................................................................................................................................... 74

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 8.1 Introducing the concept of network shortest path algorithms ..................................................... 74
8.2 Perfomance analysis ....................................................................................................................... 91
9. Discuss the view that imperative ADTs are a basis for object orientation offering a justification for
the view. ................................................................................................................................................... 94
9.1 Some of the benefits and drawbacks of using object-oriented data structures ........................... 94
9.2 Discuss the view that imperative ADTs are a basis for object orientation .................................... 95
9.3 Justification for the View that Imperative ADTs are a Basis for Object Orientation ................... 102
1. Implement a complex ADT and algorithm in an executable programming language to solve a well-
defined problem. .................................................................................................................................... 104
1.1 Problem Identification .................................................................................................................. 104
1.2 Choose the implementation language (java), state the advantages of java for ABK's project.... 106
1.3. Design the ADT ............................................................................................................................ 107
1.4 Implement the ADT ...................................................................................................................... 109
1.5 Design the Algorithm .................................................................................................................... 114
1.6 Implement the Algorithm ............................................................................................................. 124
1.7 Test and Debug ............................................................................................................................. 134
2. Implement error handling and report test results. ............................................................................ 138
2.1 Definition of Exception and Try-Catch Block ................................................................................ 138
2.2 Apply try catch exception in Student Management System ........................................................ 142
2.3 Testcases ...................................................................................................................................... 147
3. Discuss how asymptotic analysis can be used to assess the effectiveness of an algorithm.............. 150
3.1 What is Asymptotic Analysis?....................................................................................................... 150
3.2 why asymptotic analysis is important .......................................................................................... 151
3.3 Types of Asymptotic Analysis ....................................................................................................... 152
3.4 Define about Asymptotic Notations ............................................................................................. 156
4. Determine two ways in which the efficiency of an algorithm can be measured, illustrating your
answer with an example. ....................................................................................................................... 161
4.1 Time Complexity ........................................................................................................................... 161
4.2 Space Complexity ......................................................................................................................... 163
4.3 How to calculate time and space complexity of an algorithm ..................................................... 164

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 5. Demonstrate how the implementation of an ADT/algorithm solves a well-defined problem.......... 167
5.1 Discuss Complexity and Performance .......................................................................................... 167
5.2 Summarize the Benefits ............................................................................................................... 171
6. Interpret what a trade-off is when specifying an ADT, using an example to support your answer. . 173
6.1 Time Complexity vs. Space Complexity ........................................................................................ 173
6.2 Flexibility vs. Performance ........................................................................................................... 174
7. Critically evaluate the complexity of an implemented ADT/algorithm ............................................. 176
7.1 Complexity of an Algorithm.......................................................................................................... 176
7.2 Measuring Complexity with Big O Notation ................................................................................. 177
7.3 Applying to Calculate Time Complexity for Algorithm in P4 ........................................................ 178
8. Evaluate three benefits of using implementation independent data structures .............................. 189
8.1 Abstraction and Reusability.............................................................................................................. 189
8.2 Ease of Maintenance and Extensibility ............................................................................................ 191
8.3 Interoperability and Scalability ........................................................................................................ 193
III. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 196
IV. References ............................................................................................................................................. 196

Table of figure

Figure 1: Abstract Data Type ........................................................................................................................ 13

Figure 2:Linked List ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 3: 4 ways to initialize a Linked List .................................................................................................... 15
Figure 4:Linked List - Insertion Operation .................................................................................................... 16
Figure 5: Linked List - Deletion Operation:................................................................................................... 17
Figure 6: Linked List - Reversal Operation .................................................................................................... 17
Figure 7: Linked List - Search Operation....................................................................................................... 18
Figure 8: Linked List - Traversal Operation ................................................................................................... 20
Figure 9: Stack .............................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 10: 2 ways to initialize a Linked List .................................................................................................. 22
Figure 11: Stack Insertion (push()) ............................................................................................................... 23
Figure 12: Stack Deletion (pop()).................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 13: Retrieving topmost Element from Stack (peek()) ....................................................................... 25
Figure 14: Verifying whether the Stack is full (isFull()): ............................................................................... 25

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Figure 15: Verifying whether the Stack is empty (isEmpty())....................................................................... 26
Figure 16: Queue .......................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 17: three ways to initialize a Queue .................................................................................................. 28
Figure 18: Queue Insertion Operation (enqueue()) ..................................................................................... 29
Figure 19: Queue Deletion Operation (dequeue()) ...................................................................................... 30
Figure 20: Queue - The peek() Operation .................................................................................................... 31
Figure 21: Queue - The isFull() Operation .................................................................................................... 32
Figure 22: Queue - The isEmpty() Operation ............................................................................................... 32
Figure 23: memory stack .............................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 24: Example: Function Calls with Stack Management ...................................................................... 38
Figure 25: software stack ............................................................................................................................. 41
Figure 26: Stack Interface ............................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 27: Implementation Using Arrays ..................................................................................................... 43
Figure 28: Implementation Using Linked Lists ............................................................................................. 44
Figure 29: Output ......................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 30: Introduction FIFO ........................................................................................................................ 46
Figure 31: FIFO queue in Data Structure ...................................................................................................... 47
Figure 32: The Structure of FIFO queue ....................................................................................................... 47
Figure 33: array-based implementation of a FIFO queue ............................................................................ 50
Figure 34: Output of array-based implementation of a FIFO queue ........................................................... 50
Figure 35: Creating the Queue ..................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 36: Output 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 37: Inserting Data .............................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 38: Output 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 39: Checking Size ............................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 40: Output 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 41: Getting Front Element ................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 42: Output 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 43: Removing Elements ..................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 44: Output ......................................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 45: Checking Empty State .................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 46: Output6 ....................................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 47: Looping Through Elements.......................................................................................................... 56
Figure 48: Output 7 ...................................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 49: Final Output ................................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 50: The queue looks like .................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 51: The final state looks like .............................................................................................................. 58
Figure 52: Basic of Bubble sort ..................................................................................................................... 59

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Figure 53: Example of bubble sort ............................................................................................................... 60
Figure 54: Output of bubble sort.................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 55: Basic of Selection sort ................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 56: Example of selection sort ............................................................................................................ 62
Figure 57: Bubble Sort Example ................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 58: Bubble Sort output ...................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 59: Selection Sort Example ................................................................................................................ 65
Figure 60: Selection Sort output .................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 61: Encapsulation .............................................................................................................................. 67
Figure 62: Consider a BankAccount ADT ...................................................................................................... 69
Figure 63: a Queue ADT can be encapsulated separately ........................................................................... 70
Figure 64: If you need to optimize the Stack ADT ........................................................................................ 70
Figure 65: In a Student ADT .......................................................................................................................... 71
Figure 66: A Date ADT can be reused in various applications ...................................................................... 72
Figure 67: the graph ..................................................................................................................................... 74
Figure 68: Graph ........................................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 69: Step 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 76
Figure 70: Step 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 76
Figure 71: Step 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 77
Figure 72: Step 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 77
Figure 73: final graph.................................................................................................................................... 78
Figure 74: Illustration of Dijkstra Algorithm with Code ............................................................................... 78
Figure 75: Output of Dijkstra Algorithm ....................................................................................................... 79
Figure 76: Code Breakdown 1 ...................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 77: Code Breakdown 2 ...................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 78: Code Breakdown 3 ...................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 79: Graph 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 82
Figure 80: selected vertex 0 as the starting vertex ...................................................................................... 82
Figure 81: these two the edge with minimum weight is {0, 1} .................................................................... 83
Figure 82: Among these edges the minimum weight is 8 which is of the edges {0, 7} and {1, 2} ............... 83
Figure 83: and the vertex 6 in the MST as it has the least weight (i.e., 1) ................................................... 84
Figure 84: the MST as the edge has the minimum weight (i.e., 2) among them ......................................... 84
Figure 85: include that edge and the vertex 2 in the MST ........................................................................... 85
Figure 86: The edge with minimum weight is edge {2, 8} which has weight 2 ............................................ 85
Figure 87: the edge {2, 3} and include that edge and vertex 3 in the MST .................................................. 86
Figure 88: The minimum weighted edge from the incomplete MST to 4 is {3, 4} ....................................... 86
Figure 89: final graph 2 ................................................................................................................................. 87
Figure 90: If we had selected the edge {1, 2} in the third step then the MST would look like .................... 87

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Figure 91: Illustration of Prim-jarnik algorithm with Code .......................................................................... 88
Figure 92: Ouput of Prim-jarnik algorithm ................................................................................................... 88
Figure 93: Breakdown code of prim's algotithm .......................................................................................... 89
Figure 94: Breakdown code of prim's algotithm 2 ....................................................................................... 89
Figure 95: Breakdown code of prim's algotithm 3 ....................................................................................... 90
Figure 96: Abstraction and Encapsulation example ..................................................................................... 96
Figure 97: Abstraction and Encapsulation output........................................................................................ 96
Figure 98: Inheritance and Polymorphism example 1 ................................................................................. 97
Figure 99: Inheritance and Polymorphism example 2 ................................................................................. 98
Figure 100: Inheritance and Polymorphism output ..................................................................................... 98
Figure 101: Composition and Aggregation example .................................................................................. 100
Figure 102: Composition and Aggregation output ..................................................................................... 101
Figure 103: Attributes................................................................................................................................. 109
Figure 104: Constructor .............................................................................................................................. 109
Figure 105: Rank Method ........................................................................................................................... 110
Figure 106: Getters and Setters ................................................................................................................. 110
Figure 107: toString Method ...................................................................................................................... 111
Figure 108: Comparators ............................................................................................................................ 111
Figure 109: Adding Students ...................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 110: Editing Students 1.................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 111: Editing Students 2.................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 112: Removing Students ................................................................................................................. 113
Figure 113: Searching for Students ............................................................................................................ 113
Figure 114: Flowchart Student Management System ................................................................................ 117
Figure 115: Flowchart Add Student ............................................................................................................ 120
Figure 116: Flowchart Delete Student ....................................................................................................... 121
Figure 117: Flowchart Edit Student ............................................................................................................ 123
Figure 118: Student Class ........................................................................................................................... 125
Figure 119: Adding Students ...................................................................................................................... 126
Figure 120: Editing Students ...................................................................................................................... 127
Figure 121: Removing Students ................................................................................................................. 128
Figure 122: Searching for Students ............................................................................................................ 129
Figure 123: User Interface 1 ....................................................................................................................... 130
Figure 124: User Interface 2 ....................................................................................................................... 131
Figure 125: Initialization ............................................................................................................................. 131
Figure 126: Adding Students ...................................................................................................................... 131
Figure 127: Listing Students ....................................................................................................................... 132
Figure 128: Editing Students ...................................................................................................................... 132

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Figure 129: Editing by ID............................................................................................................................. 132
Figure 130: Removing Students ................................................................................................................. 133
Figure 131: Searching for Students ............................................................................................................ 133
Figure 132: Sorting Students ...................................................................................................................... 133
Figure 133: Checked exceptions ................................................................................................................. 138
Figure 134: Unchecked Exception .............................................................................................................. 139
Figure 135: Error ......................................................................................................................................... 140
Figure 136: Try-Catch Block ........................................................................................................................ 141
Figure 137: Using try-catch blocks into Add student ................................................................................. 142
Figure 138: Input data ................................................................................................................................ 142
Figure 139: Expected Output ..................................................................................................................... 142
Figure 140: Using try-catch blocks into Edit student ................................................................................. 143
Figure 141: Input data ................................................................................................................................ 143
Figure 142: Expected Output..................................................................................................................... 144
Figure 143: Input Data ................................................................................................................................ 144
Figure 144: Expected Output ..................................................................................................................... 144
Figure 145: Using try-catch blocks into Remove student .......................................................................... 144
Figure 146: Input Data ................................................................................................................................ 145
Figure 147: Expected Output..................................................................................................................... 145
Figure 148: Using try-catch blocks into Search student ............................................................................. 145
Figure 149: Input Data ................................................................................................................................ 146
Figure 150: Expected Output..................................................................................................................... 146
Figure 151: Asymptotic Analysis................................................................................................................. 150
Figure 152: Big Oh, O: Asymptotic Upper Bound ....................................................................................... 157
Figure 153: Big Omega, Ω: Asymptotic Lower Bound ................................................................................ 158
Figure 154: Theta, θ: Asymptotic Tight Bound ........................................................................................... 159
Figure 155: O(1) (Constant Time) ............................................................................................................... 161
Figure 156: O(n) (Linear Time) ................................................................................................................... 162
Figure 157: O(n^2) (Quadratic Time) ......................................................................................................... 162
Figure 158: O(1) (Constant Space) ............................................................................................................. 163
Figure 159: O(n) (Linear Space) .................................................................................................................. 164
Figure 160: Example: Time Complexity Calculation ................................................................................... 165
Figure 161: Example: Space Complexity Calculation ................................................................................. 166
Figure 162: Sorting Algorithm: TimSort (via Collections.sort) ................................................................... 179
Figure 163: Method Call ............................................................................................................................. 179
Figure 164: Searching Algorithm: Binary Search ........................................................................................ 181
Figure 165: Initial Check for an Empty List ................................................................................................. 182
Figure 166: Initial Check for an Empty List ................................................................................................. 182

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Figure 167: Binary Search Loop .................................................................................................................. 182
Figure 168: Comparison Logic .................................................................................................................... 183
Figure 169:Return Value for Not Found ..................................................................................................... 183
Figure 170: StudentList Interface ............................................................................................................... 190
Figure 171: Implementations ..................................................................................................................... 190
Figure 172: Extending the StudentList Interface ........................................................................................ 192
Figure 173: Implementation of Sorting ...................................................................................................... 192
Figure 174: DataSource Interface for Integration ...................................................................................... 194
Figure 175: Implementation for a REST API .............................................................................................. 194
Figure 176: Handling Growth ..................................................................................................................... 194

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I. Introduction
In the realm of software development, the effective management of data is paramount to creating
robust and efficient applications. Abstract Data Types (ADTs) serve as foundational constructs that
enable developers to encapsulate data and define operations on it, promoting better design,
implementation, and testing practices. This report aims to elucidate the concept of ADTs and their
critical role in software engineering, particularly in the context of a stack ADT, which exemplifies the
principles of data structure design. We will explore the specification of abstract data types through a
detailed examination of stacks, highlighting the valid operations that can be performed, such as push,
pop, and peek. Additionally, we will discuss the advantages of encapsulation and information hiding,
which are key benefits of using ADTs. These principles not only enhance code maintainability but also
foster more secure and organized software architecture.
As an in-house software developer for Soft Development ABK, a software workshop for small and
medium enterprises, I have been appointed as the lead software project manager. My primary task is to
create a presentation for collaborators on how to leverage abstract data types to improve design,
development, and testing. Additionally, I am responsible for building an application that addresses a real-
life problem. This application will manage student data, allowing users to input student IDs, names, and
marks, and will rank students based on their performance according to specific criteria. The ranking table
categorizes performance into five distinct levels: Fail, Medium, Good, Very Good, and Excellent. The
application will also include functionalities for adding, editing, deleting, sorting, and searching for
students, utilizing appropriate algorithms to ensure efficiency.
To achieve this, I will identify the specific problem the application aims to solve, clearly defining the
requirements and constraints. An analysis of the existing algorithm used in similar applications will be
conducted to understand its functionality, strengths, and weaknesses. Furthermore, I will research
alternative algorithms known for their efficiency and effectiveness in solving the problem at hand. Once
an alternative algorithm is identified, its suitability will be evaluated based on factors such as time
complexity, space complexity, accuracy, and scalability, comparing it to the existing solution.
Implementation challenges will also be assessed, considering the practical aspects of integrating the new
algorithm within the application framework. Finally, I will compile a comprehensive report that outlines
the evaluation results, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of the proposed algorithm,
supported by evidence such as benchmarking results and theoretical analysis. Through this exploration,
we aim to equip software developers and collaborators with the knowledge and tools necessary to
leverage abstract data types effectively, thereby enhancing their capabilities in delivering high-quality
software solutions for small and medium enterprises.

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II. Contents
1. Definition of Abstract Data Type
In this article, we will learn about ADT but before understanding what ADT is let us consider different in-
built data types that are provided to us. Data types such as int, float, double, long, etc. are considered to
be in-built data types and we can perform basic operations with them such as addition, subtraction,
division, multiplication, etc. Now there might be a situation when we need operations for our user-
defined data type which have to be defined. These operations can be defined only as and when we
require them. So, in order to simplify the process of solving problems, we can create data structures
along with their operations, and such data structures that are not in-built are known as Abstract Data
Type (ADT).

Abstract Data type (ADT) is a type (or class) for objects whose behavior is defined by a set of values and a
set of operations. The definition of ADT only mentions what operations are to be performed but not how
these operations will be implemented. It does not specify how data will be organized in memory and
what algorithms will be used for implementing the operations. It is called “abstract” because it gives an
implementation-independent view.

The process of providing only the essentials and hiding the details is known as abstraction.

Figure 1: Abstract Data Type

The user of data type does not need to know how that data type is implemented, for example, we have
been using Primitive values like int, float, char data types only with the knowledge that these data type
can operate and be performed on without any idea of how they are implemented. (geeksforgeeks, 23
Sep, 2023)

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2. Create a design specification for data structures, explaining the
valid operations that can be carried out on the structures
2.1 Linked List
2.1.1 Definition

Figure 2:Linked List

The Linked List is a linear data structure that consists of a sequence of nodes, where each node contains
data and a reference (or link) to the next node in the sequence. Unlike an array, the linked list does not
have a fixed size and can grow or shrink dynamically as elements are added or removed.

2.1.2 Explain operations and working mechanism

Linked List Operations and Working Mechanism:

a. Linked List - Insertion Operation

This operation involves inserting a new node at a specific position within the linked list. The mechanism
includes updating the next pointer of the new node to point to the existing node, and updating the
previous node's next pointer to point to the new node.

b. Linked List - Deletion Operation

This operation involves removing a node from the linked list. The mechanism includes updating the next
pointer of the previous node to skip the node being deleted, effectively removing it from the list.

c. Linked List - Reversal Operation

This operation involves reversing the order of the nodes in the linked list. The mechanism includes
iteratively updating the next pointers of the nodes to point to the previous node, effectively flipping the
direction of the list.

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d. Linked List - Search Operation
This operation involves traversing the linked list to find a specific node or value. The mechanism includes
iterating through the list, following the next pointers, until the desired node or value is found.

e. Linked List - Traversal Operation

This operation involves iterating through the linked list, following the next pointers from one node to the
next. The mechanism includes starting at the head of the list and continuing until the end of the list is
reached.

2.1.3 Code example

Here are 4 ways to initialize a Linked List:

Figure 3: 4 ways to initialize a Linked List

1. LinkedList<String> animal = new LinkedList<>();

This initializes a Linked List of String type and assigns it to the variable animal.

2. Queue<Integer> animal2 = new LinkedList<>();

This initializes a Linked List and assigns it to the animal2 variable, which is declared as a Queue of
Integer type. The Linked List is used to implement the Queue data structure.

3. Deque<String> animal3 = new LinkedList<>();

This initializes a Linked List and assigns it to the animal3 variable, which is declared as a Deque
(Double-Ended Queue) of String type. The Linked List is used to implement the Deque data
structure.

4. LinkedList<String> animal4 = new LinkedList<>();

This initializes a Linked List of String type and assigns it to the variable animal4

By using these different initialization methods, I can create Linked Lists that can be used for various
purposes, such as storing strings, integers, or as the basis for other data structures like Queues and
Deques.

a. Linked List - Insertion Operation:

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 Figure 4:Linked List - Insertion Operation

1. addElement(List<String> animal):

• This method adds new elements to the end of the linked list.

• It uses the add() method of the LinkedList class to append the new elements ("cat", "dog",
"tiger", "lion") to the end of the list.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires updating the last node's next
pointer to point to the new node.

2. addElementByIndex(List<String> animal, int Index, String value):

• This method inserts a new element at a specific index in the linked list.

• It uses the add() method of the LinkedList class to insert the new element at the specified index.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the number of elements in the list, as it
may require shifting the existing elements to make room for the new element.

b. Linked List - Deletion Operation:

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Figure 5: Linked List - Deletion Operation:

1. removeDataElement(List<String> animal, int Index):

• This method removes an element at a specific index from the linked list.

• It uses the remove() method of the LinkedList class to delete the element at the specified index.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the number of elements in the list, as it
may require updating the next pointers of the surrounding nodes to maintain the list's structure.

c. Linked List - Reversal Operation

Figure 6: Linked List - Reversal Operation

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In this example, the reverseList() method is the implementation of the Linked List Reversal Operation. It
uses three pointers: prev, current, and next to iterate through the list and reverse the links between the
nodes. The process is as follows:

1. Initialize prev to null, current to head, and next to null.

2. While current is not null:

o Store the next node in next.

o Reverse the link by setting current.next to prev.

o Move the prev and current pointers to the next nodes.

3. Update the head of the list to the new head of the reversed list (prev).

d. Linked List - Search Operation:

Figure 7: Linked List - Search Operation

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1. findDataElement(List<String> animal, String data):

• This method checks if a specific element is present in the linked list.

• It uses the contains() method of the LinkedList class to check if the list contains the specified
element.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the number of elements in the list, as it
may require iterating through the entire list to find the element.

2. findElement(List<String> animal, String data):

• This method finds the first occurrence of a specific element in the linked list.

• It uses the indexOf() method of the LinkedList class to get the index of the first occurrence of the
specified element.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the number of elements in the list, as it
may require iterating through the entire list to find the element.

3. findElement1(List<String> animal, String data):

• This method finds the last occurrence of a specific element in the linked list.

• It uses the lastIndexOf() method of the LinkedList class to get the index of the last occurrence of
the specified element.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the number of elements in the list, as it
may require iterating through the entire list to find the element.

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e. Linked List - Traversal Operation:

Figure 8: Linked List - Traversal Operation

1. loopElement(List<String> animal):

• This method iterates through the elements of the linked list.

• It uses a for loop to access each element in the list using the get() method.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the number of elements in the list, as it
requires iterating through all the elements.

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2.2 Stack
2.2.1 Definition

Figure 9: Stack

A Stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) principle. It means that the last
element added to the stack will be the first one to be removed. Stacks are often used to keep track of
function calls, undo/redo operations, and other applications that require a specific order of operations.

2.2.2 Explain operations and Working Mechanism

a. Stack Insertion (push()):
This operation involves adding a new element to the top of the stack. The mechanism includes updating
the top pointer to point to the new element, which becomes the new top of the stack.

b. Stack Deletion (pop()):

This operation involves removing the top element from the stack. The mechanism includes updating the
top pointer to point to the element below the current top, effectively removing the top element from
the stack.

c. Retrieving topmost Element from Stack (peek()):

This operation involves accessing the element at the top of the stack without removing it. The
mechanism includes returning the value of the element pointed to by the top pointer.

d. Verifying whether the Stack is full (isFull()):

This operation involves checking if the stack has reached its maximum capacity. The mechanism includes
comparing the current number of elements in the stack to the predefined maximum size of the stack.
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e. Verifying whether the Stack is empty (isEmpty()):
This operation involves checking if the stack is empty (i.e., has no elements). The mechanism includes
checking if the top pointer is pointing to a null or default value, indicating that the stack has no elements.

2.2.3 Code example

Here are 2 ways to initialize a Linked List:

Figure 10: 2 ways to initialize a Linked List

The key differences between these three approaches are:

1. Stack<Integer> number = new Stack<>();:

• This initializes an Integer type Stack named number.

• This directly creates an instance of the Stack class and assigns it to the number variable.

• The Stack is declared to hold Integer type elements.

• This is the more direct and straightforward way to initialize a Stack.

2. List<String> cars = new Stack<>();:

• This initializes a String type Stack named cars

• This creates an instance of the Stack class and assigns it to the cars variable, which is declared as
a List type.

• The Stack is declared to hold String type elements.

• This approach leverages the fact that the Stack class implements the List interface, allowing you
to use the more generic List type to hold the Stack data structure.

22
a. Stack Insertion (push()):

Figure 11: Stack Insertion (push())

1. createStack():

• This method creates a new Stack and adds elements to it using the push() method.

• It creates an Integer Stack and adds the values 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 to the Stack using the push()
method.

• The push() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires updating the top pointer
to point to the new element.

2. displayStack(Stack<Integer> number):

• This method prints the current state of the Stack.

• It simply calls System.out.println() to display the contents of the Stack.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the number of elements in the Stack, as
it may require iterating through all the elements to print them.

23
b. Stack Deletion (pop()):

Figure 12: Stack Deletion (pop())

1. removeElement(Stack<Integer> number):

• This method removes the top element from the Stack using the pop() method.

• It calls the pop() method to remove the top element from the Stack and then prints the updated
Stack.

• The pop() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires updating the top pointer
to point to the next element in the Stack.

2. loopElement(Stack<Integer> number):

• This method removes and prints all the elements from the Stack using the pop() method.

• It iterates through the Stack using a for loop and calls the pop() method to remove and print each
element.

• The time complexity of this operation is O(n), where n is the number of elements in the Stack, as
it requires removing each element one by one.

24
c. Retrieving topmost Element from Stack (peek()):

Figure 13: Retrieving topmost Element from Stack (peek())

1. peekElement(Stack<Integer> number):

• This method retrieves the top element from the Stack using the peek() method without removing
it.

• It calls the peek() method to get the value of the top element and then prints the top element
and the updated Stack.

• The peek() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires returning the value of
the top element without modifying the Stack.

d. Verifying whether the Stack is full (isFull()):

Figure 14: Verifying whether the Stack is full (isFull()):

25
1. isStackFull(Stack<Integer> number):

• This method checks if the Stack is full by comparing the current size of the Stack to the maximum
size.

• In this example, the maximum size is set to 5, but you can adjust it based on your requirements.

• The method returns true if the size of the Stack is equal to the maximum size, indicating that the
Stack is full.

2. testStackFull(Stack<Integer> number):

• This method calls the isStackFull() method to determine if the Stack is full.

• It then prints a message indicating whether the Stack is full or not.

e. Verifying whether the Stack is empty (isEmpty()):

Figure 15: Verifying whether the Stack is empty (isEmpty())

1. isEmptyStack(Stack<Integer> number):

• This method checks if the Stack is empty using the isEmpty() method.

• It calls the isEmpty() method to determine if the Stack is empty and prints the corresponding
message.

• The isEmpty() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires checking the value of
the top pointer.

26
2.3 Queue
2.3.1 Definition

Figure 16: Queue

A Queue is a linear data structure that follows the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle. It means that the
first element added to the queue will be the first one to be removed. Queues are often used to manage
processes or tasks that need to be executed in a specific order, such as in scheduling, resource
management, and event handling.

2.3.2 Explain Operations and Working Mechanism

a. Queue Insertion Operation (enqueue()):
This operation involves adding a new element to the rear (back) of the queue. The mechanism includes
updating the rear pointer to point to the new element, effectively adding it to the end of the queue.

b. Queue Deletion Operation (dequeue()):

This operation involves removing the element at the front of the queue. The mechanism includes
updating the front pointer to point to the next element in the queue, effectively removing the element
at the front.

c. Queue - The peek() Operation:

This operation involves accessing the element at the front of the queue without removing it. The
mechanism includes returning the value of the element pointed to by the front pointer.

d. Queue - The isFull() Operation:

This operation involves checking if the queue has reached its maximum capacity. The mechanism
includes comparing the current number of elements in the queue to the predefined maximum size of the
queue.

27
e. Queue - The isEmpty() Operation:
This operation involves checking if the queue is empty (i.e., has no elements). The mechanism includes
checking if the front and rear pointers are pointing to the same (null or default) value, indicating that the
queue has no elements.

2.3.3 Code example

There are three ways to initialize a Queue:

Figure 17: three ways to initialize a Queue

The key differences between these three approaches are:

1. Queue<String> color = new LinkedList<>();:

o This uses the LinkedList class to implement the Queue data structure.

o The LinkedList class is a doubly-linked list, which provides efficient insertion and removal
operations at both ends of the list.

o This is a common and efficient way to implement a Queue in Java.

2. Queue<String> animal = new ArrayDeque<>();:

o This uses the ArrayDeque class to implement the Queue data structure.

o The ArrayDeque class is a resizable-array implementation of the Deque interface, which

extends the Queue interface.

o ArrayDeque provides efficient constant-time performance for the addFirst(), addLast(),

removeFirst(), and removeLast() operations, making it a suitable choice for implementing
Queues.

3. Queue<String> country = new PriorityQueue<>();:

o This uses the PriorityQueue class to implement the Queue data structure.

o The PriorityQueue class is a min-heap-based priority queue, which orders its elements
according to their natural ordering or a custom Comparator.

o This type of Queue is useful when you need to retrieve elements based on their priority,
rather than the order of insertion.

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a. Queue Insertion Operation (enqueue()):

Figure 18: Queue Insertion Operation (enqueue())

1. createQueue():

• This method creates a new Queue and adds elements to it using the add() method.

• It creates a String type Queue named color and adds the values "red", "blue", "green", "brown",
and "black" to the queue.

• The add() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires updating the rear pointer
to point to the new element.

2. showQueue(Queue<String> color):

• This method prints the current state of the Queue.

• It simply calls System.out.println() to display the contents of the Queue.

• This operation has a time complexity of O(n), where n is the number of elements in the Queue, as
it may require iterating through all the elements to print them.

29
3. insertDataQueue(Queue<String> queue):

• This method adds new elements to the rear (back) of the queue using the offer() method.

• It adds the strings "while", "pink", and "yellow" to the end of the queue.

• The offer() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires updating the rear
pointer to point to the new element.

b. Queue Deletion Operation (dequeue()):

Figure 19: Queue Deletion Operation (dequeue())

1. removeElement(Queue<String> queue):

• This method removes the element at the front of the queue using the remove() method.

• It first checks if the queue is empty. If the queue is not empty, it removes and prints the element
at the front of the queue.

• The remove() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires updating the front
pointer to point to the next element in the queue.

2. removeElement2(Queue<String> queue):

• This method removes the element at the front of the queue using the poll() method.

• It removes and prints the element at the front of the queue.

• The poll() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires updating the front
pointer to point to the next element in the queue.

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c. Queue - The peek() Operation:

Figure 20: Queue - The peek() Operation

1. getElementQueue(Queue<String> queue):

• This method retrieves the element at the front of the queue using the element() method.

• It prints the element at the front of the queue.

• The element() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires returning the value
of the element at the front of the queue without removing it.

2. getElementQueue2(Queue<String> queue):

• This method retrieves the element at the front of the queue using the peek() method.

• It prints the element at the front of the queue.

• The peek() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires returning the value of
the element at the front of the queue without removing it

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d. Queue - The isFull() Operation:

Figure 21: Queue - The isFull() Operation

The addToQueue(Queue<String> queue, String element) method first calls the isQueueFull() method to
check if the queue is full. If the queue is full, it prints a message indicating that no more elements can be
added. If the queue is not full, it adds the new element to the queue using the offer() method and prints
a message indicating that the element has been added.

e. Queue - The isEmpty() Operation:

Figure 22: Queue - The isEmpty() Operation

32
checkEmpty(Queue<String> queue):

• This method checks if the queue is empty using the isEmpty() method.

• It prints a message indicating whether the queue is empty or not.

• The isEmpty() operation has a time complexity of O(1) since it only requires checking the values
of the front and rear pointers.

3. Determine the operations of a memory stack and how it is used to

implement function calls in a computer
3.1 What is memory stack
A stack is a storage device in which the information or item stored last is retrieved first. Basically, a
computer system follows a memory stack organization, and here we will look at how it works

A portion of memory is assigned to a stack operation to implement the stack in the CPU. Here the
processor register is used as a Stack Pointer (SP). The above figure shows the portion of computer
memory divided into three segments: Program Instructions, Data, and Stack.

• Program Counter (PC): It is a register that points to the address of the next instruction that is
going to be executed in the program.
• Address Register (AR): This register points at the collection of data and is used during the execute
phase to read an operand.
• Stack Pointer (SP): It points at the top of the stack and is used to push or pop the data items in or
from the stack.

As we can see in the figure, these three registers are connected to a common address bus and either one
of them can provide an address for memory.

33
 Figure 23: memory stack

Stack Pointer is first going to point at the address 3001, and then the stack will grow with the decreasing
addresses. It means that the first item is going to be stored at address 3001, the second item at address
3000, and the items can keep getting stored in the stack until it reaches the last address 2000 where the
last item will be held. (geeksforgeeks, 11 Sep, 2023)

3.2 The operations of a memory stack

A memory stack is a region of memory used for storing and managing function call information, local
variables, and other temporary data. The key operations performed on a memory stack are:

1. Push operation:

• The push operation adds a new element (e.g., a function call, a local variable) onto the top of the
stack.

• This operation involves updating the stack pointer to point to the newly added element, and
allocating memory space for the new element.

• The time complexity of a push operation is typically O(1), as it only requires updating the stack
pointer.

2. Pop operation:

• The pop operation removes the topmost element from the stack.

• This operation involves updating the stack pointer to point to the next element in the stack,
effectively removing the topmost element.

• The time complexity of a pop operation is also O(1), as it only requires updating the stack pointer.

34
3. Peek operation:

• The peek operation retrieves the value of the topmost element in the stack without removing it.

• This operation is useful for inspecting the top of the stack without modifying its contents.

• The time complexity of a peek operation is O(1), as it only requires reading the value at the
current stack pointer.

4. Stack Pointer Manipulation:

• The stack pointer is a register or a variable that keeps track of the current position in the stack.

• Manipulating the stack pointer is a crucial part of managing the stack, as it allows the processor
to keep track of where the current function call or local variable is stored.

• Operations like push and pop involve updating the stack pointer to reflect the changes in the
stack.

5. Stack Frame Management:

• When a function is called, the processor creates a new stack frame to store the function's local
variables, return address, and other relevant information.

• The stack frame is pushed onto the stack, and when the function returns, the stack frame is
popped off the stack.

• This stack frame management ensures that the processor can correctly restore the state of the
previous function call when the current function returns.

6. Memory Allocation and Deallocation:

• The stack is used to allocate memory for local variables and temporary data during function calls.

• When a function is called, the processor allocates memory for the function's local variables by
adjusting the stack pointer.

• When the function returns, the memory allocated for the local variables is automatically
deallocated by restoring the stack pointer to its previous state.

These operations are fundamental to the way a memory stack is used in computer systems, particularly
in the context of function calls and local variable management. The efficient implementation of these
operations is crucial for the overall performance and correctness of a program.

35
3.3 How memory stack is used to implement function calls in a computer
Overview of the Memory Stack

The memory stack is a section of memory that operates on a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) principle. It is
primarily used for:

• Storing local variables and parameters for functions.

• Maintaining the return addresses for function calls.

• Supporting recursion by allowing multiple instances of function calls to exist simultaneously.

Detailed Steps in Function Call Management Using the Memory Stack:

3.3.1 Initialization of the Stack

• Stack Pointer (SP): The stack is managed using a stack pointer (SP) that points to the top of the
stack. When a function is called, SP is adjusted to allocate space for the new stack frame.

• Base Pointer (BP): Additionally, a base pointer (BP) is often used to reference the start of the
current stack frame, providing a stable reference for accessing local variables and parameters.

3.3.2 Function Call Process

When a function is called, several steps occur to set up the stack frame:

Step 1: Push Return Address

• Call Instruction: When a function call is executed (e.g., functionA()), the CPU needs to remember
where to return after the function completes.

• Return Address: The address of the next instruction following the function call is pushed onto the
stack. This is crucial for resuming execution after the called function has finished.

Step 2: Create a New Stack Frame

• New Stack Frame: A stack frame is created for the called function. This frame contains:

o Return Address: The address pushed in the previous step.

o Parameters: Space for the function's parameters. These may be pushed onto the stack if
they are passed by value.

o Local Variables: Space allocated for local variables declared within the function.

36
 o Saved Registers: Any registers that need to be preserved across the function call are
saved.

Step 3: Adjust Stack Pointer

• SP Adjustment: The stack pointer (SP) is decremented (or incremented, depending on the
architecture) to account for the newly allocated space for the stack frame. This effectively marks
the top of the stack frame for the called function.

3.3.3 Function Execution

Once the stack frame is set up:

• Accessing Parameters and Local Variables:

o The function accesses its parameters and local variables using offsets from the base
pointer (BP). For example, if the BP points to the start of the stack frame, parameters
might be accessed with offsets like BP + 4, BP + 8, etc.

• Function Logic: The function executes its logic using these parameters and local variables.

3.3.4 Returning from the Function

When the function completes, it needs to clean up and return control to the caller:

Step 1: Prepare Return Value

• Return Value: If the function has a return value, it is typically placed in a specific register (e.g., the
EAX register in x86 architecture) so that it can be accessed by the caller.

Step 2: Pop Stack Frame

• Restore Stack Pointer: The stack pointer (SP) is adjusted to release the memory associated with
the current stack frame. This is usually done by simply moving SP back to the position it was at
before the function was called.

Step 3: Return Address Handling

• Pop Return Address: The return address is popped from the stack to the instruction pointer (IP)
or program counter (PC). This tells the CPU where to continue execution after the function call.

3.3.5 Finalization
• Execution Resumes: Control is transferred back to the instruction following the original function
call, and the program continues executing, using any return value as needed.

37
3.3.6 Example: Function Calls with Stack Management
Code Example

Here's a Java program that includes two functions, functionA and functionB, which demonstrate how
function calls are managed using the memory stack.

Figure 24: Example: Function Calls with Stack Management

Breakdown of Function Calls and Stack Management

1. Initialization:

o When the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) starts executing the program, it creates a stack for
the main method.

2. Calling main:

o The main method is the entry point of the program. A stack frame for main is created,
containing:

▪ Return address (to the JVM).

▪ Parameters (if any, in this case, args).

▪ Local variables.

38
3. Calling functionA(5):

o Push Return Address: When functionA(5) is called, the return address for main is pushed
onto the stack.

o Create Stack Frame for functionA:

▪ Parameter: x is set to 5.

▪ Local Variable: Memory for y is allocated.

o Adjust Stack Pointer: The stack pointer is decremented to mark the new top of the stack.

4. Inside functionA:

o The local variable y is computed as x + 1 (which equals 6).

o A message is printed: Value in functionA: 6.

o Calling functionB(y):

▪ Before calling functionB, the return address for functionA is pushed onto the stack.

▪ A new stack frame for functionB is created:

▪ Parameter: z is set to 6 (the value of y).

▪ The stack pointer is decremented again.

5. Inside functionB:

o The parameter z is used directly.

o A message is printed: Value in functionB: 6.

o The function completes its execution.

6. Returning from functionB:

o The stack frame for functionB is popped off the stack.

o The stack pointer is restored to the previous state, and control returns to functionA.

7. Returning from functionA:

o After functionB returns, control goes back to functionA.

39
 o The stack frame for functionA is popped off.

o The stack pointer is restored again, and control returns to main.

8. End of Execution:

o The main method completes, and the JVM can then terminate, cleaning up the stack.

Summary

Using the memory stack to implement function calls allows for organized management of function
execution contexts. Each function call creates a new stack frame that includes return addresses,
parameters, and local variables, while the stack’s LIFO structure ensures that functions complete in the
correct order. This method is efficient and provides the necessary support for recursion, parameter
passing, and local variable storage, making it a fundamental aspect of program execution in modern
computers.

4. Specify the abstract data type for a software stack using an

imperative definition.
4.1 What is a software stack?
Software stack is a collection of independent components that work together to support the execution
of an application. The components are stacked one on top of each other in a hierarchy that can include
an operating system (OS), architectural layers, protocols, runtime environments, programming language,
applications, databases and function calls.

Typically, the lower-level components in the hierarchy interact with hardware, while the higher-level
components perform specific tasks and services for the end user. Components communicate with the
application through a series of complex instructions that traverse the stack. (Kirvan, n.d.)

Why are software stacks important?

Software stacks make it easier to create and deploy applications and websites. They reduce compatibility
issues, optimize functionality and enhance system performance and productivity. The layers of software
that make up these stacks work together to facilitate development projects. The parts of the stack are
tailored to meet the needs of a particular system or purpose.

Software stacks define the hardware and network resources needed for app and website development
projects. This framework simplifies the development process, making it more efficient and scalable.
(Kirvan, n.d.)

40
Parts of a software stack

Software stacks can be simple or complicated, depending on the desired application functionality. They
can incorporate components and services from an organization's on-premises resources; third-party
providers, such as software-as-a-service vendors; or a cloud provider. There's no baseline standard for
the components and services that must be in a software stack, except that their features and functions
must support an application's development, delivery and operation. (Kirvan, n.d.)

Figure 25: software stack

Depending on the desired application, this could be at a minimum: an OS, database, tools to support a
programming language and the application. Other components that can make up a more complicated
software stack include abstracted physical resources, virtualization, scheduling and orchestration,
databases, computing, networking, security and a user interface. (Kirvan, n.d.)

4.2 Example stack implementation using array or linked list

The ADT defines a set of operations that can be performed on the stack without specifying how those
operations are implemented. In our code, we define the Stack interface, which acts as the ADT for the
stack.

41
Stack Interface:

Figure 26: Stack Interface

Interface Breakdown:

• push(T item): Adds an item to the top of the stack.

• pop(): Removes and returns the item at the top of the stack.

• peek(): Returns the item at the top of the stack without removing it.

• isEmpty(): Checks if the stack is empty.

• size(): Returns the number of items in the stack.

42
4.2.1 Implementation Using Arrays

Figure 27: Implementation Using Arrays

ArrayStack Breakdown:

• Array Declaration: A generic array stack is created to hold the elements. The size is dynamically
managed.

• Top Pointer: The top variable tracks the index of the top element in the stack.

• Push Operation: When adding an item, if the stack is full, the resize method is called to double
the array size.

• Pop Operation: The top item is returned and removed. The index is decremented, and the
reference is set to null to prevent memory leaks.

• Peek Operation: Returns the top item without removing it.

• Size and IsEmpty: Simple checks to determine the stack state.

43
4.2.2 Implementation Using Linked Lists

Figure 28: Implementation Using Linked Lists

LinkedListStack Breakdown:

• Node Class: A private inner class Node<T> represents each element in the stack, containing the
data and a reference to the next node.

• Top Pointer: The top node points to the top element of the stack.

• Push Operation: A new node is created and added to the top of the stack. The top reference is
updated.

• Pop Operation: The top node is removed, and the top reference is updated to the next node.

• Peek Operation: Returns the data of the top node without removing it.

44
 • Size and IsEmpty: Simple checks to determine the stack state.

4.2.3 Summary

Figure 29: Output

In this implementation:

• The Stack interface defines the core operations of a stack: push, pop, peek, isEmpty, and size.

• The ArrayStack class implements the stack using an array, handling resizing when the stack is full.

• The LinkedListStack class implements the stack using a linked list, allowing dynamic growth
without the need for resizing.

• The StackExample class demonstrates how to use both stack implementations.

* Summary:

Abstract Data Type: The Stack interface defines the operations that any stack implementation must
support.

Array-Based Implementation: Uses an array to hold stack elements, with dynamic resizing as needed.

Linked List-Based Implementation: Uses nodes to create a dynamic stack structure that does not require
resizing.

45
Both implementations provide the same functionality while showcasing different underlying data
structures. This approach demonstrates how to encapsulate stack behavior consistently while allowing
flexibility in implementation details.

5. Illustrate, with an example, a concrete data structure for a First in

First out (FIFO) queue.
5.1 Introduction FIFO

Figure 30: Introduction FIFO

FIFO means "First In, First Out." It's an asset management and valuation method in which older inventory
is moved out before new inventory comes in. The first goods to be sold are the first goods purchased.

FIFO assumes that assets with the oldest costs are included in the income statement's Cost of Goods Sold
(COGS). The remaining inventory assets are matched to assets that were most recently purchased or
produced.

The FIFO method avoids obsolescence by selling the oldest inventory items first and maintaining the
newest items in inventory. The actual inventory valuation method used doesn't have to follow the actual
flow of inventory through a company but it must be able to support why it selected the inventory
valuation method. (Kenton, September 19, 2024)

46
5.2 Define the Structure of FIFO queue
5.2.1 What is FIFO queue in Data Structure:

Figure 31: FIFO queue in Data Structure

Queue Data Structure is a linear data structure that follows FIFO (First In First Out) Principle, so the first
element inserted is the first to be popped out. In this article, we will cover all the basics of Queue,
Operations on Queue, its implementation, advantages, disadvantages which will help you solve all the
problems based on Queue. (geeksforgeeks, 16 Aug, 2024)

5.2.2 The Structure of FIFO queue

Queue data structure can be classified into 4 types:

Figure 32: The Structure of FIFO queue

47
There are different types of queues:

1. Simple Queue: Simple Queue simply follows FIFO Structure. We can only insert the element at
the back and remove the element from the front of the queue.

2. Double-Ended Queue (Dequeue): In a double-ended queue the insertion and deletion

operations, both can be performed from both ends. They are of two types:

• Input Restricted Queue: This is a simple queue. In this type of queue, the input can be
taken from only one end but deletion can be done from any of the ends.

• Output Restricted Queue: This is also a simple queue. In this type of queue, the input can
be taken from both ends but deletion can be done from only one end.

3. Circular Queue: This is a special type of queue where the last position is connected back to the
first position. Here also the operations are performed in FIFO order.

4. Priority Queue: A priority queue is a special queue where the elements are accessed based on
the priority assigned to them. They are of two types:

• Ascending Priority Queue: In Ascending Priority Queue, the elements are arranged in
increasing order of their priority values. Element with smallest priority value is popped
first.

• Descending Priority Queue: In Descending Priority Queue, the elements are arranged in
decreasing order of their priority values. Element with largest priority is popped first.

Basic Operations in Queue Data Structure:

Some of the basic operations for Queue in Data Structure are:

1. Enqueue: Adds (or stores) an element to the end of the queue..

2. Dequeue: Removal of elements from the queue.

3. Peek or front: Acquires the data element available at the front node of the queue without
deleting it.

4. rear: This operation returns the element at the rear end without removing it.

5. isFull: Validates if the queue is full.

6. isEmpty: Checks if the queue is empty.

48
5.2.3 Array-based Implementation
Array-Based Queue Implementation Breakdown

Queue Structure:

• The queue is implemented using an array.

• We maintain three key properties:

o front: the index of the first element in the queue.

o rear: the index of the last element in the queue.

o size: the number of elements currently in the queue.

Circular Array:

• To efficiently use space, we implement the queue as a circular array. This means when we reach
the end of the array, the next element will go back to the beginning if there is space.

Operations:

• Enqueue: Add an element to the back of the queue.

• Dequeue: Remove an element from the front of the queue.

• Peek: View the front element without removing it.

• Rear: View the last element without removing it.

• isFull: Check if the queue is full.

• isEmpty: Check if the queue is empty.

Here's an array-based implementation of a FIFO queue:

49
 Figure 33: array-based implementation of a FIFO queue

Figure 34: Output of array-based implementation of a FIFO queue

1. Class Definition:

• ArrayQueue<T>: A generic class for the queue.

• It uses an array queue to hold the elements, along with front, rear, and size to manage the state
of the queue.

50
2. Constructor:

• Initializes the queue with a specified initial capacity, setting front to 0, rear to -1, and size to 0.

3. enqueue(T item):

• Checks if the queue is full using isFull().

• Adds the item to the rear of the queue, incrementing the rear index in a circular manner.

4. dequeue():

• Checks if the queue is empty using isEmpty().

• Removes and returns the item at the front, updating the front index in a circular manner.

5. peek():

• Returns the item at the front without removing it, checking if the queue is empty first.

6. rear():

• Returns the item at the rear without removing it, also checking if the queue is empty.

7. isFull():

• Returns true if the queue is full (when size equals the length of the array).

8. isEmpty():

• Returns true if the queue is empty (when size is 0).

9. size():

• Returns the current number of elements in the queue.

Explanation of the Main Method:

• Creating the Queue: An instance of ArrayQueue is created to hold Integer values.

• Enqueuing Elements: A loop adds integers 1 through 5 to the queue using the enqueue method.

• Peeking: The peek method retrieves the front element without removing it.

• Dequeuing Elements: A while loop continues to dequeue elements until the queue is empty,
printing each dequeued value.

51
 • Checking Empty State: Finally, it checks if the queue is empty.

5.2.4 Provide a concrete example to Illustrate How the FIFO queue work
Let's illustrate how a FIFO (First In, First Out) queue. We’ll create a scenario where different color names
are managed in a queue, demonstrating the queue's operations and behaviors.

Scenario: Managing Colors in a Queue

We'll use the createQueue method to initialize a queue of colors, and then we'll perform various
operations such as adding, removing, and checking the queue's status.

1. Creating the Queue: The createQueue method initializes a queue with five colors: "red", "blue",
"green", "brown", and "black".

Figure 35: Creating the Queue

Output:

Figure 36: Output 1

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2. Inserting Data: The insertDataQueue method adds three more colors: "white", "pink", and "yellow" to
the queue.

Figure 37: Inserting Data

Output:

Figure 38: Output 2

3. Checking Size: The checkSize method displays the number of elements currently in the queue.

Figure 39: Checking Size

Output:

Figure 40: Output 3

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4. Getting Front Element: The getElementQueue and getElementQueue2 methods retrieve the front
element of the queue without removing it.

Figure 41: Getting Front Element

Output:

Figure 42: Output 4

5. Removing Elements:

• The removeElement method removes the front element using remove().

• The removeElement2 method removes the front element using poll(), which returns null if the
queue is empty.

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 Figure 43: Removing Elements

Output:

Figure 44: Output

6. Checking Empty State: The checkEmpty method checks if the queue is empty.

Figure 45: Checking Empty State

Output:

Figure 46: Output6

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7. Looping Through Elements: The loopElement method iterates through the queue and prints each
element.

Figure 47: Looping Through Elements

Output:

Figure 48: Output 7

When you run the program, you will see output showing the FIFO behavior of the queue, these Outputs
illustrate how elements are added and removed from the queue, effectively demonstrating the FIFO
principle

Figure 49: Final Output

56
5.2.4 Provide a practical example
Scenario: Imagine a scenario at an airline ticket counter where multiple customers are waiting to buy
tickets. The process of purchasing tickets follows the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle, meaning the first
customer to arrive is the first to be served.

Step-by-Step Illustration

1. Customers Arrive:

• Customer A arrives at the ticket counter first.

• Customer B arrives next.
• Customer C is the last to arrive.

The queue looks like this:

Figure 50: The queue looks like

2. Serving Customers:

• Customer A is served first since they are at the front of the queue. They complete their ticket
purchase.

• After Customer A leaves, Customer B moves to the front and is served next. They complete their
purchase.

• Finally, Customer C is served after Customer B finishes their transaction.

The queue is processed as follows:

• First Served: Customer A

• Next Served: Customer B

• Last Served: Customer C

3. Queue Dynamics:

• When a customer arrives, they join the queue at the back.

• When a customer is served, they leave the queue from the front.

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 • This ensures that the order of service is maintained according to their arrival time.

* Queue Operations

• Enqueue: When a new customer arrives (e.g., Customer D), they are added to the back of the
queue.

• Dequeue: When the ticket agent serves the customer at the front of the queue, that customer is
removed from the queue.

Final State of the Queue:

If we consider that after serving all initial customers, Customer D arrives and then Customer E, and they
are added to the queue, the final state looks like this:

Figure 51: The final state looks like

Summary

In this example, the FIFO queue model effectively manages customer service at the airline ticket counter.
The first customer to arrive is the first to be served, ensuring fairness and order in the ticket purchasing
process. This illustrates how FIFO queues operate in real-world scenarios, maintaining the logical
sequence of events where order of arrival dictates order of service.

58
6. Compare the performance of two sorting algorithms.
6.1 Introducing the two sorting algorithms: Bubble sort and Selection sort
6.1.1 Basic of Bubble sort
The bubble sort algorithm might look a little bit confusing when we first study it. But here is the easy
explanation of it. Here swapping is carried on in two ways. In every iteration of the outer loop, the
largest element is found and swapped with the last element in the loop. In the inner loop, we do
pairwise swap of two consecutive elements. In every inner loop, we go from the first element to the one
less element we went in the previous loop. The image below shows the 1st iteration of the inner loop in
the Bubble Sort Algorithm.

Figure 52: Basic of Bubble sort

Here we can simplify the bubble sort algorithm by saying that the sorting here is done on the basis of
the largest to the smallest element. The largest element is first kept in the last location in the array.
Then the second largest element in the second last location as so on. (geeksforgeeks, 29 Jan, 2023)

* Example :

59
 Figure 53: Example of bubble sort

Output:

Figure 54: Output of bubble sort

The bubble sort algorithm is used to sort the random numbers.

1. In the main method, an instance of the BubbleSort class is created using the new BubbleSort()
statement.

2. The random array is initialized with the values {1, 3, 2, 8, 5}.

3. The sorting(random) method is called on the bbs object, passing the random array as an
argument.

4. Inside the sorting method, the bubble sort algorithm is implemented to sort the numbers array in
ascending order.

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The steps of the bubble sort algorithm are:

1. The outer loop (for (int i = 0; i < sizeArray - 1; i++)) runs sizeArray - 1 times, where sizeArray is the
length of the numbers array. This loop performs multiple passes through the array.

2. The inner loop (for (int j = 0; j < sizeArray - i - 1; j++)) runs sizeArray - i - 1 times. This loop
compares adjacent elements and swaps them if they are in the wrong order.

3. Inside the inner loop, the condition if (numbers[j] > numbers[j+1]) checks if the current element
(numbers[j]) is greater than the next element (numbers[j+1]). If the condition is true, the two
elements are swapped using a temporary variable temp.

4. After the sorting is complete, the printArray(random) method is called to print the sorted random
array.

6.1.1 Basic of Selection sort

The selection sort algorithm generally is the first sorting algorithm that is taught to us. Here in every
iteration of the inner loop, the smallest element is replaced with the starting element in each loop. After
the end of each loop, we increment the starting position by 1 and run it till the second last element in
the array. Hence, by doing so at the end of the outer loop we will be having a sorted array.

The image below explains the iteration of Selection Sort Algorithm.

Figure 55: Basic of Selection sort

Here we can simplify the selection sort algorithm by saying that the sorting here is done on the basis of
the smallest to the largest element. The smallest element is first sorted and then the second smallest
element and so on. (geeksforgeeks, 29 Jan, 2023)

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* Example:

Figure 56: Example of selection sort

The selectionSort class contains the following methods:

1. sorting(int[] numbers): This method implements the selection sort algorithm to sort the input
array numbers in ascending order.

2. swap(int[] numbers, int i, int j): This method swaps the elements at indices i and j in the numbers
array.

3. showArray(int[] arrayNumbers): This method prints the elements of the arrayNumbers array.

The main method creates an instance of the selectionSort class, initializes an array random with some
integers, and then calls the sorting and showArray methods to sort the array and display the sorted
elements.

The steps of the selection sort algorithm used in this code are:

1. The outer loop (for (int i = 0; i < size - 1; i++)) iterates through the array, selecting the minimum
element from the unsorted portion of the array.

2. The inner loop (for (int j = i + 1; j < size; j++) finds the minimum element in the unsorted portion
of the array.

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 3. The swap method is used to swap the minimum element with the element at the current position
i.

4. After the sorting is complete, the showArray method is called to display the sorted array.

6.2 Comparison between Bubble sort and Selection sort

Criteria Bubble Sort Selection Sort

Algorithm Repeatedly swaps adjacent Repeatedly finds the minimum element from
elements if they are in the the unsorted part of the array and swaps it
wrong order. with the first element of the unsorted part.

Time Complexity O(n^2) in the average and worst O(n^2) in the average and worst cases
cases

Space Complexity O(1) - only requires a constant O(1) - only requires a constant amount of
amount of extra space extra space

Stability Stable - the relative order of Not stable - the relative order of equal
equal elements is preserved elements may change

Efficiency Generally, less efficient, More efficient than bubble sort, especially
especially for large arrays for large arrays

Best Case O(n) when the array is already O(n^2) as the algorithm always performs the
sorted same number of comparisons and swaps

Worst Case O(n^2) when the array is sorted O(n^2) when the array is sorted in
in descending order descending order

Memory Usage In-place algorithm, requires only In-place algorithm, requires only a constant
a constant amount of extra amount of extra memory
memor

Swaps O(n^2) swaps in the worst case O(n) swaps in the best case, O(n^2) swaps in
the worst case

Comparisons O(n^2) comparisons in the O(n^2) comparisons in the average and worst
average and worst cases cases
This expanded table provides more detailed information about the characteristics and performance of
the two sorting algorithms, including their time and space complexity, stability, best and worst-case
scenarios, memory usage, and the number of swaps and comparisons required.

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The key takeaways are that both algorithms have a time complexity of O(n^2) in the average and worst
cases, but bubble sort is generally less efficient and more sensitive to the initial order of the array, while
selection sort is more efficient, especially for large arrays, but is not a stable sorting algorithm.

6.3 Provide a concrete example to demonstrate the differences in

performance between Bubble sort and Selection sort
let's demonstrate the differences in performance between bubble sort and selection sort using a
concrete example.

We'll run both the bubble sort and selection sort algorithms on this array and compare the results.

Bubble Sort Example:

Figure 57: Bubble Sort Example

Bubble Sort output:

Figure 58: Bubble Sort output

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Selection Sort Example:

Figure 59: Selection Sort Example

Selection Sort output:

Figure 60: Selection Sort output

Here's how the performance of these two algorithms differs:

1. Time Complexity:

• Both bubble sort and selection sort have a time complexity of O(n^2) in the average and worst cases.
• However, in the best case (when the array is already sorted), bubble sort has a time complexity of O(n),
while selection sort always has a time complexity of O(n^2).

65
2. Number of Swaps:

• Bubble sort performs more swaps than selection sort, especially in the worst-case scenario (when the
array is sorted in descending order).
• In the example, bubble sort performs more swaps (4 swaps) compared to selection sort (2 swaps).

3. Stability:

• Bubble sort is a stable sorting algorithm, meaning it preserves the relative order of equal elements.
• Selection sort is not a stable sorting algorithm, as the swapping of elements can change the relative
order of equal elements.

4. Memory Usage:

• Both bubble sort and selection sort are in-place algorithms, meaning they require only a constant
amount of extra memory, regardless of the input size.

* Conclusion:
In the comparison between bubble sort and selection sort, several key points emerge:

Performance: Both algorithms have a time complexity of O(n²) in average and worst cases, making them
inefficient for large datasets. However, bubble sort can perform better in the best-case scenario (O(n))
when the array is already sorted.
Swaps and Comparisons: Bubble sort typically requires more swaps than selection sort, which can lead
to a longer execution time, particularly in scenarios where the array is nearly sorted. Selection sort
minimizes the number of swaps, making it more efficient in terms of swap operations.
Stability: Bubble sort is a stable sorting algorithm, preserving the relative order of equal elements, while
selection sort is not stable, which can affect the order of equal elements during sorting.
Simplicity: Both algorithms are straightforward to implement and understand, which makes them useful
for educational purposes. However, they are generally not recommended for practical applications due
to their inefficiency.
Use Cases: Neither algorithm is suitable for large datasets or performance-critical applications. For such
cases, more efficient algorithms like quicksort, mergesort, or heapsort are preferred.
In summary, while both bubble sort and selection sort serve as introductory examples of sorting
algorithms, their practical utility is limited. Selection sort is generally more efficient than bubble sort in
terms of swap operations, but both are outperformed by more advanced sorting algorithms in real-world
applications.

66
7. Examine the advantages of encapsulation and information hiding
when using an ADT.
7.1 What is Encapsulation?
7.1.1 Definition

Figure 61: Encapsulation

Encapsulation is a concept used in object-oriented programming to bundle data and methods into easy-
to-use units. To better understand encapsulation, view it as a medicine capsule that can’t viewed from
the outside. Similarly, in the realm of programming, encapsulation involves bundling data variables and
the methods that manipulate the data into a single private unit, like a capsule. It conceals the inner
workings and exposes only what is necessary. (Staff, Nov 30, 2023)

7.1.2 Why encapsulation is important

Encapsulation is important because it provides a powerful way to store, hide, and manipulate data while
giving you increased control over it. Encapsulation can used when dealing with secure data or methods
because it can restrict which functions or users have access to certain information.

Encapsulation is a key concept in object-oriented programming (OOP), where everything revolves around
objects. In OOP programming, a class is a blueprint for creating objects. It defines the properties and
behaviors that objects of a certain class can have. Classes specify what data an object can have
(attributes) and what it can do (methods). A class bundles its attributes and methods through
encapsulation, protecting the data.

67
Encapsulation is also used to protect information from being modified or having new errors introduced.
When you store and lock the information in a bundle, it is much more difficult for users to accidentally
modify the information. You achieve this by making the data private, meaning you can only access and
modify it through methods within the same class. This principle ensures data integrity and reduces the
risk of accidental data corruption. (Staff, Nov 30, 2023)

7.1.3 Benefits of encapsulation

Encapsulation provides several benefits, such as:

• Enhancing security: Hiding the internal state of objects prevents unauthorized access and
manipulation

• Easy adaptation: Encapsulation makes it easier for designers to make changes to the code
without risking compatibility. This facilitates successful code evolution over time.

• Easier maintenance: You can develop, test, and debug encapsulated objects independently.
Encapsulation can be especially useful in maintaining large data sets.

How do you implement encapsulation?

To implement encapsulation, you can use tools known as access modifiers: public, private, and
protected. These determine who can access the data and methods in a class. “Public” means they're
accessible everywhere, “private” restricts access within the class, and “protected” allows access within
the same class and its subclasses. You should carefully choose your access levels, which control how
people and algorithms access or use data and methods. (Staff, Nov 30, 2023)

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7.2 The advantages of encapsulation and information hiding when using an
ADT.
7.2.1 The advantages of encapsulation when using an ADT.
1. Data Protection

Advantage: Encapsulation protects the internal state of an object from direct external access, preventing
unintended modifications.

Example: Consider a BankAccount ADT

Figure 62: Consider a BankAccount ADT

Here, balance is encapsulated, ensuring it can only be modified through the deposit and withdraw
methods.

2. Modularity

Advantage: Encapsulation promotes modular design, allowing different components of a system to be

developed and maintained independently.

Example: In a software application, a Queue ADT can be encapsulated separately

69
 Figure 63: a Queue ADT can be encapsulated separately

This modular approach allows you to change the underlying implementation (e.g., using an array instead
of a linked list) without affecting other parts of the application that rely on the Queue interface.

3. Ease of Maintenance

Advantage: Changes to the internal implementation can be made without affecting external code that
uses the ADT.

Example: If you need to optimize the Stack ADT:

Figure 64: If you need to optimize the Stack ADT

If you later decide to implement it using a linked list for better performance, you can do so without
altering the interface or the code that uses it.

70
4. Controlled Access

Advantage: Encapsulation allows for controlled access to the data, enabling validation and logging.

Example: In a Student ADT

Figure 65: In a Student ADT

The setAge method includes validation logic, ensuring that age cannot be set to an invalid value.

5. Improved Code Reusability

Advantage: Encapsulated ADTs can be reused across different parts of a program or in different projects.

Example: A Date ADT can be reused in various applications:

71
 Figure 66: A Date ADT can be reused in various applications

This Date class can be used in numerous applications that require date management, enhancing
reusability.

7.2.2 The advantages of hide information when using an ADT.

1. Reduction of Complexity:

Information hiding simplifies the interface of an ADT by exposing only the necessary details to the user.
This reduces cognitive load, allowing developers to focus on high-level functionality rather than
implementation specifics.

2. Increased Flexibility:

By hiding implementation details, developers can change the internal workings of the ADT without
affecting the external code that relies on it. This flexibility allows for easier updates and optimizations.

3. Enhanced Security:

Hiding sensitive data and implementation details protects the system from unauthorized access or
manipulation. This is particularly important in scenarios where data integrity and confidentiality are
critical.

4. Encouragement of Abstraction:

Information hiding promotes the use of abstraction, enabling developers to think in terms of what an
ADT does instead of how it does it. This leads to better-designed systems that encapsulate behavior
effectively.

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5. Simplified Testing and Debugging:

With implementation details hidden, testing can focus on the public interface. This allows for easier
identification of issues and more effective debugging, as the internal state does not need to be exposed.

6. Improved Code Maintenance:

Changes to an ADT's implementation can be made without impacting external code, making
maintenance easier. This separation of concerns helps in managing large codebases and reduces the risk
of introducing bugs.

7. Support for Encapsulation:

Information hiding complements encapsulation by ensuring that only the relevant parts of an ADT are
visible. This reinforces the integrity of the ADT and its intended use.

8. Facilitates Collaboration:

In team environments, information hiding allows different developers or teams to work on different
parts of a system without needing full access to each other’s code. This improves collaboration and
reduces dependencies.

7.2.3. Conclusion
Encapsulation and information hiding are foundational principles in the design and implementation of
Abstract Data Types (ADTs) that provide significant advantages in software development.

Robustness and Integrity: Both concepts contribute to the robustness of software systems by protecting
internal states and ensuring that data is accessed and modified only through well-defined interfaces. This
reduces the risk of errors and unintended side effects.

Modularity and Maintainability: Encapsulation promotes modularity, allowing different components of

a system to be developed, tested, and maintained independently. Information hiding further supports
this by simplifying interfaces and reducing dependencies between components, making systems easier
to manage.

Flexibility and Adaptability: The ability to change the internal implementation of an ADT without
affecting external code enhances flexibility. This adaptability is crucial for evolving requirements and
optimizations, allowing developers to refine and improve systems over time.

Security and Abstraction: Hiding sensitive data and implementation details enhances security, while
encouraging abstraction allows developers to focus on what an ADT does rather than how it operates.
This leads to cleaner, more understandable code.

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Improved Collaboration: In team environments, both encapsulation and information hiding facilitate
collaboration by allowing developers to work on different aspects of a system without needing to
understand each other's internal implementations fully.

In summary, encapsulation and information hiding collectively enhance the design, implementation, and
maintenance of software systems. By promoting data protection, modularity, flexibility, and security,
these principles contribute to the creation of high-quality, robust, and maintainable software, ultimately
leading to more successful and scalable applications.

8. Analyse the operation, using illustrations, of two network

shortest path algorithms, providing an example of each
8.1 Introducing the concept of network shortest path algorithms
8.1.1 Dijkstra's Algorithm
Dijkstra's Algorithm is a Graph algorithm that finds the shortest path from a source vertex to all other
vertices in the Graph (single source shortest path). It is a type of Greedy Algorithm that only works on
Weighted Graphs having positive weights. The time complexity of Dijkstra's Algorithm is O(V2) with the
help of the adjacency matrix representation of the graph. This time complexity can be reduced to O((V +
E) log V) with the help of an adjacency list representation of the graph, where V is the number of vertices
and E is the number of edges in the graph. (javatpoint, n.d.)

Example: How to find Shortest Paths from Source to all Vertices using Dijkstra’s
Algorithm
Given a weighted graph and a source vertex in the graph, find the shortest paths from the source to all
the other vertices in the given graph.

Note: The given graph does not contain any negative edge.

Input: src = 0, the graph is shown below:

Figure 67: the graph

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Algorithm:

Create a set sptSet (shortest path tree set) that keeps track of vertices included in the shortest path tree,
i.e., whose minimum distance from the source is calculated and finalized. Initially, this set is empty.

Assign a distance value to all vertices in the input graph. Initialize all distance values as INFINITE . Assign
the distance value as 0 for the source vertex so that it is picked first. (geeksforgeeks, 06 Aug, 2024)

While sptSet doesn’t include all vertices

• Pick a vertex u that is not there in sptSet and has a minimum distance value.
• Include u to sptSet .
• Then update the distance value of all adjacent vertices of u .
o To update the distance values, iterate through all adjacent vertices.
o For every adjacent vertex v, if the sum of the distance value of u (from source) and weight
of edge u-v , is less than the distance value of v , then update the distance value of v .

* Illustration of Dijkstra Algorithm with graph:

To understand the Dijkstra’s Algorithm lets take a graph and find the shortest path from source to all
nodes.

Consider below graph and src = 0

Figure 68: Graph

Step 1:

75
 • The set sptSet is initially empty and distances assigned to vertices are {0, INF, INF, INF, INF, INF,
INF, INF} where INF indicates infinite.

• Now pick the vertex with a minimum distance value. The vertex 0 is picked, include it in sptSet .
So sptSet becomes {0}. After including 0 to sptSet , update distance values of its adjacent
vertices.

• Adjacent vertices of 0 are 1 and 7. The distance values of 1 and 7 are updated as 4 and 8.

The following subgraph shows vertices and their distance values, only the vertices with finite distance
values are shown. The vertices included in SPT are shown in green colour.

Figure 69: Step 1

Step 2:

• Pick the vertex with minimum distance value and not already included in SPT (not in sptSET ). The
vertex 1 is picked and added to sptSet .

• So sptSet now becomes {0, 1}. Update the distance values of adjacent vertices of 1.

• The distance value of vertex 2 becomes 12.

Figure 70: Step 2

Step 3:

76
 • Pick the vertex with minimum distance value and not already included in SPT (not in sptSET ).
Vertex 7 is picked. So sptSet now becomes {0, 1, 7}.

• Update the distance values of adjacent vertices of 7. The distance value of vertex 6 and 8
becomes finite ( 15 and 9 respectively).

Figure 71: Step 3

Step 4:

• Pick the vertex with minimum distance value and not already included in SPT (not in sptSET ).
Vertex 6 is picked. So sptSet now becomes {0, 1, 7, 6} .

• Update the distance values of adjacent vertices of 6. The distance value of vertex 5 and 8 are
updated

Figure 72: Step 4

We repeat the above steps until sptSet includes all vertices of the given graph. Finally, we get the
following Shortest Path Tree (SPT). (geeksforgeeks, 06 Aug, 2024)
77
 Figure 73: final graph

* Illustration of Dijkstra Algorithm with Code:

Figure 74: Illustration of Dijkstra Algorithm with Code

Output:

78
 Figure 75: Output of Dijkstra Algorithm

Code Breakdown:

1. Finding the Minimum Distance Vertex:

Figure 76: Code Breakdown 1

79
This function iterates through all vertices to find the vertex with the minimum distance that hasn't been
processed yet (sptSet[v] == false).

2. Printing the Solution:

Figure 77: Code Breakdown 2

This function prints the distances of all vertices from the source vertex.

3. Dijkstra's Algorithm Implementation:

Figure 78: Code Breakdown 3

Initialization: It initializes the dist array to hold the shortest distances from the source to each vertex and
the sptSet array to track processed vertices.

Main Loop: For each vertex, it finds the closest unvisited vertex (u), marks it as processed, and updates
the distances for its adjacent vertices.

Distance Update: The distance to vertex v is updated only if:

80
 • v is not yet processed.

• There is an edge from u to v (graph[u][v] != 0).

• The newly calculated distance through u is less than the current known distance to v.

8.1.2 Prim-jarnik algorithm

The Prim-Jarnik algorithm, commonly referred to as Prim's algorithm, is a greedy algorithm used to find
the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) of a weighted, undirected graph. A Minimum Spanning Tree is a
subset of the edges that connects all the vertices in the graph without any cycles and with the minimum
possible total edge weight.

Example:
Algorithm:

Create a set mstSet that keeps track of vertices already included in MST.

Assign a key value to all vertices in the input graph. Initialize all key values as INFINITE. Assign the key
value as 0 for the first vertex so that it is picked first.

While mstSet doesn’t include all vertices

• Pick a vertex u that is not there in mstSet and has a minimum key value.
• Include u in the mstSet.
• Update the key value of all adjacent vertices of u. To update the key values, iterate through all
adjacent vertices.
o For every adjacent vertex v, if the weight of edge u-v is less than the previous key value
of v, update the key value as the weight of u-v. (Anon., 14 Jul, 2024)

* Illustration of Prim-jarnik algorithm with graph:

Consider the following graph as an example for which we need to find the Minimum Spanning Tree
(MST):

81
 Figure 79: Graph 2

Step 1: Firstly, we select an arbitrary vertex that acts as the starting vertex of the Minimum Spanning
Tree. Here we have selected vertex 0 as the starting vertex.

Figure 80: selected vertex 0 as the starting vertex

82
Step 2: All the edges connecting the incomplete MST and other vertices are the edges {0, 1} and {0, 7}.
Between these two the edge with minimum weight is {0, 1}. So include the edge and vertex 1 in the MST.

Figure 81: these two the edge with minimum weight is {0, 1}

Step 3: The edges connecting the incomplete MST to other vertices are {0, 7}, {1, 7} and {1, 2}. Among
these edges the minimum weight is 8 which is of the edges {0, 7} and {1, 2}. Let us here include the edge
{0, 7} and the vertex 7 in the MST. [We could have also included edge {1, 2} and vertex 2 in the MST].

Figure 82: Among these edges the minimum weight is 8 which is of the edges {0, 7} and {1, 2}

83
Step 4: The edges that connect the incomplete MST with the fringe vertices are {1, 2}, {7, 6} and {7, 8}.
Add the edge {7, 6} and the vertex 6 in the MST as it has the least weight (i.e., 1).

Figure 83: and the vertex 6 in the MST as it has the least weight (i.e., 1)

Step 5: The connecting edges now are {7, 8}, {1, 2}, {6, 8} and {6, 5}. Include edge {6, 5} and vertex 5 in
the MST as the edge has the minimum weight (i.e., 2) among them.

Figure 84: the MST as the edge has the minimum weight (i.e., 2) among them

84
Step 6: Among the current connecting edges, the edge {5, 2} has the minimum weight. So include that
edge and the vertex 2 in the MST.

Figure 85: include that edge and the vertex 2 in the MST

Step 7: The connecting edges between the incomplete MST and the other edges are {2, 8}, {2, 3}, {5, 3}
and {5, 4}. The edge with minimum weight is edge {2, 8} which has weight 2. So include this edge and the
vertex 8 in the MST.

Figure 86: The edge with minimum weight is edge {2, 8} which has weight 2

85
Step 8: See here that the edges {7, 8} and {2, 3} both have same weight which are minimum. But 7 is
already part of MST. So we will consider the edge {2, 3} and include that edge and vertex 3 in the MST.

Figure 87: the edge {2, 3} and include that edge and vertex 3 in the MST

Step 9: Only the vertex 4 remains to be included. The minimum weighted edge from the incomplete MST
to 4 is {3, 4}.

Figure 88: The minimum weighted edge from the incomplete MST to 4 is {3, 4}

86
The final structure of the MST is as follows and the weight of the edges of the MST is (4 + 8 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 2
+ 7 + 9) = 37.

Figure 89: final graph 2

Note: If we had selected the edge {1, 2} in the third step then the MST would look like the following.:
(Anon., 14 Jul, 2024)

Figure 90: If we had selected the edge {1, 2} in the third step then the MST would look like

87
* Illustration of Prim-jarnik algorithm with Code:

Figure 91: Illustration of Prim-jarnik algorithm with Code

Output:

Figure 92: Ouput of Prim-jarnik algorithm

88
Breakdown code:

1. Finding the Minimum Key Vertex:

Figure 93: Breakdown code of prim's algotithm

This function finds the vertex with the minimum key value that hasn't been included in the MST yet. It
iterates through all vertices and returns the index of the vertex with the smallest key

2. Printing the MST:

Figure 94: Breakdown code of prim's algotithm 2

This function prints the edges of the MST along with their weights. The parent array helps to determine
which vertex is connected to which.

3. Prim's Algorithm Implementation:

89
 Figure 95: Breakdown code of prim's algotithm 3

Nitialization:

• The parent array holds the MST structure, key holds the minimum edge weight for each vertex,
and mstSet keeps track of included vertices.

• Initially, all keys are set to infinity (Integer.MAX_VALUE), and mstSet is set to false.

Start Vertex: The key for the first vertex is set to 0, ensuring it is picked first.

Main Loop: For each vertex, the algorithm finds the vertex u with the smallest key that hasn’t been
included in the MST.

• It marks this vertex as included and updates the keys of its adjacent vertices.

• If the edge from u to an adjacent vertex v is smaller than the current key of v, it updates the
parent of v and its key.

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8.2 Perfomance analysis
8.2.1 Dijkstra's Algorithm
Theoretical Foundations:

• Greedy Approach: Dijkstra’s algorithm employs a greedy strategy, repeatedly selecting the vertex
with the minimum distance from the source that has not yet been processed. This ensures that
once a vertex's shortest distance is determined, it does not change.

• Graph Representation: The choice of graph representation (adjacency list vs. adjacency matrix)
significantly impacts the algorithm's efficiency.

Time Complexity Breakdown:

• Adjacency Matrix: In an adjacency matrix, checking the neighbors of a vertex takes O(V). Thus,
for V vertices, the overall complexity is O(V²).

• Using a Priority Queue: When implemented with a priority queue (using a binary heap), the
complexity can be improved to O(E + V log V). The reason is that each edge is processed once,
and inserting/extracting from the priority queue takes logarithmic time.

Space Complexity:

• Storage Requirements: The algorithm requires space for:

o The distance array (O(V)).

o A priority queue (up to O(V) in the worst case).

o A predecessor array to reconstruct paths (O(V)).

Overall space complexity remains O(V).

Practical Considerations:

• Negative Weights: Dijkstra's algorithm fails with negative edge weights, which can lead to
incorrect results. In such cases, algorithms like Bellman-Ford are preferred.

• Graph Density: Dijkstra's performance is optimal in dense graphs when using priority queues, as
the number of edges E can approach V².

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8.2.2 Prim-jarnik Algorithm
Theoretical Foundations:

• MST Construction: Prim's algorithm incrementally builds the MST by adding the cheapest edge
connecting a vertex in the MST to a vertex outside of it. This is also a greedy algorithm but
focuses on minimizing the total edge weight rather than distances.

• Graph Representation: Similar to Dijkstra's, the choice of representation affects performance.

Time Complexity Breakdown:

• Adjacency Matrix: Like Dijkstra's, using an adjacency matrix leads to O(V²) due to the need to
check all vertices for the minimum edge.

• Using a Priority Queue: When using a priority queue, the complexity becomes O(E log V). The
algorithm processes each edge to check and update keys, leading to a more efficient solution in
sparse graphs.

Space Complexity:

• Storage Requirements: Prim's algorithm requires:

o A key array to track minimum edge weights (O(V)).

o A parent array to reconstruct the MST (O(V)).

o A boolean array to track included vertices (O(V)).

Therefore, the overall space complexity is O(V).

Practical Considerations:

• Handling Negative Weights: Prim's can handle negative weights as long as they do not create
cycles, making it versatile for certain applications.

• Graph Types: Prim's is specifically designed for undirected graphs. It is less suited for directed
graphs unless transformed appropriately.

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8.2.3 Comparative Analysis between two Algorithms
Aspect Dijkstra's Algorithm Prim's Algorithm

Purpose Shortest paths from a source Minimum Spanning Tree

vertex (MST)
Time Complexity O(V²) (matrix); O(E + V log V) O(V²) (matrix); O(E log V)
(heap) (heap)
Space Complexity O(V) O(V)

Graph Type Directed and undirected, no Undirected graphs, can

negative weights handle negative weights
Optimality Optimal for shortest paths Optimal for MST

Implementation Moderate complexity Moderate complexity

Complexity
Use Cases Shortest path routing in Network design, connecting
networks points efficiently

Conclusion

In summary, both Dijkstra's and Prim's algorithms are efficient for their respective purposes but are
optimized for different types of problems. Dijkstra's is the go-to for shortest path calculations in
weighted graphs, while Prim's excels at finding minimum spanning trees in undirected graphs.
Understanding the context and requirements of the specific use case is crucial in selecting the
appropriate algorithm, along with considerations of graph structure, edge weights, and potential
implementation strategies.

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9. Discuss the view that imperative ADTs are a basis for object
orientation offering a justification for the view.
9.1 Some of the benefits and drawbacks of using object-oriented data
structures
Object-oriented data structures are a way of organizing and manipulating data based on the concept of
objects, which are entities that have attributes and behaviors. Object-oriented data structures are widely
used in computer science, especially in programming languages that support object-oriented paradigms,
such as Java, C++, Python, and Ruby (Khalid, n.d.)

9.1.1 Benefits of object-oriented data structures

One of the main benefits of object-oriented data structures is that they allow you to model data in a
natural and intuitive way, by creating objects that represent real-world entities or concepts. For
example, you can create an object for a person, a car, a book, or a bank account, and assign them
properties and methods that define their characteristics and behaviors. This makes your code more
readable, maintainable, and reusable, as you can easily identify and manipulate the objects in your
program. Another benefit of object-oriented data structures is that they support encapsulation,
inheritance, and polymorphism, which are key features of object-oriented programming. Encapsulation
means that you can hide the internal details of an object from the outside world, and only expose the
relevant interface. Inheritance means that you can create subclasses of objects that inherit the attributes
and methods of their parent classes, and add or override them as needed. Polymorphism means that you
can use the same name for different methods that perform different actions depending on the type of
object they are applied to. These features enable you to create flexible and modular code that can
handle complex and dynamic data. (Khalid, n.d.)

9.1.2 Drawbacks of object-oriented data structures

However, object-oriented data structures also have some drawbacks that you should be aware of. One
of the drawbacks is that they can introduce overhead and complexity, as each object has its own
memory allocation, identity, and state. This can affect the performance and efficiency of your program,
especially if you have to create and destroy many objects frequently, or if you have to deal with multiple
inheritance or deep hierarchies. Another drawback of object-oriented data structures is that they can be
difficult to implement correctly and consistently, as you have to follow the principles and conventions of
object-oriented design, such as cohesion, coupling, abstraction, and encapsulation. If you violate these
principles, or if you use object-oriented data structures inappropriately, you can end up with code that is
hard to understand, debug, and modify. (Khalid, n.d.)

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9.1.3 Comparison with other data structures
Object-oriented data structures are not the only way to store and manipulate data in computer science.
There are also other types of data structures, such as arrays, lists, stacks, queues, trees, and graphs, that
have their own advantages and disadvantages. Arrays are the simplest and most basic type of data
structure, which store a fixed number of elements of the same type in a contiguous memory location.
Arrays are fast and easy to access, but they are also rigid and limited in size. Lists are similar to arrays,
but they can store elements of different types and sizes, and they can grow and shrink dynamically. Lists
are more flexible and versatile, but they are also slower and more memory-intensive. Stacks and queues
are linear data structures that store elements in a specific order, based on the principle of last-in first-out
(LIFO) or first-in first-out (FIFO). Stacks and queues are useful for implementing algorithms that involve
recursion, backtracking, or scheduling, but they are also restricted and simple. Trees and graphs are non-
linear data structures that store elements in a hierarchical or networked structure, based on the concept
of nodes and edges. Trees and graphs are powerful and expressive, but they are also complex and
challenging. (Khalid, n.d.)

9.2 Discuss the view that imperative ADTs are a basis for object orientation
9.2.1 Abstraction and Encapsulation
Abstraction:

• Definition: Abstraction involves hiding unnecessary details from the user and exposing only the
essential features of an object. This is crucial for simplifying complex systems.

• Relation to ADTs: In imperative programming, ADTs encapsulate specific data types and their
associated operations. For instance, consider a Stack ADT that abstracts the operations of push,
pop, and peek, allowing users to interact with it without needing to understand its underlying
implementation (e.g., whether it uses an array or a linked list).

Encapsulation:

• Definition: Encapsulation is the bundling of data and methods that operate on that data within a
single unit (the object).

• Relation to ADTs: In an ADT, encapsulation ensures that the internal state is not exposed directly.
Users interact with the ADT through a defined interface, which controls how data is accessed and
modified. This principle directly translates to the design of classes in OOP, where data members
are often private and accessed via public methods.

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Code example:

Figure 96: Abstraction and Encapsulation example

Figure 97: Abstraction and Encapsulation output

- Abstraction: The Stack class provides a simple interface (push, pop, peek, isEmpty, size) to interact with
the stack without revealing the underlying array implementation or how the operations are carried out.

- Encapsulation: The elements array and top index are declared as private, meaning they cannot be
accessed directly from outside the Stack class. Instead, users manipulate the stack through the public
methods, which control how the internal state is changed. This keeps the implementation details hidden
and protects the integrity of the data.

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9.2.2 Inheritance and Polymorphism
Inheritance:

• Definition: Inheritance allows new classes to be created based on existing ones, facilitating code
reuse and establishing a hierarchy.

• Relation to ADTs: In an imperative context, when an ADT is extended or reused, it often serves as
the base type for more specialized data structures. For example, a basic List ADT could serve as
the foundation for more specific types like LinkedList or ArrayList in an OOP context.

Polymorphism:

• Definition: Polymorphism allows objects to be treated as instances of their parent class, enabling
methods to be invoked on different objects of related classes.

• Relation to ADTs: In OOP, polymorphism enables the use of a common interface for different
ADTs. For instance, a function designed to sort a collection might accept any object that
implements a List interface, regardless of whether it's an ArrayList or LinkedList. This flexibility is
rooted in the foundational principles of ADTs.

Code Example:

Figure 98: Inheritance and Polymorphism example 1

97
Figure 99: Inheritance and Polymorphism example 2

Figure 100: Inheritance and Polymorphism output

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- Inheritance: The List class is an abstract base class with common methods (add, get, size). The ArrayList
and LinkedList classes inherit from List, allowing them to share the same interface while providing their
own implementations.

- Polymorphism: In the Main class, both ArrayList and LinkedList instances are treated as List objects.
This allows the same interface to be used regardless of the specific list implementation. For example, we
can call methods like add and get on both types of lists without needing to know their specific
implementations. This flexibility is a key advantage of polymorphism in object-oriented programming.

9.2.3 Composition and Aggregation

Composition:

• Definition: Composition establishes a strong ownership relationship where the composite object
controls the lifecycle of its components.

• Relation to ADTs: In an imperative context, complex data structures can be built using simpler
ADTs. For example, a Graph ADT might be composed of Node and Edge ADTs. In OOP, this
translates to creating classes that contain instances of other classes, promoting code reuse and
modular design.

Aggregation:

• Definition: Aggregation represents a weaker relationship where the component can exist
independently of the composite.

• Relation to ADTs: Just as aggregation allows for shared ownership in data structures, it enables
flexible relationships between objects in OOP. For example, a classroom class may aggregate
Student objects without owning their lifecycle, reflecting a real-world relationship.

Code example:

- Composition:

• The Book class has a strong ownership relationship with the Author class. Each Book instance
contains an Author, and if a book is deleted, its associated author is also no longer relevant in the
context of that book.

• The Library class manages a collection of Book objects, further reinforcing the idea of
composition where Library "owns" the Book instances.

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- Aggregation:

• The LibraryMembers class aggregates Member objects. Each Member can exist independently of
the LibraryMembers.

• For example, members can be created without being part of any library system, and the lifecycle
of Member instances is not tied to the LibraryMembers.

Figure 101: Composition and Aggregation example

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 Figure 102: Composition and Aggregation output

9.2.4 Design Patterns

Definition: Design patterns are established solutions to common problems in software design, providing
a shared vocabulary and best practices for structuring code.

• Relation to ADTs: Many design patterns draw from the principles of ADTs. For instance:

o Factory Pattern: This creational pattern can be used to instantiate ADTs without exposing
the instantiation logic to the client. It abstracts the creation process, similar to how an
ADT abstracts its internal implementation.

o Decorator Pattern: This structural pattern allows behavior to be added to individual

objects, enhancing their functionality dynamically. It relies on the encapsulation of ADTs,
allowing layers of behavior to be added while preserving the original object's interface.

* Conclusion:
The view that imperative ADTs are a basis for object-oriented programming is well-supported by the
principles of abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, composition, aggregation, and
design patterns. Here’s a summary of how these concepts interconnect:

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 • ADTs provide a structured way to encapsulate data and behavior, forming the foundation for
classes in OOP.

• Inheritance and polymorphism allow for the extension and reuse of ADTs, enabling the creation
of complex hierarchies while maintaining a cohesive interface.

• Composition and aggregation facilitate the building of complex data structures, promoting
modularity and maintainability.

• Design patterns leverage the principles established by ADTs, offering proven solutions to
common design challenges and enhancing code quality.

By understanding these relationships, it becomes clear how imperative ADTs have significantly
influenced the development of object-oriented programming, providing the tools necessary for creating
flexible, maintainable, and reusable software architectures. This foundational role continues to be
relevant in modern programming practices, demonstrating the lasting impact of ADTs on the evolution of
software design.

9.3 Justification for the View that Imperative ADTs are a Basis for Object
Orientation
9.3.1 Historical Development of Programming Languages
• Evidence: Early programming languages like C utilized imperative ADTs, where data types such as
arrays, structs, and unions were defined, encapsulating both data and operations. For example, a
stack could be implemented using a struct, with associated operations defined as separate
functions. This laid the groundwork for later languages that incorporated OOP principles.

• Example: The introduction of C++ as an extension of C illustrated a direct evolution from

imperative programming to OOP. C++ incorporated classes that encapsulated data and behavior,
directly building upon the concepts established by ADTs.

9.3.2 Abstraction and Encapsulation

• Evidence: ADTs inherently support abstraction by exposing only necessary operations and hiding
implementation details. In OOP, classes serve the same purpose. For instance, a Stack ADT can
abstract the push and pop operations, while a corresponding Stack class in OOP encapsulates
these operations along with its underlying data structure.

• Example: In Java, the java.util.Stack class encapsulates the stack's internal array and provides
methods like push, pop, and peek, demonstrating the direct application of ADT principles in an
object-oriented context.

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9.3.3 Inheritance and Polymorphism
• Evidence: Inheritance allows new classes to extend existing ADTs, promoting code reuse. For
example, an ADT for a Shape can be extended into specific shapes like Circle and Rectangle. This
mirrors the OOP principle of subclassing.

• Example: In Python, you can define a base class Shape and then create subclasses Circle and
Rectangle, leveraging inheritance to share common functionality while allowing specific
behaviors for each shape.

9.3.4 Composition and Aggregation

• Evidence: Both composition and aggregation allow for complex structures to be built from
simpler ADTs. This approach is foundational in OOP for creating complex objects.

• Example: A Graph ADT might be composed of Node and Edge ADTs. In OOP, you can create a
Graph class that contains lists of Node and Edge objects, showcasing how ADTs inform the design
of complex data structures in a modular way.

9.3.5 Design Patterns

• Evidence: Many design patterns in OOP are directly influenced by the principles of ADTs. For
instance, the Factory Pattern abstracts object creation, similar to how an ADT abstracts data
manipulation.

• Example: The Strategy Pattern allows different algorithms to be defined and used
interchangeably, akin to how different implementations of the same ADT can be swapped
without changing the interface. This flexibility mirrors the behavior of imperative ADTs, where
the underlying implementation can vary while the interface remains consistent.

9.3.6 Educational and Practical Evidence

• Evidence: Many computer science curricula teach the principles of data abstraction and
encapsulation through the study of imperative ADTs before introducing OOP concepts. This
pedagogical approach highlights the foundational nature of ADTs in understanding advanced
programming paradigms.

• Example: Courses on data structures often focus on implementing stacks, queues, and linked lists
as ADTs. Once students grasp these concepts, they transition to OOP, where these structures are
encapsulated in classes.

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Conclusion:
The evidence clearly supports the view that imperative ADTs are a basis for object-oriented
programming. The historical development of languages, the principles of abstraction and encapsulation,
the role of inheritance and polymorphism, the use of composition and aggregation, and the influence of
design patterns all demonstrate how ADTs have shaped the evolution of OOP. This foundational
relationship continues to impact modern programming practices, reinforcing the importance of
understanding ADTs in the context of object-oriented design.

1. Implement a complex ADT and algorithm in an executable

programming language to solve a well-defined problem.
1.1 Problem Identification
The primary problem at Soft Development ABK is the need for an efficient system to manage student
information, including their IDs, names, and marks. The existing processes may be manual, leading to
inefficiencies in tracking student performance, generating rankings, and performing common operations
like adding or editing records. This can result in:

• Data Management Challenges: Difficulty in maintaining accurate records.

• Inefficient Retrieval: Slow processes for searching, sorting, and updating student data.

• Lack of Insights: Limited ability to analyze student performance effectively.

Features of the Proposed System

The proposed student management application will include several key features:

1. User Input for Student Records

• Ability to enter student ID, name, and marks.

• Functionality to specify the number of students to manage.

2. Student Ranking System

• Automatic calculation of student rankings based on defined criteria:

o Fail

o Medium

o Good
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 o Very Good

o Excellent

3. Data Management Operations

• Add Student: Functionality to add new student records.

• Edit Student: Ability to update existing records based on student ID.

• Delete Student: Option to remove student records from the system.

• Sort Students: Sorting functionality based on marks or names for better organization.

• Search for Students: Efficient searching by student ID or name.

4. User-Friendly Interface

• A simple and intuitive interface for users to interact with the system.

• Clear prompts and messages for successful operations and errors.

5. Data Persistence

• Storage of student records in a file or database for long-term management.

• Ability to load and display existing records upon starting the application.

6. Performance Optimization

• Implementation of efficient algorithms for sorting and searching to enhance speed and
responsiveness.

• Consideration of alternative algorithms to optimize performance further.

7. Reporting Capabilities

• Generation of reports summarizing student performance statistics.

• Visualization of rankings and performance distribution.

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1.2 Choose the implementation language (java), state the advantages of java
for ABK's project
Language: Java

- Advantages of Using Java:

Platform Independence

Java is a "write once, run anywhere" language. The compiled Java bytecode can run on any device that
has a Java Virtual Machine (JVM), making it highly portable across different operating systems.

Object-Oriented Programming

Java's support for object-oriented programming (OOP) allows for the creation of modular and reusable
code. This is ideal for building complex systems like the student management application, enabling
better organization and maintainability.

Robust Standard Library

Java offers a rich set of libraries and frameworks that can accelerate development. Libraries for data
structures, algorithms, networking, and GUI development can streamline the implementation of the
application.

Strong Typing

Java's strong typing system helps catch errors during compile time, reducing runtime errors. This
enhances the reliability of the student management application.

Garbage Collection

Java handles memory management automatically through garbage collection. This minimizes memory
leaks and helps in maintaining optimal application performance.

Multithreading Support

Java provides built-in support for multithreading, allowing the application to handle multiple tasks
simultaneously. This can be useful for operations like data processing and user interactions without
freezing the interface.

Large Community and Support

Java has a vast community of developers and extensive documentation. This means that finding
solutions to problems, accessing libraries, and receiving community support is easier.

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Security Features

Java offers several security features, such as bytecode verification and a robust security manager. This is
crucial for applications that handle sensitive student data.

Integration Capabilities

Java can easily integrate with various databases, allowing for efficient data persistence and
management. This is essential for the student management application, which requires storing student
records.

Development Tools

A wide range of Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) like IntelliJ IDEA, Eclipse, and NetBeans
provide powerful tools for Java development, enhancing productivity with features like debugging, code
completion, and version control.

1.3. Design the ADT

1.3.1 Student Class
Attributes:

• id: String representing the student ID.

• fullName: String representing the student's full name.
• mark: Double representing the student's score.
• rank: String representing the student's rank based on the score.

Methods:

• Constructor:

public Student(String id, String fullName, double mark): Initializes a Student object with id, full name, and
score. Automatically determines the rank based on the score.

• Getters and Setters:

getFullName(), setFullName(String fullName): Accesses and updates the full name.

getId(), setId(String id): Accesses and updates the student ID.

getMark(), setMark(double mark): Accesses and updates the score.

• Comparators:

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Methods to compare students based on id, full name, and score. For example:

IdStudentComparator: Compares students by ID.

FullNameStduComparator: Compare students by name.

MarkStduComparator: Compare students by score.

• toString():

This method returns a string representing student information.

1.3.2 Using ArrayList in other classes

Classes using ArrayList:

1. ArrayListAddStudent:

Method:

• addStudent(ArrayList<Student> students, Student objectData): Add a Student object to the

student list.

2. ArrayListEditStudent:

Method:

• editStudent(ArrayList<Student> students, int position, Student object): Edit student information

at the specified position in the list.
• editStudentById(ArrayList<Student> students, String id, Student data): Search for students by
code and update information.

3. ArrayListRemoveStudent:

Method:

• removeStudentById(ArrayList<Student> students, String id): Removes a student from the list

based on their ID number.

4. ArrayListSearchStudent:

Method:

• binarySearch(ArrayList<Student> students, String id): Searches for a student in the list based on
their ID number using binary search algorithm.

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1.4 Implement the ADT
1.4.1 Student Class
The Student class is designed to encapsulate the properties and behaviors of a student, which is a core
idea of ADTs. Here’s how the ADT is used within this class:

a. Attributes

Figure 103: Attributes

Explanation:

• Encapsulation: These attributes represent the internal state of the Student object. They are
private or protected in good design practice, preventing external access and manipulation. This
encapsulation is a key principle of ADTs, as it hides implementation details.

b. Constructor

Figure 104: Constructor

Explanation:

• Initialization: The constructor initializes the student’s properties when a new object is created. It
also sets the rank based on the provided mark, demonstrating how the ADT manages its internal
state through specific methods.

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c. Rank Method

Figure 105: Rank Method

Explanation:

• Behavior: This method encapsulates the logic for determining a student's rank based on their
marks, which is part of the ADT’s responsibility to manage its own behavior. It ensures that the
rank is always consistent with the mark.

d. Getters and Setters

Figure 106: Getters and Setters

Explanation:

• Controlled Access: Getters and setters allow controlled access to the attributes of the class. This
is another aspect of encapsulation in ADTs, ensuring that attributes can only be modified in well-
defined ways.

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e. toString Method

Figure 107: toString Method

Explanation:

• String Representation: This method provides a string representation of the Student object,
making it easier to display and debug. It encapsulates how the student’s information is
presented.

f. Comparators

Figure 108: Comparators

Explanation:

• Custom Comparison Logic: This comparator allows for sorting of Student objects based on their
IDs, fullname, Mark. It encapsulates the comparison logic, which is part of the behavior
associated with the Student ADT.

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1.4.2. Managing Students with ArrayList
Next, we look at how the ArrayList is utilized to manage collections of Student objects, further
demonstrating the ADT concept.

a. Adding Students

Figure 109: Adding Students

Explanation:

• Collection Management: This method encapsulates the logic for adding a new student to the
ArrayList. The ArrayList serves as a dynamic collection that holds instances of the Student ADT,
allowing for flexible management of student data.

b. Editing Students

Figure 110: Editing Students 1

Explanation:

• Modification: This method allows modification of an existing student's data at a specified index.
It demonstrates how the managing class interacts with the ArrayList to update ADT instances.

Figure 111: Editing Students 2

Explanation:

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 • Search and Update: This method searches for a student by ID and updates their information. This
showcases the ability to operate on the ArrayList while still maintaining the integrity of the
Student ADT.

c. Removing Students

Figure 112: Removing Students

Explanation:

• Deletion: This method demonstrates the ability to remove a Student instance from the ArrayList,
further illustrating how the ADT is manipulated through the collection.

d. Searching for Students

Figure 113: Searching for Students

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Explanation:

• Efficient Searching: This method implements a binary search algorithm to efficiently find a
Student in the ArrayList by ID. It shows how to leverage the properties of the ArrayList while
interacting with the Student ADT.

1.5 Design the Algorithm

1.5.1 Adding Students
Steps:

1. Receive Parameters: The method accepts an ArrayList<Student> called students and a Student
object called objectData to be added.

2. Add Student: The method calls students.add(objectData).

o This appends the objectData to the end of the ArrayList.

o The ArrayList dynamically resizes to accommodate the new element.

3. Completion: The method completes its execution without returning a value.

Example:

• If students contains [Student1, Student2] and objectData is Student3, after calling addStudent,
students becomes [Student1, Student2, Student3].

1.5.2 Editing Students

Steps:

1. Receive Parameters: The method accepts an ArrayList<Student>, an integer position, and a

Student object object to replace the existing student.

2. Update Student: The method calls students.set(position, object).

o This replaces the student at the specified position with object.

o The ArrayList updates the reference at that index.

3. Completion: The method completes its execution without returning a value.

4. Receive Parameters: The method accepts an ArrayList<Student>, a String id, and a Student object
data.

5. Search for Student:

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 o Iterate through the students list using a for loop.

o For each student, check if their id matches the provided id.

6. Update Student:

o If a match is found, call students.set(i, data) to update the student at index i with data.

o Exit the loop after updating.

7. Completion: The method completes its execution without returning a value.

Example:

• If students contains [Student1, Student2, Student3] and you want to update Student2 with
Student4 using id, after calling, students becomes [Student1, Student4, Student3].

• If students contains [Student1, Student2, Student3] and position is 1 with object being Student4,
after calling editStudent, students becomes [Student1, Student4, Student3].

1.5.3 Removing Students

Steps:

1. Receive Parameters: The method accepts an ArrayList<Student> and a String id to identify which
student to remove.

2. Search for Student:

o Iterate through the students list using a for loop.

o For each student, check if their id matches the provided id.

3. Remove Student:

o If a match is found, call students.remove(i) to remove the student at index i.

o Exit the loop after removing.

4. Completion: The method completes its execution without returning a value.

Example:

• If students contains [Student1, Student2, Student3] and you want to remove Student2 with id,
after calling, students becomes [Student1, Student3].

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1.5.4 Searching for Students
Steps:

1. Receive Parameters: The method accepts an ArrayList<Student> and a String id to search for.

2. Initialize Pointers:

o Set left to 0 and right to students.size() - 1.

3. Binary Search Loop:

o While left is less than or equal to right:

1. Calculate mid as left + (right - left) / 2.

2. Check if the id of the student at index mid matches the provided id:

▪ If it matches, return mid (index found).

3. If the id at mid is less than the provided id, move the left pointer to mid + 1.

4. If the id at mid is greater than the provided id, move the right pointer to mid - 1.

4. Not Found: If the loop exits without finding the id, return -1 to indicate it was not found.

5. Completion: The method returns the index of the found student or -1.

Example:

• If students is sorted as [Student1, Student2, Student3] (with corresponding IDs), and you search
for Student2's ID, the method will return the index of Student2.

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1.5.5 Flowchart Diagram
- Flowchart Student Management System:

Figure 114: Flowchart Student Management System

Flowchart Breakdown:

1. Start

o This is the entry point of the system. The process begins here.

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 2. Display Menu

o The system presents a menu to the user with the following options:

• Add Student

• Edit Student

• Remove Student

• Search Student

• Exit

o The user can choose one of these options to proceed.

3. Get User Input

o The system waits for the user to select an option from the menu.

4. Select Option

o This decision point checks which option the user selected.

Decision Branches

• Option 1 (Add Student):

o If the user selects "Add Student," the flow goes to the "Add Student" block.

o Here, the system collects the necessary information to add a new student to the list.

o After adding the student, it displays a success message confirming that the student was
added.

• Option 2 (Edit Student):

o If the user selects "Edit Student," the flow proceeds to the "Edit Student" block.

o The system will prompt for the student ID and new data to update the student.

o After updating the student information, it confirms the update was successful.

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• Option 3 (Remove Student):

o If the user selects "Remove Student," the flow moves to the "Remove Student" block.

o The system will ask for the student ID to remove the corresponding student from the list.

o After removal, it confirms that the delete operation was successful.

• Option 4 (Search Student):

o If the user selects "Search Student," the flow directs to the "Search Student" block.

o The system prompts for the student ID to search for the corresponding student.

o After searching, it displays the result (found or not found).

5. Exit

o If the user chooses to exit at any point, the system will terminate the process.

o This is represented by the "Exit" decision, leading directly to the end of the program.

6. Display Success

o After any operation (Add, Edit, Remove, or Search), the system displays a success message
to inform the user that the action was completed successfully.

7. End

o This is the termination point of the flowchart. The process ends here after the user
decides to exit.

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- Flowchart Add Student:

Figure 115: Flowchart Add Student

Detailed Steps in the Flowchart:

1. Start: The process begins.

2. Receive Parameters:

o Accepts two inputs:

▪ students: an ArrayList<Student> where the new student will be added.

▪ objectData: a Student object containing the details of the student to be added.

3. Validate objectData:

o Check if objectData is not null and contains valid data (e.g., non-empty ID, valid name,
marks within allowed range).

4. Is objectData valid?:

o Yes: Proceed to add the student.

o No: Print an error message indicating the issue with the input.

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 5. Add Student to students:

o If the input is valid, the method calls students.add(objectData) to append the objectData
to the ArrayList.

6. Print Confirmation Message:

o After successfully adding the student, print a confirmation message to inform the user.

7. End: The process concludes.

- Flowchart Delete Student:

Figure 116: Flowchart Delete Student

Flowchart Breakdown

1. Start:
o The process begins here.

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2. Receive Parameters:

o This step indicates that the function accepts two parameters:

▪ students: an ArrayList<Student> that holds the list of students.

▪ id: a String representing the ID of the student to be removed.

3. Loop through Students:

o This step initiates a loop that goes through each student in the students list.

4. Check if student.id matches the provided id?:

o This is a decision point where the flow checks if the current student's ID matches the
provided ID.

o If it matches, the flow proceeds to the next step. If not, it would typically continue to the
next student.

5. Valid ID?:

o This decision point ensures that the provided ID is valid and checks whether a student
with that ID exists in the list.

o Yes: If the ID is valid (i.e., a student with that ID was found), the flow continues to remove
the student.

o No: If the ID is not valid (i.e., no student was found with that ID), the flow leads to a
message stating "ID's not exist."

6. Remove student from students list:

o If the ID is valid and matches a student's ID, the function calls students.remove(i) to
remove that student from the list.

7. Print Confirmation Message:

o After successfully removing the student, a confirmation message is printed to inform the
user that the student has been removed successfully.

8. End:

o This indicates the termination of the process.

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- Flowchart Edit Student:

Figure 117: Flowchart Edit Student

Detailed Steps for Editing by Position Flowchart

1. Start: The process begins.

2. Receive Parameters:

o Accepts three inputs:

▪ students: an ArrayList<Student>.

▪ position: an integer indicating the index of the student to edit.

▪ object: a Student object with updated information.

3. Is position valid?:

o Check if position is within the bounds of the students list (i.e., 0 <= position <
students.size()).

o Yes: Proceed to update the student.

o No: Print an error message indicating the invalid position.

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 4. Update Student at position:

o If the position is valid, the method calls students.set(position, object) to replace the
existing student with the new object.

5. Print Confirmation Message:

o After successfully updating the student, print a confirmation message to inform the user.

6. End: The process concludes.

1.6 Implement the Algorithm

1.6.1 Create Classes
Overview of Class Responsibilities:

1. Student Class: Represents individual student entities.

2. ArrayListAddStudent Class: Handles the addition of students to a collection.

3. ArrayListEditStudent Class: Manages editing operations for existing students.

4. ArrayListRemoveStudent Class: Responsible for removing students from the collection.

5. ArrayListSearchStudent Class: Implements searching functionality to find students in the

collection.

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Student Class:

Figure 118: Student Class

125
Attributes: This class has four attributes: id, fullName, mark, and rank. These encapsulate the properties
of a student.

Constructor: The constructor initializes a student with their ID, name, and mark, while also determining
their rank.

Rank Determination: The determineRank method encapsulates the logic for determining a student's
rank based on their marks.

Getters and Setters: These methods provide controlled access to the attributes, maintaining
encapsulation.

String Representation: The toString method allows for easy printing of student information.

Comparators: These static comparators allow sorting of Student objects by ID, name, or marks.

1.6.2 Write Methods

1. Adding Students

Figure 119: Adding Students

• Objective: To add a new student to the collection.

• Process:

o The ArrayListAddStudent class contains a method that accepts an ArrayList<Student> (the

collection of students) and a Student object representing the new student.

o The method appends the new student to the end of the ArrayList, leveraging the dynamic
resizing capability of the ArrayList.

• Outcome: A new student is successfully added to the collection, and the system can manage
more student data.

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2. Editing Students

Figure 120: Editing Students

• Objective: To modify the details of an existing student.

• Process:

o The ArrayListEditStudent class has two methods for editing:

▪ By Position: This method accepts the index of the student to be edited and a new
Student object. It directly replaces the student at the specified index in the
ArrayList.

▪ By ID: This method searches for a student using their unique ID. It iterates through
the ArrayList, checking each student’s ID. Once a match is found, it replaces that
student’s data with the new information provided.

• Outcome: The student's information is updated in the collection, ensuring that the most current
data is available for future operations.

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3. Removing Students

Figure 121: Removing Students

• Objective: To delete a student from the collection.

• Process:

o The ArrayListRemoveStudent class includes a method that accepts an ArrayList<Student>

and a student ID.

o The method iterates through the ArrayList, comparing each student’s ID to the provided
ID. If a match is found, the student is removed from the collection.

• Outcome: The specified student is successfully removed from the ArrayList, allowing the system
to maintain an accurate representation of active students.

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4. Searching for Students

Figure 122: Searching for Students

• Objective: To locate a student within the collection.

• Process:

o The ArrayListSearchStudent class contains a method that implements a binary search

algorithm. This method requires the list to be sorted by student ID.

o It initializes two pointers (left and right) to represent the current search boundaries. The
method repeatedly calculates the middle index and compares the student ID at that index
to the target ID.

o Depending on the comparison, it narrows the search range until the student is found or all
possibilities are exhausted.

• Outcome: The search method returns the index of the student if found, or -1 if the student does
not exist in the collection. This provides an efficient way to locate student data.

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Summary of Algorithm Implementation

• Encapsulation: Each class encapsulates specific functionality related to student data

management, ensuring a clear separation of concerns. The Student class focuses on student
attributes and behaviors, while the other classes handle collection operations.

• Modularity: By breaking down the functionality into distinct classes, the system allows for easier
maintenance and potential extension. For instance, if new features are required (like sorting or
filtering students), they can be added without modifying existing code significantly.

• Efficiency: The use of an ArrayList allows for dynamic resizing and efficient access, while the
binary search algorithm optimizes the search process.

1.6.3 User Interface

Figure 123: User Interface 1

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 Figure 124: User Interface 2

Overview of the User Interface Algorithm

The user interface is implemented as a console application that allows users to interact with the Student
Management System through printed output and input operations. The program handles various
functionalities such as adding, editing, removing, searching, and sorting students.

1. Initialization

Figure 125: Initialization

• Purpose: Initializes the data structures necessary for managing student data.

• Implementation: Sets up an ArrayList to hold Student objects and creates an instance of the
ArrayListAddStudent class to facilitate the addition of students.

2. Adding Students

Figure 126: Adding Students

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 • Purpose: Prompts the user to add new students to the list.

• Implementation: Creates multiple Student objects and adds them to the students list using the
addStudent method. This showcases how data entry is managed within the system.

3. Listing Students

Figure 127: Listing Students

• Purpose: Displays the current list of students along with their details.

• Implementation: Iterates through the students list, printing the ID, full name, marks, and rank of
each student. This provides immediate feedback on the state of the data.

4. Editing Students

Figure 128: Editing Students

• Purpose: Allows the user to modify the details of an existing student.

• Implementation: Utilizes the ArrayListEditStudent class to replace an existing student's

information at a specified index with new data, demonstrating how updates are processed within
the student list.

5. Editing by ID

Figure 129: Editing by ID

• Purpose: Provides functionality to edit a student based on their unique ID.

• Implementation: Calls the editStudentById method, which searches for the specified student ID
and updates their information. This flexibility allows for different editing approaches.

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6. Removing Students

Figure 130: Removing Students

• Purpose: Enables the user to delete a student from the list.

• Implementation: Uses the ArrayListRemoveStudent class to remove a student identified by their

ID. This highlights the ability to manage and maintain the integrity of the student list effectively.

7. Searching for Students

Figure 131: Searching for Students

• Purpose: Implements search functionality to find a student by their ID.

• Implementation: Performs a binary search on the students list and displays whether the student
was found. This feature enhances user experience by allowing quick lookups.

8. Sorting Students

Figure 132: Sorting Students

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 • Purpose: Allows the user to sort the student list by various criteria.

• Implementation: Utilizes the Collections.sort method along with comparators defined in the
Student class to sort the list by ID, full name, and marks. This provides organized views of the
student data.

Summary of User Interface Implementation

• Interactive Flow: The main method orchestrates the sequence of operations, guiding users
through adding, editing, removing, and viewing students.

• Clear Output: Each operation is accompanied by print statements that inform the user of the
current action and the state of the student data.

• Modular Design: The interface relies on separate classes for adding, editing, removing, searching,
and sorting, promoting code reusability and maintainabili

1.7 Test and Debug

Here's a comprehensive approach to testing and debugging the ABK project based on the provided code.
This includes test planning, test case design, executing test cases, debugging, verification, and
documentation.

1.7.1 Test Planning

Objectives:

• Validate the functionality of adding, editing, removing, searching, and sorting students.

• Ensure that the system handles edge cases and invalid input gracefully.

Scope:

• Focus on the core functionalities encapsulated in the Main.java, Student class, and the associated
management classes.

Resources:

• Java Runtime Environment for execution.

• A simple console to observe outputs.

• A test plan document for recording results.

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1.7.2 Test Case Design
Test Cases

1. Add Student:

o Test Case ID: TC_Add_01

o Description: Add a valid student.

o Input: Student with ID "BH001", Name "Nguyen Viet Tien", Mark 8.0.

o Expected Output: Student is added successfully, and the list reflects the addition.

2. Edit Student by Index:

o Test Case ID: TC_Edit_01

o Description: Edit an existing student at a valid index.

o Input: Change student at index 1 to ID "BH009", Name "Teo", Mark 4.0.

o Expected Output: The student at index 1 is updated correctly.

3. Edit Student by ID:

o Test Case ID: TC_Edit_02

o Description: Edit a student by their ID.

o Input: Change student with ID "BH009" to ID "BH009", Name "Ty", Mark 9.0.

o Expected Output: The corresponding student is updated correctly.

4. Remove Student:

o Test Case ID: TC_Remove_01

o Description: Remove a student by ID.

o Input: Remove student with ID "BH009".

o Expected Output: Student is removed from the list.

5. Search for Student:

o Test Case ID: TC_Search_01

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 o Description: Search for an existing student by ID.

o Input: Search for student ID "BH001".

o Expected Output: Student is found.

6. Sort Students by ID:

o Test Case ID: TC_Sort_01

o Description: Sort students by ID.

o Input: Current list of students.

o Expected Output: Students are sorted correctly.

7. Handle Invalid Input:

o Test Case ID: TC_Invalid_01

o Description: Attempt to edit a student at an invalid index.

o Input: Edit student at index 10.

o Expected Output: Proper error handling or exception.

1.7.3 Execute Test Cases

• Create a simple Java application or use a testing framework like JUnit to automate the test cases.

• For manual testing, run the Main.java file and observe the outputs against the expected results.

1.7.4 Debugging
• If discrepancies arise during testing, utilize debugging tools or print statements to trace the
execution flow and variable states.

• Common issues to look for:

o IndexOutOfBoundsException when accessing or editing students.

o NullPointerException when attempting to access properties of a non-existent student.

o Incorrect logic in the determineRank method.

1.7.5 Verification
• Verify that the outputs of executed test cases align with expected results.

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 • Check that all functionalities perform as intended, including edge cases (e.g., removing a non-
existent student or sorting an empty list).

1.7.6 Documentation
• Document the test cases, results, and any issues encountered during testing in a test report.
Include:

o Test Case ID

o Description

o Input

o Expected Output

o Actual Output

o Status (Pass/Fail)

o Comments/Observations

• Test Report Entry:

Expected Actual
Test Case ID Description Input Status Comments
Output Output

Student("BH001", Student Student

Add a valid
TC_Add_01 "Nguyen Viet Tien", added added Pass
student
8.0) successfully successfully

Edit an Edit student at index Student at Student at

TC_Edit_01 existing 1 to ("BH009", "Teo", index 1 index 1 Pass
student 4.0) updated updated

Remove a Remove student with Student Student

TC_Remove_01 Pass
student by ID ID "BH009" removed removed

Attempt to Error
Edit student at index Exception Handled
TC_Invalid_01 edit at invalid message or Pass
10 thrown gracefully
index exception

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2. Implement error handling and report test results.
2.1 Definition of Exception and Try-Catch Block
2.1.1 Definition of Try-Catch Block
An exception (or exceptional event) is a problem that arises during the execution of a program. When an
Exception occurs during the execution of program (application), the normal flow of the program is
disrupted, and the program/Application terminates abnormally whereby the whole coding may corrupt
(if there was no backup). Therefore, these exceptions must be handled for a smooth run.

In Java, the catch block is used to handle exceptions that occur in a try block. It provides a mechanism to
gracefully manage errors and prevent program termination. Understanding catch blocks is essential for
robust error handling in Java applications. Enroll in a Java Course to master exception handling and
enhance your programming proficiency. (Simplilearn, Oct 18, 2024)

According to Oracle, there are three categories of exceptions:

1. Checked Exception

The classes which directly inherit Throwable class with the exclusion of Runtime Exception and Error are
known as checked exceptions. IO Exceptions, SQL Exceptions etc. are some of the known examples of
checked exceptions. The Checked exceptions are checked at compile-time.

Example:

Checked exceptions are exceptions that are checked at compile-time. A common example is IOException.

Figure 133: Checked exceptions

138
2. Unchecked Exception

The classes which inherit Runtime Exception are known as unchecked exceptions e.g. of unchecked
exceptions include Arithmetic Exception, Null Pointer Exception, Array Index Out Of Bounds Exception
etc. Unlike checked exceptions, they are not checked at compile-time rather the unchecked exceptions
are checked at runtime.

Example:

Unchecked exceptions are exceptions that are not checked at compile-time. An example is Null
PointerException.

Figure 134: Unchecked Exception

3. Error

Error is irrecoverable. There are two main types of errors:

1. A Runtime error is called an Exceptions It is any event (or exception) that interrupts the normal flow of
program execution.

2. The Compile time error is the second category of error which is further sub-divided into two types:

• Syntax Errors-A syntax error occur when there is some sort of mistake in the language usage, for
e.g. a missing comma or parenthesis or in a statement where a condition is parenthesis while it’s
not defined. The compiler and run-time can detect these errors.
• Semantic Errors- A semantic error occurs when the syntax is correct but the code usage is
incorrect. For e.g. a code usage in which the variable is isn’t initialized correctly. The Compiler can
detect the semantic errors.

139
Example:

Errors are serious issues that a reasonable application should not try to catch. An example is
OutOfMemoryError.

Figure 135: Error

Why We Need an Exception?

The Exception handling of Try catch in Java ensures that the flow of the program doesn’t break when the
exception occurs during the running of program. For example, if there is a program that has a bunch of
statements and an exception occurs mid way after executing certain statements of the application
(program) then the statements after the exception will not execute and the program will terminate
abruptly by handling the exception we make sure that all the statements execute and the flow of
program doesn’t break during its runtime. (Simplilearn, Oct 18, 2024)

2.1.2 Definition of Try-Catch Block

A try block is the block of code (contains a set of statements) in which exceptions can occur; it's used to
enclose the code that might throw an exception. The try block is always followed by a catch block, which
handles the exception that occurs in the associated try block. A try block must be used within the
method and it must be followed by a catch block(s) or finally block or both.

The catch block catches and handles the try block exceptions by declaring the type of exception within
the parameter. The catch block includes the code and it is executed if an exception inside the try block
occurs. The catch block is where you handle the exceptions; so this block must be follow the try block.

The declared exception in catch block must be the parent class exception ( i.e., Exception) or the
generated exception type. However, the best approach is to declare the generated type of exception.

140
Example:

A try-catch block in Java is used to handle exceptions, allowing a program to continue executing even if
an error occurs. Here’s a simple example:

Figure 136: Try-Catch Block

Explanation:

1. Try Block: The code that might throw an exception is placed inside the try block. In this case,
accessing numbers[5] will throw an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException because there are only
three elements in the array.

2. Catch Block: If an exception is thrown, control transfers to the catch block. Here, we handle the
specific exception and print an error message.

3. Finally Block: The finally block is optional and will execute regardless of whether an exception
was thrown or not. It’s often used for cleanup activities, such as closing resources.

141
2.2 Apply try catch exception in Student Management System
2.2.1 Using try-catch blocks into Add student

Figure 137: Using try-catch blocks into Add student

Code Explanation:

• Purpose: This method attempts to add a student to the list.

• Error Handling: If any exception occurs during the addition (e.g., if students is null), it catches the
exception and prints an error message.

Error Scenario: Adding a null student object.

• Input data: null

Figure 138: Input data

• Expected Output:

Figure 139: Expected Output

142
2.2.2 Using try-catch blocks into Edit student

Figure 140: Using try-catch blocks into Edit student

Code Explanation:

• Purpose: This method edits a student at a specified index.

• Error Handling:

o It checks if the position is valid (within the bounds of the list).

o If the position is invalid, it throws an IndexOutOfBoundsException with a descriptive message.

o If an error occurs during the editing process, it catches the exception and outputs an
appropriate message.

Error Scenario 1: Editing a student at an invalid index (e.g., index 10 when the list has fewer elements).

• Input data:

Figure 141: Input data

143
 • Expected Output:

Figure 142: Expected Output

Error Scenario 2: Editing a student by ID that does not exist.

• Input Data:

Figure 143: Input Data

• Expected Output:

Figure 144: Expected Output

2.2.3 Using try-catch blocks into Remove student

Figure 145: Using try-catch blocks into Remove student

Code Explanation:

• Purpose: This method removes a student from the list by their ID.
• Error Handling:

o It searches for the student and sets a flag (found) if the student is located.

144
 o If the student is not found after the search, it throws an exception indicating that the student
does not exist.

o Any exceptions that occur during this process are caught and reported.

Error Scenario: Attempting to remove a student with an ID that does not exist.

• Input Data:

Figure 146: Input Data

• Expected Output:

Figure 147: Expected Output

2.2.4 Using try-catch blocks into Search student

Figure 148: Using try-catch blocks into Search student

145
Code Explanation:

• Purpose: This is the main entry point for the application.

• Error Handling:

o It wraps the entire execution of the application in a try block to catch any unexpected
exceptions that may occur during the program's operation.

o If an exception occurs, it prints a general error message, making it easier to diagnose issues
that were not anticipated.

Error Scenario: Searching for a student when the list is empty.

• Input Data:

Figure 149: Input Data

• Expected Output:

Figure 150: Expected Output

146
 2.3 Testcases
Detailed Test Case Design

Expected Actual Test

Test Case ID Description Test Steps Input Status
Output Output Time

1. Create a new Student object. Student("BH001", Student Student

Add a valid 2. Call addStudent method 2023-
TC_Add_01 "Nguyen Viet added added Pass
student 11-28
3. Verify student list. Tien", 8.0) successfully successfully

1. Create a new Student object

Add a student with invalid mark Student("BH002", Student Student
2023-
TC_Add_02 with invalid "Nguyen Van A", added with added with Pass
2. Call addStudent method 11-28
mark -1.0) "Fail" rank "Fail" rank
3. Verify rank.

1. Call editStudent with valid Edit student at

Student at Student at
Edit an existing index index 1 to 2023-
TC_Edit_01 index 1 index 1 Pass
student 2. Verify updated student ("BH009", "Teo", 11-28
updated updated
details. 4.0)

1. Call editStudent with invalid Exception: Exception:

Edit student at index Edit student at 2023-
TC_Edit_02 Invalid Invalid Pass
invalid index index 10 11-28
2. Verify exception message. position position

1. Call editStudentById with Change student

Student Student
Edit student by valid ID with ID "BH009" 2023-
TC_Edit_03 updated by updated by Pass
ID 2. Verify updated student to ("BH009", 11-28
ID ID
details. "Ty", 9.0)

1. Call editStudentById with Change student

Exception: Exception:
Edit student by invalid ID. with ID "BH999" 2023-
TC_Edit_04 Student Student Pass
invalid ID to ("BH999", 11-28
2. Verify exception message. not found not found
"New", 5.0)

147
 Expected Actual Test
Test Case ID Description Test Steps Input Status
Output Output Time

1. Call removeStudentById with

Remove a valid ID Remove student Student Student 2023-
TC_Remove_01 Pass
student by ID with ID "BH009" removed removed 11-28
2. Verify student list.

Remove a non- 1. Call removeStudentById with Exception: Exception:

invalid ID Remove student 2023-
TC_Remove_02 existent Student Student Pass
with ID "BH999" 11-28
student 2. Verify exception message. not found not found

Search for 1. Call binarySearch with valid Search for Student Student
ID 2023-
TC_Search_01 existing student ID found at found at Pass
11-28
student 2. Verify returned index. "BH001" index 0 index 0

Search for non- 1. Call binarySearch with invalid Search for

ID Student Student 2023-
TC_Search_02 existent student ID Pass
not found not found 11-28
student 2. Verify return value is -1. "BH999"

1. Call Collections.sort with

IdStudentComparator Students Students
Sort students Current list of 2023-
TC_Sort_01 sorted by sorted by Pass
by ID 2. Verify order of students by students 11-28
ID ID
ID.

1. Call Collections.sort with

FullNameStduComparator Students Students
Sort students Current list of 2023-
TC_Sort_02 sorted by sorted by Pass
by full name 2. Verify order of students by students 11-28
full name full name
name.

1. Call Collections.sort with

MarkStduComparator Students Students
Sort students Current list of 2023-
TC_Sort_03 sorted by sorted by Pass
by mark 2. Verify order of students by students 11-28
marks marks
marks.

148
 Expected Actual Test
Test Case ID Description Test Steps Input Status
Output Output Time

1. Call editStudent with invalid Exception: Exception:

Attempt to edit index Edit student at 2023-
TC_Invalid_01 Invalid Invalid Pass
at invalid index index 10 11-28
2. Verify exception message. position position

Exception: Exception:
Attempt to add 1. Call addStudent with null Add a null 2023-
TC_Invalid_02 Cannot add Cannot add Pass
null student 2. Verify exception message. Student object 11-28
null null

Explanation:

The detailed test case design for the Student Management System provides a comprehensive framework
for validating its functionality. Each test case is structured to cover a specific aspect of the system,
ensuring that all core functionalities are thoroughly tested. Here’s a breakdown of the key components:

1. Test Case ID and Description: Each test case is uniquely identified and described, making it easy
to reference and understand the purpose of the test.

2. Test Steps: The inclusion of detailed steps for each test case allows testers to follow a clear
procedure, ensuring consistency in testing. This is crucial for reproducibility and helps in
identifying the source of any issues that may arise.

3. Input and Expected Output: Each test case specifies the input conditions and the anticipated
outcome. This is essential for validating the system’s behavior and ensuring it meets the specified
requirements.

4. Actual Output and Status: After executing the test case, testers can compare the actual output
with the expected output, documenting the results. The status column (Pass/Fail) provides a
quick reference to the success of each test.

5. Test Time: Including the date of testing helps to track when tests were executed, which can be
important for version control and regression testing.

Conclusion

The structured test case design effectively covers the functionality of the Student Management System,
ensuring that all critical operations—adding, editing, removing, searching, and sorting students—are
tested under various scenarios. The addition of detailed test steps and the date of testing enhances the
clarity and reliability of the testing process.

149
By carefully documenting each test case, the team can identify areas that require improvements or bug
fixes, ultimately leading to a more robust application. This thorough approach not only facilitates
immediate testing but also sets a foundation for future testing efforts, enabling ongoing maintenance
and enhancement of the system.

In summary, this test case design serves as a crucial tool for quality assurance, helping to ensure that the
Student Management System operates as intended and meets the needs of its users. If any issues are
identified during testing, they can be addressed systematically, leading to a more reliable and effective
application.

3. Discuss how asymptotic analysis can be used to assess the

effectiveness of an algorithm.
3.1 What is Asymptotic Analysis?

Figure 151: Asymptotic Analysis

Asymptotic analysis of an algorithm refers to defining the mathematical foundation/framing of its run-
time performance. Using asymptotic analysis, we can very well conclude the best case, average case, and
worst case scenario of an algorithm.

Asymptotic analysis is input bound i.e., if there's no input to the algorithm, it is concluded to work in a
constant time. Other than the "input" all other factors are considered constant.

Asymptotic analysis refers to computing the running time of any operation in mathematical units of
computation. For example, the running time of one operation is computed as f(n) and may be for
another operation it is computed as g(n2). This means the first operation running time will increase
linearly with the increase in n and the running time of the second operation will increase exponentially

150
when n increases. Similarly, the running time of both operations will be nearly the same if n is
significantly small. (tutorialspoint, n.d.)

Usually, the time required by an algorithm falls under three types −

• Best Case − Minimum time required for program execution.

• Average Case − Average time required for program execution.

• Worst Case − Maximum time required for program execution.

3.2 why asymptotic analysis is important

1. Performance Prediction

Asymptotic analysis provides a way to estimate how the runtime or space requirements of an algorithm
grow with the input size, denoting this growth with Big O notation (e.g., O(n), O(n log n), O(2^n)). This
prediction is crucial for understanding whether an algorithm will perform adequately for large datasets.

2. Comparative Analysis

Different algorithms can solve the same problem, but they may do so with varying efficiencies.
Asymptotic analysis allows for a systematic comparison:

• Example: Consider two sorting algorithms: Quick Sort (O(n log n) on average) and Bubble Sort
(O(n^2)). For large input sizes, Quick Sort will generally outperform Bubble Sort, and asymptotic
analysis makes this clear.

3. Focus on Dominant Factors

In practical scenarios, algorithms may have complex time complexities that include multiple terms:

• Example: An algorithm with a time complexity of 3n^2 + 2n + 5 can be simplified to O(n^2) as n

becomes large. This simplification allows developers to focus on the term that has the most
significant impact on performance.

4. Universal Language

Asymptotic notation provides a common vocabulary for discussing algorithm efficiency. This
standardization is essential in academic and professional contexts, facilitating clear communication
about algorithm performance.

5. Optimization Insights

Understanding the asymptotic behavior of algorithms can lead to better optimization strategies:

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 • By analyzing where the bottlenecks occur (e.g., identifying which parts of an algorithm contribute
most to its time complexity), developers can target specific areas for improvement.

• For instance, if an algorithm is O(n^2) and a developer finds that the nested loops are
responsible, they might explore ways to eliminate or reduce the nested iterations.

6. Algorithm Design

Asymptotic analysis is a guiding principle during the design phase of algorithms:

• Designers can evaluate potential algorithms based on their asymptotic complexities before
implementation. This preemptive analysis can save time and resources by steering them toward
more efficient solutions.

• It encourages the exploration of various algorithmic techniques (like divide and conquer, dynamic
programming, etc.) based on their expected performance.

7. Real-World Implications

In real-world applications, especially in big data or high-frequency trading, even small differences in
performance can have significant impacts:

• For instance, an O(n log n) algorithm may be feasible for a dataset of millions, while an O(n^2)
algorithm could become impractical, leading to unacceptable delays.

3.3 Types of Asymptotic Analysis

3.3.1 Best Case
Definition:
The best case scenario refers to the minimum time or space complexity of an algorithm when it operates
under the most favorable conditions. It answers the question: "What is the least amount of resources
the algorithm needs to complete its task?"

Example:
Consider the linear search algorithm, which looks for a specific element in an unsorted list:

• Process: The algorithm checks each element one by one until it finds the target.

• Best Case: If the element being searched for is located at the first position of the list, the
algorithm completes its task immediately.

• Complexity: O(1) (constant time), because it only requires a single comparison.

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Importance:

• Performance Benchmark: The best case provides a theoretical lower bound on the performance
of an algorithm, indicating the fastest it can possibly run.

• Understanding Potential: It helps developers understand the maximum efficiency their algorithm
can achieve, which can be particularly useful in scenarios where inputs are likely to be favorable
(e.g., searching in a sorted list).

3.3.2 Average Case

Definition:
The average case scenario considers the expected time or space complexity of an algorithm across all
possible inputs. It takes into account the distribution of inputs and calculates the average performance.

Example:
Using the same linear search algorithm:

• Process: The average case assumes that the element could be anywhere in the list.

• Average Case: If there are n elements, on average, the search will need to check about n/2
elements to find the target.

• Complexity: O(n) (linear time), as the algorithm checks half of the elements on average.

Importance:

• Realistic Performance Assessment: The average case provides a more realistic measure of an
algorithm's performance in practical situations, where inputs are not always optimal.

• Guidance for Selection: It helps in choosing the right algorithm for a given problem by providing
insights into expected performance for typical use cases.

3.3.3 Worst Case

Definition:
The worst case scenario describes the maximum time or space complexity of an algorithm, assuming the
least favorable conditions for its execution. It answers the question: "What is the most resources the
algorithm will need to complete its task?"

Example:
Again, consider the linear search algorithm:

• Process: The algorithm checks each element one by one until it finds the target or exhausts the
list.

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 • Worst Case: If the element is not present in the list or is located at the last position, the algorithm
will check all n elements.

• Complexity: O(n) (linear time), since it may need to examine each element.

Importance:

• Performance Guarantee: The worst case provides an upper bound on performance, ensuring that
an algorithm will not exceed this time or space under any circumstances.

• Critical for Safety-Critical Systems: In systems where time constraints are crucial (e.g., real-time
systems), knowing the worst-case scenario is essential for ensuring that the algorithm will
perform within acceptable limits.

3.3.4 Comparison of Asymptotic Analysis Cases

Aspect Best Case Average Case Worst Case

Minimum time/space Expected time/space Maximum time/space

Definition complexity under optimal complexity averaged over complexity under the least
conditions. all possible inputs. favorable conditions.

For a linear search, the

For a linear search, the For a linear search, the target
target is found halfway
Example target is found at the first is either at the last position or
through the list on
position. not found at all.
average.

Complexity
O(1) (constant time). O(n) (linear time). O(n) (linear time).
Notation

Provides a realistic Defines the worst

Indicates the best
expectation of performance scenario,
Implications performance achievable by
performance in typical use ensuring the algorithm won’t
the algorithm.
cases. exceed this time/space.

Useful in scenarios where Crucial for systems where

Important for assessing
inputs are consistently guarantees on performance
overall user experience and
Use Cases optimal, or for algorithms are necessary, such as real-
performance under normal
designed with best-case time systems or critical
conditions.
scenarios in mind. applications.

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Aspect Best Case Average Case Worst Case

Requires understanding of
Usually simpler to calculate, input distribution and Often straightforward, as it
Calculation
as it often involves the least might involve more typically considers the worst
Difficulty
number of operations. complex statistical layout of data.
calculations.

May lead to an overly

Helps in selecting Essential for ensuring that an
optimistic view of
Impact on algorithms that perform algorithm is suitable for
performance, potentially
Algorithm well under average applications where
misleading if not
Choice conditions, balancing performance guarantees are
considered alongside other
efficiency and reliability. required.
cases.

Represented by a curve Represented by the upper

Often represented by a
that shows average boundary of a graph showing
Visualization single point on a graph
performance across input the maximum possible
(instant success).
sizes. time/space required.

In-Depth Examples

1. Best Case Analysis

• Algorithm: Linear Search

• Scenario: Searching for the number 5 in the list [5, 2, 3, 4].

• Best Case Outcome: The target (5) is found at the first index.

• Time Complexity: O(1) because only one comparison is needed.

2. Average Case Analysis

• Algorithm: Linear Search

• Scenario: Searching for a number in a list of size n, where the number is equally likely to be at any
position.

• Average Case Outcome: If there are n elements, the search will, on average, need to check about
n/2 elements.

• Time Complexity: O(n) because it involves checking approximately half of the list.

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3. Worst Case Analysis

• Algorithm: Linear Search

• Scenario: Searching for a number not present in the list [1, 2, 3, 4].

• Worst Case Outcome: The search checks all elements before concluding that the number is not
found.

• Time Complexity: O(n) because it examines every single element.

3.4 Define about Asymptotic Notations

Asymptotic Notations

Execution time of an algorithm depends on the instruction set, processor speed, disk I/O speed, etc.
Hence, we estimate the efficiency of an algorithm asymptotically.

Time function of an algorithm is represented by T(n), where n is the input size.

Different types of asymptotic notations are used to represent the complexity of an algorithm. Following
asymptotic notations are used to calculate the running time complexity of an algorithm. (tutorialspoint,
n.d.)

• O − Big Oh Notation

• Ω − Big omega Notation

• θ − Big theta Notation

• o − Little Oh Notation

• ω − Little omega Notation

3.4.1 Big Oh, O: Asymptotic Upper Bound

The notation Ο(n) is the formal way to express the upper bound of an algorithm's running time. is the
most commonly used notation. It measures the worst case time complexity or the longest amount of
time an algorithm can possibly take to complete.

A function f(n) can be represented is the order of g(n) that is O(g(n)), if there exists a value of positive
integer n as n0 and a positive constant c such that −

in all case

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Hence, function g(n) is an upper bound for function f(n), as g(n) grows faster than f(n).

Figure 152: Big Oh, O: Asymptotic Upper Bound

Example:

3.4.2 Big Omega, Ω: Asymptotic Lower Bound

The notation Ω(n) is the formal way to express the lower bound of an algorithm's running time. It
measures the best-case time complexity or the best amount of time an algorithm can possibly take to
complete.

We say that when there exists constant c that for all sufficiently large
value of n. Here n is a positive integer. It means function g is a lower bound for function f; after a certain
value of n, f will never go below g.

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 Figure 153: Big Omega, Ω: Asymptotic Lower Bound

Example:

3.4.3 Theta, θ: Asymptotic Tight Bound

The notation θ(n) is the formal way to express both the lower bound and the upper bound of an
algorithm's running time. Some may confuse the theta notation as the average case time complexity;
while big theta notation could be almost accurately used to describe the average case, other notations
could be used as well.

We say that when there exist constants c1 and c2 that c1. for all
sufficiently large value of n. Here n is a positive integer.

This means function g is a tight bound for function f.

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 Figure 154: Theta, θ: Asymptotic Tight Bound

Example:

3.4.3 Little Oh, o

The asymptotic upper bound provided by O-notation may or may not be asymptotically tight. The
bound is asymptotically tight, but the bound is not.

We use o-notation to denote an upper bound that is not asymptotically tight.

We formally define o(g(n)) (little-oh of g of n) as the set f(n) = o(g(n)) for any positive constant c > 0 and
there exists a value , such that .

Intuitively, in the o-notation, the function f(n) becomes insignificant relative to g(n) as n approaches
infinity; that is,

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Example:

3.4.5 Little Omega, ω

We use ω-notation to denote a lower bound that is not asymptotically tight. Formally, however, we
define ω(g(n)) (little-omega of g of n) as the set f(n) = ω(g(n)) for any positive constant C > 0 and there
exists a value , such that .

For example, . The relation implies that the following limit

exists

That is, f(n) becomes arbitrarily large relative to g(n) as n approaches infinity.

Example

(tutorialspoint, n.d.)

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4. Determine two ways in which the efficiency of an algorithm can
be measured, illustrating your answer with an example.
4.1 Time Complexity
4.1.1 Definition:
Time complexity measures the amount of time an algorithm takes to complete as a function of the size
of the input data. It is often expressed using Big O notation, which classifies algorithms by their growth
rates.

Common Notations:

• O(1): Constant time

• O(n): Linear time

• O(n^2): Quadratic time

• O(log n): Logarithmic time

• O(n log n): Linearithmic time

4.1.2 Example Code

Here’s an example of a function that demonstrates different time complexities:

- Complexity: O(1) (Constant Time)

Figure 155: O(1) (Constant Time)

Explanation:

• This function checks if the array is not empty (array.length > 0).

• It directly prints the first element of the array (array[0]).

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 • The operation always takes the same amount of time regardless of the array size, hence it is O(1).

- Complexity: O(n) (Linear Time)

Figure 156: O(n) (Linear Time)

Explanation:

• This function iterates over each element in the input array.

• The for loop runs n times if the array has n elements.

• Each iteration takes constant time to print an element, resulting in a total time complexity of
O(n).

- Complexity: O(n^2) (Quadratic Time)

Figure 157: O(n^2) (Quadratic Time)

Explanation:

• This function uses a nested loop structure.

• The outer loop runs n times and, for each iteration of the outer loop, the inner loop also runs n
times.

• Therefore, the total number of iterations (and hence print statements) is n * n, resulting in a time
complexity of O(n^2).

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4.2 Space Complexity
Definition:
Space complexity measures the amount of working storage an algorithm needs. This includes both the
space required for the inputs as well as any additional space used by the algorithm itself. Like time
complexity, space complexity is also expressed using Big O notation.

Common Notations:

• O(1): Constant space

• O(n): Linear space

• O(n^2): Quadratic space

Example Code:
Here’s an example demonstrating different space complexities:

- Complexity: O(1) (Constant Space)

Figure 158: O(1) (Constant Space)

Explanation:

• This function initializes a variable max to hold the maximum value found.

• The space used for max is constant and does not depend on the input size.

• The algorithm iterates through the array but does not create any additional data structures that
grow with input size, so the overall space complexity is O(1).

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- Complexity: O(n) (Linear Space)

Figure 159: O(n) (Linear Space)

Explanation:

• This function creates a new array copy that has the same length as the input array.

• The space required for copy grows linearly with the size of the input array (n).

• The for loop copies each element from the original array to the new array. The additional space
used is proportional to the input size, leading to a space complexity of O(n).

4.3 How to calculate time and space complexity of an algorithm

Calculating the time and space complexity of an algorithm involves analyzing how the algorithm’s
resource usage grows with the size of the input. Here’s a step-by-step explanation, along with Java code
examples for both time and space complexity.

4.3.1 How to Calculate Time Complexity

1. Identify Basic Operations: Determine the key operations in your algorithm (e.g., comparisons,
arithmetic operations, assignments).

2. Count Operations: Count how many times these operations are executed as a function of the
input size n.

3. Use Big O Notation: Express the growth rate using Big O notation, focusing on the most
significant term and ignoring constant factors and lower-order terms.

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Example: Time Complexity Calculation

Let's analyze a simple algorithm that finds the maximum value in an array.

Figure 160: Example: Time Complexity Calculation

Time Complexity Breakdown:

• Initialization: int max = Integer.MIN_VALUE; is O(1).

• Loop: The for loop runs n times (array.length), so it contributes O(n).

• Comparison: The if statement if (array[i] > max) is O(1) and occurs n times.

• Assignment: max = array[i]; is also O(1) and occurs only when the condition is true.

Total Time Complexity:

• The loop contributes O(n), and the constant time operations (O(1)) do not change the overall
complexity.

• Thus, the total time complexity is O(n).

4.3.2 How to Calculate Space Complexity

1. Identify Variables: Determine how much extra space (memory) the algorithm uses as a function
of the input size.

2. Count Space Usage: Consider both the input size and any additional space required for variables,
data structures, or recursive calls.

3. Use Big O Notation: Express the total space usage in Big O notation.

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Example: Space Complexity Calculation

Let's analyze the space complexity of the same findMax algorithm.

Figure 161: Example: Space Complexity Calculation

Space Complexity Breakdown:

• Input Array: The input array array takes up O(n) space, but this is not considered additional space
since it's part of the input.

• Variable max: The integer variable max uses O(1) space.

• Loop Variable i: The loop variable i also uses O(1) space.

Total Space Complexity:

• The only additional space used (beyond the input) is for max and i, which are both O(1).

• Thus, the total space complexity is O(1).

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5. Demonstrate how the implementation of an ADT/algorithm
solves a well-defined problem.
5.1 Discuss Complexity and Performance
5.1.1 Time Complexity
Sorting Algorithms:

*Collections sort:

• The project uses the Collections.sort() method for sorting operations. This method typically uses
the TimSort algorithm, which has a time complexity of:

o Best Case: O(n log n) when the data is already sorted or partially sorted.

o Average Case: O(n log n).

o Worst Case: O(n log n).

Since the sorting is done based on different criteria (ID, full name, and marks), each sorting operation
will maintain the same time complexity.

Searching Algorithms:

*Binary search:

• The project implements a binary search algorithm in the ArrayListSearchStudent class. The time
complexity for binary search is:

o Best Case: O(1) if the middle element is the target.

o Average Case: O(log n).

o Worst Case: O(log n) when the search space is reduced to a single element.

However, for binary search to work efficiently, the list must be sorted. Therefore, if the list is not already
sorted, the time complexity for sorting it first (O(n log n)) must be considered, making the overall
complexity for searching in an unsorted list O(n log n) + O(log n) = O(n log n).

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5.1.2 Space Complexity
Which ADTs are Included:

• The project primarily utilizes the following Abstract Data Types (ADTs):

o ArrayList: This is used extensively to store the list of Student objects. The space
complexity for an ArrayList is O(n), where n is the number of students stored, as it
maintains an internal array to hold the elements.

o Student Objects: Each Student object contains several fields (ID, full name, mark, rank).
The space complexity for each Student object is O(1) since it uses a fixed amount of space
regardless of the number of Student instances.

5.1.3 Performance of ADTs and Algorithms

Performance of ADTs:

1. ArrayList

• Structure:

o ArrayList is a resizable array implementation that allows dynamic growth in response to

element additions.

• Access Time:

o O(1): Direct access to elements by index is constant time due to its underlying array
structure. This enables quick retrieval of student records.

• Insertion Time:

o Amortized O(1): Adding an element at the end of the list is generally constant time.
However, if the internal array is full, it needs to resize, which involves copying elements to
a new array, resulting in O(n) time for that operation. The amortized cost remains O(1)
because resizing occurs infrequently.

• Insertion at Specific Positions:

o O(n): Inserting an element at any arbitrary position requires shifting elements, leading to
linear time complexity.

• Deletion Time:

o O(n): Removing an element involves finding it and shifting subsequent elements to fill the
gap, resulting in linear time complexity.

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 • Memory Usage:

o O(n): The space used by an ArrayList is proportional to the number of elements, but it
may allocate extra space for future growth.

2. Student Objects

• Memory Footprint:

o Each Student object includes fields such as ID, full name, mark, and rank. The space
required for each object is O(1), as it uses a fixed amount of memory regardless of how
many objects are created.

• Garbage Collection:

o The process of creating and destroying Student objects can lead to overhead due to
memory allocation and the actions of Java’s garbage collector, which can introduce
pauses in execution.

Performance of Algorithms:

1. Sorting Algorithms

• TimSort (Collections.sort):

o The project utilizes the Collections.sort() method, which implements the TimSort
algorithm, optimized for real-world data.

o Time Complexity:

▪ Best Case: O(n) when the data is already sorted or nearly sorted.

▪ Average Case: O(n log n).

▪ Worst Case: O(n log n).

o Stability:

▪ TimSort is a stable sorting algorithm, meaning it preserves the relative order of

equal elements, beneficial for multi-criteria sorting.

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2. Searching Algorithms

• Binary Search:

o Implemented in the ArrayListSearchStudent class, it allows efficient searching of sorted

lists.

o Time Complexity:

▪ Best Case: O(1) when the middle element is the target.

▪ Average Case: O(log n).

▪ Worst Case: O(log n).

o Precondition:

▪ The list must be sorted for binary search to work effectively. If the list is unsorted,
the time complexity can degrade to O(n) if a linear search is used.

• Linear Search:

o When searching in an unsorted list, a linear search is performed, which has a time
complexity of O(n). While straightforward, this is less efficient than binary search

Overall Performance:

• The overall performance of the ABK project can be summarized as follows:

o Adding Students: O(1) amortized time for appending a student to the list.

o Editing Students: O(1) for accessing a student by index and O(n) for searching by ID when
not using binary search.

o Removing Students: O(n) due to the need to search and then shift elements.

o Searching Students: O(log n) for binary search after sorting, O(n) for linear search when
the list is unsorted.

o Sorting Students: O(n log n) for sorting operations

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5.2 Summarize the Benefits
5.2.1 Benefits of Abstract Data Types (ADTs)
1. ArrayList

• Dynamic Resizing:

o The ArrayList allows automatic resizing, which is particularly useful for a student
management system where the number of students can fluctuate. This eliminates the
need for manual memory management.

• Fast Access Times:

o Direct access to elements by index is achieved in O(1) time. This efficiency enables quick
retrieval of student records, which is essential for operations that require frequent
lookups.

• Amortized Insertion Efficiency:

o Adding students to the end of the list generally takes O(1) amortized time. While resizing
may occasionally take longer, most insertions remain efficient, making it practical for
frequent updates.

• Ease of Use:

o The ArrayList provides a user-friendly interface for common operations (add, remove,
access), simplifying the implementation of the student management functions.

• Support for Variable Element Types:

o As a generic class, ArrayList can store various object types, allowing for flexibility in
managing different data types, such as Student objects.

2. Student Objects

• Fixed Memory Footprint:

o Each Student object has a predictable memory usage of O(1), simplifying memory
allocation and management.

• Encapsulation:

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 o The Student class encapsulates related attributes (ID, full name, mark, rank), promoting
better organization and modularity in code, which enhances readability and
maintainability.

• Simplified Object Management:

o Java's garbage collection mechanism automates memory management for Student

objects, reducing the risk of memory leaks and allowing developers to focus on
functionality.

5.2.2 Benefits of Algorithms

1. Sorting Algorithms

• TimSort Efficiency:

o The use of the Collections.sort() method, which implements TimSort, provides efficient
sorting with a time complexity of O(n log n) in average and worst-case scenarios. This
efficiency is crucial for maintaining performance in the student management system.

• Stability:

o TimSort is a stable sorting algorithm, preserving the order of equal elements. This is
particularly beneficial for multi-criteria sorting, ensuring that the original order is
maintained where necessary.

• Optimization for Real-World Data:

o TimSort is optimized for partially sorted data, which often occurs in practical applications.
This can lead to improved performance with real-world datasets compared to other
sorting algorithms.

2. Searching Algorithms

• Binary Search Efficiency:

o The implementation of binary search allows for efficient searching in sorted lists, with a
time complexity of O(log n). This is significantly faster than linear search methods,
especially as the dataset grows larger.

• Precondition Awareness:

o The requirement for a sorted list for binary search optimizes search performance. When
the list is sorted, the efficiency of searches is greatly enhanced compared to an unsorted
list.
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 • Fallback to Linear Search:

o The inclusion of a linear search for unsorted data ensures that functionality is maintained
even when sorting is not feasible. While less efficient (O(n)), this approach provides a
straightforward method for locating students.

Conclusion

By separating the benefits of ADTs and algorithms, we can see how each contributes uniquely to the ABK
project:

• ADTs (like ArrayList and Student objects) provide essential structural support, ensuring ease of
use, efficient memory management, and flexible data handling.

• Algorithms (like TimSort and binary search) optimize performance for key operations, ensuring
that sorting and searching are handled efficiently, which is critical for the responsiveness of the
student management system.

Together, these components create a robust and efficient application capable of handling the dynamic
needs of student management while maintaining high performance and usability.

6. Interpret what a trade-off is when specifying an ADT, using an

example to support your answer.
When specifying an Abstract Data Type (ADT) in practical applications, such as in the ABK project
(Student Management System), developers often encounter trade-offs that impact the overall design
and efficiency of the system. These trade-offs generally occur between different performance metrics
and design considerations. Here, we’ll examine two significant trade-offs: Time Complexity vs. Space
Complexity and Flexibility vs. Performance.

6.1 Time Complexity vs. Space Complexity

• Time Complexity: This measures the execution time of an algorithm as a function of the input
size (n). It provides an estimate of how the runtime will grow as the input size increases.

• Space Complexity: This measures the amount of memory space required by an algorithm as a
function of the input size (n), including both the space for input values and any additional space
used by the algorithm.

Trade-off:
Optimizing for time complexity may lead to increased space consumption, while focusing on reducing
space complexity can slow down execution times.
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Example in ABK Project:

• Scenario: The process of searching for a student can illustrate this trade-off effectively. In the
ArrayListSearchStudent class, a binary search is implemented for searching students by ID.

o Time Complexity:

▪ Binary Search: The binary search algorithm operates in O(log n) time, making it
efficient for large datasets. However, this requires the dataset (the list of students)
to be sorted first.

▪ Sorting: If the list of students needs to be sorted, it can take O(n log n) time using a
comparison-based sorting algorithm (like merge sort).

o Space Complexity:

▪ Sorting: Some sorting algorithms (e.g., merge sort) may require additional space
proportional to the size of the input (O(n)), which adds to the overall memory
usage.

▪ Search: Once sorted, the binary search itself can operate in O(1) space, as it does
not require any additional memory aside from a few variables.

Interpretation:
If we choose to keep the students list sorted to leverage the efficiency of binary search, we incur
additional time and space costs associated with maintaining that order during insertions or deletions.
Conversely, if we allow for unsorted student entries, we save space and time during insertion but must
resort to linear search methods (O(n)), which are less efficient for large datasets.

6.2 Flexibility vs. Performance

• Flexibility: This refers to the ability of a data structure or algorithm to adapt to various use cases
and changes in requirements. A flexible design allows for easier modifications and
enhancements.

• Performance: This is the measure of how efficiently a data structure or algorithm operates,
typically evaluated in terms of speed (time taken to execute operations) and resource usage
(memory consumption).

Trade-off:
Increasing flexibility can lead to decreased performance, as more general solutions tend to be less
optimized for specific tasks.

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Example in ABK Project:

• Scenario: The Student class includes several comparator classes (e.g., IdStudentComparator,
FullNameStduComparator, MarkStduComparator) that allow for sorting students based on
different criteria.

o Flexibility:

▪ The use of multiple comparators provides the ability to sort the student list by
various attributes (ID, full name, or mark) without modifying the student data
structure itself. This makes it easy to adapt the application to different user
requirements or specifications.

o Performance:

▪ Each time sorting is performed, the specific comparator must be instantiated and
invoked. This can introduce overhead, especially if sorting operations are frequent
or if the student list is large. The time complexity for sorting remains O(n log n),
but the additional overhead from instantiating and managing multiple comparator
objects can slow down performance.

Interpretation:
Prioritizing flexibility by allowing sorting based on multiple criteria can lead to a situation where
performance suffers due to the overhead introduced by numerous comparator classes. In contrast, if we
designed a single, highly optimized sorting function tailored for the most common use case (e.g., sorting
by ID), we could enhance performance significantly at the expense of flexibility, making it more
challenging to adapt to new requirements.

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7. Critically evaluate the complexity of an implemented
ADT/algorithm
7.1 Complexity of an Algorithm
7.1.1 Algorithm Complexity
The complexity of an algorithm refers to the quantitative measure of the time and space resources it
requires to execute, based on the size of the input data. For our example, we will evaluate a dynamic
array that supports operations like insertion, deletion, and retrieval.

7.1.2 Time Complexity

Time complexity measures how the execution time of an algorithm increases with the size of the input.

• Insertion:

o Amortized Time: Inserting an element at the end of the dynamic array is generally O(1)
because it takes constant time if there's space. However, if resizing is needed (when the
array is full), it takes O(n) to copy all elements to a new larger array.

o Overall Complexity: The amortized time complexity for insertions is O(1) since resizing
happens infrequently.

• Deletion:

o Time Complexity: Removing an element from the end of the array is O(1). However,
removing an element from the middle requires shifting elements, which takes O(n) in the
worst case.

o Overall Complexity: The deletion operation's worst-case time complexity is O(n).

• Access:

o Time Complexity: Accessing an element by index is O(1) because it directly accesses the
memory location.

• Overall Time Complexity:

o Insertion: O(1) (amortized)

o Deletion: O(n)

o Access: O(1)

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7.1.3 Space Complexity
Space complexity measures the amount of memory an algorithm uses relative to the input size.

• Dynamic Array Storage: The space complexity of storing n elements is O(n).

• Auxiliary Space: The dynamic array may also use some constant space for additional variables
(like size or capacity), which is O(1).

• Overall Space Complexity: The total space complexity is O(n), as the storage for the elements
dominates.

7.2 Measuring Complexity with Big O Notation

Worst Case O(f(n))

The worst-case complexity describes the maximum amount of time or space that an algorithm could take
on any input of size n.

• Insertion: O(n) when resizing is needed.

• Deletion: O(n) when removing an element from the middle.

• Access: O(1) since it does not vary with input size.

Worst Case of the Dynamic Array:

• O(n) for insertion and deletion, O(1) for access.

Best Case (Ω(f(n)))

The best-case complexity describes the minimum amount of time or space that an algorithm could take
on any input of size n.

• Insertion: O(1) when there’s space available.

• Deletion: O(1) when removing an element from the end.

• Access: O(1) since it directly accesses the index.

Best Case of the Dynamic Array:

• Ω(1) for insertion and deletion when conditions are optimal.

Average Case θ(f(n))

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The average-case complexity describes the expected amount of time or space that an algorithm could
take over all possible inputs of size n.

• Insertion: The average case is still O(1) amortized, as resizing occurs infrequently.

• Deletion: On average, if we remove elements uniformly from random positions, it may still lead
to O(n) due to the average number of shifts required.

• Access: Always O(1).

Average Case of the Dynamic Array:

• θ(1) for insertion (amortized), θ(n) for deletion, and θ(1) for access.

Summary Table of Complexity Evaluations:

Operation Worst Case Best Case Average Case

Insertion O(n) Ω(1) θ(1) (amortized)

Deletion O(n) Ω(1) θ(n)

Access O(1) Ω(1) θ(1)

Space O(n) O(n) O(n)

7.3 Applying to Calculate Time Complexity for Algorithm in P4

This evaluation will cover complexity metrics, time complexities of sorting and searching algorithms,
space complexities, bottlenecks, comparisons with complexity classes, trade-offs, limitations, and
recommendations for improvement.

7.3.1 Understanding Complexity Metrics

Complexity Metrics are essential for analyzing the performance of algorithms and data structures in
terms of:

• Time Complexity: Measures how the execution time of an algorithm varies with the input size.

• Space Complexity: Measures the memory space required by an algorithm as a function of the
input size.

These metrics help us gauge how well the system will perform as the number of students grows.
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7.3.2 Analyzing Time Complexity
* Sorting Algorithm: TimSort (via Collections.sort)

The ABK project uses Java's built-in Collections.sort() method, which implements the TimSort algorithm.
Here’s a critical look at its time complexity:

Figure 162: Sorting Algorithm: TimSort (via Collections.sort)

• Best Case: O(n) - This occurs when the data is already sorted or nearly sorted, allowing TimSort to
take advantage of existing order.

• Average Case: O(n log n) - This is the expected time complexity for a randomly ordered list.

• Worst Case: O(n log n) - Occurs with completely unsorted data.

Detailed Explanation and Complexity Analysis

1. Sorting Algorithm: TimSort

• Method Call:

Figure 163: Method Call

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 • Complexity:

o Best Case: O(n) - Occurs when the list is already sorted or nearly sorted.

o Average Case: O(n log n) - Typical performance for random data.

o Worst Case: O(n log n) - This happens for completely unsorted data.

• Explanation:
TimSort is a hybrid sorting algorithm derived from merge sort and insertion sort. It divides the list
into smaller runs, sorts those runs, and then merges them. TimSort is stable (maintains the order
of equal elements) and adaptive (efficient for partially sorted data).

2. Comparators

Each comparator operates with a specific focus on different attributes of the Student class.

• Time Complexity for Comparators:

o IdStudentComparator:

▪ String Comparison: O(k), where k is the length of the IDs.

▪ Overall: Each comparison is linear with respect to the length of the strings
involved.

o FullNameStudentComparator:

▪ String Comparison: O(m), where m is the length of the full names.

▪ Overall: Each comparison is linear with respect to the length of the full names.

o MarkStudentComparator:

▪ Value Comparison: O(1) - Comparing two double values is a constant time

operation.

▪ Overall: Each comparison is constant time.

3. Overall Complexity of Sorting with Comparators

• When using Collections.sort() with these comparators:

o The overall time complexity will still be O(n log n) for the sorting process.

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 o However, the actual time taken will be influenced by the length of the strings being
compared in the string-based comparators.

* Searching Algorithm: Binary Search

The ArrayListSearchStudent class implements binary search to find students by ID. The code snippet
might look like this:

Figure 164: Searching Algorithm: Binary Search

• Best Case: O(1) - If the middle element is the target.

• Average Case: O(log n) - As the search space is halved each time.

• Worst Case: O(log n) - Occurs when the element is not present.

When searching in an unsorted list, the time complexity increases due to the need for sorting:

• Overall Complexity for Searching:

O(n log n) (sorting) + O(log n) (binary search) = O(n log n).

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Detailed Explanation and Complexity Analysis

1. Method Signature and Parameters

• Parameters:

o ArrayList<Student> students: A list of Student objects that we will search through.

o String targetId: The ID of the student we are searching for.

2. Initial Check for an Empty List

Complexity: O(1)

Figure 165: Initial Check for an Empty List

Explanation: This line checks if the list is empty. If it is, an exception is thrown immediately. This
operation is constant time since it involves a simple check on the list's size.

3. Initialization of Variables

Figure 166: Initial Check for an Empty List

Complexity: O(1)

Explanation: Initializing left and right indices is a constant time operation.

4. Binary Search Loop

Figure 167: Binary Search Loop

Complexity: This loop runs in O(log n).

Explanation: The loop continues as long as left is less than or equal to right. Each iteration reduces the
search space by half, which is characteristic of binary search.

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5. Comparison Logic

Figure 168: Comparison Logic

Complexity:

• Accessing an Element: O(1) - Accessing students.get(mid) is a constant time operation.

• String Comparison: O(k) - compareToIgnoreCase compares the target ID with the student's ID.
The complexity for this operation depends on the length of the strings being compared, denoted
as k.

Explanation:

• If the mid student's ID matches the target ID, the index is returned.

• If the mid student's ID is less than the target ID, the search continues in the right half of the list
(updating left).

• If the mid student's ID is greater, the search continues in the left half (updating right).

6. Return Value for Not Found

Figure 169:Return Value for Not Found

Complexity: O(1)

Explanation: Returning -1 if the target ID is not found is a constant time operation.

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7.3.3 Evaluating Best Case, Worst Case, and Average Case
Sorting:

• Best Case: O(n)

o When the dataset is already sorted, TimSort can recognize this and complete the sorting
process in linear time. This highlights the efficiency of TimSort in real-world scenarios
where data may often be partially sorted.

• Average Case: O(n log n)

o For random datasets, TimSort operates in O(n log n) time due to its divide-and-conquer
approach. This is a significant improvement over simpler algorithms, making it suitable for
handling diverse datasets.

• Worst Case: O(n log n)

o In the event of completely unsorted data, TimSort will still perform at O(n log n), ensuring
consistent performance across various scenarios. This predictability is crucial for
applications needing reliable performance metrics.

Searching:

• Best Case: O(1)

o The best-case scenario for binary search occurs when the target element is located at the
midpoint of the search space, allowing for immediate retrieval.

• Average Case: O(log n)

o On average, binary search will efficiently narrow down the search space logarithmically,
making it a powerful tool for quick data retrieval in sorted lists.

• Worst Case: O(log n)

o The worst case for binary search is when the algorithm must explore the entire search
space without finding the target, still maintaining logarithmic efficiency.

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7.3.4 Considering Space Complexity
Space Complexity of Abstract Data Types (ADTs)

1. ArrayList:

o Space Complexity: O(n)

o Explanation: The ArrayList utilizes a dynamically resizable array to store its elements.
When you instantiate an ArrayList to hold n student objects, the underlying array must be
large enough to accommodate these objects. The space complexity is linear, as it directly
scales with the number of students. Additionally, there may be some overhead due to the
internal resizing mechanism when the capacity exceeds the current size.

2. Student Objects:

o Space Complexity: O(1)

o Explanation: Each Student object contains a fixed number of attributes: ID, full name,
mark, and rank. The space required for each Student is constant and does not change with
the number of students. Therefore, even though there can be n student objects, the space
complexity for each individual object remains O(1).

Space Complexity of Algorithms

1. TimSort:

o Space Complexity: O(n)

o Explanation: TimSort creates temporary arrays during the merging process to combine
sorted runs. The maximum additional space required is proportional to the number of
elements being sorted, leading to a linear space complexity.

2. Binary Search:

o Space Complexity: O(1)

o Explanation: The binary search algorithm uses a constant amount of space for its variables
(left, right, mid) regardless of the input size. It does not require any additional data
structures that grow with the size of the input.

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7.3.5 Identifying Bottlenecks
• Sorting Operations:

o Sorting can become a bottleneck, particularly with large datasets, as its O(n log n) time
complexity may lead to performance degradation with frequent sorting operations.
Optimizing this aspect is critical for maintaining responsiveness.

• Insertion and Deletion:

o While appending elements to the end of the ArrayList is O(1) amortized, inserting or
deleting elements at arbitrary positions incurs an O(n) cost due to the need for shifting
elements. This can significantly impact performance in dynamic environments.

7.3.6 Comparing with Known Complexity Classes

• Sorting:

o TimSort's O(n log n) time complexity is competitive with QuickSort and MergeSort, both of
which have similar performance characteristics. This positions TimSort as a favorable
choice for general-purpose sorting in Java.

o Comparison of Sorting Algorithms:

Algorithm Best Case Average Case Worst Case Space Complexity Stability

TimSort O(n) O(n log n) O(n log n) O(n) Stable

QuickSort O(n log n) O(n log n) O(n²) O(log n) Unstable

MergeSort O(n log n) O(n log n) O(n log n) O(n) Stable

HeapSort O(n log n) O(n log n) O(n log n) O(1) Unstable

Insertion Sort O(n) O(n²) O(n²) O(1) Stable

Selection Sort O(n²) O(n²) O(n²) O(1) Unstable

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 • Searching:

o The O(log n) complexity of binary search is optimal for sorted data, significantly
outperforming linear search algorithms, which operate at O(n). This efficiency is crucial for
applications requiring rapid data retrieval.

o Comparison of Searching Algorithms:

Algorithm Best Case Average Case Worst Case Space Complexity Data Structure

Binary Search O(1) O(log n) O(log n) O(1) Sorted array

Linear Search O(1) O(n) O(n) O(1) Unsorted array

Jump Search O(1) O(√n) O(√n) O(1) Sorted array

Exponential Search O(1) O(log n) O(log n) O(1) Sorted array

Ternary Search O(1) O(log n) O(log n) O(1) Sorted array

7.3.7 Considering Trade-offs

• Time vs. Space:

o Optimizing for faster searches through binary search necessitates maintaining a sorted
list, which may require additional time for sorting and extra space for storage. This trade-
off must be carefully managed to ensure overall efficiency.

• Flexibility vs. Performance:

o The ability to sort by multiple criteria adds valuable flexibility to the system. However, this
flexibility can lead to performance slowdowns during frequent sorting operations, which
should be monitored and optimized.

7.3.8 Discussing Limitations

• Dynamic Resizing:

o Frequent resizing of the ArrayList can degrade performance during insertions, leading to
potential inefficiencies. This aspect should be considered in scenarios involving many
insertions.

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 • Memory Consumption:

o The need for additional space for sorting and object creation can lead to overhead,
impacting performance in environments with limited memory resources.

• Single-threaded Sorting:

o The sorting algorithm operates in a single-threaded manner, which can limit performance
gains on multi-core systems. Leveraging parallel processing could significantly enhance
sorting efficiency.

7.3.9 Providing Recommendations for Improvement

• Optimize Sorting:

o Implementing a more adaptive sorting approach that only sorts when necessary can
greatly enhance performance. Additionally, exploring parallel sorting algorithms can
leverage multi-core processing capabilities, significantly reducing sorting times.

• Use of Linked Lists:

o For scenarios with frequent insertions and deletions, considering a linked list instead of an
ArrayList can improve performance for these operations, despite potentially slower access
times. This would be beneficial in dynamic data environments.

• Caching Results:

o Implementing caching strategies for frequently accessed data can minimize the need for
repetitive sorting and searching, improving overall system responsiveness.

• Batch Processing:

o For large sets of inserts or updates, employing batch processing techniques can help
minimize the impact on performance, as opposed to processing each operation
individually. This would lead to more efficient data handling.

• Memory Management:

o Optimizing object creation and destruction can reduce garbage collection overhead.
Implementing object pools for frequently instantiated objects can lead to significant
performance improvements by minimizing the frequency of allocations and deallocations.

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Conclusion
The implementation of Abstract Data Types (ADTs) and algorithms in the ABK project showcases a solid
understanding of complexity metrics and their implications for performance. By critically evaluating time
and space complexities, identifying bottlenecks, and considering trade-offs, the project can undergo
further optimization. Implementing the recommended improvements will enhance the efficiency and
scalability of the student management system, ensuring it effectively meets the evolving needs of its
users.
8. Evaluate three benefits of using implementation independent
data structures
8.1 Abstraction and Reusability
Definition:
• Abstraction involves defining data structures in terms of their essential characteristics and
behaviors while hiding the complexities of their implementation. This allows developers to focus
on what the data structure does rather than how it does it.

• Reusability refers to the capability of using the same data structure definitions in multiple
contexts or applications without modification, promoting consistency and reducing redundancy.

Benefits in the ABK Project:

• Clear Interfaces: Defining an interface such as StudentList encapsulates operations like adding,
removing, and retrieving students.

• Code Reusability: By implementing the StudentList interface with different underlying data
structures, the same interface can be employed across various modules, promoting DRY (Don’t
Repeat Yourself) principles.

• Reduced Learning Curve: New developers can quickly understand the functionalities provided by
the StudentList interface without needing to dive into the details of the underlying
implementations.

• Decoupled Architecture: Changes in one part of the system (e.g., switching from an ArrayList to a
LinkedList) do not require changes in other parts, promoting system stability.

• Consistency Across Modules: Using the same interface across different modules ensures
consistent behavior, which simplifies the system's overall understanding and maintenance.

• Flexibility in Implementation: The ability to switch between implementations (e.g., from a list to
a set) allows the project to adapt to changing requirements.

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Example:
• StudentList Interface:

Figure 170: StudentList Interface

Benefit: This interface abstracts the functionality needed to manage student data, enabling different
implementations without affecting the code that uses the interface

• Implementations:

Figure 171: Implementations

Benefit: Different implementations (like ArrayList and LinkedList) can be used interchangeably, allowing
the ABK project to choose the best data structure based on specific use cases (e.g., performance,
memory usage) without changing the rest of the codebase.

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8.2 Ease of Maintenance and Extensibility
Definition:
• Ease of Maintenance refers to the simplicity of updating or fixing existing code, reducing
complexity and interdependencies, making it easier to identify and resolve issues.

• Extensibility pertains to the capacity to add new features or functionalities to the system without
requiring significant changes to the existing architecture.

Benefits in the ABK Project:

• Simplified Refactoring: If the ABK project decides to improve performance by changing the
underlying data structure (e.g., switching from an ArrayList to a TreeSet), this can be done by
creating a new class that implements the existing StudentList interface. The rest of the code
remains unchanged, minimizing the risk of introducing bugs.

• Easier Feature Expansion: Adding new functionality, such as a method to sort students by
different criteria (e.g., by name or marks), can be accomplished by extending the StudentList
interface with new methods.

• Improved Bug Fixing: When issues arise, developers can focus on specific implementations
without affecting other parts of the system, making debugging more straightforward.

• Modular Code Structure: Each module can be developed and tested independently, which
simplifies the development process.

• Backward Compatibility: New features can be added without breaking existing functionality,
ensuring that current users are not affected by updates.

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Example:

• Extending the StudentList Interface:

Figure 172: Extending the StudentList Interface

Benefit: By adding sorting methods, the interface can evolve to meet new requirements without altering
existing methods or implementations, promoting flexibility.

• Implementation of Sorting:

Figure 173: Implementation of Sorting

Benefit: Implementing new functionalities like sorting is straightforward; existing codebases can leverage
these methods without significant changes, enhancing the system's adaptability to future requirements.

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8.3 Interoperability and Scalability
Definition:
• Interoperability refers to the capability of different systems or components to work together
seamlessly, enabling isolated components to interact effectively.

• Scalability is the ability of a system to handle growing amounts of work or its potential to
accommodate growth without significant performance degradation.

Benefits in the ABK Project:

• Seamless Integration: The ABK project can easily integrate with other systems (e.g., external
databases, third-party APIs) by adhering to standardized interfaces. This allows for the plugging in
of different data sources without altering the core logic of the student management system.

• Growth Handling: As the number of students increases, the project may require a more efficient
data structure to manage them. Using implementation-independent data structures allows for
the replacement of the underlying data structure with one that better fits scalability needs.

• Performance Optimization: When the application needs to manage a growing number of student
records, the ability to switch implementations without rewriting the entire application logic
allows for performance optimization as needed.

• Adaptability to New Technologies: The project can incorporate new technologies or frameworks
without significant rework, enhancing the longevity of the software.

• Load Balancing: As user interactions increase, the application can be scaled horizontally by
distributing the load across multiple instances, maintaining performance.

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Example:
• DataSource Interface for Integration:

Figure 174: DataSource Interface for Integration

Benefit: This interface allows the ABK project to integrate with various data sources, promoting flexibility
in how student data is retrieved and stored.

• Implementation for a REST API:

Figure 175: Implementation for a REST API

Benefit: Implementing the DataSource interface allows the project to switch between different data
sources (like a REST API, database, etc.) seamlessly, enhancing interoperability with external systems.

• Handling Growth:

Figure 176: Handling Growth

Benefit: Using a HashMap allows for efficient student record retrieval, which is crucial as the data size
grows. This enhances scalability and ensures that performance remains optimal even with increased user
load.

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Conclusion
Using implementation-independent data structures in the ABK project brings significant benefits:

1. Abstraction and Reusability: Enhances clarity, promotes code reuse, and reduces the learning
curve for new developers.

2. Ease of Maintenance and Extensibility: Simplifies updates, facilitates feature expansion, and
improves bug-fixing processes.

3. Interoperability and Scalability: Allows for seamless integration with other systems and supports
growth efficiently.

These advantages ensure that the ABK project remains flexible, maintainable, and capable of adapting to
future requirements while optimizing performance. By leveraging IIDSs, the project can effectively
manage complexity and foster a robust software architecture.

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III. Conclusion
In conclusion, the effective management of data through Abstract Data Types (ADTs) is essential for
developing robust applications in software engineering. This report has illustrated the foundational role
of ADTs, particularly through the lens of a stack ADT, and their relevance to contemporary software
challenges. In the context of Soft Development ABK’s vocational scenario, we identified the need for a
user-friendly application to manage student data, including their rankings based on marks. By analyzing
the existing algorithm and exploring alternative solutions, we aimed to enhance the application’s
functionality and efficiency.

Through a systematic approach, we evaluated the strengths and weaknesses of current algorithms
against proposed alternatives, considering critical metrics such as time complexity, space complexity,
and scalability. Furthermore, we recognized potential implementation challenges and the importance of
integrating effective algorithms within the existing framework. The findings from this exploration not
only provide a roadmap for improving software design and development practices but also empower
developers to leverage ADTs effectively.

Ultimately, this report serves as a comprehensive guide for software developers and collaborators at Soft
Development ABK, equipping them with the knowledge and tools needed to deliver high-quality
software solutions that address real-life problems in small and medium enterprises. By adopting the
principles outlined herein, teams can foster more secure, maintainable, and efficient software
architectures that meet the evolving needs of users

IV. References
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geeksforgeeks, 29 Jan, 2023. geeksforgeeks. [Online]

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geeksforgeeks, 23 Sep, 2023. geeksforgeeks. [Online]

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javatpoint, n.d. javatpoint. [Online]

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Kenton, W., September 19, 2024. investopedia. [Online]

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Khalid, O., n.d. linkedin. [Online]

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Staff, C., Nov 30, 2023. Coursera. [Online]

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Github code :

Example code 1: https://github.com/viettien161204/Data-Structures-AlgorithmsASM1_Example1

Example code 2: https://github.com/viettien161204/Data-Structures-AlgorithmsASM1_Example2

Student Management project: https://github.com/viettien161204/ASMFinal-Data-Structures-Algorithms

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