1.5.

1 Wind Energy

Harnessing the wind is one of the cleanest, most sustainable ways to generate electricity.
Wind power produces no toxic emissions and none of the heat-trapping emissions that
contribute to global warming. This, and the fact that wind power is one of the most abundant
and increasingly cost-competitive energy resources, makes it a viable alternative to the fossil
fuels that harm our health and threaten the environment.

Wind energy is the fastest growing source of electricity in the world. In 2012, nearly 45,000
megawatts (MW) of new capacity were installed worldwide. This stands as a 10 percent
increase in annual additions compared with 2011.

1. The Wind Resource

The wind resource — how fast it blows, how often, and when — plays a significant role in its
power generation cost. The power output from a wind turbine rises as a cube of wind speed.
In other words, if wind speed doubles, the power output increases eight times. Therefore,
higher-speed winds are more easily and inexpensively captured.

Wind turbines operate over a limited range of wind speeds. If the wind is too slow, they won't
be able to turn, and if too fast, they shut down to avoid being damaged. Wind speeds in
classes three (6.7 – 7.4 meters per second (m/s)) and above are typically needed to
economically generate power. Ideally, a wind turbine should be matched to the speed and
frequency of the resource to maximize power production.

Several factors can affect wind speed and the ability of a turbine to generate more power. For
example, wind speed increases as the height from the ground increases. If wind speed at 10
meters off the ground is 6 m/s, it will be about 7.5 m/s at a height of 50 meters. In order to
take advantage of this potential at higher elevations, the rotors of the newest wind turbines
can now reach heights up to 130 meters. In addition to height, the power in the wind varies
with temperature and altitude, both of which affect the air density.

A more precise measurement of output is the "specific yield." This measures the annual
energy output per square meter of area swept by the turbine blades as they rotate. Overall,
wind turbines capture between 20 and 40 percent of the energy in the wind. So at a site with
average wind speeds of 7 m/s, a typical turbine will produce about 1,100 kilowatt-hours
(kWh) per square meter of area per year. An increase in blade length, which in turn increases
the swept area, can have a significant effect on the amount of power output from a wind
turbine.

2. Classification of WEC Systems

Wind turbine generators are generally classified as
 Horizontal-axis type
 Vertical-axis type
Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs)
In a VAWT, the shaft is mounted on a vertical axis, perpendicular to the ground. VAWTs are
always aligned with the wind, unlike their horizontal-axis counterparts, so there's no
adjustment necessary when the wind direction
changes; but a VAWT can't start moving all by
itself - it needs a boost from its electrical system
to get started. Instead of a tower, it typically
uses guy wires for support, so the rotor
elevation is lower. Lower elevation means
slower wind due to ground interference, so
VAWTs are generally less efficient than
HAWTs. On the upside, all equipment is at
ground level for easy installation and servicing;
but that means a larger footprint for the turbine,
which is a big negative in farming areas.
VAWTs may be used for small-scale turbines
and for pumping water in rural areas. Fig. 1.6 Vertical-axis wind turbine

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs)

As implied by the name, the HAWT shaft is mounted horizontally, parallel to the ground.
HAWTs need to constantly align themselves with the wind using a yaw-adjustment
mechanism. The yaw system typically consists of electric motors and gearboxes that move
the entire rotor left or right in small increments. The turbine's electronic controller reads the
position of a wind vane device (either mechanical or electronic) and adjusts the position of
the rotor to capture the most wind energy available. HAWTs use a tower to lift the turbine
components to an optimum elevation for wind speed (and so the blades can clear the ground)
and take up very little ground space since almost all of the components are up to 260 feet (80
meters) in the air.

HAWT Components:
 Rotor blades - capture wind's energy and convert it to rotational energy of shaft
 Shaft - transfers rotational energy into generator
 Nacelle - casing that holds
the gearbox (increases speed of shaft
between rotor hub and
generator), generator {uses rotational
energy of shaft to generate electricity
using electromagnetism), electronic
control unit (monitors system, shuts down
turbine in case of malfunction and controls
yaw mechanism), yaw controller (moves
rotor to align with direction of wind)
and brakes (stop rotation of shaft in case of
power overload or system failure).
 Tower - supports rotor and nacelle and lifts
entire setup to higher elevation where
blades can safely clear the ground
 Electrical equipment - carries electricity
from generator down through tower and
controls many safety elements of turbine
Fig. 1.7 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

There are a number of safety systems that can turn off a turbine if wind speeds threaten the
structure, including a remarkably simple vibration sensor used in some turbines that basically
consists of a metal ball attached to a chain, poised on a tiny pedestal. If the turbine starts
vibrating above a certain threshold, the ball falls off the pedestal, pulling on the chain and
triggering a shut down.

Probably the most commonly activated safety system in a turbine is the "braking" system,
which is triggered by above-threshold wind speeds.
  Pitch control - The turbine's electronic controller monitors the turbine's power
output. At wind speeds over 45 mph, the power output will be too high, at which point
the controller tells the blades to alter their pitch so that they become unaligned with
the wind. This slows the blades' rotation. Pitch-controlled systems require the blades'
mounting angle (on the rotor) to be adjustable.

 Passive stall control - The blades are mounted to the rotor at a fixed angle but are
designed so that the twists in the blades themselves will apply the brakes once the
wind becomes too fast. The blades are angled so that winds above a certain speed will
cause turbulence on the upwind side of the blade, inducing stall. Simply stated,
aerodynamic stall occurs when the blade's angle facing the oncoming wind becomes
so steep that it starts to eliminate the force of lift, decreasing the speed of the blades.

 Active stall control - The blades in this type of power-control system are pitchable,
like the blades in a pitch-controlled system. An active stall system reads the power
output the way a pitch-controlled system does, but instead of pitching the blades out
of alignment with the wind, it pitches them to produce stall.

Advantages of Wind Turbine

 Eco-Friendly
 Economic Development
 No air pollution
 Wind energy is renewable
 No greenhouse gasses
 Expanding Wind Power development brings jobs to rural communities

Disadvantages

 May create a lot of noise.

 Wind can never be predicted.
 Wind energy depends upon the wind in an area and therefore is a variable source of
energy.
 It covers a large area.
 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS (WECS)
4.1 Introduction
The wind energy conversion system (WECS) includes wind turbines, generators, control
system, interconnection apparatus. The basic device in the wind energy conversion system is
the wind turbine which transfers the kinetic energy into a mechanical energy. The wind
turbine is connected to the electrical generator through a coupling device gear train. The
output of the generator is given to the electrical grid by employing a proper controller to
avoid the disturbances and to protect the system or network. Figure 1 shows the overall block
diagram of the wind energy conversion system (WECS).

Fig. 1: Block diagram of the wind energy conversion system (WECS)

The basic formula for the power of wind in an area A, perpendicular to the wind blowing
direction is given by:

Where P is the power, ρ is the air density, v is the wind speed and Cp is the power
coefficient, which describes the fraction of the wind captured by a wind turbine. According to
Betz law, the value of the power coefficient has a theoretical limit of 59.3%. Technical
roadmap is shown in Fig. 2 starting with wind energy/power and converting the mechanical
power into electrical power. The electrical output can either be ac or dc. In the last case a
power converter has to be used as interface to the grid which also gives maximum
controllability.
 Fig. 2: Roadmap for wind turbine technology from wind to electricity

4.2 Classification of wind turbine rotors

Wind Turbines are mainly classified into horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) and vertical
axis wind turbines (VAWT). Modern wind turbines use HAWT with two or three blades and
operate either downwind or upwind configuration. This HAWT can be designed for a
constant speed application or for the variable speed operation. Among these two types
variable speed wind turbine has high efficiency with reduced mechanical stress and less
noise. Variable speed turbines produce more power than constant speed type comparatively
but it needs sophisticated power converters, control equipments to provide fixed frequency
and constant power factor

4.3 Generator types in wind turbines

The function of an electrical generator is providing a means for energy conversion between
the mechanical torque from the wind rotor turbine, as the prime mover, and the local load or
the electric grid. Different types of generators are being used with wind turbines. Small wind
turbines are equipped with DC generators for up to a few kilowatts in capacity. Modern wind
turbine systems use three-phase AC generators. The common types of AC generator that are
possible candidates in modern wind turbine systems are as follows:

 Asynchronous (induction) generator:

 squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
 wound rotor induction generator (WRIG)
 Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG)
 OptiSlip induction generator (OSIG)
 Synchronous generator:
 wound rotor generator (WRSG)
 permanent magnet generator (PMSG)

4.3.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)

The SCIG speed changes by only a few percent because of the generator slip caused by
changes in wind speed. Therefore, this generator is used for constant-speed wind turbines.
The generator and the wind turbine rotor are coupled through a gearbox. Wind turbines based
on a SCIG are typically equipped with a soft-starter mechanism and an installation setup for
reactive power compensation, as SCIGs consume reactive power. SCIGs have a steep torque
speed characteristic and therefore fluctuations in wind power are transmitted directly to the
grid. These transients are especially critical during the grid connection of the wind turbine,
where the in-rush current can be up to 7–8 times the rated current. Therefore, the connection
of the SCIG to the grid should be made gradually in order to limit the in-rush current. The
major problem is because of the magnetizing current, the full load power factor is relatively
low. The low power factor is compensated by connecting capacitors in parallel to the
generator. In the case of a fault, SCIGs without any reactive power compensation system can
lead to voltage instability on the grid.

4.3.2 Doubly fed induction generator

The term ‘doubly fed’ refers to the fact that the voltage on the stator is applied from the grid
and the voltage on the rotor is induced by the power converter. This system allows a variable-
speed operation over a large, but restricted in range. The converter compensates the
difference between the mechanical and electrical frequency by injecting a rotor current with a
variable frequency. Both during normal operation and faults the behaviour of the generator is
thus governed by the power converter and its controllers. The power converter consists of
two converters, the rotor-side converter and grid-side converter, which are controlled
independently of each other. The rotor-side converter controls the active and reactive power
by controlling the rotor current components, while the line-side converter controls the DC-
link voltage and ensures a converter operation at unity power factor. In both cases – sub
synchronous and over synchronous – the stator feeds energy into the grid. The DFIG has
several advantages. It has the ability to control reactive power and to decouple active and
reactive power control by independently controlling the rotor excitation current. It is also
capable of generating reactive power that can be delivered to the stator by the grid-side
converter. In case of a weak grid, where the voltage may fluctuate, the DFIG may be ordered
to produce or absorb an amount of reactive power to or from the grid, with the purpose of
voltage control. The converter used in DFIG is back to back converter.

4.3.3 Optislip induction generator

The Optislip feature allows generator to have a variable slip and to choose the optimum slip,
resulting in smaller fluctuations in torque and power output. The variable slip is a very
simple, reliable and cost-effective way to achieve load reductions. WRIG includes a variable
external rotor resistance by means of which the slip can be controlled. The converter is
optically controlled, which means that no slip rings are necessary. The stator of the generator
is connected directly to the grid. The advantages of this generator concept are a simple circuit
topology, no need for slip rings and an improved operating speed range compared with the
SCIG. To certain extend, this concept can reduce the mechanical loads and power
fluctuations caused gusts. However, it still requires a reactive power compensation system.
The disadvantages includes the speed range is typically limited to 0–10 %, poor control of
active and reactive power is achieved and the slip power is dissipated in the variable
resistance as losses.

4.3.4 Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator (WRSG)

The stator windings of WRSGs are connected directly to the grid and hence the rotational
speed is strictly fixed by the frequency of the supply grid. The rotor winding is excited with
direct current using slip rings and with brushes or with a brushless exciter with a rotating
rectifier. Unlike the induction generator, the synchronous generator does not need any further
reactive power compensation system. The rotor winding, through which direct current flows,
generates the exciter field, which rotates with synchronous speed. The speed of the
synchronous generator is determined by the frequency of the rotating field and by the number
of pole pairs of the rotor. It has the advantage that it does not need a gearbox.

4.3.5 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)

In the permanent magnet machine, the efficiency is higher than the induction machine, as the
excitation is provided without any energy supply. However, the materials used for producing
permanent magnets are expensive. Additionally, the use of PM excitation requires the use of
a full scale power converter in order to adjust the voltage and frequency of generation to the
voltage and the frequency of transmission, respectively. The power can be generated at any
speed so as to fit the current conditions. The stator of PMSGs is wound, and the rotor is
provided with a permanent magnet pole system. The synchronous nature of the PMSG may
cause problems during startup, synchronization and voltage regulation. It does not readily
provide a constant voltage. Another disadvantage of PMSGs is that the magnetic materials
are sensitive to temperature. Therefore, the rotor temperature of a PMSG must be supervised
and a cooling system is required.

4.4 CONTROL METHODS:

Controller is designed to adjust the turbine speed to extract the maximum power from wind
source. The control methods developed for WECS are usually divided in to following two
major categories
 Constant speed methods
 Variable speed methods
4.4.1 Variable Speed versus Constant Speed Operation
The fixed-speed wind turbine has the advantage of being simple, robust, reliable and well-
proven. And the cost of its electrical parts is low. Its disadvantages are; an uncontrollable
reactive power consumption, mechanical stress and limited power quality control. Owing to
its fixed-speed operation, all fluctuations in the wind speed are further transmitted as
fluctuations in the mechanical torque and then as fluctuations in the electrical power on the
grid.
The variable speed wind turbines are designed to achieve maximum aerodynamic efficiency
over a wide range of wind speed. By introducing variable speed operation, it is possible to
continuously adapt (accelerate or decelerate) the rotational speed of the wind turbine to the
wind speed, in such a way that the tip speed ratio is kept constant to a predefined value
corresponding to the maximum power coefficient of the blades. In a variable speed system
the generator torque is kept nearly constant, the power variations in the wind being absorbed
by the generator speed changes. The presence of power converters in wind turbines also
provides high potential control such as: controllable active and reactive power (frequency and
voltage control); quick response under transient and dynamic power system situations,
influence on network stability and improved power quality.
The most important advantages of the variable speed operation compared to the conventional
fixed speed operation are: reduced mechanical stress on the mechanical components such as
shaft and gearbox, increased power capture and reduced acoustical noise. The disadvantages
are losses in power electronics, the use of more components and the increased cost of
equipment because of the power electronics.
The figure 3 shows that a variable-speed system outputs more energy than the constant speed
system.

Fig. 3: Comparison of power produced by a variable-speed wind turbine and a constant speed
wind turbine at different wind speeds.

4.5 STAND ALONE OPERATION OF FIXED AND VARIABLE SPEED WIND ENERGY
CONVERSION SYSTEMS
4.5.1 Fixed Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems
Fixed-speed WECS operate at constant speed. That means, regardless of the wind speed, the
wind turbine rotor speed is fixed and determined by the grid frequency. Fixed-speed WECS
are typically equipped with squirrel-cage induction generators (SCIG), soft starter and
capacitor bank and they are connected directly to the grid, as shown in Fig. 4. These types of
generators are operated with less than 1% variation of rotor speed, which is also the reason to
be called as fixed speed wind generators.

Fig. 4: General structure of a fixed-speed WECS

This configuration corresponds to the so called Danish concept that was very popular in 80’s.
This concept needs a reactive power compensator to reduce (almost eliminate) the reactive
power demand from the turbine generators to the grid. It is usually done by continuously
switching capacitor banks following the power production variation (5-25 steps). Smoother
grid connection occurs by incorporating a soft-starter. Regardless the aerodynamic power
control principle in a fixed speed wind turbine, the wind fluctuations are converted into
mechanical fluctuations and further into electrical power fluctuations. These can yield to
voltage fluctuations at the point of connection in the case of a weak grid.
SCIG-based WECS are designed to achieve maximum power efficiency at a unique wind
speed. In order to increase the power efficiency, the generator of some fixed-speed WECS
has two winding sets, and thus two speeds. The first set is used at low wind speed (typically
eight poles) and the other at medium and large wind speeds (typically four to six poles).
Fixed-speed WECS has the advantage of being simple, robust and reliable, with inexpensive
electric systems and well proven operation. The main drawbacks of this concept are: does not
support any speed control, requires a stiff grid and its mechanical construction must be able
to support high mechanical stress caused by wind gusts.

4.5.2 Variable-speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems

Variable-speed wind turbines are currently the most used WECS. Variable speed wind
turbine generators permits to provide more effective power capture than the fixed speed
counterparts. In fact, variable speed wind turbines have demonstrated to capture 8-15% more
energy than constant speed machines. In variable speed operation, a control system designed
to extract maximum power from the wind turbine and to provide constant grid voltage and
frequency is required. The variable speed operation is possible due to the power electronic
converters interface, allowing a full (or partial) decoupling from the grid.

A. Partial Variable Speed Wind Turbine with Variable Rotor Resistance

This configuration corresponds to the limited variable speed controlled wind turbine with
variable rotor resistance, known as OptiSlip which is presented in Fig. 5. It uses a wound
rotor induction generator (WRIG) and it has been used by since the mid 1990’s.

Fig. 5: Partial variable speed wind turbine with variable rotor resistance.
The generator is directly connected to the grid. The rotor winding of the generator is
connected in series with a controlled resistance, whose size defines the range of the variable
speed (typically 0-10% above synchronous speed). A capacitor bank compensates the
reactive power. Smooth grid connection occurs by means of a soft-starter. An extra resistance
is added in the rotor circuit, which can be controlled by power electronics. Thus, the total
rotor resistance is controllable and thus the power output in the system are controlled. The
dynamic speed control range depends on the size of the variable rotor resistance. The energy
coming from the external power conversion unit is dissipated as heat loss activated at full
load operation.
B. Variable Speed WT with partial-scale Power converter
This configuration is known as the doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) concept, which
gives a variable speed controlled wind turbine with a Doubly Fed induction generator
(WRIG) and partial power scale Power converter (rated to approx. 30% of nominal generator
power) on the rotor circuit. The topology is shown in Fig. 6
 Fig. 6: Variable speed wind turbine with partial scale power converter.
The doubly-fed-induction-generator (DFIG)-based WECS, also known as improved variable-
speed WECS, is presently the most used by the wind turbine industry. The stator is directly
connected to the grid, while a partial-scale power converter controls the rotor frequency and
thus the rotor speed. The term “doubly-fed” comes from the fact that the stator voltage is
applied from the grid and the rotor voltage is impressed by the power converter. The power
rating of this partial-scale frequency converter defines the speed range (typically ±30%
around synchronous speed).
The power electronics converter comprises of two IGBT converters, namely the rotor side
and the grid side converter, connected with a direct current (DC) link. The rotor side
converter controls the generator in terms of active and reactive power, while the grid side
converter controls the DC-link voltage and ensures operation at a large power factor. The
stator outputs power into the grid all the time. Moreover, this converter performs the reactive
power compensation and a smooth grid connection. The control range of the rotor speed is
wider compared to the variable rotor resistance type. The smaller power converter makes this
concept attractive from an economical point of view.
DFIG-based WECS are highly controllable, allowing maximum power extraction over a large
range of wind speeds. Furthermore, the active and reactive power control is fully decoupled
by independently controlling the rotor currents. Its main drawbacks are the use of slip-rings
and the protection schemes/controllability in the case of grid faults.
C. Variable Speed Wind Turbine with Full-scale Power Converter:
This configuration corresponds to the full variable speed controlled wind turbine, with the
generator connected to the grid through a full-scale power converter as shown in Fig. 7. Full
variable-speed WECS are very flexible in terms of the type of generator used. It can be
equipped with either an induction (SCIG) or a synchronous generator. The synchronous
generator can be either a wound-rotor synchronous generator (WRSG) or a permanent-
magnet synchronous generator (PMSG), the latter being the one mostly used by the wind
turbine industry.

Fig. 7: Variable speed wind turbine with full-scale power converter

The Power converter performs the reactive power compensation and a smooth grid
connection for the entire speed range. The generator can be electrically excited (wound rotor
synchronous generator WRSG) or permanent magnet excited type (permanent magnet
synchronous generator PMSG). The stator windings are connected to the grid through a full-
scale power converter. Some variable speed wind turbine systems are gearless; in these cases,
a more heavy direct driven multi-pole generator may be used. Using a permanent magnet
synchronous generator, the DC excitation system is eliminated and allows reducing weight,
losses, costs, and maintenance requirements (no slip rings are required). This is a big
advantage of PMSG-based WECS as the gearbox is a sensitive device in wind power
systems.

4.6 PROBLEMS RELATED WITH GRID CONNECTIONS IN WECS

The impacts on the transmission network are viewed not as an obstacle to development, but
rather as obstacles that must be overcome. High penetration of intermittent wind power
(greater than 20 percent of generation meeting load) may affect the network in the following
ways:
Poor grid stability
For economic exploitation of wind energy, a reliable grid is as important due to the
availability of strong winds. The loss of generation for want of stable grid can be 10% to 20%
and this deficiency may perhaps be the main reasons for low actual energy output of WEGs
compared to the predicted output in known windy areas with adequate wind data.

Low-frequency operation
Low frequency operation affects the output of WEGs in two ways. Many WEGs do not get
cut-in, when the frequency is less than 48 Hz (for standard frequency of 50 Hz) though wind
conditions are favourable, with consequent loss in output. This deficiency apart, the output of
WEGs at low frequency operation is considerably reduced, due to reduced speed of the rotor.
The loss in output could be about 5 to 10% on the account of low frequency operation.

Impact of low power factor

WEGs fitted with induction generators need reactive power for magnetizing. Normally in
conventional energy systems, generators apart from supplying active power will be supplying
a reactive power. But in case of WEGs fitted with induction generators, instead of supplying
reactive power to the grid, they absorb reactive power from grid, which undoubtedly is a
strain on the grid. Suitable reactive power compensation may be required to reduce the
reactive power burden on the grid.

Power flow
Interconnecting transmission or distribution lines should not be over-loaded. This type of
analysis is needed to ensure that the introduction of additional generation will not overload
the lines and other electrical equipment. Both active and reactive power requirements should
be investigated.

Short circuit
Impact of additional generation sources leads to the short circuit current ratings of existing
electrical equipment on the network.
Power Quality
Fluctuations in the wind power may have direct impact on the quality of power supply. As a
result, large voltage fluctuations may result in voltage variations outside the regulation limits,
as well as violations on flicker and other power quality standards.