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Petroleum Rock
Mechanics
Petroleum Rock
Mechanics
Drilling Operations and Well
Design
Second Edition

BERNT S. AADNØY
REZA LOOYEH
Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek
permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our
arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright
Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by
the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter
of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-12-815903-3

For Information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Brian Romer

Senior Acquisition Editor: Katie Hammon
Editorial Project Manager: John Leonard
Production Project Manager: Bharatwaj Varatharajan
Cover Designer: Mark Rogers
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
 DEDICATION

To our families:
Oddbjørg, Vidar, Trond Eric, and Anders
Marjan, Ryan, and Nikki
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

This book is the outcome of a comprehensive collaborative work and has

been developed by “equal contributions” from two authors, that is, Bernt
S. Aadnøy and Reza Looyeh. Brief biographies of both authors are pre-
sented below:
Bernt S. Aadnøy
Bernt Sigve Aadnøy is a professor in the Petroleum Engineering
Department at the University of Stavanger in Norway. His industrial
experience started early as he worked as a workshop mechanic for 5 years
before attending college. He started in the oil industry as a trainee for
Phillips Petroleum in Odessa, TX in 1978, and later worked for Phillips
Ekofisk operations in Norway. In 1980 he started working for Rogaland
Research Institute where he mainly built a full-scale offshore drilling rig
for research purposes. This facility, called Ullrigg, still carries out research
both in well technology and in rig automation.
Professor Aadnøy later worked as a drilling engineer for Statoil but
moved to Saga Petroleum at which he worked until 1994. At this time,
he became a tenured professor at the University of Stavanger. From 1994
to present, he has done consultancy work for many oil companies, includ-
ing being advisor for the Petroleum Safety Authority since 2003.
In the period 1998 2003 he was adjunct professor at the University
of the Faroe Islands where he built a petroleum engineering program
aimed at the coming deep water exploration activities. In 2009 he was a
visiting professor at the University of Calgary and in 2012 he was a visit-
ing professor at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro.
Professor Aadnøy holds a Mechanical Engineers degree from
Stavanger Tech., a BSc degree in mechanical engineering from the
University of Wyoming, an MS degree in control engineering from
the University of Texas, and a PhD in petroleum rock mechanics from
the Norwegian Institute of Technology. He has authored more than 250
conference and journal publications mostly within drilling and rock
mechanics but also within reservoir engineering and production. He has
authored or coauthored eight books, among these are Mechanics of
Drilling and Modern Well Design, and he was chief editor for the Society
of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Advanced Drilling and Well Technology

xi
xii About the Authors

book. And he has also authored the common Well Design manual for the
Norwegian oil companies, and he holds 10 patents.
Professor Aadnøy is a member of the Norwegian Academy of
Technological Sciences. He has received numerous awards over the years,
among them he was the 1999 recipient of the SPE International Drilling
Engineering Award. In 2015 he was elected Honorary Member of the
SPE and the AIME (the American Institute for Petroleum and
Metallurgical Engineers). He was also recognized as the 2018 SPE
Professional of the Year in Norway.
Reza Looyeh
Mohammad Reza Ebrahimi Looyeh (known as Reza Looyeh) is a reg-
istered chartered engineer, a fellow member of Institution of Mechanical
Engineers (IMechE) in the United Kingdom and a member of American
Society of Mechanical Engineers. He holds a BSc in Mechanical
Engineering from Tehran University, Iran (1989, Honors Degree), an
MSc from Newcastle University, United Kingdom, in Offshore
Engineering (1994), and a PhD from Durham University, United
Kingdom, in Mechanical and Material Engineering (1999).
Dr. Looyeh is presently the engineering and technical authority man-
ager at PT. Chevron Pacific Indonesia, a position he has held since April
2015; he is however on move to lead the reliability function of two major
fields in Chevron North America Exploration and Production in
Bakersfield, California from April 2019. In his current role, he manages a
team of subject matter experts in all engineering discipline areas including
fixed and rotating equipment, instrumentation and control, power and
electrical systems, civil and structural engineering, process engineering,
materials and corrosion, and piping and pipelines. He was a project man-
ager in Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil Company in Angola for the installa-
tion of two subsea pipelines from July 2011 to April 2015. He joined
Chevron Corporation downstream operations in 2006 where he was an
engineering leader for nearly 5 years before assuming his international
work assignments. Prior to joining Chevron, he worked for Lloyd’s
Register EMEA for 4.5 years as a project manager and senior inspector
and for Robert Gordon University for 2.5 years as a lecturer in mechani-
cal and offshore engineering during which he taught various topics in
mechanical, and oil and gas engineering to BEng, BSc, and MSc students
and conducted comprehensive research with his main interest in the use
of polymer composite materials for offshore applications in collaboration
 About the Authors xiii

with industry, governmental agencies, and a number of local and national

universities.
Dr. Looyeh has over 27 technical publications on a variety of topics,
including two review papers, one published in 2005 and the second in
2010, for the use of high temperature reinforced polymer composites for
offshore applications. From 1999 to 2006, Dr. Looyeh was based in
Aberdeen, United Kingdom, where he taught the main content of this
book to BSc and MSc students at Robert Gordon University as part of
Drilling Technology and Offshore Engineering Courses. He also devel-
oped a full course for the university Open Distant Learning.
Dr. Looyeh has received several awards over the years, among them
was a recent award for the best engineering paper in hydrocarbon tank
designs and innovative repairs in an international refereed conference in
2018. He is a member of Engineering Equipment and Materials User’s
Association’s Piping Systems Committee and Materials Technology
Committee, and an industrial advisor to IMechE in oil and gas sector.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

We have used the first edition of the book in teaching courses in the last
few years. We have also communicated with other users of the book and
have identified subjects that could be dealt with in more details and some
of the newer technologies or recent developments which could be added
to this second edition. The following sections and/or chapters are added
in the second edition of the book:
Section 8.8 is added which deals with obtaining both in situ stresses
from elliptical wellbores. Including the wellbore geometry, the stress
equations can be solved.
An entirely new Chapter 10, drilling design and selection of optimal
mud weight, is added. This chapter deals with practical application of
wellbore stability analysis by optimal mud weight selection. The
“mid-line principle” is a practical way to define mud weights.
Section 12.15 is added. This is a short guide to practical wellbore
instability analysis.
Also, an entirely new Chapter 16 covering shale oil and hydraulic frac-
turing, is added. This chapter deals with the shale gas, shale oil, hydraulic
fracturing, and horizontal drilling for unconventional resources, making it
more relevant for today’s operations.
It is our intent with the second edition to complete the book and
make it applicable for both conventional and unconventional petroleum
exploitation.

Bernt S. Aadnøy and Reza Looyeh

Second edition, April 2019

xv
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

This book provides the principles of engineering rock mechanics to

petroleum-related engineering disciplines. It covers the fundamentals of
solid mechanics and provides a systematic approach for their applications
to oil- and gas-related drilling operations, and well design problems.
The first and primary objective is to present rock mechanics fundamen-
tals on a level appropriate for both inexperienced university students and
experienced engineers. To achieve this goal the concepts have been devel-
oped in a logical order from simple to more complex, to enable the reader
to learn and use them, and, if needed, to develop them further for more
practical and complex petroleum rock mechanics problems.
The second key objective is to ensure that the topics are developed and
treated sufficiently throughout the text giving the reader the opportunity
to understand them without having the need to consult other sources. This
has been achieved by developing every topic consistently in link with
previous topics, and providing practical examples and a comprehensive
glossary of terminologies used throughout the text.
The role of formation, strength of rock materials and wellbore mechan-
ics in drilling operations and well design are highlighted systematically to
also include details of practical in situ stress changes and how they impact
on wellbore and borehole behavior. The concluding equations are used
methodically and incorporated into well-known failure criteria to predict
stresses. They have also been used to assess various failure scenarios, analyze
wellbore stability, and determine fracture and collapse behavior for single
and multilateral wells. The assessment has also been extended to include
drilling methodologies, such as under balanced drilling and the use of prob-
abilistic technique to minimize uncertainties and maximize the likelihood
of success.
This book is divided into two parts: fundamentals of solid mechanics
and petroleum rock mechanics. The first part comprises five chapters from
basic stress definition to three-dimensional stress state, and introduction of
constitutive relations, and failure criteria. The second part comprises nine
chapters and begins with Chapter 6 on the basic definition of rock materi-
als followed by Chapter 7 on effective and in situ stresses. Measurement
and estimation techniques for key drilling parameters, such as pore pres-
sure and in situ stresses, and details of laboratory testing of rock strength

xvii
xviii Preface to the First Edition

form an important part of this book as presented in Chapters 8 and 9. The

book then continues to provide methods to evaluate stresses in far field and
around the wellbore in Chapter 10 and it comprehensively discusses differ-
ent failure scenarios throughout drilling, well operation and well comple-
tion processes as presented in Chapter 11. Chapters 12 and 13 offer the
details of the newer techniques in the assessment of wellbore stability.
These include the inversion technique and the quantitative risk assessment
approach. Both techniques use the reverse engineering concept to achieve
optimal design criteria prior to or during drilling operation. The last chapter
reports some of the recent research findings in mud circulation losses and
leak-off test evaluation. It also provides a basic understanding of fracture
mechanics concept and offers areas for further development work.
This book is developed based on decades of experience of teaching
and researching on this topic, as a separate course or as part of drilling and
petroleum engineering or other relevant courses, to final year BSc and
BEng, MSc, and PhD students. It provides implicit examples with solu-
tions and some practical and real field related problems at the end of
each chapter to enable students as well as experienced engineers to
test their knowledge and apply the same methodologies to their field
work related problems.
Those, who have used this book in full, are expected to gain a good
understanding of theoretical and practical petroleum rock mechanics
mainly associated with drilling operation and wellbore problems. They
should also expect to have a good grasp of the key roles and impacts of
rock mechanics on the success of drilling operations, well engineering and
design, well completions, stimulation, and oil and gas production.
There is no prerequisite in using this book. Nevertheless, basic under-
standing of solid mechanics, hydrostatics and familiarity with rock materi-
als would help the reader to advance through the early chapters in a faster
pace.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our sincere appreciation first goes to colleagues and students who have
made substantial contributions to our research work, published articles,
and course notes, making the bases for this book, throughout many years
of teaching and researching in drilling engineering and petroleum rock
mechanics.
 Preface to the First Edition xix

We are also indebted to Ken McCombs, the Senior Editor of the Gulf
Professional Publishing Imprint at Elsevier Science and Technology
books, for reviewing and accepting our book proposal, and also, for his
continuous assistance and guidance throughout.
Our special thanks also due to Dr. Afshin Motarjemi for reviewing the
initial book proposal and to Elsevier administrative staff for providing con-
tinuous assistance.
Thanks and apologies to others whose contributions we may have
missed or forgotten to acknowledge.
Last, but certainly not least, our heartfelt gratitude goes to our families
for their patience, loving support, and continual encouragement.
Bernt S. Aadnøy and Reza Looyeh
September 2010
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our sincere appreciation first goes to colleagues and students who have
made substantial contributions to our research work, published articles,
and course notes, making the bases for first and second edition of this
book, throughout many years of teaching and researching in drilling engi-
neering and petroleum rock mechanics.
We are grateful to the support group at Elsevier: Katie Hammon,
John Leonard, Swapna Praveen, and Bharatwaj Varatharajan. Without
their efforts and patience, the second edition of the book may not have
made it to print.
We are also grateful to Tamara Idland and Fiona Oijordsbakken
Fredheim for their discussions and allowing us to use part of their thesis in
the development of Chapter 16, shale oil, shale gas, and hydraulic
fracturing.
Thanks and apologies to others whose contributions we may have
missed or forgotten to acknowledge.
Last, but certainly not the least, our heartfelt gratitude goes to our
families for their continuous patience, loving support, and continual
encouragement during the development of the second edition of the book.

xxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS

Below is the list of symbols and abbreviations used throughout this book.
Two key units of measurements, that is, SI and Imperial, are quoted for
every relevant symbol for reference. To convert units from SI to Imperial,
and vice versa, use the unit conversion table provided in Chapter 6,
Introduction to Petroleum Rock Mechanics.
a borehole radius (m, in.)
major axes of ellipse
A half initial crack length (m, in.)
surface area (m2, in.2)
b minor axes of ellipse
c ellipse ratio
d formation depth (m, ft.)
D depth (m, in.)
(bit) diameter (m, in.)
e crack surface unit energy (J)
E Young’s modulus (Pa, psi)
f friction factor
function
fe Matthews and Kelly effective stress coefficient
fL limit state function
fP Pennebaker stress ratio coefficient
fr Christman stress ratio factor
F force (N, lbf)
Fx designated body force in x direction (N, lbf)
Fy designated body force in y direction (N, lbf)
Fz designated body force in z direction (N, lbf)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2, ft./s2)
G shear modulus (Pa, psi)
Gf fracture gradient (N/m, lbf/ft.)
H formation thickness (m, ft.)
height (m, ft.)
I invariant
If frictional index
Ii intact index
J deviatoric invariant
k fracture testing parameter
Mogi
Coulomb failure criterion material constant
K bulk modulus
constitutive relation element
KA, KB stress concentration factors
KD drillability factor
KS Poisson’s ratio scaling factor

xxiii
xxiv List of Symbols

l length (m, in.)

L length (m, in.)
m Mogi
Coulomb failure criterion material constant
M mean (value) function
moment (N m, lbf ft.)
n directional normal to a plane
elastic moduli ratio
nx normal vector in x direction
ny normal vector in y direction
nz normal vector in z direction
N rotary speed (RPM)
p pressure gradient (s.g.)
P pressure (Pa, psi)
probability function
Po pore pressure (Pa, psi)
Pw wellbore internal pressure (Pa, psi)
Pwc critical wellbore pressure causing collapse (Pa, psi)
Pwf Critical wellbore pressure causing fracture (Pa, psi)
q transformation element (directional cosine)
r, θ, z cylindrical coordinate system
R radius (m, in.)
response function
S standard deviation function
strength (Pa, psi)
stress action on a cutting plane (Pa, psi)
T temperature (°C)
u, v, w deformation in x, y, and z directions (m, in.)
u_ velocity in x direction (m/s, ft./s)
v Poisson’s ratio
V volume of sand (m3, in.3)
Vs volume of sand (m3, in.3)
Vw volume of water (m3, in.3)
x, y, z Cartesian (global) coordinate system
X vector of physical variables
α breakout/damage angle (degrees)
coefficient of linear thermal expansion (°C 2 1)
fracture parameter
strain hardening factor
thermal diffusivity of fluid (m2/s)
β fracture angle (degrees)
fracture parameter
Biot’s constant
δ stability margin (mud window) (Pa, psi)
ε normal strain
γ shear strain
borehole inclination from vertical (y axis) (degrees)
specific gravity (N/m3, lbf/ft.3)
φ angle of internal friction (degrees)
porosity
 List of Symbols xxv

ϕ geographical azimuth
(borehole angle of orientation) (degrees)
κ permeability (µm2, darcy)
λ sensitivity
μ dynamic viscosity (Pa s, lb/cm/s)
θ angle (degrees)
borehole position from x axis
(angle of rotation) (degrees)
ρb formation bulk density (kg/m3, lb/in.3)
ρF density of fluid (kg/m3, lb/in.3)
ρR density of rock (kg/m3, lb/in.3)
ρs density of sand (kg/m3, lb/in.3)
ρw density of water (kg/m3, lb/in.3)
σ normal stress (Pa, psi)
σa average horizontal in situ stress (Pa, psi)
σc crack stress parameter
σh minimum horizontal in situ stress (Pa, psi)
σH maximum horizontal in situ stresses (Pa, psi)
σt tensile stress (Pa, psi)
σv vertical (overburden) in situ stress (Pa, psi)
σθ tangential (hoop) stress (Pa, psi)
τ shear stress (Pa, psi)
tensor of stress component
τo linear cohesion strength
Ω formation region
Ψ airy stress function
ξ, η local arbitrary coordinate system
ΔP pressure drop (Pa, psi)

SUBSCRIPTS
1, 2, 3 principal direction
C critical
Fr fracture resistance
I index for interpore material
L limit state function
N normal
m most likely (mean) value
M average
o initial value
reference value
oct octahedral
R reference
S shear
sf shallow fracture
T temperature
xxvi List of Symbols

T tensile
UC unconfined compressive
x partial derivative with respect to x
xx second partial derivative with respect to x
y partial derivative with respect to y
yy second partial derivative with respect to y

SUPERSCRIPTS
‘ arbitrary system
T transpose

after depletion

OTHER
d differential
@ partial differential
r partial derivative operator
N infinity
[] matrix

ABBREVIATIONS
AIF angle of internal friction
APAC Asia Pacific
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
atm atmosphere
BOP blowout preventer
BPD barrel per day
BS British Standard
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
DOE Department of Energy
DSA differential strain analysis
DST drillstem test
ECF equivalent circulating density
EEMUA Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association
EIA Energy Information Administration
EOR enhance oil recovery
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EUR Europe
FEED front end engineering design
FG fracture gradient
FIT formation integrity test
FPP formation propagation pressure
FSU Former Soviet Union
GRI Gas Research Institute
HPHT high-pressure high-temperature
IGIP initial gas in place
 List of Symbols xxvii

IMechE Institution of Mechanical Engineers

IOIP initial oil in place
IRSM International Society for Rock Mechanics
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IWS intelligent well systems
LNG liquefied natural gas
LOF likelihood of failure
LOT leak-off test
LS likelihood of success
LSF limit state function
LWD logging while drilling
MDT measured direct test
MENA Middle East and North Africa
MSL mean sea level
MTC materials technology committee
NA North America
NEMS National Energy Modeling System
NORM naturally occurring radioactive materials
NPZ neutral partition zone
OD outer diameter
ODL open distant learning
PCF pound per cubic feet
PIT pressure integrity test
ppb pounds per barrel (also quoted as lbm/bbl)
PSC piping systems committee
PVT pressure volume temperature
QRA quantitative risk assessment
RKB rotary kelly bushing
ROP rate of penetration
RPM revolution per minute
SAC South America and Caribbean
SDWA safe drilling water act
SIP shut-in pressure
SPE Society of Petroleum Engineers
SSA sub-Saharan Africa
STB/d stock tank barrel per day
TCF trillion cubic feet
TD total depth
TOC total organic carbon
TRR technologically recoverable resource
TVD true vertical depth
UBD underbalanced drilling
UCS unconfined compressive strength
USBM US Bureau of Mines
VOC volatile organic compound
WAG water alternating gas
WOB weight-on-bit force
CHAPTER 1

Stress/Strain Definitions and

Components
1.1 GENERAL CONCEPT
Engineering systems must be designed to withstand the actual and
probable loads that may be imposed on them. Hence the wall of a dam
must be of adequate strength to hold out mainly the reservoir water
pressure but also to withstand other loads, such as seismic occasional
shocks, thermal expansions/contractions, and many others. A tennis racket
is designed to take dynamic and impact loads imposed by a fast-moving
flying tennis ball. It must also be adequately designed to withstand impact
loads when incidentally hitting a hard ground. An oil drilling equipment
must be designed to suitably and adequately drill through different types
of rock materials, but at the same time ensuring that its imposing loads
would not cause rock formation integrity affecting the stability of the
drilled well.
The concept of solid mechanics provides the analytical methods of
designing solid engineering systems with adequate strength, stiffness,
stability, and integrity. Although it is different but very much overlaps
with the concept and analytical methods provided by continuum mechanics.
Solid mechanics is used broadly across all branches of the engineering
science including many applications, such as oil and gas exploration,
drilling, completion, and production. In this concept the behavior of an
engineering object, subjected to various forces and constraints (as shown
in Fig. 1.1), is evaluated using the fundamental laws of Newtonian mechan-
ics, that governs the balance of forces, and the mechanical properties or
characteristics of the materials from which the object is made.
The two key elements of solid mechanics are the internal resistance of
a solid object to balance the effects of imposing external forces, repre-
sented by a term called stress, and the shape change and deformation of
the solid object in response to external forces, denoted by strain. The next
sections of this chapter are devoted to defining these two elements and
their relevant components.

Petroleum Rock Mechanics © 2019 Elsevier Inc.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815903-3.00001-7 All rights reserved. 3
4 Petroleum Rock Mechanics

Heat flux
Z

F1
F2

Solid core Y

Fn

F3
X Outflow
flux
Figure 1.1 A solid object subjected to various forces and constraints.

1.2 DEFINITION OF STRESS

In general, stress is defined as average force acting over area. This area
may be a surface, or an imaginary plane inside a material. Since the stress
is a force per unit area, as given in the equation below, it is independent
of the size of the body.
Force F
σ5 5 (1.1)
Area A
where σ is the stress (Pa or psi), F is the force (N or lbf), and A represents
the surface area (m2 or in.2).
Stress is also independent of the shape of the body. We will show later
that the stress level depends on the orientation. The criterion that governs
this is the force balance and the concept of Newton’s second law.
Fig. 1.2 illustrates a simple one-dimensional stress state where a body is
loaded to a uniform stress level of σaxial. Since the body is in equilibrium,
an action stress from the left must be balanced by a reaction stress on the
right. By defining an arbitrary imaginary plane inside the body the forces
acting on this plane must balance as well, regardless of the orientation of
the plane. Two types of stresses are therefore resulted from the equilib-
rium condition; these are normal stress σ, which acts normal to the plane,
and shear stress τ, which acts along the plane. The normal stress may
result to tensile or compressive failure and the shear stress to shear failure
where the material is sheared or slipped along a plane.
 Stress/Strain Definitions and Components 5

σ
σaxial σaxial

θ
τ

θ
σaxial

τ
Figure 1.2 A stress component may result into normal and shear stresses acting on
an imaginary plane.

σz

τzy
τyz
τzx

τxz σy
τyx
τxy

σx

Figure 1.3 Three-dimensional stress state of a cube.

Note 1.1: Stress component may be transformed into other stress components
by defining arbitrary planes inside the body. The law governing this is the
balance of forces.

1.3 STRESS COMPONENTS

We start with a general three-dimensional case as shown in Fig. 1.3. This
figure shows a cube with the respective stresses. Only the stresses acting
on the faces of the cube are shown. Balance of forces requires that equal
stresses act in the opposite direction on the three sides of the cube.
Nine different components of stress can be seen in Fig. 1.3. These are
required to determine the state of stress at a point. The stress components
6 Petroleum Rock Mechanics

can be grouped into two categories, that is, σx ; σy ; and σz , as normal

stresses and τ xy ; τ yx ; τ xz ; τ zx ; τ yz ; and τ zy as shear stresses.
The stress components have indices, which relate to the Cartesian
coordinate system. The first index defines the axis normal to the plane on
which the stress acts. The second index defines the direction of the stress
component. Normal stresses with two identical indexes are given with
one index, for example, σxx
σx .
For the cube to be in the state of equilibrium, we verify the stress state
about z-axis as shown in Fig. 1.4 and define a moment balance about the
origin, which is resulted into
P dy       dx dy
Mo 5 2 ðσx dyÞ 1 τ xy dy dx 2 τ yx dx dy 1 σy dx 1 ðσx dyÞ
2 2 2
  dx
2 σy dx 50
2
P    
or Mo 5 τ xy dy dx 2 τ yx dx dy 5 0
or τ xy 5 τ yx
(1.2)
By writing similar equations for x and y axes the stress state can now
be defined by three normal and three shear stresses as given in the follow-
ing equation:
2 3
σx τ xy τ xz
½σ 5 4 τ xy σy τ yz 5 (1.3)
τ xz τ yz σz
The stress matrix given above is symmetric about its diagonal.

y
σy

τyx

y
dx τxy
σx σx
dy
τxy

o x
τyx

σy

Figure 1.4 Stresses acting on xy plane.

 Stress/Strain Definitions and Components 7

Note 1.2: In the analysis of solid rocks, compressive stresses are usually defined
as positive entities and tensile stresses as negative. This is opposite the sign con-
vention used for the analysis of other engineering materials.

1.4 DEFINITION OF STRAIN

When a body is subjected to loading, it will undergo displacement
and/or deformation. This means that any point in/on the body will
be shifted to another position. Deformation is normally quantified in
terms of the original dimension, and it is represented by strain that is a
dimensionless parameter. Strain is therefore defined as deformation
divided by the original or nondeformed dimension and is simply
expressed by
Δl
ε5 (1.4)
lo
where ε is the strain, Δl is the deformed dimension (m or in.), and lo is
the initial dimension (m or in.).
Strains are categorized into engineering strain and scientific strain. While
the initial/original dimension is used throughout the analysis in the engi-
neering strain, in the scientific strain, the actual dimension, which changes
with time, is applied.
Eq. (1.4) is derived using the concept of small deformation theory. If
large deformations are involved, Eq. (1.4) is no longer valid, and other
definitions are required. Two main large deformation formulas are intro-
duced by Almansi and Green. These are expressed by
l 2 2 lo2
ε5 (1.5)
2l 2
known as Almansi strain formula, and
l 2 2 lo2
ε5 (1.6)
2lo2
known as Green strain formula, respectively. It can be shown that for
small deformations, Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) will be simplified to Eq. (1.4).
The error of using Eq. (1.4) may be negligible for many cases compared
to other assumptions.
8 Petroleum Rock Mechanics

1.5 STRAIN COMPONENTS

Assuming small deformation theory, we will study the deformation of a
square under loading as shown in Fig. 1.5.
It can be seen that the square is moved (translated) and has changed
shape (deformed). The translation in space has actually no effect on stres-
ses, whereas the deformation causes change of stress and is therefore of
interest in failure analysis. Angle of deformation can be expressed by
ð@v=@xÞdx
tan α 5
dx 1 ð@u=@xÞdx
and approximated by
@v
tan α  (1.7)
@x
using the small deformation theory.
The strains in x and y directions are defined by
ð@u=@xÞdx @u ð@v=@yÞdy @v
εx 5 5 ; εy 5 5
dx @x dy @y

ð@v=@xÞdx @v ð@u=@yÞdy @u
εxy 5 5 ; εyx 5 5
dx @x dy @y
and

y
∂u
dy
∂y

∂v
v+ dy
∂y

dy
∂v
α ∂x
dx

o’ x
o
dx
∂u
u+ dx
∂x
Figure 1.5 A square shape before and after loading.
 Stress/Strain Definitions and Components 9

@v @u
εxy 1 εyx 5 1 5 2εxy 5 γ xy (1.8)
@x @y
where ε is known as normal strain and γ as the shear strain.
The three-dimensional strain state can be derived, in the same way as
the three-dimensional stress state [Eq. (1.3)], in a matrix form, as
2 3
εx 12γxy 12γxz
6 7
6 1γ εy 12γ yz 7
½ε 5 6
6 2 xy 7
7
4 5
2γ xz 2γ yz εz
1 1

2 ! !3
@u 1 @u @v 1 @u @w
6 1 1 7
6 @x 2 @y @x 2 @z @x 7
6 7
6 ! !7
6 1 @u @v @v 1 @v @w 7
6 1 1 7
56 7 (1.9)
6 2 @y @x @y 2 @z @y 7
6 ! ! 7
6 7
6 1 @u @w 1 @v @w @w 7
4 1 1 5
2 @z @x 2 @z @y @z

It is seen that the effects of second-order terms have been neglected

by performing linearization. The equations derived are therefore valid for
small deformations, which can be applied to most of engineering materi-
als. If a material exhibits large deformations, the second-order terms
become significant.

Example
1.1. A circular solid piece of rock is tested in a compression testing rig to
examine its stress/strain behavior. The sample is 6 in. in diameter and
12 in. in length with the compression load cell imposing a constant load
of 10,000 lbf equally at both top and bottom of the rock sample.
Assuming a measured reduction in length of 0.02 in., find the compres-
sive stress and strain of the rock.
Solution: We use σ 5 F/A, as defined by Eq. (1.1), where P 5 10,000 lb and A is
π 2 π
A5 d 5 3 62 5 28:27 in:2
4 4
Therefore the compressive stress in the rock piece is
(Continued)
10 Petroleum Rock Mechanics

(Continued) F 10; 000

σ5 5 5 353:7 lbf=in:2 or psi
A 28:27
The compressive strain, as defined in Eq. (1.4), is calculated as
Δl 0:02
ε5 5 5 1:667 3 1023 in:=in: 5 1667 μin:=in:
lo 12

Problems
1.1. Assuming lo 5 200 mm and l 5 220 mm for a metallic rod under tension,
determine strain using the three methods defined by Eqs. (1.4)(1.6)
and compare the results.
1.2. A plane strain test is being performed in a soil-testing apparatus. Before
the test, needles are inserted at distances of 25 mm 3 25 mm as shown
in Fig. 1.6. After deformation, the measured distances are given by

G H I

D E F

A B C

Figure 1.6 Plane strain test.

DF 5 48:2 mm AI 5 70 mm
BH 5 49:1 mm GC 5 67:6 mm
Make a plot of the test results on a millimeter paper assuming that line ABC
remains unchanged during deformation and its corresponding points remain
fixed. The final shape is a parallelogram with GHI parallel to ABC. Determine
the deformations and the strains.

(Continued)
 Stress/Strain Definitions and Components 11

(Continued)
24.5 Tonnes

100 cm

Figure 1.7 Concrete post.

1.3. A short post, constructed from a tube of concrete, supports a compres-

sive load of 24.5 metric tonnes as shown in Fig. 1.7. The inner and outer
diameters of the tube are 91 and 127 cm, respectively, and its length is
100 cm. The shortening of the post is measured as 0.056 cm. Determine
the axial compressive stress and strain in the post. The effect of post’s
weight is neglected. It is also assumed that the post does not buckle
under the load.
1.4. Three different solid steel balls are suspended by three wires of
different lengths as shown in Fig. 1.8 and different diameters, that is,
0.12, 0.08, and 0.05 in., from the top to the bottom, respectively.
Calculate
a. Stresses in the wires and compare the results;
b. Total elongation of the wires; and
c. Strain in every wire and the total strain.
1.5. Fig. 1.9 shows a circular steel rod of length 40 m and diameter 8 mm
hangs in a mine shaft and holds an ore bucket of weight 1.5 kN at its
lower end. Calculate the maximum axial stress taking account of the rod
weight assuming the weight density of rod as 77.0 kN/m3.
(Continued)
12 Petroleum Rock Mechanics

(Continued)
2.2 ft

3.5 lb

2.8 ft

1 lb

2.5 ft

2 lb
Figure 1.8 Balls suspended in wires.

40 m

8 mm

1.5 kN
Figure 1.9 Ore bucket suspended by rod.
Other documents randomly have
different content
The watcher on the west side, where the fading light still enabled
him to see, saw a mop of black hair rise cautiously over an
advancing rock. He fired at once. The head disappeared and the
boulder went thundering down the hill with the two white men
running over the warrior, who was kicking around like a chicken with
its head cut off. As good luck would have it most of the attackers
were on the east side, taking it for granted the men would try to
escape in that direction. Before the astonished Apaches could
understand just what was occurring, the men, running like old black-
tailed bucks, were out of hearing, while night spread her dark
mantle over them in kindness. Being good woodsmen, the fugitives
had no trouble in shaping their course to Crow Flat again.
Worn out and weary after traveling more than fifty miles on foot and
with not a wink of sleep for thirty-six hours, they made the old stage
stand and found their dummy sentinels still on guard with the
faithful shepherd dog at his post. He was overjoyed at the return of
his masters. At the old adobe station Andrews and Wiswall were in a
measure safe, for they had water and grub and the walls of the
stand, five feet or more high, would shelter them. Since the Apaches
had made no attempt to kill the dog or rob the ambulance, the
miners were satisfied that the Indians, after stealing their horses,
had kept on their way to the Mescalero Agency, near Tularosa. This
stage station was on the highway of these murderous, thieving
rascals, who were constantly raiding Texas and Chihuahua, and in
their raids they had made a deep trail leading north from Crow Flat
or Crow Springs, as some call it, toward the Sacramento Mountains.
After the fugitives had rested they decided they would pull out after
dark and hoof it for Ysleta. The fifty miles' walk over a rough country
had pretty well worn out their shoes, so they used gunny sacks to tie
up their sore and bleeding feet. Again giving Shep his orders, with
heavy hearts Andrews and Wiswall turned their faces to the
Cornudos Mountains, with the next stage station twenty-five miles
distant without one drop of water on the way. They were so tired
and foot-sore they did not reach Cornudos until late the next day.
Here they hid in the rocks, among the shady nooks of which they
found cold water and sweet rest. After several days the two men
dragged their weary bodies, more dead than alive, into Ysleta and to
the ranger camp.
Lieutenant Baylor ordered me to take eight rangers, and with two
mules, proceed to Crow Flat to bring in the ambulance Andrews and
Wiswall had abandoned there. The first day we made the Hueco
Tanks. Hueco is Spanish for tanks, and in the early days travelers
spelled it Waco. Many wild adventures have occurred at these tanks
—fights between the Mexicans and the Comanches. During the gold
excitement this was the main immigrant route to California. Here,
too, the overland stage route had a stand. The names of Marcy,
General Lee, and thousands of others could be seen written on the
rocks. The Indians themselves had drawn many rude pictures, one
of which was quite artistic and depicted a huge rattlesnake on the
rock under the cave near the stage stand on the eastern side of
Hueco.
Many times when scouting in the Sacramento and Guadalupe
Mountains I have camped for the night in the Huecos. Sometimes
the water in the tanks had been all used up by the travelers but
there was always plenty of good cool rain water twenty-five feet
above the main ground tanks. Often I have watered my entire
command by scaling the mountain to those hidden tanks and, filling
our boots and hats with water, poured it on the flat, roof-like rocks
so it would run down into the tanks below where our horses and
mules would be watered in good shape. The city of El Paso, I am
told, now has a fine graded road to those old historic mountains and
many of its citizens enjoy an outing there.
Our next halt was at the Alamose, across the beautiful plains, at that
time covered with antelope that could be seen scudding away with
their swift change of color looking like a flock of white birds. Here
we found some Indian signs at the flat above the springs, but it was
at Cornudos that we again saw the old signs of the Apaches. This
Cornudos is a strange conglomeration of dark granite rocks shot high
in the air in the midst of the plains by some eruption of the earth in
ages past. This was the favorite watering place of the Tularosa
Agency Indians on their raids into Texas and Mexico.
From Cornudos to Crow Flat is a long, monotonous tramp of twenty-
five or thirty miles, and we arrived in the night and were promptly
challenged by the faithful sentinel, old Shep. Although we were
strangers, the dog seemed to recognize us as Americans and friends.
He went wild with joy, barked, rolled over and over and came as
near talking as any African monkey or gorilla could. We gave him a
cheer. The faithful animal had been there alone for nearly fifteen
days. His side of bacon was eaten and the sack of corn getting very
low. The rangers were as much delighted as if it had been a human
being they had rescued. The dog had worn the top of the wall of the
old stage station perfectly smooth while keeping off the sneaking
coyotes. Tracks of the latter were thick all around the place, but
Shep held the fort with the assistance of the dummy sentinels. We
found everything just as the owners, Andrews and Wiswall, had left
it.
As was my custom, I walked over the ground where the Apaches
and Messrs. Andrews and Wiswall had had their scrap. Near an old
dagger plant I found where an Indian had taken shelter, or rather
tried to hide himself, and picked up a number of Winchester .44
cartridge shells. We secured the ambulance and our return journey
was without incident. We arrived back in our camp after making the
two hundred miles in a week.
Mr. Andrews presented Lieutenant Baylor with a beautiful Springfield
rifle. I don't know whether Andrews or Wiswall are alive, but that
Mexican shepherd dog is entitled to a monument on which should be
inscribed, "FIDELITY."
In the spring of 1880 two brick masons, Morgan and Brown, stopped
at our quarters in Ysleta on their way from Fort Craig, New Mexico,
to San Antonio, Texas. They had heard that some freight wagons at
San Elizario would soon return to San Antonio and were anxious to
travel back with them. These men spent two or three days in the
ranger camp and seemed very nice chaps and pleasant talkers. One
of them, Mr. Morgan, owned one of the finest pistols I ever saw. It
was pearl handled and silver mounted. Our boys tried to trade for it,
but Morgan would not part with the weapon.
After the two men had been gone from our camp three or four days
word was brought to Lieutenant Baylor that two men had been
found dead near San Elizario. The lieutenant sent me with a detail of
three rangers to investigate. At San Elizario we learned that the dead
men were at Collins' sheep ranch, four miles from town. On arriving
there we found, to our surprise and horror, that the dead men were
Morgan and Brown, who had left our camp hale and hearty just a
few days before. It was surmised that the men had camped for the
night at the sheep ranch and had been beaten to death with heavy
mesquite sticks. They had been dead two or three days and were
stripped of their clothing, their bodies being partly eaten by coyotes.
On repairing to his sheep ranch Mr. Collins found the dead bodies of
Morgan and Brown, his shepherds gone and his flocks scattered over
the country. Mr. Collins gave the herders' names as Santiago Skevill
and Manuel Moleno. After beating out the brains of their unfortunate
victims the Mexicans robbed the bodies and lit out for parts
unknown.
As the murderers were on foot and had been gone three or four
days, I found it very difficult to get their trail, as loose stock grazed
along the bosques and partially obliterated it. As there was a
number of settlements and several little pueblos along the river, I
knew if I did not follow the Mexicans' tracks closely I could never tell
where they had gone, so I spent the remainder of the day trying to
get the trail from camp. We were compelled to follow it on foot,
leading our horses. We would sometimes be an hour trailing a mile.
On the following day I was able to make only ten miles on the trail,
but I had discovered the general direction. I slept on the banks of
the Rio Grande that night, and next morning crossed into Mexico,
and found that the murderers were going down the river in the
direction of Guadalupe. I now quit the trail and hurried on to this
little Mexican town. Traveling around a short bend in the road I
came suddenly into the main street of Guadalupe, and almost the
first man I saw standing on the street was a Mexican with Morgan's
white-handled pistol strapped on him.
I left two of my men to watch the suspect and myself hurried to the
office of the president of Guadalupe, made known my mission and
told him I had seen one of the supposed murderers of Morgan and
Brown on the streets of his city, and asked that the suspect be
arrested. The official treated me very cordially and soon had some
police officers go with me. They found the two suspected Mexicans,
arrested them and placed them in the housgow. The prisoners
admitted they were Collins' sheep herders and said their names were
Moleno and Skevill but, of course, denied knowing anything about
the death of Morgan and Brown. All my rangers recognized the pistol
taken from the Mexican as the weapon owned by Mr. Morgan. The
Mexican officers reported to the alcalde or town president that the
suspects had been arrested. The latter official then asked me if I had
any papers for these men. I told him I did not, for at the time I left
my camp at Ysleta we did not know the nature of the murder or the
names of the parties incriminated. I declared I was sure the men
arrested had committed the murder and that I would hurry back to
Ysleta and have the proper papers issued for the prisoners'
extradition. The alcalde promised to hold the suspects until the
proper formalities could be complied with.
From Guadalupe to Ysleta is about fifty or sixty miles. I felt the
importance of the case, and while I and my men were foot-sore and
weary, we rode all night long over a sandy road and reached camp
at Ysleta at 9 o'clock the following morning. Lieutenant Baylor at
once appeared before the justice of the peace at Ysleta and filed a
complaint of murder against Manuel Moleno and Santiago Skevill,
had warrants issued for their arrest and himself hurried to El Paso,
crossed the river to El Paso del Norte and, presenting his warrants to
the authorities, asked that the murderers be held until application for
their extradition could be made.
Within a week we learned, much to our disgust, that the two
murderers had been liberated and told to vamoose. I doubt whether
the warrants were ever sent to the alcalde at Guadalupe. A more
cruel murder than that of Morgan and Brown was never committed
on the Rio Grande, yet the murderers went scot-free. This
miscarriage of justice rankled in my memory and subsequently it was
to lead me to take the law into my own hands when dealing with
another Mexican murderer.

CHAPTER XV
VICTORIO BECOMES A GOOD INDIAN
As soon as the summer rains had begun in 1880 and green grass
and water were plentiful, old Victorio again began his raids. He
appeared at Lake Guzman, Old Mexico, then traveled east to
Boracho Pass, just south of the Rio Grande. This old chief was then
reported making for the Eagle Mountains in Texas. The Mexican
Government communicated this information to General Grierson at
Fort Davis, Texas, and Lieutenant Baylor was asked to cooperate in
the campaign to exterminate the wily old Apache.
General Grierson, on receipt of this information, at once put his
cavalry in motion for Eagle Springs, and on August 2, 1880, Baylor
left his camp at Ysleta with myself and thirteen rangers equipped for
a two weeks' campaign. On August 4th our little band reached old
Fort Quitman, eighty miles down the Rio Grande from El Paso, and
Lieutenant Baylor reported to General Grierson by telegraph. His
message was interrupted, for the Apaches had cut the wires
between Bass' Canyon and Van Horn's Well, but the general ordered
him by telegram to scout toward Eagle Springs until his command
should meet the United States cavalry. We were to keep a sharp
lookout for Indian trails, but we saw none until we reached Eighteen
Mile water hole, where General Grierson's troops had had an
engagement with Victorio. From here the Indians went south and
around Eagle Mountains, so we continued down the road beyond
Bass' Canyon and found the Apaches had crossed the road, torn
down the telegraph wire, carried off a long piece of it, and destroyed
the insulators. The Indians also dragged some of the telegraph poles
two or three miles and left them on their trail. The signs indicated
they had from one hundred and eighty to two hundred animals.
After destroying the telegraph the raiders finally moved north toward
Carrizo Mountains.
At Van Horn, Lieutenant Baylor could learn nothing of General
Grierson or his movements. We thereupon took the general's trail
leading north and overtook him in camp at Rattlesnake Springs,
about sixty-five miles distant. Here we joined Company "K," Eighth
Cavalry, and Captain Nolan's company, the Tenth. The cavalry
camped at Carrizo Springs and our scouts found Victorio's trail the
next day leading southwest toward the Apache Tanks. We left camp
at dusk and rode all night and struck the redskins' trail next morning
at the stage road where General Grierson had fought. The Indians
crossed the road, but afterwards returned to it and continued toward
old Fort Quitman.
The overland stage company kept a station at this abandoned
frontier post, situated on the north bank of the Rio Grande, eighty or
ninety miles east of El Paso, Texas. On August 9, 1880, Ed Walde,
the stage driver, started out on his drive with General Byrnes
occupying the rear seat of the stage coach. The stage, drawn by two
fast running little Spanish mules, passed down the valley and
entered the canyon, a very box-like pass with high mountains on
either side,—an ideal place for an Indian ambuscade. Walde had
driven partly through this pass when, around a short bend in the
road, he came suddenly upon old Victorio and his band of one
hundred warriors. The Indian advance guard fired on the coach
immediately, and at the first volley General Byrnes was fatally
wounded, a large caliber bullet striking him in the breast and a
second passing through his thigh. Walde turned his team as quickly
as he could and made a lightning run back to the stage stand with
the general's body hanging partly out of the stage. The Apaches
followed the stage for four or five miles trying to get ahead of it, but
the little mules made time and beat them into the shelter of the
station's adobe walls.
It was a miracle that Walde, sitting on the front seat, escaped
without a scratch and both of the mules unharmed. At old Fort
Quitman I examined the little canvas-topped stage and found it
literally shot to pieces. I noticed where a bullet had glanced along
the white canvas, leaving a blue mark a foot long before it passed
through the top. Three of the spokes of the wheels were shot in two
and, as well as I remember, there were fifteen or twenty bullet
marks on and through the stage. Lieutenant Baylor and his rangers
buried General Byrnes near old Fort Quitman and fired a volley over
his grave. Subsequently Walde joined Lieutenant Baylor's command
and made an excellent ranger. It was from him that I obtained the
particulars of the fight that resulted in the general's death.
En route the Apaches raided Jesus Cota's ranch, killed his herder and
drove off one hundred and forty head of cattle. In crossing the river
forty of the animals mired in the quicksands. The heartless Indians
thereupon pounced upon the unfortunate cattle and cut chunks of
flesh out of their living bodies. Many of the mutilated animals were
still alive when we found them. The redskins, with a freakish sense
of humor, perpetrated a grim joke on the murdered herder. He was
rendering out some tallow when surprised and killed, so the
murderers rammed his head into the melted tallow to make him a
greaser!
After the fight at Quitman, Victorio and his band crossed into Mexico
and there found temporary safety, as the United States troops were
not permitted to enter that country in pursuit of Indians, though
negotiations to permit such pursuit of Indians were even then
pending between the two governments. Alone, we were no match
for Victorio's hundred braves, so we returned to our camp.
Victorio, however, did not remain idle in Mexico. He made a raid on
Dr. Saminiego's San Jose ranch and stole one hundred and
seventeen horses and mules, besides killing two Mexican herders.
Don Ramon Arranda, captain of the Mexican Volunteers, invited the
rangers to Mexico to cooperate with him in exterminating the
Apaches, so, on September 17, 1880, Lieutenant Baylor with thirteen
rangers, myself included, entered Mexico and marched to Tancas
Cantaresio, Don Arranda's ranch. Here we were joined by Mexican
volunteers from the towns of Guadalupe, San Ignacio, Tres Jacalas,
Paso del Norte, and from the Texan towns of Ysleta, Socorro, and
San Elizario, until our combined force numbered over a hundred
men.
On the night of the 19th we crossed an Indian trail south of the
Rancheria Mountains, but could not tell the number of redskins in
the party, as it was then dark and the trail damaged by rain. The
same night we saw Indian signal fires to the east of the Arranda
ranch. Next morning, with a detail of five rangers and ten Mexican
volunteers, I scouted out in the direction of the fires but did not
have time to reach the sign, as I was ordered to take and hold the
Rancheria Mountains before old Victorio and his band reached them.
At Lucero, the first stage stand, the Apaches were reported within a
league of Carrizal. We made a night march with our rangers and
seventy-three volunteers, but found the Indians had left, and, as a
heavy rain had put out the trail, we struck east toward El Copra
Mountains. Here we again picked up the trail and, following it until
night, we found a few loose horses of Saminiego's. The marauders
now went west toward some tanks and we returned to Candelario,
where Victorio's entire band had crossed the Chihuahua stage road.
Thence we marched back to San Jose and went into camp to await
the arrival of General Joaquin Terrasas.
The Mexican general made his appearance on the 3rd day of
October with two hundred cavalry and one hundred infantry. This
general, a member of a well known family of Chihuahua, was more
than six feet in height, very dark and an inveterate smoker of
cigarettes. He used four milk white horses, riding one while his aides
led three. His cavalry, well armed with Remington pistols and
carbines, was nicely uniformed and mounted on dark colored
animals of even size. The infantry were Indians from the interior of
Mexico. These foot soldiers wore rawhide sandals on their feet and
were armed with Remington muskets. Each soldier carried two
cartridge belts, containing one hundred rounds of ammunition. I was
impressed with the little baggage and rations these infantrymen
carried. On the march each man had a little canvas bag that held
about one quart of ground parched corn, sweetened with a little
sugar—and a table-spoonful of this mixture stirred in a pint cup of
water made a good meal. Of course when in a cattle country plenty
of beef was furnished them, but when on the march they had only
this little bag of corn. This lack of baggage and rations enabled them
to move quickly and promptly. This light infantry had no trouble at
all in keeping up with the cavalry on the march and in a rough
country they could move faster than the horsemen.
With General Terrasas' three hundred soldiers and our hundred
volunteers we could bring to bear against Victorio about four
hundred men. From San Jose the combined command marched to
Rebosadero Springs, twenty miles south of El Caparo, on the new
Chihuahua stage road. There we rested two days and then marched
forty miles to Boracho Pass, where the Apaches had camped after
killing General Byrnes and stealing Jesus Cota's stock. We crossed
the Indians' trail twenty miles west of the pass and formed our line
of battle, as we expected the enemy was camped at some tanks
there. He did not appear, so we camped at the pass to await
supplies.
When the supply wagons arrived, General Terrasas sent an orderly
to Lieutenant Baylor and invited him to send his men to draw ten
days' rations. While I was standing in my shirtsleeves near the
wagon one of the Mexican soldiers stole from my belt a fine hunting
knife that I had carried ten thousand miles over the frontier. I
discovered the loss almost immediately and reported it to Lieutenant
Baylor, who, in turn, mentioned it to General Terrasas. The Mexican
general at once had his captains form their respective companies
and had every soldier in camp searched, but the knife was not
found. The thief had probably hidden it in the grass. The Mexican
volunteers remained with General Terrasas until after the defeat of
Victorio, and one of them told me afterward he had seen a Mexican
soldier scalping Apaches with it. Just one year later an orderly of
General Terrasas rode into the ranger camp at Ysleta and presented
Lieutenant Baylor, then a captain, with the missing weapon and a
note stating that Terrasas was glad to return it and to report that the
thief had been punished.
While at Boracho we were joined by Lieutenant Shaffer, the Twenty-
third United States Cavalry (negroes), Lieutenant Manney, Captain
Parker and sixty-five Apache scouts. These latter were Geronimo's
Chiricauhaus, who later quit their reservation and wrought such
death and destruction in Arizona, New Mexico, and Old Mexico. From
the first General Terrasas viewed these Indian allies with distrust,
and as soon as we had scouted southeast from Boracho to Los Pinos
Mountains, about seventy-five miles distant, and learned that
Victorio's trail turned southwest toward Chihuahua, General Terrasas
called Captain Parker, Lieutenants Baylor, Shaffer and Manney to his
camp and informed them that, as the trail had taken a turn back into
the state of Chihuahua and was leading them away from their
homes, he thought it best for the Americans to return to the United
States. I was present at this conference and I at once saw my
chance for a scrap with old Victorio go glimmering. But there was
nothing to do but obey orders, pack up and vamoose.
While on scouts after Victorio's band I met many United States
officers, and often around the camp fire discussed this old chief. The
soldiers all agreed that for an ignorant Indian Victorio displayed
great military genius, and Major McGonnigal declared, with the
single exception of Chief Crazy-horse of the Sioux, he considered
Victorio the greatest Indian general that ever appeared on the
American continent. In following this wily old Apache Napoleon I
examined twenty-five or more of his camps. Victorio was very
particular about locating them strategically, and his parapets were
most skillfully arranged and built. If he remained only an hour in
camp he had these defenses thrown up. He had fought in over two
hundred engagements, but his last fight was now very close at hand.
The very next morning after the United States troops, the Apache
scouts and the Texas rangers turned homeward General Terrasas'
scouts reported to him that Victorio with his entire band of followers
was camped at Tres Castilos, a small group of hills about twenty-five
miles southwest of the Los Pinos Mountains. General Terrasas at
once set his column in motion for that place. Captives afterward
declared that Victorio's spies reported the presence of the Mexican
cavalry early in the day and thereafter kept him informed hour by
hour as to the movements of the approaching enemy.
Victorio had just sent his war chief, Nana, and fifty of his best young
warriors away on a raid, so he had left in his camp just an even
hundred braves, some of them very old men. He also had ninety-
seven women and children and about five hundred head of horses
and mules, yet the remarkable old Indian made no move to escape.
By nightfall General Terrasas drew up near the Apache camp,
surrounded the three hills as best he could and waited until morning
before assaulting the enemy. During the night twelve of Victorio's
warriors, with four women and four children, deserted the old chief
and made their way back to the Eagle Mountains in Texas. Here they
committed many depredations until exterminated three months later
in the Diablo Mountains by Lieutenants Baylor and Nevill.
Early the following morning Victorio mounted a white horse and, in
making some disposition of his braves to meet the expected onset of
the enemy forces, exposed himself unnecessarily. The Mexicans fired
on him at long range and two bullets pierced his body. He fell from
his horse dead,—a good Indian at last.
The loss of Victorio and the absence of Nana demoralized the
Apaches, and a vigorous assault by Terrasas and his army resulted in
a complete victory for the Mexicans. Eighty-seven Indian warriors
were killed, while eighty-nine squaws and their children were
captured with a loss of only two men killed and a few wounded. This
victory covered General Terrasas with glory. The Mexican
Government never ceased to shower honors upon him and gave him
many thousands of acres of land in the state of Chihuahua. The
general was so elated over the outcome of the battle that he sent a
courier on a fast horse to overtake Lieutenant Baylor and report the
good news. The messenger caught us in camp near old Fort
Quitman. Every ranger in the scout felt thoroughly disgusted and
disappointed at missing the great fight by only two days after being
with General Terrasas nearly a month.
The captured women and children were sent south of Mexico City
into a climate perfectly unnatural to them. Here they all died in a
few years. When Nana heard of the death of Victorio and the
capture of the squaws and children he fled with his fifty warriors to
the Sierra Madre Mountains in the State of Sonora, Mexico. There he
joined forces with old Geronimo and massacred more people than
any small band of Indians in the world. To avenge himself on
Terrasas for killing his friends and carrying away their wives and
children, Nana and his band killed more than two hundred Mexicans
before joining Geronimo. Nana, with his new chief, surrendered to
General Lawton in 1886 and, I believe, was carried away by our
government to Florida, where he at last died.
On our return to camp at Ysleta a commission as captain was
waiting Lieutenant Baylor, since Captain Neal Coldwell had been
named quartermaster of the battalion, his company disbanded and
its letter, "A," given to our company.
Though we missed the fight with Victorio it was not long before we
were called upon to scout after the band of twelve warriors that had
deserted the old chief on the night before the battle of Tres Castilos.
However, we had first to clean up our company, for many
undesirable recruits had seeped into it. This accomplished, we were
ready to resume our Indian warfare.
 CHAPTER XVI
SOME UNDESIRABLE RECRUITS
In the early fall of 1880 two well mounted and well armed men
appeared at the ranger camp at Ysleta and applied to Captain Baylor
for enlistment in his company. After questioning the applicants at
some length the captain accepted them and swore them into the
service. One gave his name as John (Red) Holcomb and the other as
James Stallings. Unknown to us, both these men were outlaws and
joined the rangers solely to learn of their strength and their methods
of operations. Holcomb was a San Simone Valley, Arizona, rustler
and was living under an assumed name. Stallings, though he went
by his true name, had shot a man in Hamilton County, Texas, and
was under indictment for assault to kill.
These two recruits came into the service just before we started on
our fall campaign into Mexico after old Victorio and were with us on
that long scout. Although one was from Texas and the other from
Arizona, the two chummed together and were evidently in each
other's confidence. Stallings had not been long in the company
before he showed himself a trouble maker.
As orderly sergeant it was my duty to keep a roster of the company.
Beginning at the top of the list and reading off the names in
rotation, I called out each morning the guard for the day. We had in
the company a Mexican, Juan Garcia, who had always lived in the
Rio Grande country, and Captain Baylor had enlisted him as a ranger
that he might use him as a guide, for Garcia was familiar with much
of the country over which we were called upon to scout. It so
happened that Jim Stallings and Garcia were detailed on the same
guard one day. This greatly offended Stallings, and he declared to
some of the boys that I had detailed him on guard with a Mexican
just to humiliate him and he was going to give me a d—n good
whipping. The boys advised him he had better not attempt it. I could
see that Stallings was sullen, but it was not until months afterward
that I learned the cause.
After our return from our month's scout in Mexico, Captain Baylor
received a new fugitive list from the Adjutant-General, and in looking
over its pages my eyes fell on the list of fugitives from Hamilton
County, Texas. Almost the first name thereon was that of James
Stallings with his age and description. I notified Captain Baylor that
Stallings was a fugitive from justice. Baylor asked me what Stallings
had been indicted for and I replied for assault to kill.
"Well, maybe the darned fellow needed killing," replied the captain.
"Stallings looks like a good ranger and I need him."
Not many days after this I heard loud cursing in our quarters and
went to investigate. I found Stallings with a cocked pistol in his hand
standing over the bed of a ranger named Tom Landers, cursing him
out. I could see Stallings had been drinking and finally persuaded
him to put up his pistol and go to bed. The next morning I informed
Captain Baylor of the incident, and suggested that if we did not do
something with Stallings he would probably kill someone. The
captain did not seem inclined to take that view. In fact, I rather
believed Captain Baylor liked a man that was somewhat "on the
prod," as the cowboys are wont to say of a fellow or a cow that
wants to fight.
John Holcomb soon found out as much about the rangers as he
desired and, fearing he might be discovered, asked Captain Baylor
for a discharge. After obtaining it he took up his abode in El Paso.
Not long afterwards one morning at breakfast, while the twenty
rangers were seated at one long dining table, Jim Stallings had a
dispute with John Thomas, who was seated on the opposite side of
the table and, quick as a flash, struck Thomas in the face with a tin
cup of boiling coffee. Both men rose to their feet and pulled their
pistols, but before they could stage a shooting match in the place
the boys on either side grabbed them.
I at once went to Captain Baylor and told him that something had to
be done. He seemed to be thoroughly aroused now and said,
"Sergeant, you arrest Stallings, disarm and shackle him. I'll send him
back where he belongs."
I carried out the order promptly and Captain Baylor at once wrote to
the sheriff of Hamilton County to come for the prisoner. Hamilton
County is seven hundred miles by stage from El Paso and it took a
week to get a letter through. There was no jail at Ysleta at that time,
so we were compelled to hold this dangerous man in our camp.
Stallings was shrewd and a keen judge of human nature. We would
sometimes remove the shackles from him that he might get a little
exercise. Finally it came the turn of a ranger named Potter to guard
the prisoner. Potter had drifted into the country from somewhere up
north, and Captain Baylor had enlisted him. He knew very little
about riding and much less about handling firearms. Stallings asked
Potter to go with him out into the corral. This enclosure was built of
adobe and about five feet high. It was nearly dark and the prisoner
walked leisurely up to the fence with Potter following close behind
with Winchester in hand. All of a sudden Stallings turned a hand-
spring over the fence and hit the ground on the other side in a run.
Potter began firing at the fugitive, which brought out all the boys in
camp. Stallings had only about one hundred yards to run to reach
the Rio Grande, and before anything could be done he was safe in
Mexico. He yelled a goodbye to the boys as he struck the bank on
the opposite side of the river. Captain Baylor was furious over the
prisoner's escape and promptly fired Potter from the service and
reprimanded me for not keeping Stallings shackled all the time.
Though we had lost the man we had his horse, saddle, bridle and
arms. Stallings at once went to Juarez and John Holcomb met him
there. The fugitive gave his pal an order on Captain Baylor for his
horse, saddle, and pistol, and Holcomb had the gall to come to
Ysleta and present this order. He reached our camp at noon while
the horses were all in the corral. At the moment of his arrival I
happened to be at Captain Baylor's home. Private George Lloyd
stepped over to the captain's and said to me, "Sergeant, John
Holcomb is over in camp with an order from Jim Stallings for his
horse and outfit."
"Gillett, you go and arrest Holcomb and put him in irons and I'll see
if I can find where he is wanted," ordered Captain Baylor, who heard
what Lloyd said.
Holcomb, seeing Lloyd go into Captain Baylor's, got suspicious,
jumped on his horse and left for El Paso in a gallop. I detailed three
men to accompany me to capture Holcomb, but by the time we
saddled our horses and armed ourselves the fugitive was out of
sight. We hit the road running and after traveling two or three miles
and inquiring of people we met in the road I became convinced that
Holcomb had quit the road soon after leaving our camp and was
striking for Mexico. I turned back in the direction of camp and
followed the bank of the river.
We had probably traveled a mile on our way home when we
discovered Holcomb coming up the river toward us. He was about
four hundred yards away and discovered us about the same time.
Turning his horse quickly he made a dash for the river. Where he
struck it the bank was ten feet high, but he never hesitated, and
both man and horse went head first into the Rio Grande. The three
men I had with me outran me and when they reached the point
where the fugitive had entered the water they saw him swimming
rapidly to the Mexican side and began firing at him. I ran up and
ordered them to cease, telling them not to kill Holcomb, as he was in
swimming water and helpless. Just at this moment the swimmer
struck shallow water and I ordered him to come back or I would
shoot him.
"I'll come if you won't let the boys kill me," he called back.
I told him to hit swimming water quickly, which he did, and swam
back to the American side. He was in his shirtsleeves and with his
hat gone. His horse, meantime, had swam back to our side of the
river.
We all mounted and started back to camp, two of the rangers riding
in front with Holcomb. I had not searched the prisoner because he
was in his shirtsleeves. As we rode along Holcomb reached into his
shirt bosom and pulled out an old .45 pistol and handed it to one of
the boys, saying, "Don't tell the sergeant I had this." The rangers at
camp gave the prisoner some dry clothes and dinner, then put him in
chains and under guard.
Captain Baylor went on to El Paso, crossed the river to Juarez and
had Stallings arrested. In two days we had him back in camp and
chained to Holcomb. The captain then wrote to Bell County, Texas,
as he had heard John Holcomb was wanted there for murder.
Holcomb had a good horse and he gave it to a lawyer in El Paso to
get him out of his trouble. Of course we had no warrant for
Holcomb's arrest and Judge Blacker ordered our prisoner brought
before him. The county attorney made every effort to have Holcomb
held, while his lawyer tried his best to have the suspect released.
The judge finally said he would hold Holcomb for one week and
unless the officers found some evidence against him during that
time he would order the prisoner freed. It was nearly dark before we
left El Paso on our return to Ysleta, twelve miles distant. Holcomb
had, in some manner, gotten two or three drinks of whisky and was
feeling the liquor. I had one ranger with me leading the prisoner's
horse. The road back to camp followed the river rather closely and
the country was very brushy all the way.
As soon as we had gotten out of El Paso Holcomb sat sidewise on his
horse, holding the pommel of his saddle with one hand and the
cantle with the other, all the while facing toward Mexico. I ordered
him to sit straight in his saddle, but he refused. We were riding in a
gallop and I believe he intended to jump from his horse and try to
escape in the brush. I drew my pistol and hid it behind my leg.
Although Holcomb had the cape of his overcoat thrown over his
head he discovered I had a pistol in my hand and began a tirade of
abuse, declaring I had a cocked gun in my hand and was aching for
a chance to kill him. I told him I believed from his actions he was
watching for a chance to quit his horse and escape, and that I was
prepared to prevent such a move. We reached camp safely and
chained Holcomb to Stallings.
These boys, although prisoners, were full of life, and laughed and
talked all the time. Holcomb played the violin quite well. We held the
two suspects several days and finally one night one of the rangers
came to my room and said, "Sergeant, I believe there is something
wrong with those prisoners. They are holloaing, singing and playing
the fiddle."
I was busy on my monthly reports and told him to keep a sharp
lookout and before I retired I would come and examine the
prisoners. On examination I found that while Holcomb played the
violin Stallings had sawn their shackles loose. They laughed when I
discovered this and said that when the boys had all gone to bed they
intended to throw the pack saddle, which they used for a seat, on
the guard's head and escape. We could get no evidence against
John Holcomb and the judge ordered his release.
While a prisoner Holcomb swore vengeance against myself and
Prosecutor Neal. Mr. Neal heard of this threat, met Holcomb on the
streets of El Paso afterward and, jerking a small Derringer pistol
from his pocket, shot Holcomb in the belly. Holcomb fell and begged
for his life. He was not badly hurt, and as soon as he was well he
quit El Paso, went to Deming, New Mexico, where he stole a bunch
of cattle. He drove the stolen herd to the mining camp of Lake Valley
and there sold them. While he was in a saloon drinking and playing
his fiddle the owner of the cattle appeared with a shotgun and filled
the thief full of buckshot. As he fell Holcomb was heard to exclaim,
"Oh, boys, they have got me at last."
Jim Stallings was sent to Fort Davis and placed in the jail there, from
which he and half a dozen other criminals made their escape.
A man named John Scott came to Captain Baylor, told a hard luck
story, and asked to be taken into the service. Captain Baylor enlisted
the applicant and fitted him out with horse, saddle, bridle and armed
him with gun and pistol, himself standing good for the entire
equipment. Scott had not been in the service two months before he
deserted. I was ordered to take two men, follow him and bring him
back. I overtook Scott up in the Canutillo, near the line of New
Mexico, and before I even ordered him to halt, he jumped down,
sought refuge behind his horse and opened fire on us with his
Winchester. We returned the fire and killed his horse. He then threw
down his gun and surrendered. We found the deserter had stopped
in El Paso and gotten a bottle of whisky. He was rather drunk when
overtaken, otherwise he probably would not have made fight against
three rangers. Captain Baylor took Scott's saddle, gun and six-
shooter away from him and kicked him out of camp, but was
compelled to pay $75 for the horse that was killed.
Another man, Chipman, deserted our company and stole a bunch of
horses from some Mexicans down at Socorro. The Mexicans followed
the trail out in the direction of Hueco Tanks, where it turned west
and crossed the high range of mountains west of El Paso. The
pursuers overtook Chipman with the stolen horses just on the line of
New Mexico. The thief put up a fierce fight and killed two Mexicans,
but was himself killed. Captain Baylor had a scout following the
deserter but the Mexicans got to him first and had the fight before
our men arrived. However, the ranger boys buried the body of
Chipman where it fell. This chap had made a very good ranger and
we all felt shocked when we learned he had stolen seven ponies and
tried to get away with them single-handed.
Yet another San Simone Valley rustler, Jack Bond, enlisted in the
company. A band of rustlers and cow thieves were operating up in
the Canutillo, eighteen miles above El Paso, about the time he joined
the command. I did my best to break up this band and made scout
after scout up the river, but without success. Finally Captain Baylor
learned that Bond and another ranger, Len Peterson, were keeping
the thieves posted as to the rangers' movements. The captain fired
these two men out of the company and within ten days I had
captured Frank Stevenson, the leader of the Canutillo gang, and
broken up the nest of thieves. Stevenson was later sent to the
penitentiary for fifteen years. Bond and Peterson went to El Paso,
stole Mayor M.C. Goffin's fine pair of carriage horses and fled to New
Mexico. Subsequently Bond was killed at Deming by Deputy Sheriff
Dan Tucker in an attempted arrest.
Captain Roberts, Coldwell or Lieutenant Reynolds would never have
let such a bunch of crooks get into their companies, for they had to
know something about a man before they would enlist him.
However, there was some excuse for Baylor at the time he was on
the Rio Grande. It was a long way from the center of population and
good men were hard to find. Then, too, it looked as if all the
criminals in Texas had fled to New Mexico and Arizona, from which
states they would ease back into the edge of Texas and join the
rangers. Captain Baylor was liberal in his views of men: they all
looked good to him until proven otherwise. If there was a vacancy in
the company any man could get in. And if they lacked equipment the
captain would buy the newcomer a horse, saddle, and arms and
then deduct the cost thereof from the man's first three months' pay.
However, Baylor had generally to pay the bill himself. The captain
also liked to keep his company recruited to the limit and this made
enlistment in his command easy.
In all the years I was with Captain Baylor I never knew him to send
a non-commissioned officer on a scout after Indians. He always
commanded in person and always took with him every man in camp
save one, who was left to guard it, for he liked to be as strong as
possible on the battlefield.
Captain Baylor never took much interest personally in following
cattle thieves, horse thieves, murderers and fugitives from justice.
He left that almost entirely to me. Sometimes we would have as
many as six or eight criminals chained up in camp at one time, but
the captain would never come about them, for he could not bear to
see anyone in trouble. His open, friendly personality endeared Baylor
to the Mexicans from El Paso down the valley as far as Quitman.
They were all his compadres and would frequently bring him
venison, goat meat and mutton. Always they showed him every
courtesy in their power.
Now, having freed the company of its undesirable recruits, we were
once more a homogeneous force ready and anxious to perform our
duty in protecting the frontier and bringing criminals to justice.
Almost as soon as the last undesirable had been fired from Company
"A" we started on the scout that was to culminate in our last fight
with the Apaches.

CHAPTER XVII
LAST FIGHT BETWEEN RANGERS AND APACHES
Despite General Terrasas' great victory at Tres Castilos as recorded
in a preceding chapter, he did not entirely destroy all the Apaches
that had been with old Victorio. Nana and fifty warriors escaped and
finally joined Geronimo in his campaign of murder and destruction.
On the night preceding the battle in which Victorio was killed and his
band of warriors exterminated, twelve braves with four squaws and
four children deserted the old chief and made their way to those
rough mountains that fringe the Rio Grande in the vicinity of Eagle
Springs. At once this band of twenty Indians began a series of
pillages and murders that has no parallel considering the small size
of the party.
The little band of Apaches soon appeared at Paso Viego and began
their depredations by an attack on Lieutenant Mills and his cavalry.
Paso Viego is a gap in the mountains that parallel the Rio Grande
from Eagle Mountains on the west to Brites' ranch on the east, and
is situated ten or twelve miles west of and in plain view of the
present little town of Valentine, Texas, on the G., H & S.A. Railroad.
The tribe of Pueblo Indians has lived at the old town of Ysleta, El
Paso County, Texas, for more than three hundred years. They have
always been friends to the Americans and inveterate enemies to the
Apaches. It was customary, therefore, for the United States troops at
Fort Davis to employ the Pueblos as guides during the Indian
disturbances along the border. In 1881 Bernado and Simon Olgin,
two brothers, were the principal chiefs of this tribe. Bernado was the
elder and looked it. Both chiefs dressed in the usual Indian fashion,
wore moccasins, buckskin leggins and had their long black hair
braided and hanging down the back. Simon was a very handsome
Indian, and he, with four of his tribe—all nephews of his, I think—
were employed by General Grierson during the troublesome times of
1880-1881.
Simon and his four scouts had been detailed to make scouts down
on the Rio Grande with Lieutenant Mills, commander of the Tenth
United States Cavalry (colored). On their way out the troops reached
Paso Viego early in the evening, and after they had eaten supper
Simon Olgin advised the lieutenant to move out on the open plains
three or four miles north of the pass where they would be safe from
attack. Olgin declared Paso Viego was a favorite camping place for
the Indians going to and returning from Mexico because of the fine
water and good grass. He stated that should a band of redskins
appear at the pass during the night and find it occupied by soldiers
they would attack at daylight and probably kill some of the troopers.
Lieutenant Mills, fresh from West Point, replied that he was not
afraid of Indians and did not propose to move. During the night the
little band of twenty Apaches reached the pass, just as Olgin had
prophesied, and hid themselves in the rocks. The next morning the
soldiers had breakfast, packed their mules, and as they were
standing by their horses ready for the order to mount a sudden
fusillade of bullets was fired into their midst at short range. Other
volleys came in quick succession. At the very first fire that grand old
Indian, Simon Olgin, was shot down and killed, as were five or six of
the negro cavalry. The remainder of the company thereupon fled,
but the four Pueblo scouts, Olgin's nephews, took to the rocks and
fought until they had routed the Apaches and saved the bodies of
their old beloved uncle and the soldiers from falling into the hands of
the attackers to be mutilated.
Repulsed at Paso Viego the twenty Apaches next appeared at Bass'
Canyon, a gap in the mountains on the overland stage road about
twelve or fourteen miles west of Van Horn. Here the redskins
waylaid an immigrant train on its way to New Mexico. At the very
first fire of the Indians Mrs. Graham, who was walking, jumped upon
the tongue of the wagon and reached for a Winchester, but was shot
and killed. A man named Grant was killed at the same time, while
Mr. Graham had his thigh broken. From Bass' Canyon the Indians
turned south, crossed around the east end of the Eagle Mountains
and again entered Old Mexico, where they were for a time lost to
view.
We next hear of this band at Ojo Calienta, some hot springs on the
Rio Grande southwest from Eagle Mountains. A captain of cavalry
with some colored troops near old Fort Quitman detailed seven men
and instructed the sergeant in charge to scout down the river as far
east as Bosque Bonita, keep a sharp lookout for Indian signs and
report back to camp in one week. These troopers followed orders,
and on their return journey camped for the night at Ojo Calienta.
Next morning at break of day the soldiers were preparing to cook
breakfast when the Apaches fell upon them and killed all save one at
their first assault. This single survivor made his escape on foot, and
after two days in the mountains without food finally reached the
soldier camp and reported to his captain. The Indians evidently
located the soldier scout the evening before but, as they never make
a night attack, waited until daylight to massacre their victims. The
redskins captured all the soldiers' equipment and baggage, including
seven horses and two pack mules. They pillaged the camp and took
everything movable away with them. Before resuming their journey
the Apaches took six stake-pins made of iron and about twenty
inches long that were used by the soldiers to drive into the ground
as stakes to which to fasten their horses and drove one through
each soldier's corpse, pinning it firmly to the earth. The captured
stock was killed and eaten, for the soldiers' animals were fat while
most of the ponies and little mules of the Apaches were worn out by
constant use in the mountains, and consequently very poor.
This band was not heard of again for nearly two months—until the
warriors set upon the stage at Quitman Canyon and killed the driver,
Morgan, and the gambler, Crenshaw, a passenger. The reports about
this stage robbery and murder were so conflicting and the
impression so strong that the driver and the passenger had
themselves robbed the stage and made Indian signs to avert
suspicion that Captain Baylor deemed it best to go down to the
canyon and investigate for himself. Accordingly, the captain made a
detail of fourteen privates and one corporal, and with ten days'
rations on two pack mules left Ysleta on January 16th to ascertain if
possible whether the stage had been robbed and the driver and
passenger killed by Indians or by white men, and to punish the
robbers if they could be caught. To keep down disorder and violence
threatened at El Paso, the captain left me and a detail of three men
in our camp at Ysleta.
At Quitman, Captain Baylor learned that the trail of the stage
robbers bore southwest to Ojo Calienta, and as the foothills of
Quitman Mountains are very rough, he went down the north bank of
the Rio Grande, as he felt quite certain he would cut signs in that
direction. About twenty-five miles below Quitman he struck the trail
of a freshly shod mule, two barefooted ponies and two unshod
mules, and within fifty yards of the trail he found the kid glove
thought to have been Crenshaw's. The trail now bore down the river
and crossed into Mexico, where the Indian band made its first camp.
Captain Baylor followed, and the next day found the Apaches'
second camp near the foothills of the Los Pinos Mountains, where
we had left General Terrasas the fall before. Here all doubts about
the Indians were dispelled, as the rangers found a horse killed with
the meat taken as food and a pair of old moccasins. Besides, the
camp was selected on a high bare hill after the custom of the
Indians. The same day Captain Baylor found another camp and a
dead mule, and on the trail discovered a boot-top recognized as that
of Morgan, the driver. Here also was the trail of some fifteen or
twenty mules and ponies, quite fresh, coming from the direction of
the Candelario Mountains with one small trail of three mules going
toward the Rio Grande. The rangers passed through some very
rough, deep canyons and camped on the south side of the Rio
Grande, this being their second night in Mexico.
Next morning the trail crossed back into Texas. Going toward Major
Carpenter's old camp above the Bosque Bonito the scouting party
found a camp where the Indians had evidently made a cache, but
Captain Baylor only tarried here a short time and followed on down
the river a few miles when he found the Apaches had struck out on
a bee line for the Eagle Mountains. The captain felt some hesitation
about crossing the plains between the Eagle Mountains and the Rio
Grande in the daytime for fear of being seen by the Indians, but as
the trail was several days old he took the risk of being discovered.
He camped within three or four miles of the mountains and at
daybreak took the trail up a canyon leading into the peaks. The
party came suddenly upon an Apache camp which had been hastily
deserted that morning, for the Indians left blankets, quilts, buckskins
and many other things useful to them. They had just killed and had
piled up in camp two horses and a mule, the blood of which had
been caught in tin vessels. One mule's tongue was stewing over a
fire and everything indicated the redskins were on the eve of a jolly
war dance, for the rangers found a five-gallon can of mescal wine
and a horse skin sunk in the ground that contained fifteen or twenty
gallons more. Here Captain Baylor found the mate to Morgan's boot-
top and a bag made from the legs of the passenger's pantaloons,
besides express receipts, postal cards and other articles taken from
the stage. The night before had been bitterly cold and the ground
had frozen hard as flint rock, so the rangers could not get the trail,
though they searched the mountains in every direction, and the
three Pueblo Indians, Bernado Olgin, Domingo Olgin, and Aneseta
Duran, looked over every foot of the ground. The scouting party now
turned back toward Mexico to scout back on the west side of the
Eagle Mountains around to Eagle Springs in search of the trail.
At Eagle Springs, as good luck would have it, Captain Baylor learned
that Lieutenant Nevill and nine men had just gone toward Quitman
to look for him. As soon as Lieutenant Nevill returned to the Springs
he informed Baylor that he had seen the trail six miles east of Eagle
Springs and that it led toward the Carrizo Springs or Diablo
Mountains.
Captain Baylor's rations were out and Lieutenant Nevill had only
supplies enough to do the combined force five days, but the two
commanders trusted either to catch the Indians or get in striking
distance of the Pecos settlements within that time. The Apaches
made pretty good time across the plain in front of Eagle Springs, and
did not seem to recover from their scare until they reached the
Diablo Mountains. Here they killed and cooked meat from one horse
and obtained water by melting snow with hot rocks.
The trail led northward by Chili Peak, a noted landmark to be seen
from Eagle Station. Here the rangers quit the trail and went into the
Diablo Mountains to camp at Apache Tanks, where General Grierson
cut off Victorio from the Guadalupe Mountains the summer before.
Next morning Captain Baylor followed the trail north and camped on
the brow of cliffs overlooking Rattlesnake Springs. The sign now led
to the edge of the Sierra Diablo, where the Indians camped and
slept for the first time since leaving Eagle Mountains. They were still
watchful, as they were near a most horrible looking canyon down
which they could have disappeared had the scouting party come
upon them. Their next camp was about ten miles farther on, and
Captain Baylor saw they were getting more careless about camping.
On the 28th he came across another horse and fire where the
Apaches had eaten some meat. The leg of the horse was not yet
stiff and blood dropped from one when picked up. The chase was
getting to be exciting, and Captain Baylor and his men felt their
chance to avenge the many outrages committed by this band was
now near at hand.
The trail led off north as though the redskins were going toward the
Cornudos in New Mexico, but turned east and entered Sierra Diablo
Mountains. In a narrow gorge the rangers found where the Indians
had eaten dinner, using snow to quench their thirst, but their horses
had no water. From this camp the Apaches made for the cliffs on the
northeast side of Devil Mountains. The scouting party now felt the
Indians were nearby, as they were nearly all afoot. The danger of
being discovered if they passed over the hills during the daylight was
so apparent that the rangers decided to make a dry camp and pass
the mountain's brow before day the next morning. All the signs were
good for a surprise; the trail was not over two hours old, and a flock
of doves passing overhead going in the direction of the trail showed
that water was nearby.
The morning of the 29th of January the party was awakened by the
guard, and passed over the mountain's brow before daylight. There
was some difficulty in picking up the trail, though Captain Baylor,
Lieutenant Nevill and the Pueblo trailers had been up the evening
before spying out the land. By stooping down with their faces close
to the ground the Pueblos got the trail leading north along the crest
of the mountains. Soon the Indian guides said in low voices: "Hoy
esta los Indias." And Captain Baylor perceived the Apaches' camp
fires not over half a mile distant.
Leaving a guard of five men with the horses the rangers advanced
stealthily on foot. By taking advantage of the crest of the mountain
they crept within two hundred yards of the camp, supposing the
Indians were camped on the western slope of the hill. The Apaches,
however, were cautious enough to put one tepee on the eastern
slope overlooking the valley and the approaches from that direction.
Captain Baylor thereupon ordered Sergeant Carruthers of Lieutenant
Nevill's company to take seven men and make a detour to the left
and attack that wigwam while Lieutenant Nevill and himself with
seventeen men advanced on the eastern camp. Sheltering
themselves behind some large Spanish dagger plants and advancing
in Indian file the attackers got within one hundred yards of the
enemy, who was apparently just out of bed, for it was then sunrise.
Halting the men deployed to the right and left and then, kneeling,
the rangers gave the astonished Indians a deliberate volley. At the
second fusillade the Apaches broke and fled, the rangers charging
the flying foe with a Texas yell.
Sergeant Carruthers executed his orders in gallant style. The
Apaches on his side, alarmed and surprised by the fire of Captain
Baylor's force, huddled together and three were killed within twenty
yards of their camp fire. The redskins ran like deer and made no
resistance, for it was each man for himself. Nevertheless, as they
fled they were thickly peppered, as there were but two or three out
of the party of sixteen or eighteen but left blood along their trail as
they ran off.
One Indian the rangers named Big Foot (from his enormous track)
ran up the mountain in full view for four hundred yards, and not less
than two hundred shots were fired at him, but he passed over the
hill. Sergeant Carruthers and several men pursued the fugitive for a
mile and a half and found plenty of blood all the way. Another
warrior was knocked down and lay as though dead for some time,
but finally regained his feet and made two-forty time over the hills
with a running accompaniment of Springfield and Winchester balls.
One brave stood his ground manfully, principally because he got the
gable end of his head shot off early in the action.
Of course the women were the principal sufferers. As it was a
bitterly cold, windy morning and all ran off with blankets about them
few of the rangers could tell braves from squaws, and in the
confusion of battle two women were killed and one mortally
wounded. Two children were killed and a third shot through the foot.
One squaw with three bullets in her hand and two children were
captured. Seven mules and nine horses, two Winchester rifles, one
Remington carbine, one United States cavalry pistol and one .40
double action Colt's, six United States cavalry saddles taken from the
troops killed at Ojo Calienta and some women's and children's
clothing, American made,—evidently those of Mrs. Graham,—a
Mexican saddle with a bullet hole in it and fresh blood thereon and
over a hundred and fifty yards of new calico fell as spoil to the
victors. All the Indians' camp equipage was burned.
The victorious rangers breakfasted on the battleground, as they had
eaten nothing since dinner the day before. Some of the men found
horse meat good, while others feasted on venison and roasted
mescal. The band of scouts could not remain long at this camp for
water was very scarce. They had forty head of stock to care for, and
the Indians, in their flight, ran through the largest pool of water and
liberally dyed it with their blood, and as none of the men were
bloodthirsty enough to use this for making coffee or bread they were
short of water. However, the rangers found enough pure good water
for their use but the horses had to wait until the force reached
Apache Tanks, thirty miles distant. This scarcity of water made it
impossible to remain at this Apache camp, otherwise Captain Baylor
could have added three or four scalps to his trophies. The return
march was begun, and at Eagle Station Lieutenant Nevill and
Captain Baylor separated. The captured squaw and the two children
were sent to Fort Davis to be turned over to the post commander for
medical attention, for the rangers had neither a surgeon nor a
hospital.
On their return from the battle of the Diablos, Captain Baylor's
Pueblo Indian scouts, Chief Bernado Olgin, Domingo Olgin, and
Aneseta Duran, suddenly halted about one mile from Ysleta,
unsaddled and unbridled their tired little ponies and went into camp.
This was their custom after a successful campaign against their
Apache enemies so that their comrades might come out and do
honor to the returning heroes. For three days and nights a feast and
a scalp dance was held by the whole of the Pueblo tribe of Ysleta.
They feasted, wined and dined their returning warriors and invited
the rangers to the festivities. The boys all went and reported they
had a fine time generally. This celebration was the last scalp dance
the Pueblo Indians ever had, for the destruction of the Apaches in
the Diablos exterminated the wild Indians and there were no more
of them to scalp.

CHAPTER XVIII
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