ANCIENT INDIA

Timeline
Pre-history
● Paleolithic phase (5lakh BC-10,000 BC)
● Mesolithic (10,000 BC-6,000BC)
● Neolithic phase(6000BC-3000BC)
Proto-History
● Indus valley civilization: 2600 BC - 1800 BC
● Chalcolithic period: 1800 BC – 1500 BC
History
● Advent of Aryans - 1500 BC
● Vedic age:
○ Early Vedic age (1500 BC- 1000 BC)
○ Later Vedic age (100BC-600 BC)
● 6th century BC
○ Rise of religious movements in India: Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika, etc.
○ Rise of 16 Mahajanpads: Kosala, Gandhara, Magadha, etc.
● History of Magadha
○ Haryanka dynasty (554 BC- 412 BC)
○ Shishunaga dynasty (412 BC – 344 BC)
○ Nanda dynasty (344 BC- 321 BC)
○ Mauryan dynasty (321 BC- 185 BC)
● Post-Mauryan age
 ○ Outsiders:
■ Indo-Greeks (165 BC)
■ Shakas (90 BC)
■ Parthians (25 AD)
■ Kushana(65AD)
○ Indigenous:
■ Shungas (185 BC)
■ Kanva (75 BC)
■ Satvahanas (1 AD)
● Gupta age (319 AD-550 AD)
○ Chandragupta (319 AD – 335 AD)
○ Samudragupta (335 AD – 375 AD)
○ Chandragupta 2 (385 AD – 415 AD)
○ Kumar Gupta (414 AD – 452 AD)
○ Skandagupta (452 AD - 467 AD)
● South Indian Dynasties – Contemporary to Guptas
○ Sangam age (200 AD - 600 AD)
■ Cheras
■ Cholas
■ Pandyas
○ Post-Sangam dynasty
■ Chalukyas (6th century AD)
■ Pallavas (7th century)
○ Imperial/Mainland Chola – (By end of the 9th century)
● Post-Gupta age
 ○ Pushyabhutti dynasty (early 7 century AD)-Harsha is the most important ruler
○ After the demise of Harshavardhan rise of 3 dynasties
■ Pala dynasty
■ Pratihara – Gurjara dynasty
■ Rashrakuta dynasty
● Medieval History

Stone Age:
Human beings appeared on Planet Earth in the middle Pleistocene epoch. The recent evolutionary
phase of human beings happened in the Holocene period, which led to the emergence of homo
sapiens. They didn’t have knowledge of agricultural practices and their life was dependent on plants
grown in the wild and the animals. These early humans started to use stone tools for hunting animals
and also to defend themselves from the wild animals. Over the period they sharpened their skill of
creating effective stone tools. The pre-history of early humans can only be traced with stone tools used
by them, artifacts used by them, and their rock engravings.
On the basis of stone tools used by early humans, the early history is classified into 3 stone ages.
Paleolithic Period: (500000 BC – 10000 BC) – Further divided into 3 types.
1. Lower paleolithic phase: (500000 BC – 1000000 BC) – In this phase the tools were
irregular in shape, big in size and rough in nature. The characteristic tools of this time were
cleavers, choppers and hand Axes.
2. Middle Paleolithic phase: (100000 BC – 400000 BC) – The tools were closer to rectangular
shape and smaller than the previous period tools. The characteristic tools of this time were
Scrapers, Borers and Burins.
 3. Upper Paleolithic phase: (40000 BC – 10000 BC) – In this period flake stone tools were
created, which were roughly closer to triangular shape. The characteristic tools of this time
were blades and points. Majority of these stone tools were found from Narmada valley.
Important Site – Sohan river valley in Punjab, Lidder river in Kashmir, Didwana in Rajasthan,
Munger & Rajgir in Bihar, Kurnool cave in Andhara Pradesh, Pallavaram in Tamil Nadu.
“The stone age saw the rise of much of what makes us Human”.

Mesolithic period (10000 BC-6000 BC): This phase was a transition from a very cold climate to warm
climate, which was highly conducive for the evolution of human beings. One of the major beginning at
this time was domestication of animals whose evidence has been found from Adamgarh in Madhya
Pradesh and Bagohar Rajasthan. The major achievement of this period was the characteristic tool
known as microlith. It was a tiny and very sharp tool, which not only facilitated in the effective killing of
the animals but also in creating characteristic painting of this period popularly known as Mesolithic
painting. This painting was known as Petroglyphic (Rock cut painting). The Mesolithic painting is not
only the mark of fine aesthetic sense but also it is the most important source to know about the
socio-cultural practices of Mesolithic period.

Mesolithic Paintings:
Themes: Hunting animals, Animal riding- It indicated taming of animals, Gathering, Fighting sense,
Household chores, celebration, Group dance, Sexual Union, Phallus Worship and Yoni worship etc.
The paintings were colored with vegetable colors and mineral colors, red was the dominating color,
the major source of red color was animal blood.
Inferences from the themes in the paintings:
● Animal riding indicated taming of animals.
● Group dancing indicates their community sense.
 ● Women were depicted with household chores and men with fighting indicate there is a division of
labour.
● Sexual union indicates their understanding of the significance of it, might be a primitive concept of
marriage.
● Phallus and Yoni worship-indicate they might be thinking sexual organs as a vehicle for the act of
God etc.
Important Site - Bagor in Rajasthan, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, Bhimbetka cave in Madhya
Pradesh, Lakhudiyar cave in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh

Neolithic phase (6000 BC-3000 BC): One of the most important developments was creation of polished
stone tools. Moreover, many other varieties of tools were used like bow and arrow. The most important
development in this phase was the start of agricultural practices. Moreover, Human beings started to
live in permanent types of communities in thatched houses. The Neolithic people mastered the
controlled use of fire. Another important beginning of wheel made pottery. The first evidence of
agricultural practices in Indian subcontinent was found from Mehrgarh in the Balochistan area of
Pakistan (Syria for world perspective)
Important sites- Mehrgarh in Balochistan of Pakistan, Burzhom in Kashmir, Gufkral in Kashmir,
Chirand in Bihar, and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh. Jarf el Ahmar and Tell Abu Hureyra (both in Syria)

Indus valley civilization (2600-1800 BC):

The information about a civilization in the Indian subcontinent was available by the 1870s but there
was no attempt of exploration. In 1920, Archeological survey of India under the chairmanship of
John Marshall decided to go for excavation. The task of excavation was given to two Indian
archeologists Dayaram Sahni and R D Banerjee. As such in 1921, Dayaram Sahni excavated the
 site of Harappa and in 1922, R D Banerjee excavated the site of Mohenjodaro. By this time, it was
firmly established that IVC was the most advanced civilization of the world. As compared to
Egyptian civilization, it did not have any monumental buildings like Pyramids. But IVC was
unique in the sense of its urban planning and usage of burnt brick of same shape and size.

Important sites -
● Harappa: known for textiles;
● Mohenjodaro: Advance town planning, Great Bath and textiles industry;
● Kalibangan: Bangle industry and wooden agricultural plough was found from this place;
● Allahdino and Sukhtakoh: Shipping industry;
● Chanudaro: Bead industry;
● Lothal: Dockyard of IVC and situated on the bank of river bhogavo;
● Rakhigarhi: largest site of IVC.
● Dholavira: is considered as the most advanced site of IVC as it is the only town which has
three-layer of urban planning. As per historian the middle layer of town is believed to be
garrison town. The interesting feature of Dholavira is the presence of radial channels for
irrigation. Recently Dholavira was given UNESCO heritage status.
● Rangpur: In Rangpur and Lothal stretch, rice was cultivated but not in the other parts of IVC.
● Surkatoda: From this place an animal jaw was found, which was earlier believe to be belonging
to horse but later in the light of scientific evidence it proves that the jaw doesn’t belong to horse
and Indus valley peoples were unaware about the horses.
● Manda, Daimabad, Alamgirpur, Suktagandor, Amri, Kotdiji, Balakot, Desalpur Banawali, Ropar etc.

● Polity during IVC: From the Town Planning of IVC, it seems that there was a centralized system
of administration in Indus valley (Administrative buildings in citadel). According to the majority of
 Historians, it is believed that Indus towns were administered by rich traders & merchants
instead of a monarchy.

● Economic activity during IVC: Agriculture was the most important economic activity during IVC.
They cultivated crops like wheat, cotton, Barley, mustard, millet, pea, rai, Sesamum, melons etc.
Rice cultivated only in Lothal and Rangpur. In the later ages cotton was called Sindon as it
was native plant of Sindhu valley. Cotton was at the base of the textile industry which flourished
at Harappa, Alamgirpur and Mohenjodaro. The artisanal industry was also well established,
whereby, Pottery, sculptures, seals, etc. were created. The agricultural commodities and
textiles were exported from the Indus valley and they imported precious metals like gold, silver,
Tin (imported from Afghanistan), Bronze, copper, and semi-precious stones like Amethyst,
Carnelian, lapis Lazuli. Indus valley peoples established Trade relations with the following
areas: Afghanistan, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Dilman(Qatar), Sumer(Bagdad), Oman, Magan (Persian
Gulf countries).

● Society during IVC: From the town planning of IVC it can be inferred society was unequal in
nature but it can also be said that it was not discriminatory in nature. Further it can be
maintained that there was a concept of coexistence in the Indus valley and also mobilization in
society. Many of the historians quoted that Indus valley society was patriarchal in nature; they
sighted an example of the head priest who was a male. As far as Indus society is concerned, the
majority of Historians believe that it was a matriarchal society. These historians have sighted
examples of Mother Goddess, which is the most abundant image found from all the Indus towns.
Indus valley people were quite aware of their aesthetic look and they used a variety of ornaments
like Necklace, waistband, Bangles, Finger rings, etc. They were also aware of soaps,
Lipsticks, and Kajal.
 ● Religious and after death practices: Indus valley people worshiped both male and female
deities for example Pashupati Shiva and mother goddess. They also worshiped nature and
there was no institutional structure like a temple at this point of time. There were many
methods of after death practices in Indus valley which included full burial, fraction burial and
also Pot or urn burial. Moreover, the bodies were buried along with the daily life objects like
ornaments, pottery, food items etc. On the basis of which it can be said that Indus valley people
believed in other worldly life and also, they must have thought that the dead person must be
using the buried commodities in his other life. Moreover, Shamanism was also practiced, whereby
Indus valley people were using amulets to ward off evil.

● The decline of Indus Valley Civilization: Initially some historians quoted Aryans invasion as the
main reason for the decline. They quoted the battle of Haryupiya mentioned in Rig Veda as
battle of Harappa but later it was rejected in the lack of evidence. Majority of the historians now
believe that climatic change over a period of time was the most important reason for its decline.
Moreover, there is greater consensus on flooding and inundation as the most important reason.
By 1800 BC, IVC completely disappeared from the Indian subcontinent.

Chalcolithic culture:
Chalcolithic refers to usage of copper and stone at the same point of time. This period was highly
visible after the decline of IVC. It was a rural culture in which people’s life was dependent on
agriculture, fishing, animal husbandry and textile making. There were few instances of uses
of Bronze also but the most important metal used at this point of time was copper. In the
chalcolithic phase people created ochre colored pottery. One of the very important developments
of this period was the beginning of burying the dead in the same direction all over a particular
 region. In other words it can be said that direction sense developed while burying the dead. There
were many important Pockets of Chalcolithic culture in between 1800 BC-1500 BC- Ahar Banas in
Rajasthan, Malvan, Kayatha, Savalda.

Advent of Aryans:
Around 1500 BC Aryans started to arrive in the Indian sub-continent in many batches. They were
nomadic people always on the move. They were also pastoralists. They were always in search of
good pasture land which was important for their most important economic wealth were cattle.
Originally the term Aryans denoted a linguistic community. All the different tribes of central Asia
who arrived in the Indian subcontinent had one thing in common i.e., all of them used the Aryan
group of languages. These Aryans were able to defeat the indigenous population of India by their
usage of superior bronze tools which included even male coats and helmets etc. Moreover, they
were using horses and horse-driven chariots which provided swiftness to their army. Initially
Aryans were concentrated in the North-west part of the Indian sub-continent- Kashmir, Punjab,
Haryana, Himachal, etc. After their arrival they started to compose Veda in the Sanskrit
language. The first Veda to be composed was Rig Veda which was the most important source of
information about early Aryans. Initially, the knowledge of Veda was forwarded to the next
generation in Shruti form i.e., in oral tradition.

Early Vedic period:

● Geographical details: Rig Veda provide beautiful description of nature and it mentions following
rivers: Indus(Sindhu), Jhelum(Vitasta), Chenab(Askini), Ravi(Parushani), Beas(Vipasha),
Sutlej(Shutudri), Saraswati(Nanditarna).
 ● Economy during early Vedic period: Cattle were the most important economic wealth of early
Aryans. The head of the tribal community Rajan was supposed to organize a battle to secure a
large number of cattle. The importance of cattle is highlighted through many words associated with
cattle mentioned in Rig Veda.
o Gavyu – Cow. o Gopajanya- Master of a cow. o Duhitri - Milcher of the cow (Daughter was
referred to as Duhitri). o Godhuma – One which grows in cow dung(Wheat). o Gavisthi - Search
for cows. o Godhuli – measurement of time(Dusk). o Aghanya – Not to be killed (refers to cow).
o Goghana – The very guest to whom cow meat is served.
The other important economic wealth was agricultural produce like Barley known as Yava and
wheat(Godhuma). There was no formal system of Taxation but people contributed voluntarily to
the chief of community which was known as Bali or bhag.

● Polity during early Vedic period: The Aryans tribal community was headed by the chieftain
known as Rajan. His most important function was to organize battles for securing a large number
of cattle. Rajan was assisted by the following political Assemblies:
○ Sabha: Sabha was an exclusive assembly and the most important decision making body, it
mainly consisted of the elders of the society including both males and females.
○ Samiti: Samiti was an inclusive assembly but only consisted of males not females, it was
not a very decisive assembly and its roles were mainly limited with the appointment of rajan.
○ Vidhata: Though there is no exact clarity about the function of this assembly but it took
decisions regarding religious rituals and agricultural practices. Both male and female were
part of this assembly.

Dasrajan war: The most important and powerful Aryan tribe of this time was the Bharat clan. It was
ruled by Sudas, who had to take a very important decision regarding the appointment of head priest of
Bharat clan. As such Sudas gave the coveted position of the head priest to Vashisht Rishi instead of
Viswamitra. Humiliated Viswamitra persuaded 5 Aryan Rajans and 5 non-Aryan Rajans to fight with
Sudas. As such Dasrajan battle was fought on the banks of Parushani in which Sudas defeated
Dasrajan. After this battle, the entire territory was ruled by Sudas was named after his clan as
Bharatvarsha.

● Society during early Vedic period: The Vedic Society was organized on the lines of Kul(family),
Vis(clan), and Gram(community). Kul was the important unit of society which was headed by
Kulapa, who was the eldest male member of the family. Society was patriarchal in nature but
women were highly respected in society. Political rights were available to the women as they
were part of the political assembly of Sabha & Vidhata and allowed to peruse educational
discourse and as such one of the most learned personalities was like Lopamudra. There were no
instances of child marriage at this point of time. Generally, society was following polygamy and
monandry but there were instances of polyandry also. Women were allowed to choose their
spouses under the Gandharva vivah (Love marriage). Widow remarriage was allowed under
Niyoga Vivah as per this system widow was allowed to get married to the younger brother of a
deceased husband. Moreover, if the widow has a son out of the first marriage, she was suggested
not to get married again. Institution of Slavery was rampant at this point of time. There were two
types of slaves, ie, Dasa (defeated Aryans) and Dasyu (defeated non-Aryans). Many times,
Dasa was given favorable treatment but Dasyu was heavily discriminated against. In fact, Rig
Veda mentions Dasyuhatya. Society was not divided but there were three major categories of
profession:
○ Intellectual or Priestly class
○ warrior class.
○ Service class
 ● Religious practices during early Vedic period: The early Vedic people personified elements of
nature into God. As such following important divinities emerged. Indrạ was the most important
divinity and was mentioned more than 250 times in Rig Veda, Indra was god of rain and thunder
and he was also referred as Purandhar breaker of the forts. Agni was the second important
and he was considered as an intermediary God-mentioned more than 200 times in Rig Veda.
Varun (God of water) was worshiped for maintaining equilibrium or cosmic balance, mentioned
more than 150 times in Rig Veda. Mitra was the god of wind mentioned less than 100 times in Rig
Veda. Apart from these, female divinities were also worshiped Like Aditi (Goddess of the day),
Usha (Goddess of Dawn), Nisha (Goddess of dusk); Savitri (Goddess of sunlight). Sun-god
was also worshiped, Pushan (god of animals). Gayatri Mantra composed by Viswamitr was
dedicated to Sun God and Goddess Savitri. The mode of worship was through performance of
Yajna and offering sacrifices along with the recitation of prayers and Mantra. The objective of
worship was material gain and at no point of time it was not associated with spiritualism.

Later Vedic period:

Around 1000 BC, Iron was discovered from the places like Atranjikhera and Jakhera in the
western part of present-day UP. With the help of iron, very good quality tools were created which in
turn facilitated in clearing the dense forests of Gangetic plains and further penetrated into eastern
India and central India. Moreover, fertile soils in this region were suitable for agriculture. The later
Vedic text provides important information about this period. Though Ganga and Yamuna rivers were
mentioned, the most often mentioned river was Gandak as Sadanira.

● The economy during the Later Vedic Period: Though cattle was important but land became the
most important economic wealth. The importance of land is highlighted in later Vedic texts, with the
 term "Rashtra". The most important function of rajan became organizing battles to secure
large tracts of land. Apart from Yava(Barley), Godhuma (wheat), Vrihi (Rice) emerged as
important agricultural commodities. There was no formal system of taxation at this point of time
but people voluntarily contributed to Rajan in the form of Bhag or Bali

● Polity during the Later Vedic Period: The early Vedic political assembly Sabha and Samiti lost
their former relevance. Moreover, women were no more part of Sabha and Vidhata
completely disappeared. The position of Rajan became much more important at this time and
he was assisted by nobles and priestly class. The Priest at this time became much more
important they came up with sacrificial ritual to confer supreme power on Rajan which are as
follows:
○ Rajsuiya – Consecration ceremony related to accession of Rajan to the throne with the
blessings of priestly class.
○ Vajpeya - In this ceremony sport events were organized in the form of chariot races.
Moreover, this ceremony also meant a public feast.
○ Ashvamedha – It was organized with the purpose of expanding the territory of the kingdom,
as per the ritual a healthy horse was chosen and an incision made on his body by chief
queen Mahishi after which the horse was let loose with the flag of the kingdom to wonder
into the other kingdoms. If the ruler of other kingdoms doesn’t capture the horse then it
meant that they have accepted the supremacy of Ashvamedha king but if they capture the
horse then in this case they need to fight with Ashvamedha king. The ritual was to be
completed within 40 days. On the last day of ceremony the horse was sacrificed along with
21 sterile cows and more than 200 bulls.
● Society during the Later Vedic Period: There are total 10 mandalas in Rig Veda out of which 2-7
were composed in early Vedic period and rest in Later Vedic period. In the Mandala No. 10 of Rig
Veda under Purushashukti, it was mentioned to divide society into four Varnas on the basis of
birth(ascriptive). As such the following varna emerged:
○ Brahman emerged from the mouth of Primeval man (Adi Brahma).
○ Kshatriya emerged from the shoulder and chest of Adi Brahma.
○ Vaishya emerged from the thigh of Adi Brahma.
○ Shudra emerged from the feet of the Adi Brahma.
Women did not enjoy any political rights at this point of time. Though educational discourse was still
open for women, the best example was Vidushi Gargi. Gandharva vivah was not encouraged but
many other type of marriages emerged at this point of time. There were instances of Anuloma and
Pratiloma marriages.
● Anuloma vivah- Higher caste men getting married to lower class women.
● Pratiloma vivah - Higher caste women married to the lower caste men.
None of the marriages were encouraged but Anuloma was accommodated. In the later Vedic period,
no instance of child marriage came to light. Widow remarriage continued under Niyoga vivah. At this
point of time Brahmins advised exogamy of Gotra in the matters of matrimonial alliances. Gotra
refers to the lineage from a common ancestor (particularly rishi). They consolidated the concept of
16 samskaras, like Garbhadhan samskara, Chudakarana samskara, Upanayana samskara {Sacred
thread ceremony- this samskara only to be observed by Brahman, kshatriya and Vaishya as they
were considered as dvij (consecutively twice born human)}, Vivah samskara, Annaprashan
samskara, Namakarna samskara, Antyesti samskara. The Ashram system also started to emerge
at this point of time. The first three stages of the Ashram system were firmly established which are
as follows:
● Brahmacharya- study period with observing Celibacy.
 ● Grihastha-Married life and its responsibility.
● Vanaprastha-Partial retirement from householder’s life to attain wisdom.
● Sanyas- which was Firmly consolidated during the period of buddha and this stage means
Complete retirement from householder’s life to attain enlightenment.

● Religious practices during the Later Vedic Period: The early Vedic gods like Indra, Agni, Varun
lost their former relevance. At this point of time Prajapati or Brahma (Creator of the universe),
emerged as the most important god. Moreover, Rudra and Vishnu also emerged as important
gods. The mode of worship at this point of time was through prayers, recitation of mantras, the
performance of Yajna, and offering sacrifices. The objective of the worship was to seek
material gain but in the rear end of the later Vedic period, the progressive section of society
started reform movements. Whereby they emphasized spiritualism to be the most important
objective of the worship.

Religious reforms in 6th century BC: Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika.

Rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas:

Mahajanapadas means big territorial states, with a well-established system of administration, which
emerged in the Indian sub-continent in the 6th century BC. The information about these
Mahajanapadas can be found in Buddhist text in Anguttar Nikaya and Mahavastu and Jain text
Bhagwati Sutra. Initially Kashi and Kosala were the most powerful Mahajanapadas. They owe
their richness to high agricultural productivity, which led to the development of textile industry in
Kashi and Kosala but very soon Magadha started to emerge as the most powerful Mahajanapadas
and over the period it almost annexed all the Mahajanapadas.
Reasons behind the Rise of Magadha:
Magadha capital, Rajgriha or Girivraj was strategically located, surrounded by five mountains
which in turn safeguarded the capital. Magadha was effluent with a large number of river channels
which they used for trade, commerce and transportation. Magadha was densely forested which
provided good quality timber. The Himalayan river brought very fertile silt and moraine which in
turn promoted agricultural productivity. Magadh had the abode of iron with which they created
very high quality tools further strengthened their army. The rulers of Magadha didn’t follow the
rules of dharma shastra which prohibited taking interest on loan and also trade commerce
through liquid and also prohibited commerce through sea route or river route, in other word the
rulers of Magadha were unorthodox and enterprising in nature.

Mahajanapadas Capital Modern Location

Anga Champa Munger and Bhagalpur

Magadha Girivraj/ Rajgriha Gaya and Patna

Kashi Kasi Banaras

Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad

Kosala Sarasvati (northern), Kushavati Eastern Uttar Pradesh

(southern)
Shurasena Mathura Western Uttar Pradesh

Panchala Ahichchatra and Kampilya Western Uttar Pradesh

Kuru Indraprastha(Hastinapur) Meerut and South-eastern Haryana

Matsya Viratanagar Jaipur

Chedi Suktimati Bundelkhand region

Avanti Ujjain or Mahismati Malwa and Madhya Pradesh

Gandhara Taxila Rawalpindi

Kamboja Poonch Rajouri and Hajra (Kashmir), NWFP

(Pakistan)

Asmaka Potali/Podana Banks of Godavari

Vajji Vaishali Bihar

Malla Kushinagar Deoria and Uttar Pradesh

Haryanka Dynasty (554 BC-492 BC):
Founded by Bimbisara (554 BC - 492 BC) in Magadha. He followed the policy of both matrimonial
alliance and military annexation. He captured Mahajanpada of Anga militarily and went for
matrimonial alliances with the three powerful areas which are as follows: he married Mahakosaladevi
of Kashi, Chellana of Licchavi, and Khema of Madra. He was the contemporary of Buddha and
Vardhman Mahavir. He sent his famous physician Jivak to cure Avanti ruler Chanda Pradyota who
was suffering from jaundice. As such it led to devolvement of friendly relations between Magadha and
Avanti.
● Ajatshatru (492 BC-460 BC): Ajatshatru assassinated his father Bimbisara in 492 BC to came to
power. After the assassination of Bimbisara, Licchavi and kashi wanted to break away from the
association of Magadha. As such it led to war. In war against Licchavi Ajatshatru used two
innovative war engines, the Rathamusala - a revolving mace was attached to a chariot and
Mahashilakantaka – it was a flexible platform to catapult stone on the enemy. Licchavi was
thoroughly defeated and its capital Vaishali was completely destroyed. On the other hand, Kashi
reconciliated with Magadha. After the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha his followers persuaded
Ajatshatru to convene first Buddhist council in 483BC at Rajgriha. Ajatshatru decided to
transfer the capital of Magadha from Rajgriha to Patliputra but it was not executed due to his
death in 460 BC. The next ruler Udayin constructed beautiful city of Patliputra. The last ruler of
Haryanka, Nagadasaka was assassinated by one of his ministers, Shishunaga who founded
the Shishunaga dynasty in Magadha 412 BC.

Shishunaga Dynasty (412 BC- 344 BC): Shishunaga annexed the area of Avanti and for time being
shifted the capital of Magadha to Vaishali but after some point of time there was retransferment of
capital to Patliputra. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Kalashoka also known as kakvarnin,
he convened the 2nd Buddhist council at Vaishali in which Buddhism got divided into two sects i.e.
Theravada and Mahasamghika. Later Kalashoka was assassinated by Mahapadmananda in 344 BC.

Nanda dynasty (344 BC – 321 BC): Mahapadmananda after coming to power took a resolve to
eliminate all Kshatriyas from Magadh. Due to his aggressive nature, he came to be known as Ekarat or
Ugrasena. The most important and powerful ruler of Nanda dynasty was Dhananand. During the tenure
of Dhananand ruler of Macedonia Alexander started his campaign of eastern. In 326 BC, in the battle
of Hydaspes (Jhelum river) he defeated the Indian ruler Porous but impressed by the bravery of
porous, Alexander reinstated Porous to the throne and also made him his ally. After this episode,
Alexander decided to enter into Magadh to fight with Dhananand, but due to continuous wars his army
was not in position to wage a war immediately. As such Alexander decided to suspend the war intention
for the time being. Though Dhananand was saved from Alexander’s attack but not from what going to
next. In 321 BC Chandragupta Maurya defeated Dhananand with the active support of Vishnugupta
or Kautilya or Chanakya. The political mechanization devised by Kautilya against Nanda ruler is
mentioned in the historical text Mudrarakshasa written by Vishakhadatta.

Mauryan dynasty (321 BC - 185 BC): Chandragupta Maurya founded Maurya dynasty in 321 BC. In
305 he fought with the Greek governor of Alexander Seleucus Nicator. Chandragupta defeated
Nicator once again due to active support of Vishnugupta. After the defeat, a friendship treaty was
signed between Nicator and Chandragupta Maurya. Whereby Nicator handed over the area lying west
of River Indus to Maurya and he also married his daughter Helena with Chandragupta Maurya.
Chandragupta accepted the Greek ambassador Magasthenes in his court. Magasthenes wrote a very
famous book 'Indica' which provides details about socio-political conditions during the Mauryan
period. As per the Greek account Chandragupta was mentioned as Sandrocottus. Chandragupta
accepted Jainism in the influence of Jain monk Bhadrabahu and later at Shravanabelagola he died in
typical Jain fashion by observing Sallekhana.
● Bindusara (299 BC – 273 BC): After coming to power Bindusara convened the first Jain council.
In the Greek account he is mentioned as Amitrochates (Destroyer of the foe). He maintained
very friendly and cordial relations with the ruler of Egypt Philadelphus Ptolemy and ruler of
Syria Antiochus-2. He requested sweet wine dates & figs and a philosopher from the Syrian
ruler. Though sweet wine Dates and figs were provided, the Syrian ruler refused a philosopher as
the rule of Syria didn’t allow it.
● Ashoka (269 BC-232 BC): After the death of Bindusara his sons started to fight with each other
on the question of succession in which it is said that Ashoka was successful after killing hundreds
of his brothers. In 269 BC Ashoka ascended to the throne. His life cycle can be divided into three
phases:
1. Kamashoka: indulged in carnal pleasure.
2. Chandashoka: Aggressive and brutal expansion.
3. Dhammashoka: Propagation of Dhamma.
The details about Ashoka can be traced from his inscription and rock edicts. They were written in
Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic language and the script of inscriptions was in Brahmi, Kharosthi,
Greek and Aramaic. Generally, in his inscription Ashoka was mentioned as Devanapiya Piyadasi
(The beloved of gods). But at some places like Maski, Nittur and Udegolam his original name
Ashoka was also mentioned. In 1837 British archeologist James Princep deciphered the Ashokan
inscription and the Brahmi script after which the information about Ashoka became readily
available. Ashoka is considered as the first Chakravartin Samrat of India which means the one
who dominated in all the four directions. In the 9th regnal year of his rule i.e. 261 BC, Ashoka
decided to annex Kalinga (13th major rock edicts mention about Kalinga battle). The battle was
fought on the bank of river Daya at the site of Dhauli. It is said that in this battle nearly one lakh
 peoples were massacred. Seeing the blood red Daya river Ashoka was filled with guilt and remorse
and as such he decided to abandon the policy of Bherigosh (sound of war drum & equal to
military annexation). After some point of time he accepted Buddhism and started the policy of
dhammagosh (socio- cultural annexation) which also meant the spread of Buddhism.
In 250 BC, Ashoka convened the 3rd Buddhist council at Pataliputra in which Theravada
Buddhism was recognized as original Buddhism. Moreover, Abhidhamma Pitak was compiled in
this assembly. Due to the missionary activity of Ashoka, Buddhism survived outside India when it
was declining in its own place of birth. Moreover, due to his initiative the original bodhi tree
survived in Anuradhapuram of Sri Lanka. Ashoka during his lifetime created a wildlife century
for the protection of animals. After the death of Ashoka in 232 BC the weak successors were not
able to defend the Mauryan empire and started to get fragmented. The last Mauryan ruler
Brihadrath was assassinated by one of his minister Pushyamitra Shunga which led to the
establishment of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.

Mauryan Administration:
● Saptanga: Seven organs of Mauryan administration - Swami(King), Ammatya(Ministers),
Kosha(Treasury), Bala(Army), Durga(Fort), Mitra(Ally), Shatru(Enemy). Mauryan administration
was highly centralized in nature.
● Important Mauryan Officers:
○ Sannidhata - chief treasurer
○ Samharta - chief tax collector
○ Shulk Adhyaksh-Tax collector.
○ Sitadyaksha - chief of agricultural land.
○ Nagarika - Superintendent of city administration.
○ Rajjuka - Judicial officers.
 ○ Bhesaj - Physicians.
○ Dhamma Mahamatya’s – chief in charge of propagation of Dhamma.
Kautilya also created a very good network of espionage. Kautilya appointed guptachar and he used
all types of people for spying including women-prostitute and small children.

Mauryan society:
Mauryan society was unorthodox in nature and they highly emphasized on their enterprise rather
than giving importance to Dharma shastra. Women have accorded respect in the Mauryan society
and they were also appointed to high official positions. Elders, Shramana’s and brahmins were
also accorded respect in the society. Magasthenes in his book “Indica” mentioned existence of
seven caste in the Mauryan society but it seems that Magasthenes was confused between
profession and caste and instead of caste he mentioned professions like councilors,
magistrate, philosophers, Priestly class, Herdsman, Shepherds etc. Mauryan rulers patronized
all the three branches of Shramana i.e. Jainism Buddhism and Ajivika.

Post-Mauryan period:
Indigenous Dynasties:
● Shunga Dynasty: It was founded by Mauryan minister Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 BC. He was
an orthodox brahmin and wanted to revive the practices of Vedic Hinduism. He was highly anti
to Buddhist and destroyed many stupas and monasteries. Patanjali was the head priest of
shunga dynasty who propounded the philosophy of yoga. He revived Vedic rituals and performed
an Aswamedha yajna which is mentioned in Ayodhya inscription. The next ruler was Agnimitra
Shunga whose love affair with the princess of Vidisha Malavika, is mentioned in
Malavakagnimitra written by Kalidas. The last important ruler Vasumitra shunga reconstructed
all the stupas and monasteries destroyed by Pushyamitra shunga.
● Kanva Dynasty: Vasudev Kanva who was one of the ministers of Shungas defeated and killed
the last shunga ruler Bevabhuti around 75 BC and established the Kanva dynasty in Magadha.
During his tenure a large number of foreigners accepted Hinduism. One of the Greek
ambassadors Heliodorus not only accepted Hinduism but also erected a pillar at Vidisha to mark
the worship of Lord Vishnu. This pillar was popularly known as Garudadhwaja and installed at
Bhilsa or Vidisha. It is the first archaeological evidence of Lord Vishnu worship.

● Satavahana Dynasty: Mythologically Satavahana were considered as degenerate sons of

Vishvamitra. Their emergence is believed to be somewhere in the 2nd century BC. They are often
referred as Andhra’s or Andhrabhritya’s. They came into prominence in the 1st century AD when
Simukh annexed Magadha from the Kanvas. Puranas are the most important source of
information about Satavahanas. Hala was one of the initial important rulers who patronized art and
literature. He wrote a very popular erotic love poetry named Gathasaptasati in Prakrit
language. The most important rule of this dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni. From this time
onwards Satavahanas became a matrilineal dynasty. His mother Gautami Balashri wrote the
famous inscription of Nashik in which she proclaimed that Satakarni was the only protector
of the brahmins.
○ Initiatives -Perhaps Satavahana were the first rule in India who issued lead coins for
commercial transactions. Satavahanas were the first rulers in India who started the
practice of granting land to the brahmins and monks for their service. It led to rise of
feudalism in India. The first coin in India silver punch marked coin during the age of
buddha.
Outsiders dynasties:
● Indo-Greeks (165 BC): They were the first outsider to arrive in India in the post Mauryan period.
They were the first ruler who introduced gold coins in India. Menander was their most important
ruler, who established his capital at Shakala (modern Sialkot). Menander was persuaded by a
Buddhist monk Nagasena. Menander asked may question to Nagasena and he gave satisfying
reply to all the questions of Menander. As such Menander accepted Buddhism and also took the
title of Milinda. This historical conversation is mentioned in Milindapanno.

● Shakas (90 BC): They were also known as Scythians who started to arrive in India by 90 BC and
they arrived in many branches. The most important of which was the western branch of Shakas.
Rudradaman was the most important ruler of this branch, he is known for his very famous
Junagarh inscription, it is the first inscription written in pure Sanskrit. This inscription
mentioned about the Sudarshan lake of Kathiawar constructed by Chandragupta Maurya
governor Pushya gupta, he further mentions that he also repaired Sudarshan lake. In the last
part of the inscription he mentions that he defeated the Satavahana ruler Vasisthiputra
Satakarni twice but every time he spared his life to respect the matrimonial alliance between
the two kingdoms.

● Parthians: They started to arrive by 25 AD. Gondophernes was the most important ruler of this
time. During his regime missionary from Israel saint Thome came to India for the propagation of
Christianity. Later after the death of saint Thome a church dedicated to his name was created at
Velankanni.

● Kushanas: Kushanas were Yuechi tribe of Central Asia originally, they were from magnolia and
long back they settled in central Asia. From where they came to India in two branches:
 1. Kadphise branch (65 AD): Founded by Kujul Kadphise in 65 AD. The Second ruler Wima
Kadphise who released their coins in India. On the obverse side of the coin, image of the
Kushana king was created and on the reverse side, image of a free-standing person holding
a trident along with a bull was depicted. It indicates that Kushanas was a devotee of Shiva.
2. Kanishka Branch (78 AD): Kanishka defeated the Shaka ruler of North in 78 AD. To
celebrate this victory, he started the Shaka samvat from 78 AD. In 78 AD he convened
forth Buddhist council at Kashmir which was presided by Viswamitra and sub presided
by Aswagosh. The major development of this council of division of Buddhism into two
formal sects Hinayana and Mahayana. Kanishka accepted Mahayana Buddhism under the
influence of Aswagosh. He founded two cities Kanishkapur and Purushapur. Kanishka
period is also known for very high level of urbanization and monetization. He released
large number of copper and gold coins. The gold coins of his period purest of the pure
quality. Kanishka also used the silk route to establish trade relation with china and
roman world.

Gupta Dynasty:
After the demise of Kushanas a vacuum was created in north India which was later filled by the
Guptas. Srigupta was the initial founder followed by Ghatotkacha, but the 3rd ruler
Chandragupta is considered as the real founder of Guptas in India. He came to power in 319 AD.
● Chandragupta (319-335 AD): Following the policy of military annexation he expanded gupta
territory. Moreover, he also went for matrimonial alliance with Licchavi whereby he married
Kumar devi. To celebrate this marriage special type of Kumar devi gold coins were released. On
the obverse side of the coin image of the king and queen was created and in the reverse side of
the coin image of goddess like Laxmi or Parvati or Saraswati was created
● Samudragupta (335-375 AD): He is considered as 2nd Chakravarti Samrat of India. He was the
most powerful gupta ruler under him the gupta territory reached its climax. His court poet
Harisena wrote Prayag Prasasti which is eulogization of Samudragupta. He writes
Samudragupta won more than 100 battles and never faced a single defeat. Moreover, he also
defeated south India ruler but did not annex it. Samudragupta deeply believed in Hinduism
and he also performed one Aswamedha yajna. He was also an accommodative and tolerant
ruler who allowed and supported Sri Lankan ruler Meghavarman to create a Buddhist
monastery at Bodh Gaya. In some of his gold coins he was depicted playing the musical
instrument veena on the basis of which it is said that he was an accomplished poet and
musician.

● Chandragupta-II (385 – 415 AD): In 385 AD Chandragupta 2nd after defeating Shakas
ascended to the throne with the title of Vikramaditya. He also established the second capital of
Guptas Ujjain (1st capital was Prayag). His tenure is considered as golden as of gupta history.
There was holistic development in many fields at this time like astrology, Astronomy,
Mathematics, Metrology, Sanskrit literature, Temple architecture, Medicine, Surgery etc.
Chandragupta also went for political marriages whereby he married a lady from Nagaland
Kuberanaga and he gave the hand of his daughter Prabhavati to Vakataka ruler Rudrasena.
After the death of Rudrasena, Prabhavati became the de facto ruler under the guidance of
Chandragupta 2nd. He also maintained many luminaries in his court which included: Kalidas,
Amarsimha, Varahmihir, Vararuchi, Dhanvantari. During the tenure of Chandragupta 2nd the
Chinese Buddhist traveler Fa-Hien visited India. He wrote about his experience of gupta court in
his book Fu-Kuo-Ki.
 ● Kumaragupta (415- 452 AD): Under the influence of Fa-Hien Kumaragupta established the 1st
modern university of India Nalanda.

● Skandagupta (452 – 467 AD): He was the last important gupta ruler. He added in Junagadh
inscription that he also repaired the famous Sudarshan lake. During his tenure a barbaric
tribe Hun’s started invading gupta territory but Skandagupta effectively made the challenge and
protected gupta territory from further invasion. But later after his death Hun’s reorganized
themselves under the leadership of Toramana and Mihirkula. They thoroughly plundered gupta
territory and looted the gupta wealth. It led to the decline and disintegration of Guptas and finally
disappeared by 550 AD.

Gupta Administration:
Generally, gupta administration was centralized around its capital and immediate neighborhood but
in the far-flung areas decentralized administration was there, mainly controlled by feudal lords.
For the ease of administration gupta territory was subdivided into many parts which are as follows:
Bhukti – (Province) headed by Bhuktipati, Vishaya – (District) headed by Vishayapati, Vithi –
(block) headed by Vithipati, Gram- (Village) headed by Gramani. Guptas released their stamp
for the mark of political authority which was a symbol of Garuda.

Economy during gupta period:

Land tax was the most important source of income in the normal times it was fixed that 1/6th of the
produce but in the difficult times it can be altered. Visti was the forced labour or a kind of bonded
labour system in gupta period. Guptas continued the practice of granting land not only to the
priestly class but also to their official which further consolidated feudalism in India. There were some
special types of land grants at this time given to the Brahmins which is Agrahara and Bramhadeya.
Society during gupta period:
Gupta rulers tried to uplift the position of women in the society by comparing them with Goddess like
Laxmi, Parvati, Saraswati etc. but rather than improving the condition of women it harmed them.
The women of the upper class were not allowed to secure an independent source of living but the
women of lower caste were allowed. Shudras and women were allowed to listen to religious
literature. There was a rapid rise in the institution of prostitution and there was increased
stereotyping and objectification of women. Moreover, the Sati Pratha also emerged in this period.
The 1st archeological evidence of Sati Pratha has been found from an Eran inscription dated
around 510 AD. The famous law giver of this time Katyayana clearly defined Streedhana.
According to him the wealth given to the girl at the time of her marriage was meant for her
maintenance and only she had the right to sell it or mortgage it. There was a rapid increase in the
number of Chandala’s at this point of time who were a type of Nirvasita Shudra. Many disabilities
were imposed on them and they were not allowed to live inside villages or towns. They were
supposed to live on the peripheries or in graveyards. They needed to blow horn or beat drums while
entering the village or town and their most important function was manual scavenging, cleaning
drains and menial jobs etc.

Religious Practices during gupta period:

They were devout Vaishnava (Hindus who worship the Supreme Creator as Vishnu) themselves,
yet that did not prevent them from being tolerant towards the believers of Buddhism and Jainism.

Sangam age:
The emergence of the Sangam dynasty is believed to be in the 3rd century BC. In fact, Asoka also
mentions the Chera rulers as Keralaputra on his inscription. By the 1st century AD the three
 dynasties the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas firmly started their rule in the southern part of the
country. According to the historian Neelkanth Shastri, Sangam age was in between 200 – 600 AD,
which denotes the compilation of Sangam literature in three Sangam assemblies held in
between this period.

Cholas: Elara was the initial ruler of the Cholas; the Cholas capital was Kaveripatnam. Elara also
won Sri Lanka and ruled for some time. Karikala was the most important ruler of this dynasty who
created Kallanai dam on Kaveri river and perhaps it was the 1st dam on any river in India.
Kaveripatnam and Arikamedu were two important ports of the Cholas.

Cheras: Cheras were also known as Keralaputra. Udayinjeral was the initial ruler of the Cheras
and their capital was Karur. Senguttuvan was the most important Cheras ruler also known as
Good Chera or Red Chera. He constructed the temple of Kannagi (Goddess of chastity). He
also founded the Pattini cult. Muziri was their most important port.

Pandyas: Mudukumudi was the initial ruler of Pandyas and the capital was Madurai.
Nedunjeliyan was the most important ruler of this dynasty. Though he was a ruler known for
justice but later he is known for curse of Kannagi. Their most important ports are Thuthikodi,
Alagankulam and Korkai. Under the Pandyas ruler three Sangam assemblies were held which
led to compilation of Sangam Literature and later two most popular Tamil epics i.e.
Silappatikaram written by Ilango Adigal and Manimekalai written by Chithalai Chathanar.
All the three dynasties were quite rich, they had trade relations with the Roman world and Arab
world. All the three dynasties were endowed with many natural resources like cotton, spices, pearl,
ivory etc. which they sold to the Arab and Roman Traders.
North India:
Pushyabhutti dynasty:
Prabhakar Vardhan founded this dynasty which was based in Sthaneshwar in Haryana. After his
death Rajya Vardhan became the ruler. Shashank gaud of Bengal was the biggest adversary of
Vardhan’s. Shashank killed Maukhari ruler of Kannauj Grahavarman and captured Rajyashree.
Moreover, he was also successful against Rajyavardhan and he treacherously killed Rajyavardhan.
In this situation the young Harshavardhan ascended to the throne and concentrated on getting
back Kannauj and also to release his sister Rajyashree from Shashank’s captivity. Shashank was a
formidable enemy but finally after a long wait Harshavardhan was successful against him and now
Kannauj became the capital of Pushyabhutti. Harshavardhan was an ambitious ruler and he
wanted to extend his territory south of Narmada river also, where he fought with Chalukyas
ruler Pulakeshin 2nd, Harshavardhan was thoroughly defeated in this battle but it resulted into a
friendship treaty between the two rulers, the treaty is mentioned in Aihole inscription. Whereby
both the rulers promised to each other that in future they will not venture into each other’s territory. It
is said that the inscription was written by Ravi Kirti who was court poet of Chalukyas and the
inscription was written in Sanskrit. During the tenure of Harshavardhan the Chinese Buddhist
traveler Hiuen- Tsang visited Kannauj. He wrote about his experience in Harshavardhan court in
his book Si-yu-ki. Hiuen-Tsang mentions that there was strict provision of punishment even for
the pettiest of the crimes in Harshavardhan rule, but at the same point of time the streets of
Kannauj was not free from robbers and he himself was robbed on the streets of Kannauj.
Harshavardhan was the devotee of lord Shiva and the Sun. Under the influence of Hiuen-Tsang he
also accepted Mahayana Buddhism. To showcase his support to Mahayana Buddhism,
Harshavardhan convened two religious councils at Prayag and Kannauj. In these councils,
Hiuen-Tsang gave elaborate lectures on Mahayana Buddhism which is considered a shot in the arm
for Mahayana Buddhism. As per Hiuen-Tsang, in the later part of his life, Harshavardhan gave up
 all his personal wealth in charity and he ruled like a monk. Another Chinese envoy led by I.
Tsing came to Harshavardhan court but by the time he was dead.

South India:
Chalukyas and Pallavas:
By the beginning of 7 century AD these two dynasties were firmly established in the place of
Cholas. Right from the beginning both the dynasties started to fight with each other to control the
fertile doab like Tungabhadra, Krishna and Kaveri. In the very first battle, Pulakeshin 2nd
defeated Pallavas ruler Mahendravarman and captured the area of Vengi. The area of Vengi was
given to Vishnuvardhan, brother of Pulakeshin 2nd. Later Vengi emerged as the eastern branch
of Chalukyas. After the death of Mahendravarman his son Narsimhavarman defeated
Chalukyas ruler Pulakeshin 2nd and captured his capital at Badami(Vatapi). To celebrate this
victory, he took the title of Vatapikondi or the conqueror of Vatapi. Both the dynasties are
remembered for their contribution to the temple architecture of India. Pallavas initiated Dravida
type of temples and Chalukyas initiated Vesara style of temples.

North India:
After the demise of Pushyabhuti dynasty a vacuum was created in north and central India by the
end of 7th century AD. This vacuum was filled by the following three dynasties by 750 AB.
● Pala dynasty of the East: Gopal was the founder of this dynasty in 751 AD. Dharamapala was
the most important ruler of this dynasty. In his regime Vajrayana Buddhism was highly
popularized and as such it reached the area like Tibet. Vajrayana Buddhism is considered as the
tantric sect of Buddhism whose practices are quite similar to Hinduism. They also worship
female deities like Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya etc. In the modern world it is mainly practiced
in the area of Tibet. Dharamapala granted 200 villages to Nalanda university for its
 maintenance and upkeep. He also founded three popular universities in eastern India which
are Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Sompura. Pala rules were the first to initiate miniature
painting in India based on Buddhism.

● Pratihara-Gurjara dynasty of the west: They were devotees of lord Lakshman as such they
took the title of Pratihara means protector. There is no clarity regarding their initial rule but it is
believed that Nagabhatta was the initial ruler. The most important ruler of this dynasty was
Mihirbhoj. He was a devotee of lord Vishnu and he took the title of Adivaraha. He also
maintained one of the strongest armies at that time as he was able to procure good quality
horses from central Asia. He initiated Maru-Gurjara style of temple, which was later
incorporated into Solanki style

● Rashtrakuta dynasty of central India: This dynasty was founded by Dantidurga in 757 AD. The
second ruler of this dynasty Krishna 1st constructed the famous temple of Ellora known as
Kailash Nath temple. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Amoghavarsha. During his
regime Kannada language was patronized and he himself wrote the 1st poetics of Kannada
Kavirajamarga. Perhaps Amoghavarsha was the 2nd monarch of India who ended his life by
observing Sallekhana. Pampa, Ponna and Ronna were the three most important initial figures in
the Kannada language.

Imperial Cholas:
This dynasty emerged by 890 AD, established by Vijayalaya, who was the courtier in Pallavas
regime. Parantaka 1st and Aditya 1st were the initial rulers. The most important ruler was
Rajaraja 1st chola. He annexed the northern part of Sri Lanka. He defeated Pandyas at
Madurai, Cheras at Trivandrum and annexed a considerable part of their territory. His most
 important contribution was the construction of Brihadeshwara temple of Thonjore, which was
considered as the climax of Dravida style of temple. He was succeeded by his son Rajendra 1st
chola, who completely annexed Sri Lanka, Pandyas and Chera kingdom. He also crossed the
gangetic delta and defeated Mahipala, to celebrate this victory, he created a new city on the
banks of river Kaveri known as Ganghaikonda Cholapuram. Perhaps he was the 1st Indian
ruler who crossed Bay of Bengal and attacked the cities of Srivijaya in the Malay peninsula. It
led to the beginning of cultural exchange between India and the Malay peninsula.
Administration of Cholas:
Chola ruler-initiated decentralization in their territory. For the ease of administration many sub
division were created and sufficient power and autonomy was given to the officer in the respective
sub division, these sub divisions are as follows:
● Cholamandalam (Chola empire).
● Mandalam(Province).
● Valanadu (Block).
● Nadu (Group of villages).
● Kottam (Small villages).
● UR (Smallest administrative division).
Perhaps Cholas were the 1st ruler who started to act as a banking and financial institution. They
provided loan to the people on nominal interest rates. Right from the ancient time, Shreni was the
organization involved in banking functions. It was a group of rich traders and merchants, who also
controlled the trade and formulated the rules of trade. The head of Shreni was generally known
as Jyesthaka. Perhaps they were the 1st ruler who started to write inscription regarding rain
water harvesting. Cholas were big temple builders. Temple was not only place of worship but
also center of education. Moreover, temples were created close to habitation, so that market
activity can be promoted.