HISTORY OF EDUCATION NOTES

Dr.Eric Nyankanga Maangi

SECTION ONE: ANCIENT SOCIETIES

LECTURE ONE: THE ROLE OF HISTORY OF EDUCATION

1.1 Definition of history of education
As you will notice right away, the title of our course, history of education is made up of two
terms; History and Education. It is important to define these two terms separately before
combining them.

You can now continue your reading and then compare our definitions against yours.

1.3.1 History

History is the record of all past human experience. History shows how a group of people are,
where it came from, and how it came to be what it is today. History deals with; social,
economic, political, scientific, and technological events that have shaped and given rise to
humanity. History is an evaluation of what human beings have gone through in retrospect,
what they have come to be today, and what they propose to be in future. The study focuses on
the challenges, problems, aspirations, successes, and failures of human beings.

1.3.2 Education

Education is the total process that aims at developing human ability and behaviour. It is an
organized and sustained instruction that aims at transmitting a combination of knowledge,
skills, and values that are necessary for life. Education can also mean a total process that is
meant to help a person function as a full member of a given society.

With these insights, we can now help you define history of education.

1.3.3 History of education

History of Education can be defined as; the study of the past development of educational
systems, educational theories and institutions within the general historical framework of;
social, economic, political, technological, scientific and cultural change. Based on this
understanding, the History of Educational theory and practice is a study of humanity’s
present educational institutions, policies, theories, and practices in the perspective of their

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evolution or progress. The study deals with the substance of the direction of the present
education systems.

Education is at the service of society, of which it happens to be a sub-system, it is important

for a professional educator to have an awareness of social foundations of the educational
theory and practice. That is, the impact of; social, religious, economic, industrial, domestic,
national and international forces upon which the educational policies and practices have been
built. The historical study of education provides opportunities for the examination of the
nature and consequences of society to school relationships in different socio-economic and
political systems.

A historical survey of the educational theory and practice should enable educators to examine
in a historical context some of the educational issues and problems that perplex us today as
they have perplexed many educators in many societies for many centuries. Since most of
these problems and issues have their roots in the past, their evaluation in the light of their
historical development would contribute to a better understanding of their nature and suggest
possible solutions. Educational history is rich with conflicting or complementary answers and
the knowledge of many and diverse solutions proposed over the years should be of great
importance to the educator in working out problems. Such knowledge would enlarge his
horizons and deepen his grasp of basic educational conflicts.

Another important value of history of education lies in the fact that some of the successes and
failures of many years are studied in succession, thereby providing opportunities for
comparison and contrast inn evaluating the relative worth of conflicting educational theories
and practices. Acquaintance with failures of the past centuries can reduce the possibility of
repeating them ourselves while knowledge of tested educational values would improve our
systems of education.

The historical study of educational theory and practice should lead to a better understanding
of the relations between theory and practice. It should help us see the foundations of
educational practice and in educational theories and as well as in social ideals. Knowledge of
great teachers and educationists of the past ages such as Buddha, Plato, Quintilian, St.
Augustine, Comenius, Pestallozi, Rousseau or Dewey should not only reassure us that as
teachers, we are in great and good company but their examples should provide inspiration to
our professional undertakings.

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From our definitions and explanations above, we are confident that you now understand what
history of education is about and what it entails as a course of study in educational
programmes. In the following section, we shall try to show why the study of this course is
important to you and to educators.

1.2 Why do we study of History of Education

The study of this course is important to you as an educator due to various reasons. These
reasons can be grouped into four broad themes for clarity as presented below.

There is a strong conviction that the study of the past has a crucial relevance to the task of
improving the quality of action in the present. It is also believed that an intelligent study of
the history of education can influence the way in which teachers or teachers to be conduct
their personal and professional activities. Accordingly, many of the attitudes and approaches
that educators adopt as they study the past are relevant to the tasks that they face in becoming
better practitioners.

Professional education should prepare teachers and educators who can explore and critically
examine alternative educational theories and practices. The history of education can therefore
contribute to strengthening both the personal and professional competence of the teacher by
encouraging them to:

a) examine, evaluate, accept, reject, or modify the cultural I nheritance; and

b) become an educational critic and an agent responsible for cultural transmission and
change rather than to blindly accept the status quo of unchallenged claims.

By studying the motivations and behaviours of other human beings who were engaged in the
social, economic, religious, scientific and educational aspects of concrete historical situations,
the educator can discern the various choices that were instrumental in shaping human
activities in the past. A critical examination of the past action will help the educator
illuminate the possibilities and alternatives of decision making in the present. In other words,
an examination of educational theories and practices in their historical context may encourage
teachers to take a critical look at contemporary theories and practices.

Since the past illuminates the present, history is therefore important in learning about the
evolution of things. History does not merely reveal structure, but life. Consequently, history
of education will give us an account of the living growth of educational aims and methods of

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instruction, curricula, and institutions, without which, they would appear static. History of
education will therefore help us understand better; the aims, methods, pedagogy and existing
structures and institutions. By so doing, the historical study of education is important in
improving the quality of decision making and policy formulation, and strengthening the
personal and professional competence of the teacher.

The history of education can enable us compare the development of several different ideas or
problems with one group of people or the same idea or problem with several groups of
people. This approach will help one to formulate richer patterns and more comprehensive
principles and provide a broader perspective than what is represented by a single culture. In
addition, one is able to show the development of a particular theory and practice in a
historical context, and explain the conditions out of which such a theory arose or the specific
function that a practice was intended to serve. It will be possible for us to gauge accurately
the relevance of a previous idea or practice to our own situation today once we understand
both the present context and the original context from which the idea originated.

The examination of educational theories and practices in a historical context encourages a

tendency to look critically at present theories and practices. The most creative task for the
history of education is not to amass more data to answer old questions or bolster old beliefs,
but to formulate new and better questions, generate fruitful hypotheses or research questions
and initiate or engage in unexplored lines of inquiry. The study will therefore help us use the
power of contextual study to introduce innovation.

The study of history of education is not only important for knowledge about world education
systems and theories, but it also develops our powers of thinking. The study helps us to train
and exercise all the essential aspects of intellectual activity. It also excites curiosity and the
spirit of enquiry, disciplines the faculty of reason, cultivates the art of self-expression and
communication. The historical study also helps us develop the attitudes of the mind of the
educated person; habits of scepticism and criticism; of thinking with perspective and
objectivity and the power to assess or evaluate issues. For example the written documents on
which we derive knowledge of the past must be used critically and sceptically since the
contents were determined by fallible human beings who made decisions on what to record
and what to omit. The historical study of education will help one give shape, form,
organization, sequence, interrelationships, and significance of ideas and events.

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History of education is important because it forms the source upon which all other fields
draw their material or content. Although history of education does not have a monopoly on
the study of human affairs, it provides the raw record of what happened and sets the stage on
which other forms of specialized inquiry must operate. In the same breath, it is impossible for
historians of education to understand fully the nature of the phenomena being studied without
being knowledgeable in the other social sciences such as sociology, psychology, and
anthropology to enrich the analysis of important educational ideas. These disciplines are
useful to the historians of education since they have shed significant light in the recent past
on human motivation and human nature, so critical to historical studies.

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LECTURE TWO: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN EDUCATION
2.2 Background information
The material in this section is useful to you before you read on educational activities in Egypt
as it forms the basis on which education was practised.

Although human civilization started in Mesopotamia, the Egyptian civilization happens to be

the earliest and the oldest to have been recorded in human history. Unlike Mesopotamia,
Egypt was stable and peaceful during most of the ancient period. In addition, Egypt was more
habitable compared to Mesopotamia because of the irregular flooding of the Tigris and
Euphrates. It also remained largely peaceful from external invasions.

Ancient Egypt spread all the way from the Mediterranean delta in the lower region to the first
cataract of the Nile in the upper region. This was a riverine civilization that thrived on the
resources of the River Nile.

The following factors contributed to the development of human civilization in ancient Egypt:

2.3.1 The political unity of the Kingdom.

At the beginning of the 3rd Millennium BC (3100 BC), the two kingdoms of upper and lower
Egypt were united into one single and powerful kingdom under pharaoh Menes of upper
Egypt. This marked the beginning of settled rule that covered the first and second dynasties
(3000-2700 BC). The entire civilization of Egypt was divided into 26 dynasties. The period
1800-525 BC was marked by the political greatness of the empire. However, the kingdom’s
political power started to diminish after 1100 BC and continued until 525 BC when the
Persians conquered it.

2.3.2 Religion

Ancient Egypt was an extremely religious society. Religion was always at the core of daily
affairs. The ancient Egyptians practised polytheism where over 200 gods were worshipped.
Among the most important deities were; the sun god Ra which was also known as Amon or
Amon-Re and Osiris, the god of the Nile. The king was an important figure in the society
especially in religious matters and ensured that the gods were worshipped. The king was also

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taken to be the representative of Ra on earth that is, the son of the sun god. The office of the
king played a very important role of mediating between the gods and the people. Religion
was also important because it governed the lives of the people even after death. In other
words, the Egyptians believed in physical life after death, a life that heavily depended on
their earthly lives. The dead were mummified with the wealthy leaving rich endowment to
provide their mummies with food and other essentials.

2.3.3 Socio-Economic Life

Ancient Egypt was a stratified society where different groups of people occupied different
statuses. The members of the upper class consisted of; the royal families, the priests and the
nobles. The middle class was composed of; scribes, merchants, artisans, and wealthy farmers.
The low class was made up peasants and slaves that were heavily despised and were forced to
work on government quarries and temple estates. There was a marked difference between the
high and low classes. While the nobles led a lavish lifestyle, the poor led a wretched one.

The main economic activity in ancient Egypt was agriculture that was heavily dependent on
river Nile. The fertile soils of the Nile led to a highly developed agricultural system where a
variety of crops such as; wheat barley, millet, vegetables, fruits, and cotton among others
were cultivated. Apart from this, early Egyptians also took part in commercial activities from
around 2000 BC in which the rings of copper and gold of set weight were used as the mode
of exchange, the old known currency in the history of human civilizations.

The factors highlighted above played a crucial role in influencing the system of education in
ancient Egypt. This knowledge is useful to you since the factors described above formed the
basis on which education among the ancient Egyptians was practised.

2.4 Aims of education

Education in ancient Egypt set out to:

i) Perpetuate the social stability and maintain the status quo. The process of
education was meant to enhance a socially hierarchical society by slotting
members into their respective socio-political and economic stations.
ii) Produce professionals and work-oriented personnel. It was a practical, technical
and professional education meant to equip the members with relevant skills to
develop the social, political, economic and religious structures of society.

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 iii) Foster the development of a complex agricultural practice for food production.
iv) Enhance the people’s spiritual and religious training for purposes of strengthening
their religious and moral development and piety to the gods. Education was not
just meant for preparing people for life but it also prepared them for life after
death.
If you have been keen enough, you should have noticed by now that each of the aims outlined
above, are clearly linked to the background information presented to you above.

2.5 Structure, content and methods

The system of education in ancient Egypt was practised at three levels; elementary, secondary
and higher.

2.5.1 Elementary education

The elementary schools were first established between 3000 BC and 2000 BC to respond to
the basic needs of society. They were meant to train their clients in vocations rather than in
literacy. The few boys who were lucky to attend these schools started at the age of four years.

The curriculum or content of learning was mostly based on mastering the symbols and signs
of writing, although this was initially meant for the sons of the clergy only. In addition,
elementary science, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music were included with the later
mainly meant for training the boys in patriotism.

The methods of teaching in these elementary schools were quite simple and did not
emphasise high-level thinking or problem solving skills. Fixed methods ranged from
dictation, memorization, copying of texts, imitation, and repetition to participation and
observation especially in physical education. Schooling was very demanding with harsh and
ruthless discipline enforced by the teachers. They did not entertain laziness and the teachers
put a heavy premium on food manners, uprightness, physical fitness, and cleanliness.
Education at the elementary level continued until the boys were 14 years. They were
considered to have been prepared for life of work.

The boys who did not get opportunities of attending school were informally trained at home
by their fathers in other skills mostly through apprenticeships. The fathers also took the
responsibility of teaching about piety, morality, and reverence to the pharaoh for purposes of

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fitting those boys into their life stations. The girls on the other hand were never given
opportunities to attend school. Their mothers only trained them in domestic arts.

2.5.2 Secondary
This level of education took place in the same premises as the elementary education. It placed
a lot of emphasis on writing in terms of style as well as composition of the art of writing. The
level did not mark a major change from elementary level of education, as it was merely a
continuation, improvement, and consolidation of the previous level of learning.

2.5.3 Higher and professional

Higher education was carried out in temples, colleges, or universities. Special importance at
the higher level was attached to an institution at Tell-el-Armana on the east bank of the Nile
which was part of an extensive complex of administration that included a palace, and a
temple used for the production of documents on religious and intellectual matters in addition
to serving as a centre of learned discussion. It was a kind of a university and was named the
house of life.

It is important to note that higher and professional learning was meant for priests and
professionals and it was therefore guardedly, secretly, and informally passed onto immediate
relatives and colleagues of equal status. This education was restricted to those who inherited
it by virtue of their birth especially in priest craft and medicine. Among the professionals
were teachers who used their homes, offices, business premises, and temples to impart
knowledge of literature, history, science, and skills to the boys. The scribes were highly
valued and respected and therefore underwent demanding instruction in order to master the
skill of scriveners. Scribes ranked from mere secretaries and bookkeepers to highly placed
learned judges, advocates, and advisors to the pharaohs. Part of their high status was derived
from their specialized skill of writing religious and business transactions as well as the
history of great people.

2.6 Contributions to modern education

As you would expect, in the course of their civilisation, the people of ancient Egypt made
some important intellectual achievements and contributions that influenced the course of
other human civilizations that came after. Some of these are discussed below.

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i) They developed a system of writing known as hieroglyphic, a form of sacred
carving. It was sacred because, it was performed by the priests. The system was
based on three types of characters; the pictographic, the syllabic, and the
alphabetic.
ii) They developed writing materials such as papyrus, stones, and metals. The
papyrus reed was grown in the Nile delta and its strips were flattened and tried
before being rolled in scrolls for storage. These rolls were lighter to transport
compared to other materials in use at the time such as clay tablets and therefore
became the standard writing material in not only Egypt but also later spread to
ancient Greece and Rome.
iii) The Egyptians were quite advanced in the field of science especially, astronomy,
medicine and mathematics. Astronomy helped the Egyptians produce the best
calendar in the ancient world that was later on refined by the Romans.
iv) In the area of medicine, ancient Egyptians were well aware that diseases were
caused by natural and not supernatural factors. This helped them develop an
elaborate system that enabled them make proper diagnoses and treatment, which
involved checking the pulse and the heartbeat. The people of Egypt were also
good at mortuary science, possessed knowledge in herbal medicine as well as the
functioning of the heart among others.
v) With regard to mathematics, the Egyptians contributed towards the development
of the arithmetic system of multiplication known as the “Egyptian way”. They
also carried out complicated surveying techniques and calculations and excelled in
methods of measurement. For instance, the Egyptians were first to mark off 360
degrees to a circle and the first to note that the ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter is the same of all circles, the “pi” ratio. They also devised the
means for computing the areas of triangles and volumes of pyramids, cylinders,
and hemispheres.
vi) In art and architecture, the Egyptian contribution can be seen in the way they
constructed pyramids and temples. The earliest pyramid was constructed around
2770 BC. In addition, the Egyptians were the first to use mass and stones
successfully. This was copied from shapes of desert cliffs and mountains. Apart
from this, they were also good in sculpture and painting which was mostly
displayed in the statues of pharaohs.

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vii) By developing a very elaborate system of education, Egypt set off the course of
human civilisation and through it ended up influencing the course of modern
civilisation in the way they influenced the ancient Greek educators and great
thinkers. They taught Pythagoras and Archimedes that later became great
mathematicians; Herodotus, the father of history; and Plato and Aristotle, great
philosophers and educators. In so doing, the Egyptians put in place a very firm
foundation for western education, thought and culture.

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LECTURE THREE: EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
3.1 Background information
The Indian peninsula was settled around 4000 years ago by an Indo-European stock of
people, the ancestors of modern Europeans. Between 2500 and 1500 BC, a riverine
civilization emerged in the Indus Valley (Indus civilization) which was based on the proper
management and utilization of the resources of the Indus valley. The rich fertile soils together
with productive uplands enabled these people to grow crops throughout the year. These
included; wheat barley sesame, peas, melons, and cotton among others. They also kept cattle,
sheep, goats, and elephants.

Since the land was rich, other groups of people got attracted to this place, a factor that turned
India into a battleground. One such group was the Aryans (nobles), whose invasion in the
middle of the Second millennium BC led to the fusion of their culture with the other
surviving customs of the Indus civilization, a factor that left a lasting impact on the social and
religious life of India. The Indus civilization that lasted between1300 BC and AD 450 saw
the emergence of two major world religions- Hinduism and Buddhism, which heavily
influenced the educational outlook of the Indians. Since these religions formed the basis on
which educational activities were carried out in India, we shall start by helping you get a
clear understanding of their influence to the society then by analysing them albeit briefly.

3.2 Religion and Indus civilization

In this section, we present to you two religious beliefs among Indians to help you understand
their influence on education in our discussion later on.
3.2.1 Hinduism
This is a polytheistic religion whose followers belief in three main deities; Brahma-the
creator and lord of the universe, Vinshu-the preserver and Siva-the destroyer. Theoretically,
Hinduism is monotheistic that takes Brahma as the all-pervading world spirit who is also the
ultimate reality. However, the notion of god abiding everywhere and in everything led the
uneducated to polytheism. Members of the upper class took Hinduism to be a mystical
philosophy while the commoners took it as superstition.

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The Vedas, a body of ancient Hindu religious teachings show that the Aryans were stratified
in a caste system with clearly prescribed duties and roles. Brahmans who formed the first
caste were composed of intellectual rulers, teachers, and priests. They were followed by
Kshatriyas who were warlords, warriors, and administrators. The Vaisyas were the third caste
made up of; farmers, herders, money-handlers, and tradesmen. Lastly, the Sudras were
composed of menial servants, and serfs. The Hindu caste system was very rigid and
prohibited members of one group from eating, sleeping, or marrying those outside the group.
A member could also not rise above one’s class but could sink to a lower level or even
become an outcaste or pariah (untouchable) in the event that such members contravened the
prescribed social customs.

The caste system also meant inequality of opportunity including education. Careers were
determined by a person’s skin, colour, and birth. The sudras and women were not given
chances to receive education.

Hinduism revolves around the quest for Brahma, which is achieved through meditation and
contemplation. History among the Hindu is cyclic in nature, a wheel of rebirth that
strengthens the belief in the reincarnation, which depended on one’s behaviour in the
previous live.

3.2.2 Buddhism
Buddhism started as a reform movement within Hinduism around 500 BC that no longer
appealed to the independent minded city dwellers. By 200 BC, the religion had spread to
other parts of India. Gautama Siddharta (563-483) is the founder of this religion and it is his
followers who later on gave him the name Buddha meaning the “Enlightened One”.

Gautama was a member of the warrior class but became restless and at the age of 29 years, he
resorted to ascetic life for meditation through yoga to try and understand the causes and
existence of suffering. He got so frustrated and gave up the practice when he failed to get an
answer. But later on, he received a revelation to the effect that the cause of suffering was
desire. This set him on a preaching mission where he called on his followers from being
controlled by one’s desires, exalted moderation and called on the people to work towards
understanding, enlightenment up to the desireless state, Nirvana. He called on the people to
conduct their lives moderately, rightly, ethically and kindly. He taught that suffering could
not be avoided and called on his followers to help alleviate it by being pitiful and
compassionate. People suffer or enjoy depending on their reincarnations. The world was an

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illusion to be suffered and endurance to suffering gives hope for Nirvana where all desires
will be terminated.

The Buddhist belief in equality unlike in Hinduism meant that everyone had a right to
education irrespective of one’s caste for purposes of producing compassionate, sympathetic
and selfless persons.

Apart from the two religions discussed above, Jainism was another ancient Indian religion
that started as a reform movement in Hinduism but was overshadowed by the first two and
therefore did not influence the people as compared to Hinduism and Buddhism. It is however
important to note that a common characteristic to Indian religions was an aspect of life
denying and the way they took the world to be unreal. Death is taken as an escape of the
suffering soul and a passport to possible enlightenment. These teachings have influenced
Indian life that is generally characterized by compassion, gentleness, non-violent, gratitude
and a strong belief in reincarnations and punishment for one’s evil actions. Indian life is
conservative and pays less attention to personal success.

Having discussed briefly these two religions, let us now see the influence of these ideas on
the educational practices of ancient Indians. We shall first start with the aims before
discussing the structure and content.

3.3 Aims of education

Education in ancient India placed a lot of emphasis on communal co-operation since the
society believed that what affects one person or family has a chain effect on other members
of the village or society. The rulers were expected to be benevolent to their subjects.
1. Education therefore played an important role for cementing the family, village, and
imperial values.
2. Education was meant to preserve the caste system through the use of precedent,
history and strict observance of custom to stress the inequality in society. The people
were therefore educated to respect their classes and positions and to follow in the
footsteps of their parents. People were fitted to specific occupations and division of
labour. Accordingly, the sudras, pariahs, and women had no opportunities for
education.
3. Education was meant to enhance the spiritual outlook of the members. Education was
to help the faithful observe religious obligations by engaging in contemplation,
meditation as well as mysticism to help one reach Enlightenment or Nirvana.

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 Education set out to inculcate the tenets of good character and self-denial, acceptance
of one’s caste, compassion, sympathy, usefulness and respect for all.
3.4 Structure and content
Education in ancient India was offered at two levels; elementary and higher.

3.4.1 Elementary
Education in India just as the case in other societies at the time started in the family with the
home or place of work as the venues of education. In India, boys were educated by their
mothers up to the age of five years. Elementary schools were generally simple and conducted
their affairs in open air or under trees. This education was initially meant for the Brahman
class but with time rules were relaxed to include other two classes; Kshatriyas and Vaisyas.

The content in these schools touched on the inculcation of laws, traditions and customs.
Writing occupied a very important place in elementary schools. This was learned through the
imitation of the teachers’ copy. The process involved the use of stick in the sand, followed by
the stylus on palm leaves before the use of ink on dry plane leaves. It also focused on the
vocations, religion and practical aspects of life such as bathing, domestic and military
training that was carried out through imitation and drilling. In addition, the boys engaged in
archery, wrestling and yoga.

The classes were generally small with no mere than 15 children and lasted for several hours.
Among the methods used for instruction were; memorization, imitation and oral or mnemonic
teaching. Instruction never emphasized on mental or intellectual activity.

One major characteristic of this level of education was the respect that was given to the
Brahman teacher, the Guru. The title guru simply meant the destroyer of darkness.

3.4.2 Higher
Higher education in ancient India played a very important religious role as a means to
salvation. A number of colleges offered this level of education.

i) Brahman colleges which were called perishads offered education for the Brahman
class.
ii) Forest colleges attracted distinguished scholars and emphasized on religion
especially contemplation.
iii) Temple colleges imparted religious knowledge.
iv) Court schools offered secular education.

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 v) Buddhist monasteries offered opportunities both to the ascetics as well as to those
interested in searching for knowledge per se. Memorisation, and imitation were
used to impart traditions.

3.5 Contributions to other human civilizations

Having looked at the way educational activities were carried out in India, we now turn our
attention to highlight some of the contributions that emerged out of that effort.

The Brahmans founded outstanding universities at Benares, Nadia, Taksasila where studies in
grammar, phonetics, rhetoric, logic, ‘Arabic’ notation, algebra, astronomy and medicine were
taught. The Buddhists established Nalanda, an outstanding university at the time that
admitted students across the castes to study sciences, philosophy, and to a lesser extent, law.

Indians also used balance and scales for weights and measures. They used a binary system,
running in series from 1-2-4-16-32 for smaller weights and the decimal system for larger
weights. In addition, the ‘foot’ and ‘cubit’ served as basic measuring instruments. The ‘foot’
measured 13-13.2 inches while the ‘cubit’ was 20.3-20.8.

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LECTURE FOUR: EDUCATION IN ANCIENT CHINA
4.3 Background information
China is a very big country made of a heterogeneous population among them; Mongolians,
Turkic and Tibetans. By 1450 BC, the Chinese already knew writing. They also possessed an
advanced technology with items made from; bronze, glazed pottery, porcelain, silk and horse
drawn chariots.

Although China is an old society, its development was hampered by its conservative nature.
The people’s ideals and beliefs remained the same and the society generally remained
conservative and unwilling to embrace new ideas for many generations up to the 20th C.

In order to understand the system of education well, you need some basic knowledge on the
religious outlook of the Chinese people since it influenced those practices in a big way.

4.4 Religion and Chinese civilization

Two religions; Confucianism and Taoism mostly influenced the lives of the people of China
with the former dominating the people’s daily activities. Let us briefly explain this aspect.

4.4.1 Confucianism
One individual that left a big mark on the lives of the Chinese people was Confucius (551-
478). His real name was Kung-Fu-tse or simply master Kung whose writings captured the
Chinese culture. These were most likely the accumulated wisdom of many hundred years that
became a guide for the Chinese people for the many centuries that followed. Nine volumes or
writings, five classics and four books are associated with Confucius. The classics are; 1)
Book of history, an outline before Confucius , 2)Book of odes, an outline of poetry, 3) Book
of changes , outline of prophecy, 4) Book of rights, outline of social etiquette, and 5) Book of
filial piety. While some of these writings were written by Confucius himself, the others were
compiled and edited by him. The books, mostly written by his disciples are; 1) Great
learning, 2) Doctrine of the mean, 3) Sayings of Confucius, and 4) Sayings of Mencius.

These writings make up the “Chinese Bible” or a guide to the Chinese daily conduct. A good
mastery of all the writings was necessary for one to hold official position in society. Much of
the teaching was not original but a reinforcement of the ideas that had developed before and
Confucius regarded himself as the conservator of ancient truth.

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Confucianism is not a religion in the true sense of the word, as it does not have a god, a
theology, or way of worship. It is simply a philosophy of social and civic ethics. Confucius
founded a system of utilitarian morality that was to be inculcated into the life of each
individual through the family and the state. The writings touch on conduct in terms of
relationships and ways of living. Confucius called upon the Chinese to practice virtue guided
by the Golden Rule “What I do not wish others to do to me, that also I wish not to do to
them”.

4.4.2 Taoism
Apart from Confucianism, Taoism or simply “The path of Reason” is a second Chinese
philosophy for living. This was founded by Lao-tzu which means “Old Boy” or “Old
Philosopher”. His book, “Tao- teh-Ching” talks about life and its purposes. The title of the
book can be translated as “The book of the way and the virtue that comes therefrom”. While
Confucius emphasized the good citizen, Lao-tzu emphasized the spirit that makes the good
man. The teachings in Taoism stress three great virtues; humility, frugality and contentment,
that form the means towards achieving the way.

Having examined the two religions, let us now turn our attention to education.

4.5 Aims of education

The ancient Chinese education was heavily influenced by Confucianism. Education was
generally conservative. The Chinese thought they had achieved a lot and it was the role of
education to preserve the past. The future was heavily moulded upon the past and their
traditions which regulated their lives.

1) The teachings of Confucius centre on the idea of noble living and education
therefore stressed the importance of human relationships, order, duty, and
morality.

2) The system of education aimed at the maintenance of the status quo because
the people were very much interested in the past and were always suspicious
of change. The Chinese believed that they had reached the summit of
civilization and had a duty to preserve it.
3) The perpetuation of state and family that were taken to be very important.
Education was against the pursuance of personal interests, but instead placed

18
 emphasis on obligations to the state and the formation of a submissive
citizenry.
It can be said that the whole purpose of education in China was to prepare the individual to
fill a place in a fixed order of society.

4.6 Structure and content

Education in China was organized at two levels:

4.6.1 Elementary education

Elementary level that was a highly formal and rigorous activity. The home was a very
important venue for training children on practical activities even after the school was
developed as an educational institution. Moreover, the Chinese never established a national
system of education but private schools were encouraged in almost all the villages. Learning
therefore took place in the home of the teacher, homes of wealthy patrons, old temples or any
other available places.

Poor attendance was generally recorded in those institutions because they were mostly
focused on preparing their clients for government examinations for official positions in the
civil service. The schools did not address everyday needs. Although the private schools and
the public examinations were open to all males regardless of class, in essence, only sons from
high-class families attended because of the private nature of learning as well as the
preparation of examinations that necessitated much leisure.

The child started school at the age of seven. School began at sunrise and lasted until about
five in the afternoon with an hours break at ten for lunch. The school sessions were held
throughout the year.

The teachers, who mostly came from those who had failed in the national examinations
meant for official positions charged fees for their services.

4.6.2 Higher education

After elementary level, the boy continued his education by himself at higher level. Education
at this level aimed at training people for government tests, which marked the highest stage of
the educational process. The learning process was marked by a series of examinations

19
conducted by the government leading to the award of degrees which together with their
distinctions were bestowed only on the very few successful candidates.
The state examinations were conducted at three levels:

i) Preliminary examinations at county level with those who passed being awarded
honours (Hsiu Tsai) or Bachelor of Arts that enabled an individual to get elected
to the ranks of nobility.
ii) Examinations conducted in various provinces and those who passed were awarded
a Master of Arts degree (Chu Jen) that enabled individuals to rise still higher in
the social scale.
iii) Final examinations were conducted in the capital for thirteen days and those who
passed were awarded a Chin-Shih that gave an individual the right to hold public
office.

The content in Chinese education was based on the philosophy and teachings of Confucius,
Lao-tzu, and Mencius among others. However, Confucius was the most influential with his
system of utilitarian morality that was inculcated into each individual through the family and
the state. The writings of Confucius remained the main subjects of study in Chinese schools
up to the World War I.

Education emphasised an ethical and civic system that resulted from instruction in ancestral
traditions. The Chinese moral or ethical learning started with the instruction of the children in
ancestral traditions. Since the Chinese religion was largely that of ancestor worship, the
education of the child began with training in the path of duty, in all the minutely prescribed
details of life’s occupations and relationships that had remained the same for many
generations. Since education was meant for the maintenance of the traditions, that had existed
for long without change or modification, education was given the function of training the
leaders in the knowledge of classical learning- all the traditional rules governing the order of
society and covering the proper relationships in life while the masses were trained in the
proper modes of conduct with respect to every interest and every activity throughout their
entire lives.

In terms of civic duty, the continuity of the empire was assured by placing official duties of
government only in the hands of those who had attained the best mastery of traditions as
prescribed in the sacred books whose evaluation was systematically carried out by the

20
government. Accordingly, the leaders were trained in ancient knowledge of approved order of
society; the masses were trained to conduct themselves in accordance with the requirements
of duty.

4.7 Methods of teaching

Instruction in the Chinese system of education was based on the methods developed by
Confucius himself, a master teacher. Just like Socrates in Greece later on, he moved from
place to place encouraging his students to reason about his teachings. He also called for a
practical application of his teachings because for him, teaching was not to be confined in a
classroom. Confucius respected his students and adapted his teaching to the needs and
capacities of individual learners. He also called on the teachers to establish human
relationships with the learners. Unfortunately, the teachers who came later departed from the
example of the master. They discarded reasoning and learning focused on cramming of the
memory and imitation accompanied with harsh discipline.

4.8 Contributions to other human civilizations

After learning about the system of education in China, it is important for you to note the
contributions that the people of ancient China made to other human civilizations.
The Chinese are known to have influenced the western world especially through ideas
propagated by such people like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu who took a keen
interest in studying their institutions. The Chinese also contributed to the development of
Western art. For instance, knowledge on painting and watercolours borrowed heavily from
that of the Chinese.

Although China for long remained a closed society, its influence was felt all over the world
through their sophisticated system of wheat irrigation, cultivation of silkworm and silk
weaving, printing from blocks of wood, their mariner’s compass, gun powder, porcelain, their
paper and wall paper, playing of cards and their umbrella.

21
LECTURE FIVE: EDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE
5.1 Background information
The Greek, more than any other group of people of antiquity have come to give more
elements to western culture especially in the areas of; art, literature, philosophy, science and
politics. Unlike other ancient societies that thrived on agriculture, Creece is rough and
mountainous, a factor that made the Greeks get isolated in small city states with little or no
connection to each other. Despite these disadvantages, a good climate and proximity to the
sea helped the Greeks to build a powerful civilization that still confound many to date.

The Aryan ancestors of the Greeks originated from the Danube Valley and on the steppes
north of the Black Sea and moved southwards into the Greek peninsula around 1200 BC.
They mingled with the natives around the Mediterranean and by the first Millennium; a
mixed race of Indo-European peoples had occupied most of the northern sections of the
peninsula, along the coast and the Island of Crete. By the 6thC BC, a new and distinctive
culture had been developed by these people.

The Greek city-states were independent of each other; they spoke the same language and
worshipped the same gods. Initially there were numerous city-states, which were later
united under the two most powerful ones, Sparta and Athens that offer contrasting
features of Greek culture. We shall however start by introducing you to Homeric
education before we examine the other two phases of education as practised by the
ancient Greeks.

5.2 Homeric education

Education during the early period up to 776 BC was based on the Homeric traditions, the
Iliad and the Odyssey that were attributed to Homer, a blind poet. This education
emphasized on the training of the ideal man of wisdom and action. Education set out to
cultivate individual excellence or worth for public usefulness. It was an education that
was primarily practical and social aimed at cultivating qualities, traits and skills needed
for a happy and satisfying group living. Homeric education did not have formal
institutions as it was organized in terms of the family and the clan. Teaching was by
example and imitation.

5.3 Spartan education

The Spartans were a branch of the Dorian Greeks who settled in the southern part of the
Greek peninsula about the 11th C. The fear of external and internal threats from helots

22
 (slaves) forced the Spartans to develop the constitution of Lycurgus (c.800 BC) on which
the Spartan system of education was based.

Spartans were organized into three social classes; the citizens also known as Spartans
were composed of soldiers and government officials who were mostly engaged in military
and civic activities. This was a tiny elite group of people that only made up 1/20 of the
population. The non- citizens or the Perioeci was made up of craftsmen, merchants, and
peasants. These were freeborn workers with no practical rights. Lastly there were state-
owned serfs (Helots) who were very many and worked on state land to support the
Spartans.

5.3.1 Aims of education

The aims of education in ancient Sparta was to;

i) train soldiers and warriors,

ii) train obedient and loyal citizens, and
iii) form people who were modest, caring, enduring, hardy, strong and social.
Although reading and writing were taught, they were not emphasized in the education of
the boys. A major characteristic in this system of education was the emphasis given to
religion, which was important in preparing god fearing, moral and military socialists.
Education focused more on training in military might especially training people in the art
of war for membership in citizens’ clubs.

5.5.2 Structure and content

The parents presented the boy at birth to state officials for purposes of inspection before
exposing the weak ones to snow. The intention was to have only healthy children live and
later become citizens. After this exercise, the boys went through practices meant to integrate
them into the community. This was done at home by the mothers and slaves in; games,
stories, singing, and manners, among others. The child was also trained to be tough through
compulsory fasting and overcome fear by being left in darkness alone, among others.

At the age of seven, the boys were enrolled in the barracks to train in judgment through
stealing. This was accompanied by very harsh discipline, military drills among other
activities.The girls on the other hand were trained at home in strength to enable them give
birth to strong boys later on in life. This was done through activities such as; running,
jumping, throwing of javelin, and short put among other activities.

23
At the age of 18 years, the boys graduated into cadet-citizens (ephebi) and started
professional studies in warfare. This went on for two years and ended with graduation at the
altar of artemis where boys were flogged thoroughly in what was called whipping exams.
Those who qualified entered manhood with honours being bestowed on those who received
most floggings without crying or flinging. After this, the boys qualified as Eirens at the age of
20 years and became eligible for election into citizen clubs. They however never became full
citizens till the age of 30 years. The new status allowed them to marry but continued to stay
in the barracks and continued with military drills until inability due to old age when they got
discharged.

Insistence on education for military efficiency meant that Sparta failed to produce any art,
literature, philosophy, science, or great thinkers.

As you turn your attention to ancient Athenian education, it may be important to note some of
the most outstanding features that came to differentiate the two systems of education that will
help you make quick comparisons and contrasts of these systems.

5.4 Athenian education

While Sparta led other Greek city-states in military prowess, Athens was always the centre of
Greek life. It boasted of “the leading lights of an intellectual and artistic culture without
parallel in the history of western man (Lucas, 1972:62). Athenians led other city-states in
thought, art, and government.

Athens started as an agricultural society but it quickly transformed into an urban centre of
prosperous trade and commerce. Before 8th C BC, Athens was just a monarch like other states
but it transformed into a democracy under Solon (639-559), the great lawgiver. The
Athenians had an elected office of the King which was done annually and the eligible citizens
were involved in the deliberations of the state on the acropolis.

Athens transformed itself into an empire in the 5 th c BC (461-429), which ushered in the
Golden Era or periclean Age where many discoveries and innovations were recorded. The
state however became severely weakened by the Peloponnesian (civil) Wars fought by the
Greeks (431-404 BC) which led to its fall. In 338BC, all Greek city states had been seriously
weakened leading to the conquest by Philip of Macedonia.

24
The people of ancient Athens were divided into three classes; the citizens, metics (resident
aliens or non- Athenian Greeks), and slaves. It is important to note however that the disparity
between the rich and poor was not big compared to Sparta.

5.4.1 Early education

Athenian education had very little in common with that of Sparta. Education aimed at the
Greek ideal of individual excellence for public usefulness. It stressed full rounded
development of mind and body and public usefulness. People were prepared for active
participation in the affairs of the state in times of peace as well as in times of war. Emphasis
in education was placed on man of action. While the Spartans aimed at strength and
endurance, Athenians focused on beauty and grace of body, mind, and spirit. The whole
purpose of early Athenian education was the development of virtue (civic virtues).

Unlike Sparta, education was not controlled by the state but was left in the hands of the
parents, most of whom took a lot of pride in ensuring that their sons received education.
Education was given as per ones class and was only limited to male citizens and excluded
girls and slaves.

5.4.1.1 Aims
5.4.1.2 Structure and content
It was the responsibility of the father to decide whether to expose the infant son to death or to
live. This was then followed by ceremonies of recognition and acceptance where both the
boys and girls grew up in the home under the care of nurses and mothers up to the age of 7
years. They then started elementary learning with the boy attending two schools, first, the
Didascaleum or music school for; reading, writing, arithmetic, poetry and music under the
citherist or music teacher. The second school was called the Palaestra (gymnastic school) for
exercises, sports, and games under the gymnastic master. It is possible that the boy attended
both schools in one day accompanied by a slave attendant, the pedagogue. Discipline in
elementary schools was severe especially corporal punishment. It was said that if one was not
flogged then such a person had not been educated. On the other hand, elementary teaching
was considered a worthless occupation, not meant for free citizens. In addition, since it did
not require advanced qualification other than reading, schoolrooms became places of refuge
for the distressed.

Secondary education was attended by boys between the age of 16 to 18 years with the youth
being enrolled in the public gymnasium for physical training mostly in athletics and military

25
drills. Full tuition was paid for organized physical instruction. After the two years and a
demonstration to state officials that the youth was physically and morally qualified for
citizenship, the boy took an ephepic oath, a pledge of allegiance to the state. At 18 years, the
youth qualified as a citizen cadet (ephebos) and got enrolled in novitiate for a two year
military service accompanied by severest military discipline. At the age of 20 years, the youth
was accorded the privileges of full citizenship and assumed definite duties in the assembly
and or the juries.

Athenian education was very progressive and produced individualistic and democratically
conscious people. The system led to the formation of a liberal, cultured and intelligent
society, a major departure from the rigid class systems of the ancient period.

5.5 New education

The defeat of the Persians around 480 BC by the Greeks under the Athenian leadership
transformed the city-state into the centre of Greek life. Athens took on a cosmopolitan
character and interactions between traders, travellers and other foreigners and an interchange
of ideas developed wider interests and diversified community life. Consequently, old
traditions and basic ideals of the early Athenians were abandoned. Trading and commerce led
to individual prosperity as opposed to the old communal prosperity. Wealth and power
became new measures for greatness as opposed to birth and service to the state. Citizenship
initially a preserve of the Athenians was now opened to all free inhabitants.

5.5.1 Aims
The goal of education for the new order focused more on the preparation for personal
advancement, individual excellence as opposed to the old objective of social service and
public usefulness. The new demands were met by a group of paid traveling teachers called
sophists that exalted the individual himself as the new authority. Man became the measure of
all things. The aim of sophists was to prepare their students for active and successful life in
politics and public affairs. The approach was later on condemned by Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle who accused them of creating a moral gap among the youth. The three great
educators sought a reconciliation of individualism and social stability by advocating
education for virtue and good life.

This necessitated a new education organized at three levels:

26
5.5.2 Structure and content
1) Primary level of education was given in private schools from the age of 7 to 13 years.
The teacher, the grammatist taught; reading, writing, arithmetic, and chanting.
2) Secondary education was also given in private schools for boys between 13 to 16 years
old. They were taught by the grammaticus a content that touched on; geometry, drawing,
music, grammar and rhetoric.
3) Higher education was offered in rhetorical and philosophical schools for boys of 16
years and above. This level of education focused purely on literary and intellectual
training for public life that placed emphasis on clear thinking, elaboration and debate.

5.6 Contributions to other human civilizations

The new system of education enabled Athens transform itself into a chief intellectual
centre until AD 380. For instance, the University of Athens, which began about 200 BC,
remained in existence until AD 529 when Emperor Justinian ordered it closure on the
pretext that it was the centre of pagan thought.

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LECTURE SIX: EDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME
6.3 Background information
The Roman is taken to be the last of the ancients and the first of the moderns. It is the
Romans who helped the people of Central and Western Europe develop into modern
nations. The Rome gave the West her institutions. Although the Romans did not
contribute a lot to the intellectual and artistic development of Europe, her contributions
were along the lines of organization and administration. The Romans were a practical
people who contributed to the development of humankind by building institutions through
which the aspirations of other people got realized especially in its military and political
institutions.

Rome was founded in 753 BC as a tiny Latin city-state on the but later dominated not
only the Italian Peninsula but the entire Mediterranean world. Her success was mainly
attributed to the geographical location and the character of her people. Between 509-250
BC, Rome was under a feudal system that was controlled by the rich rural landowners
called patricians. They had an elected senate of 300 members who made policies that
were then enforced by two elected consuls. The consuls exercised civil, military and
religious powers. The plebeians occupied low socio-economic status and were regarded
as second class citizens. They were not accorded any privileges but with time, constant
threats enabled them elect their representatives and provided for by the law of the Twelve
Tables that made Rome become a democracy.

6.4 Early Roman education

As we have already noted above the Romans lacked the artistic and intellectual
sophistication that was evident among her contemporaries but instead were a practical
people, a factor that influenced their approach to education as you will see in the
presentation below.

6.4.1 Aims of education

The early Roman education aimed at subjugating the individual in the interest of society.
It set out to make a nation of brave warriors and of dutiful citizens. The system aimed at
training its subjects for practical life- the good citizen, the good soldier, the good worker.

28
 ii) Education aimed at imparting virtues of piety, obedience, courage, bravery, industry
and honesty among others
iv) Train men who were active and efficient in daily life- conquerors in war, wise in
politics and have reverence for the gods.

6.4.2 Structure and content

The content of education was essentially practical training for the affairs of life.

 Physical, military, civic and vocational training

 Moral training in terms of rights and duties as defined by law. Education therefore
focused on traditions and mastery of the Laws of the Twelve Tables.
 Religious training was tied to moral and civic training. The learners were taught about
religious ceremonies and usages. Learned about the gods and how they could be
appeased by sacrifices and ceremonies.
 Both boys and girls were encouraged to participate in games.
The father played a very important role as the teacher. Later, the boy would accompany the
father to learn practical aspects of life from the father and other men. For the patricians, the
boy would attend banquets and assembly to listen to the discussions of affairs of state. Those
who were plebeians, the farm or shop became venues for learning. The girls were trained at
home by their mothers in domestic matters and moral aspects. They were also taught to be
devoted to the state and serve it all times. The Romans did not teach reading and writing as
they were not seen to be necessary.

6.5 Greek influence on Roman education

The early Roman education was not as sophisticated compared to other ancient civilisations
including those that we have examined already. This however was bound to undergo
tremendous transformation once it came into contact with the Greek civilization. The
opportunity for interaction of the two cultures presented itself through trade and military
conquests. The Romans at first encountered the Greek culture in the Greek colonies of Sicily
and southern Italy. The Roman traders and officials adopted the Greek culture because of its
superiority and quickly set out to learn the language, thought and literature. The captured
slaves played a crucial role as teachers (litteratores) in this process. This was followed by the
language teachers, the grammatici who taught the Roman children to read, write and speak
Greek. These activities initially took place in the home but with time, the state developed

29
educational policies that put education under its control. At this point, the Greeks had given
the Romans a model for a formal education system.

6.5.1 Aims of new education

The aim of new Roman education mainly focused on intellectual development. Ability in
language and public speaking and debate became the main purpose of training. However, at
first, the purely Roman emphasis on moral character was retained. Accordingly, the aims of
education were:

a) training in moral character,

b) training in wide culture,
c) ability to speak convincingly.

The organised Roman school system set out to prepare the student for public life of public
speaking. Theoreticians like; Cicero, Tacitus and Quintilian took the orator as the ideally
educated man. The true orator to them was one who uses his learning by putting it to the
practical use of public service.

6.5.2 Structure and content

The new Roman education was patterned on that of the Greek schools with a three-tier
system of learnin.

6.5.2.1 Elementary
Elementary schools that catered for boys between the ages of 7- 12 years emerged
towards the end of 300 BC. These schools were called Ludus and were directed by a
teacher, ludi magister, or litterator. The boys were taught skills in 3Rs and Homer’s
odyssey translated into Latin. The boys were also accompanied to school by slaves or
pedagogues who were mostly Greek who also acted as tutors to the boys. The schools
were private with no state supervision and did emphasize on strict discipline and the use
of corporal punishment.

6.5.2.2 Secondary
Secondary schools were the equivalent of the Greek grammar schools that developed in
the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. They catered for boys between the ages of 10- 16
years under the grammaticus who taught Greek grammar, composition, poetry, and
history. In addition, the boys were also taught Roman vernacular, Latin grammar. The

30
 boys had to attend both schools. With time; grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic,
geometry, music and astronomy were taught to the boys.

6.5.2.3 Higher/ Rhetorical schools

The third level of schools was known as rhetorical schools which attracted 16-18 year old
youths. They started around 100 BC to train orators especially politicians to control
crowds, influence voting in senate as well as inspire troops during times of war. The
orator to the Romans was a model of an educated person who had a strong interest in the
affairs of the Republic.

6.6 Quintilian (AD 35-95)

Quintilian was the most influential educational thinker among the Romans who was mostly
concerned with the education of orators. The ideas on the same were outlined in his major
work, Institutio Oratoria, a treatise on the theory and practice of rhetorical studies written
around AD 94. Of critical importance to teachers today was Quintilian’s assertion that the
stages of human development are important and should be considered in educational practice.
His discussion identified three distinct stages with corresponding educational activities.

From birth to 7 years, Quintilian argued that the actions of the child are directed to the
satisfaction of the child’s immediate needs and desires. That early childhood years are
important for future educational activities and parents therefore ought to give proper care to
the child, The parents are supposed to employ the right nurses, pedagogues and companions,
people who can influence the child in the right way since children always imitate their nurses
and also retain best what the learn first. Accordingly, those who interact with the child at this
level ought to be forthright because it is difficult to unlearn bad habits. He called on the
parents not to stifle the child’s learning by keeping him at home for too long and set high
targets at an early age since the child’s curiosity is always killed by lack of proper care and
guidance. Quintilian discouraged private tuition where teachers taught only one child as a
waste of time and talent and instead advocated for group learning that enabled the young to
benefit from one another. Such sessions, he argued were important for the friction of the
mind. However, Quintilian also discouraged the teaching of too many pupils as it was
difficult to manage them.

The second stage involved children from 7- 14 years where a child learns from sense
experience. The child at this stage starts to form clear ideas and develops the memory and

31
therefore should learn how to read and write the languages. The teacher has to be of good
character and competent to make learning attractive to the child. In addition, the content
ought to be relevant to the child’s intellectual ability and level of interest. He also talked
about the learning readiness principle and advised teachers to approach their teaching in
stages, step by step instruction as well as use of drill and stimulation. Teachers were called
upon to make learning stress free through recreation and intervals of rest to relax the mind
and redirect the learner’s energy. He argued that productive learning stems from the child’s
disposition to his studies and therefore called for holidays, work and play but with
moderation to avoid idleness. Although Quintilian wanted teachers to take the discipline of
the child seriously by being stern and severe equating moderate discipline with mediocrity on
the side of the teacher, he advised teachers to avoid corporal punishment which according to
him was only meant for slaves. He stated that flogging hardened the individual thus making
him less receptive to training and education. Teachers were therefore advised to avoid the use
of unnecessary force in disciplining children.

Education in the third stage catered for boys between 14-17 years of age where they studied
liberal arts to develop the reasoning abilities. Children studied both Greek and Latin
grammars concurrently after which they started preparing for rhetoric through the study of
music, geometry, astronomy, and gymnastics. They then embarked on rhetorical studies that
aimed at producing a man of broad culture, humanely educated and ready to serve his society.
These studies were not just meant to train a perfect speaker but an individual with noble
ideals. They studied all liberal arts including; poetry, drama, prose, history, law, philosophy
and rhetoric. They also engaged in speaking practices for correction by the teachers while the
weak ones were dismissed.

6.7 Contributions to other human civilizations

The significance of Quintilian’s educational ideas can be seen in terms of information with
regard to Roman education as well as the influence to the teaching profession especially on
the stages of human development that are very important in the area of psychology.

The influence of the Romans to human civilization is reflected in most of the secondary
school subjects today. The first universities during the medieval period placed a lot emphasis
on oratory in the training of the clergy. Lastly, the choice of Latin as the official language of
the Roman Catholic Church influenced western civilization in a big way. The language not

32
only dominated elementary and secondary learning, but those who knew Latin were regarded
as educated.

33
 SECTION TWO: EDUCATION FROM THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD TO MODERN
TIMES

LECTURE SEVEN: EARLY CHRISTIAN AND MEDIEVAL EDUCATION

7.1 The Medieval Period

Medieval period is a portion of European history stretching from the end of the fifth century
to the end of the fifteenth century to the end of the fifteenth century. The period is also
referred to as the Middle Ages. It came about as a result of the collapse of the Roman Empire
in the West. Because of the collapse of central authority, chaos was evident everywhere. In
fact the early part of the period was characterized by plunder, pillage, hopelessness and
collapse of the education institutions developed in the Roman Empire.

7.2 The Catholic church and education

Christianity started as a small sect within the Roman Empire in the first century. It spread
slowly by winning converts at first from the wretched within the empire. By the end of the
first century it had started winning converts from the upper classes. With the conversion of
Emperor Constantine in the fourth century, Christianity conquered the Roman Empire. Soon
it became a state religion, the only religion permitted in the empire.

Christianity had developed an administrative structure similar to that of the Roman Empire so
that its representative officials were scattered across the extent of the empire. The authority of
the church was highly respected by the time the empire collapsed. Indeed the church
remained as the only force that held society together and gave hope in full of world
hopelessness.

Although most of the knowledge developed by the Greek and Romans was lost with the
disappearance of Roman schools, some of it survived in monasteries. The church was,
particularly in the early medieval period, forced to play the role played by the state today-in
providing education. It had to do this mainly because of self-interest; it required catechists,
teachers, theologians, administrators, lawyers, managers of its vast landed estates and
diplomats.

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7.2.1 Parish schools
Parish schools, set up in the villages within a given parish, are the foreminners of present day
village schools. At first the parish priest was supposed to be in-charge but he normally
appointed people to run the schools. His role was that of supervision.

The curriculum in these schools comprised of; reading, writing and arithmetic, some elements
of Latin (the language of the church as well as learning), religious instruction, church music
and in rituals.

7.2.2 Chantry schools

The chantry schools provide an excellent summary of medieval worldview. The medieval
worldview was God-centred. Life on earth was regarded as not important in itself except in so
far as it was preparation for life to come after death. The world, according to medieval man,
was full of temptations as the devil tried to draw the good Christian away from the teachings
of the Church. To safeguard the faithful from these temptations, the custodian of salvation,
the Church had constructed a web of guardian angels who protected every Christian from the
devil, in addition to the tireless and motherly service of the Virgin Mary, the mother of the
Lord Jesus.

Death was not perceived as an evil but a form of deliverance. But three was a little problem.
Since all human beings are tainted with the original sin, none, however good, can go to
heaven directly following departure from this world. All have to be cleansed of this stain
before appearing before the Holy One. There was therefore a period of suffering, through the
intensity differed from those who were condemned to hell, in purgatory. The custodian of
salvation, the Church, taught that if the relatives and friends of the departed offered regular
and truly authentic payers, the period of suffering could be shortened. The soul would now
complete its sentence and stand ready to join the happy ones in heaven.

Chantry schools have their foundation in this medieval worldview. A wealthy man (rarely a
woman) would give some money or a piece of land to the parish priest and such money or
income from the land would be used to train boys to sing in the choir when a mass was
offered for his soul. The parish priest would faithfully train the boys for the prescribed
purpose, but in addition he would teach them reading, writing, arithmetic and religious
doctrine. From such beginnings, an elementary school, similar to the parish school, would
develop to provide education for the lowest of medieval society.

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7.2.3 Convent schools
Like the monastic schools, convent schools were in their early stages intended for the
education of those within the convents. Later they started admitting girls from the
surrounding mobile families.

The courses offered ranged from reading writing, arithmetic, religious instruction, church
music and rituals to the seven liberal arts. In addition, domestic (today’s’ home) science was
regarded as an important component. This was because the students, coming from the
aristocratic families, needed to learn how to run homes with many domestic servants.
Furthermore, family clothing was in most cases made at home and the house mistress needed
the skills of a dressmaker so that she could teach the servants.

7.2.4 Monastic education

Monasteries first started in Egypt in the fourth century and by the tenth century they had
spread across Western Europe. Monastic schools existed within the monastreries. At the
beginning they were only for those within the monasteries but later admitted boys from the
surrounding villages.

In the early stages monastic schools offered all the courses that dominated the parish schools.
This was necessitated by the fact that some of those who joined monasteries had not acquired
literacy. Later monastic schools came to specialize in offering what is today regarded as
secondary education. The curriculum comprised the liberal arts which from the seventh
century were referred to as the “Seven Liberal Arts”. These were divided into two; the
elementary and the advanced parts.

The elementary part was referred to as the trivium; mainly logic, grammar and rhetoric. Each
of these courses had its own value in the education of church men. For example rhetoric was
regarded as extremely important because a priest was supposed to be a good public speaker, a
speech needed to be organized logically if it was to be effective; hence the importance of
logic. Furthermore, a very good command of language is an imperative for a public speaker.
These elementary courses, which were in essence language arts, were the foundation for the
advanced part of the liberal arts.

The advanced part, the Quadrivium, comprised arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy.
All these, like the elementary ones, met the needs of the church. For instance, the medieval
church owned about a third of all the land in Western Europe. Land was at the time the main

36
source of wealth. Relationship to land determined a person’s place in the social hierarchy.
Consequently the church needed bookkeepers to maintain records of its land and income
derived from it.

Geometry was essential for those who specialized in surveying church land as well as
designing buildings. In addition, a priest was required to be a good singer to guide the
congregation in singing hymns. Astronomy provided the skills required in fixing the various
feast days – what are today referred to as holidays. This was important because the Church
followed the Julian lunar calendar.

7.2.5 Cathedral schools

The cathedral school was the pinnacle of medieval educational institutions before the rise of
universities. These schools were to be found in the main towns particularly in the high middle
ages. At first they were only for those intending to spend their life in the church as priests.
The local Bishop was in charge.

The curriculum of the cathedral schools revolved around the seven liberal arts. A student
would first be thoroughly grounded in the language arts before he ventured into other
specialized courses. Thus in addition to the liberal arts other courses like history, science,
philosophy, law, theology, church administration and mathematics would be offered.
Whether or not these additional courses were offered depended on the availability of
qualified masters to teach them. Cathedral schools like those of the city of Paris which had
many famous masters would attract students from across the whole of Western Europe.
Indeed, the most famous of these cathedral schools later became universities.

7.3 Lay authorities and education

By the tenth century moderate peace and stability had returned to most parts of Europe. City
life, which had disappeared with the decay or disappearance of cities, had returned. More and
more people, particularly craftsmen and merchants, appeared in the rejuvenated towns. These
craftsmen and merchants dominated the town life while the countryside was dominated by
the nobility. Their mode of existence required literacy and they founded schools for the
education of their children and apprentices.

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7.3.1 Guild schools
Guild schools were set up by craftsmen and merchants. As pointed out in the preceding
paragraph, guild schools provided both literacy and vocational and technical training. They
were the forerunners of present day vocational and technical schools.

7.3.2 Court schools

These schools were set up by some of the nobles for the education of their children and those
of the nobles within their vicinity. In these schools literacy, though offered, was not regarded
as very important. In fact most of the medieval nobility was illiterate. Even monarchs could
be illiterate as is demonstrated by the greatest of all medieval monarchs – Charlemagne.

Emphasis in the schools was put on training in manners appropriate to the learners’ station, in
the medieval hierarchical society. It was important to learn the language appropriate to every
situation, walking style, manner of dress, dancing music and playing the musical instruments
available at the time. The young people also learned the appropriate relations and interaction
between the two sexes.

Boys learned military skills, the use of weapons, swimming, boxing, horsemanship and the
art of chivalry. Girls learned domestic science, for example dressmaking, cookery, home
administration, entertaining and child care. Court schools are the forerunners of the many
schools for the upper classes that dot Europe and America today. The lower classes are today
disqualified not because of their class origin but the prohibitive cost British public schools
and America’s small schools for the plutocracy are the illustrative examples.

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LECTURE EIGHT: ISLAMIC EDUCATION

8.1 Background information

Islam literary means “peace”, “salam” in Kiswahili calls for the complete submission of
man’s will to the commandments of God (Allah) revealed through a succession of prophets
including; Moses, Jesus and lastly Mohammed. According to the Moslems, it is through the
later that God’s final divine message to mankind was revealed.

Mohammed was born in Mecca in 570 A.D. He started his ministry at the age of 40 years
when he received his first vision and attained prophet hood. After being persecuted, he fled
from Mecca to Medina in 622 where he founded Islam as a religion. The religious theory and
practice of Islam are based on the Quran, the holy book that was revealed to the prophet by
God through Angel Gabriel as well as the Hadith, the traditions of the prophet. Before his
death, in AD 632, Mohammed let the Arabs as a community and as a state bound together by
Islam.

As a religion, Islam was very receptive to the ancient learning compared to Christianity. It
adapted, absorbed and assimilated into its system much of the Greek, Persian and other
heritages but also succeeded in retaining its essential character. The Moslems translated
Greek works in science and philosophy and also preserved classical learning that was made
part of its tradition.

The successful spread of Islam was done through conquest, a process that converted the
whole of Arabia within ten years. After this, the goal of creating an Islamic empire in the
whole world saw the Moslems move westwards across North Africa to Europe through Spain
before being defeated at the battle of Tours in Southern France by the Frankish king Charles
Martel in AD 732. This forced the new civilization to confine itself to the lowermost part of
Spain. In the East, the Moslems conquered Persia and Turkestan.

8.2 Aims of education

Islamic education carried the following objectives:

1. Facilitate the worship of God. The attainment of education is a religious duty and a
must for all practising Muslims. Knowledge is an important path for salvation and
Muslims are called upon to seek it irrespective of the source. In addition, the prophet
told his followers to take learning as a life-long activity – from the cradle to the grave.

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 2. Education has the purpose of strengthening the moral as well as character of its
people. Education has to be used in the moral refinement and spiritual training than
stuff the mind with mere facts.

3. Education should help develop the natural and cultural resources, secular or material
aspects that are very important in bettering the quality of life of a Moslem. These
include; knowledge of science, literature and arts.

4. Education is expected to promote vocational and industrial skills that can enable
Moslems earn a livelihood through the practice of various professions, arts and trades
to enhance the spiritual aspect of life. The practical approach to education by the
Moslems was meant to enrich their own lives and enhance civilization.

Activity

Without referring to what you have read above, state the aims of Islamic education.

8.3 Structure and content

The impetus towards learning during the early period of Islam came from the caliphs who
not only encouraged learning in their courts but also built libraries to house collections of
the manuscripts acquired from various sources. For instance, a big library was opened at
Bagdad in AD 786, a process copied by the other rulers. Within a short time, every major
city boasted of a public library in addition to private collections housed in mosques and
palaces.

The early schools were started in every mosque where; reading, writing as well as the
Koran and numbers were emphasized. The aim was to preserve the Koran by committing
it to the memory through recitation of the verses. With time however, a clear three tier
system of education was established both in the East as well as Spain, the leading centre
of Islamic learning in Europe.
8.3.1 Elementary
The rich (upper class) usually employed tutors for their male children when they attained
the age of six. The children of the low class attended elementary schools that were usually
located in the mosques called Kuttab or Koran schools because of their emphasis on the
holy book. These schools were open to both boys and girls and gave free tuition or
charged very low fees. The schools taught; the Koran, reading, writing, arithmetic,

40
 history, ethics and geography with the Koran being the chief text for reading. The poor
took three years in these schools before enrolling for a trade or industrial work. The rich
boys however stayed on up to the age of 14 before proceeding for higher education or
travelling with a tutor. The methods of instructions were mostly memorization and
imitation.
8.3.2 Secondary
These were known as madrassas or colleges that mostly offered education to the children of
the wealthy. They were headed by a rector with teachers who were highly learned, well
trained and well paid Jews or Christians. The curriculum in these schools resembled that of
medieval monastic and cathedral schools – Arabic literature, grammar, mathematics,
metaphysics, astronomy, logic, chemistry and medicine. These were self-supporting
institutions where tuition was charged at first but with time, contributions from
philanthropists and government aid were used to pay teachers’ salaries as well as meet
student expenses.

8.3.3 Higher
Higher education was offered in institutions called Jamii or university that were equivalent to
modern universities. The students and professors lived together in shared accommodation.
The institutions had special departments or schools that were created for various science
disciplines. They had medical schools with chemical laboratories and equipped hospitals for
clinical instruction as well as school of astronomy with observatories. Their schools taught
mathematics, agriculture, music, navigation, physics, philosophy, surgery and geography
taught using globes. One of the most advanced institutions was at Cordova in Spain.

These institutions were open to all, rich or poor, native or foreigner. Financial aid was offered
by benefactors to those who needed it. Learning was based on scientific methods that
involved; lectures, experiments and observations. Well-equipped laboratories and clinics
enabled the Moslems to make many discoveries. Students also translated Greek works and
made commentaries on them.

8.4 Contributions of Islamic civilization

The Moslems played a very important role in the development of human civilization
especially that of western Europe. Unfortunately, historians have either underestimated or
ignored this fact altogether due to religious prejudice. Because Islamic education was
founded on a very strong scientific and literary spirit, it ushered the Islamic world into what

41
is generally known as the Golden Age of Islam that lasted for over five hundred years,
marked by outstanding scholarship in almost every branch of knowledge. Between AD 700
and 1200, a great Moselm civilization led the world in the power, order, and extent of its
government, in retirement of manners, in living standards, social welfare, legislation, and
scholarship in diverse fields as art, literature, medicine, jurisprudence, theology and
philosophy. The emergence of the European civilization during the later years of the Middle
Ages is heavily, indebted to the Moslems. This was only made possible because of “their
ability to assimilate the best in the intellectual culture of the people with whom they came in
contact and to apply this heritage to their own practical needs (Wilds and Lottich, 1966:143 –
144).

The following are some of the notable success of the Moslems:

1. The pioneered in the study and development of science that enabled them come up
with many scientific inventions. They transformed ancient alchemy into chemistry
and discovered many new chemical substances such as; alcohol, potash, nitrate of
silver, nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Chemistry was applied in many fields such as the
development of metallurgy and ceramics that enabled them manufacture very
beautiful objects out of gold, silver, copper, bronze, iron and steel.

2. They enhanced the study of mathematics by building on the Greek and Hindu
foundations. The Roman numbers were replaced by the figures borrowed from Hindus.
They were the first to use the zero and the decimal notation and gave the digits the value
of position. They developed Algebra which began in India especially in trigonometry by
inventing the sine, the tangent, and the cotangent. They applied mathematics to the study
of physics and astronomy. For example, they measured the size of the earth, used
mathematical calculations to control physical forces such as in hydraulics, invented the
pendulum clock. They taught geography using globes and studied astronomy in
observatories at a time when Christian scholars and navigators taught that the earth was
flat.

3. They developed medical science started by the Greeks by intensifying the study of
diseases, diet, drugs and various phases of physiology and hygiene. They made syrups
and trained surgeons who ended up using anesthesia and performed complicated
operations. They studied anatomy by dissection. It is important to note that while
Moslems in Spain were engaged in these healing arts, the diseased and crippled in

42
 Christian Europe were seeking miraculous cures.

4. In agriculture, the Arabs practised the scientific breeding of cattle and horses as well
as the science of grafting in horticulture that enabled them produce new varieties of
fruits and flowers. Their knowledge in chemistry led them into the use of fertilizers
and crop rotation.

5. During the 9th and 10th centuries, Muslim scholars compiled, preserved and improved on
the works of Greeks and Romans which were later taken to Europe through libraries,
research centres, and bureaus in the course of their travels or their flight from the East to
Spain through North Africa. The Hellenistic and classical literature that they carried with
them led to a new intellectual and cultural life that thrived in Spanish cities of Granada,
Seville, Toledo and Cordova.

6. Contributed to the establishment of higher and scientific learning in universities and

institutions of scientific research. The first international conference on science was
held in Bagdad in the 8th century and by the 10th century, fully fledged universities
were established at Cordova and Cairo almost 200 years before the establishment of
Christian universities in Europe. The Moslems had no problem employing Jewish and
Christian instructors in their universities since they judged teachers by their
credentials and not religion.

7. The Moslems spent a lot of resources in the building of libraries. Islamic leaders
mostly the caliphs and emirs sent emissaries to different parts of the world to collect
manuscripts that were developed into voluminous libraries of books that were
carefully copied and bound. The students were in turn allowed to use those libraries
for free while others gained free access to the private collections of wealthy men. It is
estimated that 70 libraries were established in Spain alone.

8. A combination of art and applied science enabled the Moselms advance in

architecture as seen in the construction of beautiful mosques, palaces, tombs and cities
in Spain such as Cordova, Seville and Toledo. The streets in these cities were well
paved and lighted by public lamps at the time when the rest of European cities were
still in mad and darkness.

9. They engaged in the sciences of business and trade and made beginnings in the field
economic theory.

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10. Boasted of outstanding scholars who made major contributions in different fields of
knowledge. For example Ibn-Rushd or Averroes (1126-1198) who taught at Cordova,
and became a leading Arabic Aristotelian philosopher. His works were translated and
copied by scholars in the medieval Christian universities. Another outstanding scholar
was Ibn-Sina or Avicenna (980-1057) of Persia became famous in Europe as a
physician and interpreter of Aristotle. He also authored the system of medicine. He
influenced a group of learned men the “Brothers of sincerity” who published the
Encyclopedia that was almost a complete scheme for higher education directed
towards a rational Moslem theology.

These and many other achievements made the Moslems stand above the rest in the
intellectual activity. It should also be noted that these achievements were being
recorded at a time when Christian Europe was going through a period of deep slumber
– “Dark Ages”. The Moslems should therefore be accorded the credit for leading
Europe out of medievalism because the peak of their intellectual and scientific
accomplishments came at a time when the rest of Europe was experiencing total
darkness with regard to human civilization.

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LECTURE NINE: THE RISE OF UNIVERSITIES DURING THE MEDIEVAL
PERIOD

9.3 Medieval universities

The first universities in medieval Europe started in Italy in the eleventh century. This is the
generally held view although most recent scholarship tends to a later origin – twelfth century.
Universities in southern Europe, particularly in Italy, tended in the early days to follow an
administrative structure different from that of northern Europe. In southern Europe the model
university was Bologna, which was a students’ university in that it was in those early days
run by students. In northern Europe, the model was Paris, the masters’ university; it was run
by the masters.

It has been argued that the students in the Bologna model were mature, came from the new
middle class of craftsmen and merchants and were graduates pursuing professional training.
In the Paris model on the other hand, students were as young as fifteen and many of them
were on scholarship.

In the Bologna model the students hired lecture halls, recruited and fired the masters (the
teachers or professors in medieval universities were referred to as masters) and were
responsible for the day to day running of the university. In contrast, it was the masters who
hired lecture halls, recruited or registered students and supervised every aspect of university
life in the Paris model.

9.4 Factors that led to the rise of universities

Many factors have been advanced to explain the rise of universities in Europe during the high
middle ages. A few of these reasons will be dealt with here.

i. The crusades

It is important to point out at this stage that the crusades in question had nothing to do with
the preaching of the gospel. These were wars waged by Christian, Western Europe against
Muslims. Starting in the Arabian Desert in the seventh century Islam spread rapidly after the
death of the Holy Prophet Mohamed. In fact only two centuries after his death Islam had
spread from Arabia to northern India, modern Afghanistan, north Africa, southern Italy and
France and the central Asian republics of the former Soviet Union. Europe saw Islam as a

45
most dangerous threat to the very existence of Christianity. This feeling was reinforced by the
myths about the Prophet and distortions of Islamic practices. The commonly held view in
medieval Europe was that Islam was spread by the sword; either conversion or death. Added
to all these, was the systematic distortion of the life of the prophet and blasphemy against his
own person.

For a long time Europe, caivulsed by internecine war fare, unruly nobles contesting for
supremacy with the kings, princes or emperors, was too weak to fight back. When peace and
stability and the spirit of nationalism started returning from the tenth century, Europe was
ready to take on Islam. On its part the Muslim empire was no longer one solid unit. It had
disintegrated into many sultanates, several of them at each other’s’ throats. Christian Europe
could use rival sultanates to achieve its own end. Christian nobles to volunteer to fight the
enemy of God, the Anti-Christ as the Holy Prophet were referred to.

There were several crusades, about thirteen of them from the eleventh century to the fifteenth
century when Muslim Spain was conquered by the Christians.

The first crusade was result of Pope Urban II who in 1095 proclaimed a crusade and called
upon Christians to fight to liberate the Holy city of Jerusalem from what Christians regarded
as the “infidels” meaning the Muslims. The first crusade took place 1097-1099. It was a
success. The crusaders easily liberated the city and some of them who did not want to return
to Europe established their own kingdoms in the conquered Muslim areas in the region.
These Christian invaders remained masters of their kingdoms for a century until the Muslim
ruler Salah ud Din cleared them out of the Middle East.

What is the relationship between the crusades and the rise of universities in medieval Europe?
It has been argued that by making contact with Muslim civilization, European nobles realized
they were the real barbarians. Their experience was similar to that of rural fork transplanted
to a metropolitan and made to enjoy all the amenities available. The nobles realized that the
high level of civilization attained by the Muslims was associated with their widespread
education. They admired the many and well-endowed educational institutions spread across
the Muslim world. Scholars were highly respected, they noted. Every village had a school
and there were institutions of higher learning in almost every major urban centre.

Some of the nobles and their chaplains who made it back to Europe decided to support
education in order to transform their kingdoms into civilized ones. The chaplains were greatly

46
inspired by the experience and were most anxious to be pioneers in this project of
transforming illiterate and barbarous Europe into the civilized Christian lands.

ii. The Catholic Church

The church encouraged learning by founding schools and other institutions of learning. Popes
gave charters to universities and protected them from any interference by the local bishops or
lay authorities. In addition, the church gave stipends to needy students as well as prebends to
those in holy orders who were undertaking university studies. Self-interest prompted the
church to do this. It needed catechists, teachers and theologians to expound and defend the
faith against heresy canon lawyers, administrators, doctors as well as scholars in other areas
of learning. The urge for the church to encourage higher education is explained by the low
level of education of its priests and even bishops at the time. Most of the priests in the rural
areas shared the culture of illiteracy with the souls they cared for, and some of the bishops too
were illiterate. In order to struggle against its enemies, especially Islam, it needed educated
soldiers.

iii. Growth of towns and cities

By the tenth century revival of urban life was becoming evident in most parts of Western
Europe. Cathedral schools were flourishing in these centres. Cities and towns were ideal
places for universities. They provided buildings that could be rented as lecture halls, offices
and hostels in those early stages when the medieval university did not own any movable
property. More importantly, food was readily available, as were booksellers who also
doubled as librarians who lend books out at a fee. The entertainments and leisure pursuits like
drinking that the students longed for were readily available. Cities also offered one great
advantage; as the centres of both church and civil administration, they provided the students
with an opportunity to meet the few educated people in an ocean of illiteracy and superstition.
Students could consult this educated elite, observe it at work whether in the civil or
ecclesiastic courts, in government or church offices, in the emerging parliaments or in
diplomatic councils. Such a world was an attractive image of what the students hoped to
immerse themselves in on completion of their studies. Indeed the university has throughout
its history been a city institution always uncomfortable in what Marx called the “idiocy of
rural life”.

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iv. Growth of wealth

By the tenth century the economy of Europe had started expanding. An agricultural
revolution meant that there was more food production from the already cultivated land.
Growth of trade commerce and craft industries resulted in a new middle class of craftsmen
and merchants. Trade was boosted by the growing contact between western European traders
and their Muslim counterparts. Goods from the East, that is India and China, found their way
to Europe through Muslim traders. Western European traders in turn sold their goods to
Muslim traders.

This trade created a class of people with money which they could invest in education.
Investment in education was good as opportunities requiring the skills acquired in universities
multiplied. Lawyers were needed and the new middle class valued the services of doctors.
People to manage the growing business were required, as were accountants, teachers too were
needed by the new class to educate their sons. Even more significant was the readiness of the
new rich to endow educational institutions, for example colleges.

v. Kings and princes

Rulers encouraged the development of universities in several ways. Kings gave universities
charters and gave them special privileges not enjoyed by other institutions in their kingdoms.
For example, universities were exempted from civil jurisdiction, from taxation and students
were exempted from military service in a world where every able-bodied person below
middle age was required to serve in the military. Rulers also endowed universities, thus
availing the greatly needful physical and financial resources.

Like the church, rulers required educated people in the growing civil service, for example in
the judiciary, administration, diplomacy and state councils. They also needed personal
advisers, personal physicians and chaplains. Prestige also prompted rulers to support
universities. A ruler who had a university in his kingdom was the envy of others who did not.
Economic factors also played no small part. Medieval universities were international
institutions; they would attract students from across Western Europe, particularly if they were
lucky to have famous masters. Foreign students – and taking into account that the vast
majority of the students came from the nobility – brought wealth to their kingdoms. The
economy of the cities and the surrounding countryside where universities were located
prospered.

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vi. Peace and stability

Chaos produced by meandering barbarians and unruly nobles were slowly becoming a thing
of the past in most of Western Europe by the tenth century. With the return of peace came
hope. People could now plan; they could invest without fear of loosing their capital.
Education was proving to be a good investment as graduates could always find opportunities.
This encouraged the upper classes to provide higher education for their sons to enable them
secure influential position in government or the church. Those few from the lower classes
who were lucky to get support from the church to pursue university study hoped to break out
of the vicious circle of poverty which was the curse of their class.

vii. Improvement in the means of transport

By the time universities started developing in the eleventh century, the means of transport
had greatly improved. People especially merchants, were able to travel from one part of
Western Europe to another. Others who joined this movement were church officials,
missionaries, monks and diplomats in the service of either lay or ecclesiastical authorities.
Such movement facilitated interchange of ideas. Developments taking place in one part of
Western Europe would easily influence other parts. More important still, Europeans were also
interacting with Muslims, particularly Italian merchants who traded with the Muslims. This
encouraged influential people to accept and replicate developments which had been perceived
to have had a positive influence elsewhere.

viii. Nationalism

The high medieval period was characterized by the development of nation states. As
universities came to be perceived as useful institutions, rulers did their best to ensure their
kingdoms had at least one. Some rulers were forced to set up universities in their own
kingdoms by the realization that a lot of their kingdom’s wealth was being exported by
students who went to study in foreign lands. This would encourage them to make the
university in their kingdom as attractive as any other in Western Europe. They would also
strive hard to attract as many famous scholars as possible to such universities by generous
donations or endowments.

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 ix. Influence of Muslim scholarship

Muslims had set up institutions of higher learning in their lands. Spain, which had been
conquered by Muslims from North Africa in the eighth century, boasted many such
institutions, the most famous being Cordova, which had the same fame as Kufa, Baghdad, al
Azhar and countless others. Scholars and students from Western Europe visited and studied
in Muslim institution and put into practice what they had learned on their return home. They
adapted the organizational structure and curriculum to the already existing institutions or
helped set up new ones. This way the knowledge developed in Muslim educational
establishments reached Western Europe. This is reflected in the development of scholasticism
both as a method of teaching and a philosophy.

Muslim classics, particularly in philosophy and science had pride of place in European
universities. In addition Greek learning as adapted and developed by Muslim scholars
reached Europe through this forces of intellectual interaction.

x. Rise of new religious orders

The twelfth century is characterized by the rise of new religious orders. Among these, the
Dominicans and Franciscans played a vital role in the rise of universities. Unlike the other
orders, these were dedicated to preaching and teaching. Their strongly held belief was that the
Church should move to the world and endeavour to improve it through teaching and
preaching. Preachers should be properly educated so that they could expound and defend
church doctrine faithfully.

Some of these medieval friars transformed the small institutions they worked in into famous
universities because of their learning and dedication to teaching. In fact the large majority of
the most famous medieval professors were drawn from these two orders.

9.5 Organization of the medieval universities

The medieval university was organized into faculties, each with an elected dean. There was a
student council which represented students in the day to day affairs of the university.
Members of the student council were drawn from the grouping of students called ‘nations’
referring to their places of origin. Masters’ and students’ representatives elected the head of
the university known as ‘rector’. In the students’ universities the rector could sometimes be a
student.

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The university had four faculties; arts, medicine, theology and law. When a student entered
university he enrolled in the faculty of arts. This was regarded as the preparatory faculty. It
was only after graduating from this faculty that the student entered any of the three graduate
faculties. The faculty of arts gave the student the grounding required in the graduate faculties.
Through training in the language arts was necessitated by the fact that Latin, the language of
learning in the medieval period, was equivalent to a foreign language in medieval Europe. It
was used in the church and diplomacy in addition to education. Only those who required
professional qualification joined the senior faculties or stayed longer in the faculty of arts.

9.6 Teaching methodologies and examinations

There were three methods of teaching in medieval universities; the lecture, the disputation
and the extra-ordinary lecture.

i. The lecture

It is important from the outset to state that the medieval lecture was different from what the
term lecture means within the modern university. In the medieval university the master
dictate a text or a section of it, for example, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, Book 1 sections
1 – 5. After ensuring that the students had got everything correctly, he would then explain the
meaning of the text. After that, and having answered any questions raised by the students
with regard to meaning, he explained what commentators had said about that particular
portion of Ethics. Finally he told his class his views about the text. He encouraged students to
raise any points to argue out their case always following the medieval tradition of citing
authorities. Dictation was necessary because books were rare and when available they were
very expensive. In most cases the master would be the only one with the book to be studied.

ii. The Extra-ordinary lecture

This was normally a presentation given by a student before his classmates or other students
and staff. In most cases such presentation would be in preparation for the oral examination.
The student would argue out his thesis, always citing as many authorities as possible. After
the presentation of his case he would meet any points raised by his audience through
arguments organized psychologically and supported by citation of authorities. This looks
more like the modern seminar or tutorial.

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iii. The disputation

This involved a faculty or the whole university, and sometimes the educated public – that is
those members of the public who had undergone university training and had acquired the
necessary tools of argumentation. A thesis would be posted and those responsible would
prepare all the possible arguments for and against it. Then when the day came the proposers,
whether students or masters, or students and masters would open the debate. This could take
one or several days. In fact this was a moment always looked forward to; for it provided great
excitement in the entire university or city – city because sometimes the disputation would be
held in a public park in the city.

iii. Examinations

There were two types of examinations – written and oral. Written examinations were not
much different from the ones in our universities today. The only difference, if any, was that
the university placed more emphasis on authorities, for example Aristotle and Muslim
scholars like Averros (Ibn Rushed) and Avicena (Ibn Sinna). The student was expected to
memorize the arguments of all the authorities on any point. Little creativity was expected.
This attitude was a product of the view that knowledge was fixed and that some individuals
like Aristotle had mastered all there was to know. Aristotle was referred to as “The
Philosopher”. Any points of dispute regarding Aristotle’s ideas were mostly confined to
interpretation. This was probably because of the pervasive influence of religious dogma, as
elaborated by theology, the queen of sciences to which all disciplines were a handmaiden.

Degrees and graduation

The degrees conferred were bachelors, masters and the doctorate. The bachelor’s degree,
given by the faculty of arts, took around four years, while the master’s would take between
five and seven years. The doctorate would take between seven or eight and twelve years.

On graduation the certificate given was licence to teach. However most of the recipients did
not become teachers. The licence was a recognition competence and the graduates took up
positions in the church or civil administration. University education was one of the few magic
instruments that offered those from the lower classes opportunities for better status. Indeed,
even those who did not graduate, the mere fact of spending some time in a university offered
advantage for social advancement.

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Graduation was an elaborate ceremony involving the entire university and colourful dress
distinguished by the kind of degree to be conferred or already held.

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LECTURE TEN: RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION AND EDUCATION

10.1 Renaissance
Renaissance was a very important historical process that ushered in the modern times. It can
therefore be accurately stated that modern education has its origins in this era. The term
“Renaissance” as used by historians denotes the rise of worldliness or secularism which
started around AD 1320 to 1600. This cultural revival was a very gradual process, heavily
influenced by forces that preceded it which ended up bringing about a gradual break with the
medieval life and created a new world-view. The period of Renaissance put a lot of emphasis
on man and his abilities, passion for learning and a stress on scholarly exactness. Man’s
faculty of reason was seen to be more important than faith.

Differences between Medieval Period and Renaissance

1. The medieval period advocated the rejection of the body but this changed during the
Renaissance period where the human body was glorified and insisted that life had to be
enjoyed to the full.

2. Renaissance exalted man who was put at the centre of the world unlike the medieval
period which focused on God and the heavens. The revival changed that focus by putting
attention to man’s life that had to be helped to realize his potentials.

3. Renaissance emphasized the passion for learning and stressed on scholarly exactness.
Reason was taken to be more important than the faith of the medieval period. It called for
a return to classical learning as well as an appreciation of the humanities, areas of
knowledge that refine the human spirit.

4. Renaissance was generally age optimism where man felt that no discovery and scientific
advance lay beyond human achievement. The people for the first time came to realize
their potentials in creation as compared to their initial helplessness.

5. Renaissance came to signify a major break from the previous religious dogmas by
asserting that the new universe was governed by laws and not the belief in miracles of the
medieval period.

6. Theology, the most exalted area of knowledge during the medieval period lost its position
as the queen of the sciences to the new aspects of learning that were secular in nature like

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 the languages and the physical sciences.

10.2 Factors that led to Renaissance

1. The new spirit of inquiry into knowledge at the time undermined the medieval structures
of monasticism and scholasticism. Scholasticism which had brought about rational
thought in the society, but due to its speculative spirit made it engage in the play of words
which brought intellectual accomplishments to a standstill. Scholasticism had however
played an important role in enhancing intellectualism that enabled scholars engage in
analytical thought processes which although at first used only to prove dogmas already
accepted, later became the means that scholasticism itself was destroyed and replaced by
scientific inquiry.

2. The new universities founded in the late Middle Ages stimulated intellectual achievement
in the society. With the new faculties of law and medicine to supplement theology, these
institutions came with more intellectual freedom, and more dissatisfaction with
institutions that restricted thought and suppressed inquiry. As a consequence, a rational
reflection on faith emerged that helped in the liberation of the individual.

3. The Islamic civilization with its advanced learning introduced to Europe through Spain
was gradually permeating and influencing Europe more and more. This process prepared
the way for the importation of the writings of the great classical authors and teachers of
humanities from Byzantine, the storehouse of Greek culture.

4. The European economic revival stimulated by the crusades impacted heavily on the lives
of the people. The process of equipping and transporting the crusaders to the East in the
seven crusades that took place from 1097 to 1270 led to the growth of free cities like
Genoa and Venice. In addition, the stay of the crusaders in the East served to enlarge their
appetites and desires when they discovered that those people had better things to eat and
wear than the medieval Europe had ever possessed. These experiences led to the demand
for the importation of goods from the East thus increasing trade and commerce and
manufacturing in the free cities of Europe. The city burgher class – the merchants,
bankers, and masters of guilds that supplied the new demands evolved into a new middle
class, distinct from nobles, clergy and serfs. And since the needs and ideals of the new
class were different from those of the established medieval class, they pointed the way to
a new manner of living.

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5. Expanding commerce meant new worlds to conquer and found them. The revival led
some people who loved adventure into voyages. For instance the discovery of a new route
to India by Marco Polo as well as the American continent by Columbus enlarged the
scope of trade which in turn changed how trade was carried out. The narrow limits of the
free cities meant that they could not meet the new commercial problems and trade became
national in scope. This situation was instrumental in the rise of nations of Western Europe
which led to new conceptions and practices in education. Leaders of trading activities
became more important than those of the church in power and influence.

6. The emergence of the spirit of national consciousness impacted heavily on the use of
vernaculars as the new states emphasized on their own languages rather than Latin, the
language widely in use at the time especially by the Church.

7. A number of material things were introduced into European life to enhance intellectual
advancement. The introduction of paper from the east as well as the invention of printing
multiplied the copies of classical manuscripts discovered and brought into Europe by the
early humanists. This led to an adequate supply of books and opened opportunities for
many people to read as compared to the past. Plenty and cheep books became a good
motivator for intellectual activity.

8. The work of explorers and scientific discoveries enhanced the spirit of inquiry and
investigation. Magellan’s voyages had established that the earth was round. Copernicus
had shown that the sun and not the earth was the centre of the universe. This forced the
old dogmatic beliefs to give way to an inquiring attitude that demanded concrete proofs as
opposed to the old metaphysical abstractions.

9. The degeneration of the Church due to corruption led some individuals to lose trust in it,
begrudge loyalty to its leaders and oppose the powers of ecclesiastical domination. The
people started to pay less attention in the ritualistic attitude of the Church and became
more interested in the life of the contemporary world. They started to pay more attention
to the humanities than the divinities. Less emphasis was placed upon formalized church
observances which led only to the one end of obtaining eternal life and of escaping
eternal damnation, and more on every form of art, literature, science, and commerce that
made life rich and pleasant, whether it was good for the soul or not.

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10.3 Renaissance education
The 14th century cultural revival in Europe necessitated the development of a new system
of education that could respond to the new challenges in the society. The new education
was called humanism derived from “humanitas” meaning culture. Humanism simply
represented the possibilities of self-realization in a man freed from the old ecclesiastical
bonds. As a movement, humanism emphasised the possibilities of self-improvement
through education.

10.3.1 Southern Humanism

As expected, the new system of education started in southern Europe. The Italians who
initiated humanism believed they could learn from the ancient world of the Romans and
the Greeks whose literatures at the time, more than any other were rich in beauty and
meaning. Consequently, history, literature, philosophy and social anthropology became
leading humanistic studies which emphasized man as a politically, ethically, and
aesthetically free being. Humanism aimed at presenting, analyzing and criticizing human
thought, feelings and conduct.
The Italian strand of humanism marked the foundation of modern education based on
freedom of thought, self-expression, and creative activity. The aim of humanistic
education was freedom founded on the expression of individual personality through art,
literature, music, architecture and nature. It focused on the development of individual
personality for the purpose of living a fine, rich and full life. Renaissance educational
spirit in Italy emphasized the development of an all-rounded person who possessed a
variety of interests. This approach enabled some of the outstanding scholars of the period
do many things and study many subjects. The humanistic curriculum was therefore not
just limited to literary and aesthetic subjects but also focused on the morals, manners and
health matters.
Italian humanism aimed at the development of the Greek ideal of a literal education,
harmonious development of mind, body and morals. It also emphasized the development
of the individual modelled on the old Athenian emphasis upon individual excellence and
personal self-realization.
Court schools founded and maintained by the ruling princes and dukes of Italian city
states who were also inclined towards a revival of learning became centres of humanistic
learning. These institutions came to dominate secondary school education in Western
Europe that trained the middle and higher classes for a long time. The institutions mostly

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 focused on literary and aesthetic education. They took on a practical approach to
education where young nobles were prepared for active participation in the everyday
affairs of life. Ancient literatures of Greece and Rome were studied in order to learn
about Greek and Roman life as well as for beauty and inspiration for a new created life.
Aesthetic education was broad covering; art, architecture, music and drama. Physical
education involved swimming, fencing, boxing, riding, dancing, diet and hygiene.
The mode of teaching in the Italian humanistic schools was as much as possible adapted
to the learners’ particular needs and capacities. Punishment was no longer the motive for
learning. Discipline was mild since motivation for higher positions of honour and activity
in life of the time were only open to those well trained in humanistic manners.

10.5.2 Northern Humanism

The humanism started in Italy later on spread to northern Europe through the work of the
Brethren of the common life founded in the Netherlands in 1376 and devoted to the copying
of manuscripts and the teaching of lower classes. It later spread to France, Germany, England
and other countries of the north. They benefitted from those who had studied in Italy as well
as the teaching activities of the wondering Italian scholars.

It should be noted that the northern humanism differed greatly from the southern one. While
church and school in Italy were hostile to one another, schools were supportive of the church
in the north. Humanism in the north was more social than individual, moralistic than esthetic
and focused more at social reform and improvement of human relationship than individual
happiness.

Renaissance education in the north focused on religious, moral and social education. Literary
education was only encouraged as a means to a religious and social end than for its own sake.
It is for this reason that the humanistic scholars of the north ended up attacking the church for
its moral evils.

The content of education touched on both classical and biblical literature. The Greek
education of the New Testament translated into Latin and the patristic literature such as that
by Jerome as well as the study of Greek and Latin textbooks. The classics focused on the
orations of Cicero and study of Hebrew – the language of the Old Testament. In addition,
history, geography and science were studied to illuminate the classics.

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Humanistic education was carried out in secondary schools that developed at the time; the
gymnasium in Germany, lycees in France and “public” schools for the aristocratic upper class
in England. The English schools were boarding but those in Germany were for day scholars.
The schools were arranged into 9 or 10 classes or forms and were only open to boys and men
who paid tuition. Apart from secondary schools, humanistic education was also encouraged
in northern universities specifically for the study of Greek.

The methods of teaching placed a lot of emphasis on the techniques still useful today.
Emphasis was placed on the careful study of the child’s nature as well as personal and
individual care. It should however be noted that humanistic education later on placed too
much emphasis on the study of language where the formulas took precedence over creativity.
This led to a form of learning nicknamed ciceronianism which emphasized the style and
construction of Greek and Roman writing by imitating the master.

10.4 Reformation
Religious reformation was an event that was marked by a series of revolts in the Catholic
Church that had for long resisted attempts aimed at internal reform. This was a clear
example of application of Renaissance reason to matters of religion. The process simply
hatched the egg laid by humanism. The thoughts that favoured social reform,
improvement of human life here and now rather than spending a life time in anticipation
of eternity fired people to criticize the ills that had become part and parcel of the church
at the time.
10.6.2 Factors that led to Reformation
The reformation movement was ushered in by the following factors:
1. The critical spirit in the society brought about by humanism that had already attacked
moral evils of the church and called for correction.
2. The scholastic spirit which had created a lot of scepticism among the masses and
emboldened them to challenge the philosophical supports of the conservative
Catholic theology.
3. The rise of German nationalism with hatred directed against the Papal authority. At
the time, 2/3 of German wealth was being held by the church, a factor that made
many people in German to believe that they were being exploited to support an
Italian church. It was for this reason that when the church excommunicated Luther in
1521, he received a lot of support from the Northern kingdoms whose inhabitants
claimed that a lot of their wealth had been used to enrich the Pope.

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10.6 Reformation and education

10.6.1 Martin Luther

Luther played a motivating factor in the reformation movement against the church. He
believed that the exploitation by the church could only be brought to an end by reforms in
education.
Literacy to Luther was necessary in helping the masses work for their salvation by
reading and understanding the Bible. His association of education and faith impacted
heavily on education, methods of instruction as well as the renewal of the educational
spirit. Since the scriptures formed the basis of ones efforts towards salvation,
Protestantism came to insist so much on literacy. Protestant education focused on the
attainment of a worthy life on earth as a guarantee of a glorious life to come. Towards this
end:
 Luther started by translating the Bible into vernacular (German) that was
easily understood by his people. This became the principal textbook for
religious instruction the basic subject in elementary schools at the time.
 He lamented against the neglect of education as opposed to colossal sums
of money spent on fortifying cities, building and arming the military as
well as the construction of roads while no such sum of money was spent to
support education. According to him, the greatest of the city’s or a nation’s
resources lay in its human resource and therefore the wisest thing would be
to develop this resource through education.
 He stated that education was not just meant for salvation but is the basis
for life that is important for the care of children in the homes.
 Luther became the first modern educational reformer to recommend
compulsory education. He called on the state establish schools and
demanded parents to send their children to school for the sake of the
church and the state. He told them that it was better to spent money on
educating children than buy indulgences and make pilgrimages to foreign
churches among other activities that were so common among Christians at
the time.
 He called for vocational training to enable the people to learn practical arts
for trade skills as well as running homes to fulfil the protestant ethic.
 He emphasised on singing and physical exercises. He became the first

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 educator to appreciate educational values of music after Socrates and
Plato.
 He called for good preparation of teachers. Towards this end, he identified
good / best pupils who were retained for this training.
 He called for gender parity in education when he insisted that both boys
and girls should access schooling.
 He also called for more liberty and joy in school. He was against
monasteries which isolated the young and stated that enjoyment and
recreation was necessary for children.
 Luther exalted the teaching profession when he argued that it was the most
noble and useful.

10.6.2 Calvinism
Apart from Luther, other religious reforms were led by John Calvin in Geneva and later
on Henry the XIII in England. Calvinism just like the Lutherans saw the centrality of
scriptures in the life of a Christian. This together with a particular way of life and value
system that carried intellectual inclinations had direct educational implications. In line
with Calvin’s doctrine of human depravity led his followers to argue that since children
were conceived in sin and born in corruption, they were inclined to sin and were idle,
noisy and wilful. Formal schooling was therefore taken to be as a means of disciplining
the child and curbing his inclinations to evil. This led Calvinist educators to reject play
seen as a form of idleness and justified corporal punishment as a way of disciplining
children into good citizens.

10.6.3 Anglicanism
The Church of England on the other hand was closely modelled on Catholicism especially
its sacraments and the hierarchical structure. However, its close association with the
upper class aristocrats that were well served by existing schools led them to neglect the
education of the low class citizens. Children from upper class families attended humanist
schools for classical learning in some of the outstanding public schools among them;
Winchester, Eaton, Harrow, Westminster, Rugby, and St. Paul which prepared them for
entry to Oxford and Cambridge universities.
10.5 Counter Reformation and Education
Counter Reformation was a movement within the Catholic Church to address church

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 abuses. Although the movement had already started before Luther’s revolt, it was
accelerated by the Protestant revolt. It was an offensive by internal reformation and a
militant response to Protestantism. The realization at the Council of Trent (1545 -1563)
that Protestantism thrived on its educational appeal forced the catholic leadership to
employ the same means to fight heresy and win dissenters back to Catholicism. This they
did by encouraging teaching orders and congregations to start schools. The church’s
education at this point laid emphasis on religious moralism where members were
prepared for a pious and useful life here on earth as well as a glorious life hereafter.
Among the Orders that were founded specifically for educational purposes were:
 Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in 1540 under the leadership of Ignatius Loyola that did
a lot in training church leaders.
 Brothers of Christian Schools founded by John the Baptist de la Salle in 1684.
 Jansenists which focussed on education of both boys and girls with emphasis on
spiritual salvation and moral reform.
 Ursulines (1535), Sisters of Notre Dame (1598) and Sisters of St. Joseph (1654)
to train in performance of duties as guardians of Christian homes and as members
of Christian society.
These congregations enabled the Catholic Church recover the lost ground as their
teaching methodology became far more superior to that of the Protestants.

LECTURE ELEVEN: THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES

10.6 Scientific Revolution

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The 17th century was generally characterized by application of critical inquiry to natural
phenomena a process that led to the origins of the modern world. This was made possible by
a number of factors among them:

 The medieval Christian world view though hostile, accustomed man to the Hellenic
ideas of a rationally ordered creation in which orderly investigation was possible.

 Scholasticism encouraged the development of conceptual precision similar to the

scientific methodology that emerged during the scientific age.

 The revival of classical texts and philosophy during Renaissance stimulated

intellectual thinking that browed an awareness of how incomplete and contradictory
ancient scientific learning was. This led to the need for independent investigation of
old problems.

 Humanism cleared the way for scientific research by removing the stigma of sin from
the natural world. “God’s word could be read in the Book of Nature as well as the
Bible”

 Increasing geographical knowledge from frequent voyages and travels shed light to
many things in nature which in turn led to attitudinal changes that favoured scientific
learning.

The first signs of how science was bound to influence the course of history emerged with the
publication of the Copernician Theory. In his work, De Revolutinibus Orbium Celestium
(1543), Copernicus argued that the sun is at the centre of the universe and the earth has a
twofold motion, a diurnal (or daily rotation) and an annual revolution about the sun. However
it was not until the 17th century that the theory became very influential following
improvements by Kepler and Galileo. Isaac Newton later was to present with finality the
work prepared by Copernicus and Galileo.

Apart from the field of astronomy, the 17 th century also distinguished itself in the scientific
field especially in the invention of scientific instruments. The compound microscope (1590),
the telescope (1608), Galileo invented the thermometer, his pupil; Torricelli invented the
barometer, and improvements on clocks is largely through the work of Galileo. These
inventions came with immense influence as scientific observations became more exact and
extensive than before.

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In addition to the above discoveries in astronomy and dynamics, other important scientific
works emerged at the time in different fields. Among them; Gilbert (1540-1603) published
his great book on the magnet in 1600. Harvey published his discovery on the circulation of
blood in 1628. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) came up with his Boyle’s Law while in
Mathematics; Napier published his invention of logarithms in 1614. The other great
mathematicians of the century were; Descartes, Newton and Leibniz

All the above scientific inventions and works ushered Europe into the Age of Reason or the
Enlightenment that is, a reaction against untested medieval beliefs, commitment to natural
law and scientific methods in all human endeavours. This was a period during which man
could exert his intelligence to reconstruct the social order according to scientific principles. In
turn, this had a profound impact on education as reflected in some of the intellectual currents
of the time, two of which are discussed below.

10.7 Intellectual movements

10.7.1 Reason and progress
This movement emphasized the belief in human reason to solve man’s problems and create a
perfect society. It was committed to the discovery of the natural laws governing human
existence that could lead to the progress of the human race. Education therefore had the
responsibility of adjusting the human person to natural laws. Natural education was to focus
on the earthly paradise than the ancient utopias. Towards this aim, education was to focus on
the interests, needs and inclinations of the learners to achieve their goodness in future.
Corporal punishment in education was abolished. The new emphasis in education was put on
the child’s goodness, his needs and the liberation of his energies or potentialities. Education
became a means of social correction and reform as a progressive tool to the desired goals.
There was the feeling that obsolete and superstitious institutions which corrupted man’s
natural goodness had to be destroyed.

10.7.2 Sense of realism

This movement focused on the search for a method by which reality could be known. This
was one of the manifestations of general dissatisfaction with the degenerate humanism. It was
argued that man was not a sinful creature but was innately good whose potentials and
intelligence could be developed and liberated through natural education. The immediate
environment and its objects became important sources of learning. The process of education
emphasized on science, nature and reason. Empiricism or the observation of the laws through

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the senses became important sources of knowledge. Education therefore had to start with the
child’s sensory experience of objects in the immediate environment
10.8 Jean Jacques Rousseau
Rousseau was a Swiss born French theorist and educator whose contribution was heavily felt
in the area of natural education. Rousseau advanced the idea of a child-centred education
beyond that of Comenius and Locke. In a novel, the Emile, written in 1762, he describes the
life and process of educating a boy by the same name from infancy to adulthood. He argued
for the perfect goodness and innocence of the child at birth but who later gets spoilt by the
society. Rousseau attacks the doctrine of child depravity and an exclusively verbal and
literary approach to learning because such beliefs and practices ignored the child’s natural
interests and inclinations. He also believed that the child needs to be freed from society’s
imprisoning institutions of which the school was one of the most coercive.

Rousseau challenged the formal educational methods by championing a return to nature and
education according to nature. This is where a child was to be isolated from society and
educated along the lines of his own peculiar and natural growth and development. The child
was not to be seen as a miniature and imperfect adult without potentialities, needs and
interests. He was to be at the centre of the process of education and no untrained adult was to
impose his wishes on the unprepared, unsuspecting and innocent child.

Rousseau believed in the distinction of different ages and recognized stages of human growth
and development in education and identified the following five stages with corresponding
instructional activities.
1. Infancy stage (0 – 5 years).
The child learns through play. He needs the freedom to move and exercise his body
and generally familiarize with the environment.
2. Childhood stage (5 – 12 years).
During this stage, the child is growing physically and strong. He should be left to
explore the environment and learn through the senses. This according to Rousseau
was a better teacher than schoolmaster who teaches words that the child does not
comprehend. It was a better approach compared to the schoolroom’s silence and the
master’s rod. The tutor did not attempt to introduce reading at this stage.
3. Boyhood stage (12 – 15 years).
This is the stage when the boy was interested in learning about the world around him

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 and he was to be left to discover his environment by doing. Nature was still the best
teacher for instruction in science and geography through problem-solving approaches.
By watching cycles of growth and development of plants and animals, Emile learned
natural science and by exploring his surroundings, he learned geography in a more
realistic manner than he could have from study of maps.

The boy was to read Robinson Crusoe, the only textbook to learn survival tactics,
about a man who got marooned on an Island and therefore had to deal with nature on
its own terms. He was also to learn a manual trade mostly emphasizing agriculture
and carpentry to help him understand the relationship between mental and physical
work.
4. Adolescent stage (15-18 years).
Emile was allowed to return to society. Having experienced natural education, he was
ready to cope with the outside world. The boy had to be aware of society,
government, economics and business. He was to learn about moral education
especially human sexuality and aesthetics by visiting museums, art galleries, libraries
and theatres.
5. Youthful stage (18 -20 years).
This formed the last stage of education that required the boy to travel to Paris and
other foreign countries for purposes of seeing different peoples and societies.

Rousseau’s ideas were very radical and challenged the established educational traditions of
the time in that:
 He opposed the reliance on books as avenues to knowledge.
 He challenged the existing conventions and set out to destroy those which he felt
impeded human freedom and progress.
 He separated education and schooling in that he believed that the school as an
institution just like the advocates of the de-schooling movement often interferes with
and impedes learning. According to Rousseau, there was need to liberate the child
from artificial social restrictions.
 His ideas influenced innovation in education like those of Pestalozzi.
 His ideas contributed to broad movements in education like child study and child
centred progressive education.
 He called on educators to base the curriculum on the child’s interests and needs.

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Although Rousseau made important contributions as highlighted above, his ideas also
bordered on the extremes:
 Rousseau’s temperament and poor undisciplined childhood drove him to the extreme
in analysing freedom for the child. His notion of freedom was negative and therefore
unsocial. His decision to isolate the child from society meant that he was deprived of
a large portion of feelings or experiences thereby impoverishing the child’s world.

 Education cannot result from nature alone nor art alone but it is a natural process that
is supplemented and controlled and perfected by human art. His infatuation with
nature completely distorts his view of education. Consequently, Emile reaches the age
of twenty when he is still confused.

 Rousseau treats the education of women badly by suggesting that the education of
Sophie who was to be his wife was to be determined by Emile himself. A woman to
Rousseau is but a slave and instrument of man whose education is merely the
education of her sexuality.

LECTURE TWELVE: POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY

12.3 Popular education

Popular education is a deliberate attempt to facilitate the wide access of education in Western
Europe during the 19th century. It should be clear right from the outset that education has not
always been open to all. In fact, in the earliest days of its existence in Mesopotamia, ancient

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Egypt, India etc, formal schooling was an exclusive preserve for a priestly class which
supplied the scribes needed in government. Later with the development of trade and
commerce, agriculture and irrigation systems, it became necessary to have more people who
could read and write. The same also applied to the aristocracy who needed to learn the art of
reading and writing not only in order to be better able to manage their own affairs but also to
run state affairs which ere now becoming increasingly more complex. At this stage, education
became a monopoly of the priests and aristocracy. Thus we find that in ancient Greece and
Rome, the sons of the aristocracy had to go to school, or at least be taught elementary literacy
in the family. This tradition however disappeared during the Dark Ages.

It was not until the age of reformation that Martin Luther became the first and most articulate
advocate of popular education. Disenchanted with the corrupt Roman Church hierarchy of
priests, and anxious to free Christians from its tyranny, Luther called on every Christian to
read and interpret the Bible. But Luther perhaps realized that he had to appeal to the patriotic
feelings of the German princes if his idea of universal education was to get their support. He
emphasized that education was essential for the ordinary duties of life in the home, the state
and the church. There was therefore need for good schools to be provided by the
municipalities at public expenses. The state should organize a system of free education that is
indifferent to distinctions of sex or social class. Unfortunately, the German princess could not
be converted to the idea and universal education had to wait for another two hundred years
before the German rulers saw its value.

It was not until the 18 th century that universal education gained wide support. The French
Enlightenment philosophers, impressed by the great scientific achievements of their century
and the previous one, viewed universal education as the surest means of delivering man from
age-long shackles of superstition by advancing reason. Their strong belief in progress, which
according to them was brought about by human reason, made them formidable advocates of
universal education. The thinkers; Diderot, Montesquieu, Condorcet, Rousseau, Voltaire,
d’Alembert, etc floated the ideas which were to have a great influence upon the main actors
in the French revolution.

We shall briefly look at the views of three of these enlightenment thinkers who were very
active in politics of the revolutionary period and who, taking advantage of their position as
members of the constituent Assembly, championed educational reforms: Mirabeau,
Talleyrand and Condorcet.

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12.3.1 Mirabeau
Mirabeau, in his report to the constituent assembly ‘Concerning public instruction or The
Organization of a Teaching Body’ in 1970, argued that it was necessary for all men to acquire
worthy moral habits. Since morality, education and custom are closely linked, education of
the people would improve both their moral habits and customs. Popular education would free
people from ignorance and this would ensure lasting progress.

12.3.2 Talleyrand
Talleyrand, the second part of the triad, in his ‘report on public instruction’ introduced to the
constituent Assembly in September 1791, proclaimed in the strongest terms a belief in
reason, progress, liberty and the rights of man. Education, he affirmed, was an instrument of
achieving these.

12.3.3 Condorcet
The third member of the triad, Condorcet, in his report, argued that without education, liberty
could not endure. Anarchy and despotism would inevitably be the lot of a people that had
become free before becoming enlightened. Education was an instrument of liberty and
equality, as well as the source of public morality and progress. All the vices of humanity, he
emphasised, sprang from intellectual impotence. He certainly shared Socrates’ view that men
are wicked through ignorance: no one does wrong intentionally. Hence the need for
education.

The view for universal education was an absolute necessity both for the improvement of
public morality and maintenance of liberty was shared by one of the Founding Fathers of the
American Republic, Thomas Jefferson. He believed that the general enlightenment brought
about by universal education was the strongest guarantee for the survival of democratic form
of government. Consequently, he proposed a scheme of elementary education for all and
liberal or advanced studies for “those persons whom nature has endowed with genius and
virtue”. According to him, the liberally educated guardians of liberty would form a new
aristocracy; “an aristocracy of talent”, as opposed to the old aristocracy whose merit
consisted solely in the accident of birth.

It is important to note that neither the ideals of the French Enlightenment and Revolution nor
those of Jefferson were to be realised for nearly a century. When the French Revolution was
derailed and turned into a reign of terror, then to Counter-Revolution and finally the

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Napoleonic wars of conquest, the hopes of improving society the hopes of improving society
through universal enlightenment were almost forgotten. Ass for Jefferson, his ideals could not
be realised in a nation where human beings were held as living tools and commodities of
commerce.

Surprisingly, not even the most enlightened despots of the Enlightenment era supported
popular or universal education. Frederick the Great, King of Prussia who was greatly admired
by the philosophers, admitted that enlightenment was a light from heaven for those who stood
on the heights. At the same time he was quick to point out that it was a destructive firebrand
for the masses. His counterpart in Russia, Catherine the Great, agreed with her clergy and
nobility who vehemently opposed the extension of popular education among the masses. It
was generally held that the spread of knowledge among the masses would lead to heresy,
unbelief, and factionalism, and would imperil the social order. It was not until 1714 that the
champion of secular; learning and modernization of Russia, peter the great, issued a decree
commanding the children of noblemen, officials, clerks and scribes to obtain schooling from
the age of twelve as a prerequisite for entering government employment. Although more
educational opportunities became progressively available through the 19 th century, education
in the Russian empire remained a privilege for the nobility and state bureaucracy. It was not
until after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution that universal education became a concern for the
government. By 1930s, universal education had been achieved.

The Prussian king Frederick William III was one of the first monarchs to be converted to the
idea of popular education for purposes of promoting the prosperity of his people. To him,
education was the only means by which poor children could be rescued from vagabondage
and moulded into good citizens. He pointed out that the transforming effects of popular
education had never been accomplished in the past because large sections of the peasantry
had remained deprived of the advantage of formal education. To achieve these ends, he
appointed a minister who was charged with the responsibility of inaugurating a state system
of education.

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LECTURE THIRTEEN: PROGRESSIVE AND RADICAL EDUCATION IN THE
20TH CENTURY

13.1 Progressivism
The progressive ideology was based on the American philosophy of pragmatism, a
philosophical orientation largely based upon the broad principles of evolutionary theory.
Pragmatism took the universe as incomplete and changing where human experiences and not
remote authority of religion or philosophy was seen as a last resort in validating ideas. A

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concept is defined by acquiring what practical effects it involves in the way of experience and
action. Knowledge is personal and is made by each individual for himself for the purpose of
adapting himself to new situations. Truth cannot be absolute because the meaning of a
concept depends on its relationship to the individual.

The progressive movement in American education was opposed to the traditional and
authoritarian model of teaching as proposed by J.S. Herbart (1771-1834). It was an
ideological crusade for social, economic and political justice based on the power of human
intelligence to effect human progress. Man is capable of using the methods of science to
control the world. Democracy was a means of overcoming traditional modes of action as well
as establishing a rational society to enable individuals harness their full potential.

Education to the progressivists carried the responsibility of building a better society and
therefore advocated for the elimination of the 19 th century classes. The school was supposed
to be broad based not just to address the needs of a diverse people but also meet the physical,
social and recreational needs of children. The progressive association was founded in 1918
and between 1918 and 1935; the movement remained a dominant force in American
educational thinking.

13.1.1 John Dewey

John Dewey taught in a number of universities and later on was a professor at the University
of Chicago where he established a laboratory school to research and experiment in new ideas
and methods of education. The activities at the school were based on home life and were
intended to challenge the pupils to think and experiment.

Dewey challenged the traditional (teacher-centered0 approach in education where the sole
authority in class was bestowed on the teacher forcing pupils to follow rigid system of rules
and regulations for discipline and character formation. This to him was a complete negation
of the idea of democracy popular in USA at the time. He proposed a revolutionary approach
to education based on pragmatism where true knowledge was only found within ordinary
experience as the individual interacts with the environment. It is these interactions that lead to
the formation of one’s personality.

Education according to Dewey is a process of growth where the individual learns

independently through experience to adjust to life in a democratic society. He proposed a

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child-centred method to learning that that was meant to promote the child’s progress. This
involved learning by doing or activity programmes that are still important in schools to this
day.

Dewey’s educational theory was also meant to establish a closer relationship between school
and life. Education should not be seen as a preparation for life but life itself that was only
possible with child-centred learning. Education is given the responsibility of solving practical
problems by introducing and therefore introduced practical training of cooking and business
education among other activities based on the needs of the society.

The school also took care of the learners’ health and recreation, morality, religion and all
forms of educational experiences were taken to be equally important and integrated in school
activities. Since education played the role of human growth, Dewey recognized individual
differences in education.

The role of the teacher in class according to Dewey is to serve as a guide to learners where
children were allowed to learn in the natural way without encountering frustrations. The
teacher is charged with the responsibility of helping the individual develop into a competent
person that is able to cope with new experiences and tasks.

Dewey formulated the “problem solving” method of learning that demands thinking and
reasoning. A child could only develop as an integrated dynamic personality through a life that
presented constant challenges. Schooling to Dewey should be life meant to strengthen an
individual by requiring him to surmount obstacles rather than their avoidance. This can only
be possible if the educator understands the learner’s capacities, interests and habits – helps
them deal with what they are capable off in the learning process.

13.2 Radical Education

The most radical views with regard to educational reform during the 20 th century appeared in
the works of the de-schoolers.
i. Ivan Illich - “Deschooling society” (1971)
ii. Everett Reimer – “School is Dead” (1971)
iii. Paul Goodman – “Compulsory Miseducation” (1971).

These educators generally viewed schools as agents of social control rather than instruments
of liberation and were generally unhappy about the direction of changes in the society. They

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argued that the school had confused its aims and by so doing had destroyed the learner, many
of whom leave school with little to show for it. They raised two arguments against the school:
i. Education and schooling do not necessarily mean the same thing and therefore one
should not be confused with the other.
ii. Schooling as an institutionalized process, (a must for the society) has made people
believe that schools are the proper and only channels for genuine education yet they
only favour the rich and encourage competition among learners.
Schools have an anti-educational effect on the society. The school involves itself in very
many activities which it performs poorly and leads to failure. Illich, the main opponent of the
school developed three arguments against this process:
i. Schooling infringes on people’s liberty by forcing children to attend whether they
wished/ interested or not. In addition, the syllabus was both determined by others and
was very rigid in its content and timing.
ii. Schooling increased rather than decreased social inequalities by favouring children
from elite and affluent families compared to the poor.
iii. Schools were instruments of economic and cultural imperialism. The curriculum was
determined by middle classes and only valued certain types of knowledge favourable
to their interests and not those of the poor. For example popular music is passionately
loved by many young people but is not part of the official curriculum.
Based on these arguments, Illich called for deschooling society, the notion that they are the
only purveyors of knowledge yet they only emphasized the hidden curriculum – competition
for prizes, dependence on teachers and an overemphasis on diplomas. The school according
to Illich is the enemy of learning and the process of education that should be avoided. He
therefore advocated for alternatives that allowed people to learn how, when and where they
liked.
i. He called for the development of learning networks in which knowledgeable and less
knowledgeable people would be linked in informal networks to focus on institutions
such as; museums and libraries. One could also go to a seminar or a market where
learning should not separate him from other activities – be done naturally at the work
place than the difficulties involve in class.
ii. Everything and everybody in the world should be a learning resource.
iii. Called for exchanges, arrangements for peer matching – establish agencies for
contacting people with similar interests.

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 SECTION THREE: EDUCATION IN AFRICA

LECTURE FOURTEEN: AFRICAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

14.1 Introduction
Welcome to our fourteenth lecture and the first in our third section. This section will examine
developments in education on the African continent from the pre-colonial period to the
present. In this lecture, we shall explain to you ways through which Africans educated their
members especially the young before the coming of Europeans. This was basically a process

75
of socialization meant to initiate members into their respective communities. We shall start
by justifying this system as an equally important educational practice before discussing the
aims, structure, content, instructors and methods of instruction and finally examine the
relevance of this education to today.

14.3 What is African indigenous education?

The many Europeans, who first came to Africa, generally held the view that the African was
a savage, pagan with no history and culture to perpetuate, that he/she was primitive, knew
nothing, and never trained the young. This mistaken belief reflected an ignorance of African
education systems and helps to explain why the first European educationalists never
considered that the type of schools, they were introducing had any bearing to the largely
informal education African children were receiving in their communities.

The basic assumption was that Europeans were introducing something completely new. This
naive way of looking at African indigenous education presupposed that there was no social
interaction or socialization, that there was no deliberate attempt made by adults to bring up
children to be the kind of men and women required by society. Nothing could be further from
the truth. If education is defined as the ‘whole process by which one generation transmits its
culture to the succeeding generation’ or better still ‘a process by which people are prepared to
live effectively and efficiently in their environment’, it becomes easy to see that before the
coming of the Europeans, there was an effective education system in each African clan,
chiefdom or kingdom. African indigenous education was effective, tangible, definite and
clearly intelligible.

You need to note there has never been any one single indigenous form of education in Africa.
Societies have developed different systems of education to transmit their own particular
knowledge and skills. In spite of these variations, the aims of these systems were similar.
Indigenous was essentially an education for living.

14.4 Aims and Content

Now that you have familiarised yourself with the rationale of African indigenous
education and seen the objectives of the lecture, you can now proceed to read the sections
that follow.

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The main purpose of African indigenous education was to train the youth for adulthood
within society. Emphasis was put on normative and expressive goals. Normative goals
were concerned with accepted standards and beliefs governing correct behaviour, while
expressive goals were concerned with unity and consensus.

Indigenous education was not only concerned with the systematic socialization of the
young generations into norms, beliefs and collective opinions of the wider society, but
also played a very strong emphasis on learning practical skills and acquisition of
knowledge which was useful to the individual and society as a whole. In broad terms, it
emphasized social responsibility, job orientation, political participation and spiritual and
moral values.

Another important factor that governed the nature of indigenous education was its
environmental setting. Education grew out of the immediate environment, real or
imaginary. From the physical environment children had to learn about weather, landscape
and animal and insect life. Children had to have knowledge of the important aspects of
the environment in order to overcome it and exploit them. They had to make proper
adjustments to the physical environment by using axes, hoes, spears and other tools which
the experience of the past had helped to evolve. They were taught how to farm, hunt, fish,
prepare food, build a house or run a home.

14.5 Educators and Methods of Instruction

In most African societies, parents played an important role in the education of their
children. There was often a marked division of labour. The mother educated all the
children in the early years, but the fathers took over education of the male children while
the mother remained in control of the female children. Often learning to walk, speak and
count, the male child started his training for manhood through the assistance of male
elders. The female child continued to be taught by her mother assisted by other female in
the community. Although there was some overlapping in the simple tasks for both boys
and girls before the age of six, the general rule was sexual dichotomy in most of the work.

Various methods of instructions were used in the teaching processing. These methods
could be broadly divided into informal and formal methods.

14.5.1 Informal Methods

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Among the informal methods of instruction included learning through play. Among most
communities importance of play was generally realized. A child who did not participate
actively in play work was normally suspected to being ill or abnormal. Children were left
to their own initiative to make toys. They made toys from local materials of their own
choices and interests. They moulded from mud and made use of articles which were of
little use to adults .Children also engaged in make-believe play activities which were
imaginative and symbolic. A popular form of play was wrestling, while other play
activities included swinging, chasing one another, sliding and dances performed in
moonlight after evening meals. These were designed to develop children’s memory and
promote their language.

Oral literature constituted an important method of instruction. This included teaching

through myths. Myths were tales which effectively described or accounted for natural
phenomenon, gods and such things as death and the origin of humanity which were
beyond the understanding of human beings. Closely related to myths were legends. These
were fabricated tales to account for real events that took place or were believed to have
taken place. Another form was folktales. These were concerned with familiar situations or
recalled some ancient customs, and they were based primarily on day-to-day happenings.
Children also learnt through dance and folk songs. Music formed an integral part of their
lives. Proverbs were used widely in ordinary conversation. Judicious use of proverbs was
usually regarded as a sign of intelligence. Proverbs were the condensed wisdom of the
great ancestors.

Traditional learning also involved the use of deterrence or inculcating fear in children.
They were made to confirm to the morals, customs and standards of behaviour inherent in
the clan and ethnic community. Bad habits and undesirable behaviour such as
disobedience, cruelty, selfishness, bullying, aggressiveness, temper tantrums, theft,
telling lies and others were not tolerated. Usually verbal warnings were used and more
often followed by punishment. Children who committed offences could be rebuked,
smacked or assigned some piece of work to complete before being allowed to eat. Serious
offences, however, resulted in severe beating or other form of inflicting pain on the
body .Such punishment was regarded as reformatory. Sometimes, children were
discouraged from indulging in what was regarded as bad habit by being ridiculed with a
funny or nasty nickname.

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Informal methods of instruction also included involving children in productive work.
Learning through the medium of work enabled the children to acquire the right types of
masculine or feminine roles. By involving children in useful work, by doing and working
hand -in-hand with adults prepared children through a number of stages to be future
husbands and wives. What was acquired was the ability to perform various farm or
pastoral and domestic tasks. A child was expected to learn largely by seeing and
imitating. He or she was given formal teachings usually after he/she had made a mistake
or when the outcomes of his/her work was unsatisfactory. He/she was usually given a
gradual process of training according to age and sex. Rarely was the child assigned a task
which was beyond his/her physical fitness.

14.5.2 Formal Methods

Formal methods of instruction involved theoretical and practical inculcation of skills. For
example, learning through apprenticeship, where parents who wanted their children to
acquire some occupational training usually sent them to work with craftsmen such as
potters, blacksmiths, basket-makers and others. The same was true with acquisition of
hereditary occupations. For example a herbalist would instruct his child from time to time
about the uses of medicines until he/she becomes knowledgeable and proficient in the
practice.

Formal instructions were also given in the form of constant corrections and warnings to
children .These concerned some aspects of domestic work, herding cattle, cultivation,
fishing and others. Children were taught the everyday customs and manners of eating,
greeting and how to behave with relatives and important people and parental as well as
marital obligations.

Among some ethnic groups, formal education took the form of succeeding stages of
initiation from one status to another. At the age of five the outer edges of a child’s ears
were pierced. This could be followed with the ear lobes at the age of ten.

However, the most prominent of initiation practices, were those associated with
circumcision in puberty. This was regarded as the point of passage into full membership
of the community. It was deliberately made an emotional and painful experience,
sometimes covering a period of many months, which was engraved forever on the
personality of the initiates. Circumcision was normally accompanied with formal lessons,
and they took the form of instructions, songs and tests by the instructor, who was often a

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member of the circumcising team. Questions were asked in form of riddles for the initiate
to interpret their meaning. Such questions dealt with issues pertaining to the protection of
the homestead against enemies, committing adultery and many others. In some
communities, this involved making tools such as spears, bows and arrows and staging
mock fights.

14.6 Relevance
A critical question to be addressed at this point is whether African indigenous education
is relevant today in view of the many changes that have taken place in Africa in the last
two hundred years or so. Western influence spearheaded by the processes of Christian
evangelization and colonialism introduced tremendous changes in the way people
perceive think and act. It should be noted that nowhere in Africa can one come across a
pure system of this education but in the same vein the system has not disappeared fully.
Accordingly, what is practised today is not original but it has not been wiped out
completely. However, the informal aspect of this learning has shown resistance
compared to the formal one. For instance, pubertal initiation rites crumbled very fast
following the western onslaught.

The old and new systems of education however can supplement each other and should
be synthesized. For example, a number of medical institutes on the continent have
intensified the study of traditional medicine as a way of tapping the reach indigenous
knowledge to complement the modern forms of treating certain diseases. The 844
system of education in Kenya has also tried to integrate aspects of the old system in the
teaching of the new in its schools as seen in the areas of; science, literature, religion,
ethics, family-life education as well as the teaching methodologies especially that of
learning by doing.

Although African indigenous education was quite effective in pre-colonial Africa and
served those societies very well, major weaknesses were associated with it. The system
may have succeeded since it served static societies that placed minimal pressure on
education. As a consequence, adherence to tradition hindered development. The system
placed a lot of emphasis on the group and community that led to the neglect of
individual aspirations. The system was highly authoritarian as there was no questioning
of what was taught. The formal methodology for instance never explained the why of

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 things but only focused on doctrines and beliefs that were to be accepted almost
wholesale. In short the method could be said to have aimed at compelling rather than
guiding, indoctrinating rather than motivating the learners. Last but not least, the system
did not have figures and letters and therefore lacked records. This in a way partly
explains why the system quickly crumpled when confronted by the western forms of
education.

LECTURE FIFTEEN: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION TO 1945

15.1 The Coming of Europeans

15.1.1 Early traders
European merchants interested in trading activities along the coast of West Africa first
introduced western education to the African continent. The Portuguese were the first to
venture when they conquered Ceuta in 1415.They later on extended their influence to the
ports of Fernando Po in 1475, Sao Jorge da Mina in 1482 and Benin in 1483.

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The Portuguese fortunes however started to decline from about 1530 due to rivalry by the
other European powers such as; the Dutch, Danes and English who were also interested in
gold and slaves. By the 16th C, about1300 slaves were being shipped out of Africa annually.
This figure increased to 27 000 in the 17th C and70 000 in the 18thC

It is these European traders who first introduced Christianity and western education on the
African continent. This initially targeted African men who got introduced to basic literacy to
enable them work as interpreters and clerks to the traders. Special emphasis was given to the
education of children born out of the relationships between European men and African
women, the mullatoes. At Cape Coast for instance, a Mullato Fund was started with monthly
contributions from the traders to cater for these children. Others were sent overseas for
education. The traders started schools in their castles to teach Christianity, reading and
writing.

The demand for the abolition of slave trade in the early 19 th C opened the way for new
relationships between Europe and Africa. By 1772, Sierra Leone became a freed slave
settlement. In 1808, it became the first British Colony and henceforth the centre for British
activity on the continent. The French were not to be left out of this. By 1840, they had started
carrying out trading activities along the Senegal River. In East and Central Africa, the British,
the French and the Germans started involving themselves in trading activities but later on
they turned to agriculture.

15.1.2 Christian missionaries

The decision by Christian missionaries to come to Africa was motivated by slave trading
activities. The internationalization of this trade went against the Christian doctrines while the
African suffering touched the hearts of many Christians in Europe. This led to the abolition
movement in Britain that focused attention to conditions of the Africans back on the
continent. The kind of suffering that these people went through brought out a sense of guilt
among some Christians. The first to take up this challenge were those who had experienced
the evangelical revival of the late 18 th C started by John Wesley of the Methodist Church and
the evangelical wing of the Anglican Church. This new fervor affected all Protestant
denominations in Europe and North America and led to the formation of various missionary
societies towards the end of the 18 thC. Sierra Leone became a Protestant base for Anglicans,
Baptists and Methodists. Southern Africa attracted German Morovians, London Missionary
Society, British Methodists and German Lutherans. In East Africa, came; CMS, Catholics-

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White Fathers, Society of African Missions, Oblates of Mary Immaculate and Oblates of de-
Sales. These Christian Missionary groups played a very important role in the education of
Africans apart from evangelizing them.

15.1.3 Colonization
The European interests in Africa during the last quarter of the 19 th and 20th Cs increased
tremendously due to:

1 the need to secure markets and new products brought about by the Industrial
Revolution,
2 the search for cheap raw materials for their industries,
3 the severe economic depression that occurred between 1873-1893 forced
European firms to appeal for help from their respective governments to
remove the African middlemen as a way of increasing their profits, and
4 the need to expand European influence elsewhere especially by the French
after the loss of Alsace and Lorain to the Germans.

These were among the major factors that led to the European scramble for territories in
Africa that eventually culminated into the partition of the continent during the Berlin
conference of 1884.The “sharing” of the continent was made behind the backs of African
chiefs on the basis of the treaties they had signed with Europeans. After the establishment of
territorial boundaries, the respective powers set up administrative structures in their areas of
jurisdiction.

15.2 Colonial policies and education

Two types of policies were used by colonial administers in Africa. These were; direct rule
which was used by the French, Belgians and Portuguese. and indirect rule used by the British.
The policy of direct rule was based on the assumption that African institutions were weak and
that they could not be used to sustain the colonial machinery. It was argued that Africans
were illiterate and technologically backward to adapt to the colonial mode of government.
Accordingly, the Europeans had to operate their own administrative structure. The policy of
indirect rule on the other hand was meant to have Africans play some role in the colonial set
up. The African leaders were supposed to assist in the governance of local communities as a
way of cutting down on colonial expenses. Accordingly, African rulers or chiefs were given
powers, rules and regulations to carry out administrative functions.

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The colonial systems of education in Africa were heavily influenced by the two
administrative policies outlined above that translated into the educational policies of
assimilation and adaptation respectively.

15.2.1 Direct
15.2.1.1 Assimilation
The French applied this policy on the understating that all colonies were to be integrated into
the French nation in future. The French therefore wanted to use education to:

1 Familiarize Africans with European social, political, cultural, economic and moral
systems as a first step in the process of integration since French institutions had to be
uniform all over the world.
2 Create African elite cherishing metropolitan values with aspirations of becoming
Black Frenchmen, people of high intellectual quality identical and similar to those of
France to help adapt African societies to the French model.
3 Maintain standards that were equivalent to those in France especially in the teaching
of language and culture.
4 Spread mass education and create an improvement in the standards of living.
The French system used French teachers while French was the medium of instruction hence
no use of vernaculars in the schools. This approach was meant to cut down on expenses with
regard to the training of teachers and the translation of books.

15.4.1.2 Association

The French later on discarded the educational policy of assimilation for association, a more
pragmatic and flexible educational policy that sought the co-operation of the colonial subjects
for the economic and social development of their societies. The French authorities decided to
respect the native institutions as a way of bringing about a more and greater productive co-
operation between the natives and French “associates”.

It was argued that metropolitan education was not wholly appropriate hence the need to adapt
it to serve local needs in each part of the colonial empire. Mass education was not supposed
to alienate people from their own societies. Education was also supposed to contribute to the
progress of the natives and increase productivity such as; improved agricultural methods,
modern health practices and the speaking of French. The new policy set out to preserve
African traditions that were not in conflict with French standards.

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The lack of clarity between the two policies by the French led to difficulties in adapting
education. The later was however meant to have Africans develop along their own lines.

15.2.2 Indirect
15.2.2.1 Adaptation
This British colonial policy was meant to have western education adapt to the local African
situations. The system aimed at cultural adaptation where metropolitan institutions were to be
adjusted to the local political and social organizations for purposes of forming Africans well
rooted in their own culture. Primary / elementary education placed more emphasis on the
study of the local environment and vernaculars which were also used as the media of
instruction.

The Africans were not to be exposed to the western curriculum to guard against creating
malcontents as was the case with the British experience in India. The system of education for
the Africans therefore emphasised the acquisition of industrial skills as well as adapting the
people to their local needs. The approach was contained in a proposal put forward by Lord
Chirol in his book, The Indian Unrest in which he advised the British administrators to
guard against the problems experienced in India that were largely blamed on the practice of
an academic education.

The British education was meant to create an African civil service to operate a model British
administration but one that was adapted to the African conditions of life. Lord Lugard, one of
the main exponents of this approach to the education of the Africans advocated for the school
to be conducted in accordance with native customs in matters of dress and etiquette as per the
African conditions of life to stop them from imitating their European masters.

The two systems as practiced by the French and the British were however similar with regard
to secondary and higher education since both emphasized on standards similar to those of
Europe

15.3 Missionary education policies

The main objective of Christian missionary activities in Africa was to evangelize and civilize
Africans. To achieve this, the missionaries established a network of village schools to offer
basic education by teaching the 3Rs and religious instruction for baptism. The early schools
were meant for converts, catechists and the African middle class as the best way of
introducing European civilization to the natives.

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The Protestant groups unlike the Catholics took the lead in the education of Africans. This
motivation came from the emphasis by the former on the reading and understanding of the
Bible which led to the establishment of literacy classes as well as other basics for evangelism
such as; singing, scriptures, prayers, reading, arithmetic and religion, similar to the education
of the working class introduced in Europe following the Industrial Revolution.

Missionary education was also aimed at uprooting Africans from their depravity, believed to
be rooted in their culture and traditional beliefs. These according to the Europeans had to be
destroyed and be replaced by something higher. “Many missionaries truly believed that
Africans were savages whose barbaric tendencies were manifested in their pagan customs,
licentious dancing and drumming and communal family structure” (Berman, E.H.1975).

The missionaries set out to change this by;

1 Uprooting Africans from their societies through the establishment of boarding

schools,
2 Giving them basic education to make them good Christians, and
3 Exposing Africans to industrial education because according to them Africans were
lazy and therefore manual work was the only best way for fighting this malaise.
The missionaries were also convinced that the African inferiority hindered them from
attaining European standards. This thinking heavily influenced their educational policy,
which led to the conclusion that Africans could not benefit from a purely literary curriculum.
“Rather their education should be geared towards those manual occupations more attuned to
their arrested development and childlike bearing.” Vocational education was therefore used
as a weapon to combat indolence and depravity. A combination of industrial education with
Christian virtues was meant to fight African immorality.

These unfortunate ideas about the Africans emanated from the pseudo-scientific and racist
European thinking of the mid-19th C whose basic argument was that the Africans had a small
cranial capacity compared to that of Europeans. This was further strengthened by Darwin’s
theory published in 1859 on the “Origin of Species” which led to the conclusion that the
African was indeed inferior.

Apart from these arguments, the successful vocational programmes at Hampton and
Tuskegee institutes in the United States of America for the rehabilitation of former slaves
(Negroes) enticed missionaries to focus on manual education for the Africans because of their

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common ancestry. It was against this background that the CMS Board in 1890 under the
influence of Booker T. Washington decided to have industrial education form part of their
curriculum in Africa. Washington was also invited to the First World Missionary Conference
held in Edinburgh in June 1910 where he recommended that missionaries working in Africa
ought to pay special attention to experiments of Hampton and Tuskegee.

It is however important to note that these ideas were meant to win support of their
parishioners back at home for financial support. At the same time, vocational education was
seen as a way of raising funds and the self-sustenance of missionaries through the production
of food while training in crafts/trades ensured the availability of carpenters, masons,
blacksmiths, among others to cut down on field expenses.

15.4 Education during the inter-war period

The First World War fought between 1914 and 1918, was an important event in many ways.
But most importantly;

1 It destroyed European arrogance and their superiority myth.

2 It led to serious feelings especially back in Europe to the effect that colonialism had to
be backed by a good and justifying philosophy.

15.4.1 The Phelps-Stokes Commission

In education, tremendous expansion of opportunities for the Africans during the inter- war
period followed the recommendations of the Phelps – Stokes Commission on education in
Africa. The Phelps – Stokes Fund was established in 1910 in the U.S.A. and following
requests by same missionary groups, the commission carried out five studies in Africa
between1920 – 1924. Its terms of reference were: to assess the nature and quality of
education of the Negroes both in Africa and U.S.A. The commission focused attention on the
needs and problems of African education and encouraged local administrators to study the
experiments that had been carried out among American Negroes.

The report recommended the following:

1 The need to take girls education seriously, character training, rural improvement,
secondary schools and the co-operation of Africans themselves.
2 Education was supposed to conserve the good aspects of African life while at the
same time transmit the best in European civilization and Christianity.

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 3 Education had to focus both on the masses and the training of African leadership
especially for service to the community.
4 It also called for co-operation between colonial governments and Christian missionary
groups in the advancement of African education.

The major contribution of this report lay in the interest it generated towards African
education.

i). In 1923, the Colonial Office formed a Permanent Advisory Committee on Native
Education in the Tropical Dependencies in British Territories. This committee called for full
co-operation between governments and missions.

ii). In 1925, the governors of African colonies held a conference that produced a practicable
and important education policy where colonial governments would spend their limited funds
in subsidizing, inspecting and improving mission schools than establish rival and more
expensive systems of education.

iii).10 to 15 years later, most British territories had developed education systems, which
provided about a quarter of the children with 2 – 4 years of schooling and a select few with 8
to 12 years.

The French on the other hand did not use missionary education systems but instead
established state schools for very few Africans who followed the metropolitan curriculum.
The Belgian policy also led to increased educational opportunities in the Congo but put a lot
of emphasis on primary education

The inter war period recorded some important developments especially in the area of higher
education. This was partly to discourage sending Africans for education overseas since the
colonial authorities felt that it encouraged the alienation of Africans from their societies.
Some of the Africans sent outside by missionaries decided to enrol in other courses they
thought were more promising than the technical courses initially admitted for that at times led
to change of universities in Britain and USA to the dismay of the colonial establishment. The
Phelps –Stokes Commission for instance was categorical that sending Africans overseas was
expensive and suggested the establishment of a “Colonial Native College” to provide higher
education for the whole of East Africa like Achimota in West Africa (Furley and Watson,
1978).

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This pressure plus African agitations saw Fourah Bay College In sierra – Leone affiliated to
the University of Durham and started offering degree courses. Achimota College in Ghana,
was opened in 1924 and by 1930; it was offering education from kindergarten to University.
Nigeria registered tremendous developments in secondary education but the establishment of
Yaba Higher College that pioneered in University education became an important landmark
during the period.

The James Currie Report of 1933 on Higher Education in British Africa called on Britain to
establish universities in Africa to meet African demands than have them go elsewhere in
search of education. It recommended that Makerere in Uganda, Yaba in Nigeria, Gordon in
Sudan, Achimota in Ghana and Fourah Bay in Sierra Leone develop progressively to
university status. The plans were further reinforced by other commission recommendations
that followed. For instance, the Earl De La Warr Report of 1937 recommended that Makerere
develop into a centre of higher education for East Africa.

As the war moved to a close, there emerged a shift in London in favour of establishing full
universities in Africa. In view of this, the Colonial Secretary in 1943 appointed a
Commission of Higher Education in the Colonies headed by Sir Cyril Asquith. The
Commission’s Report released in 1945 formed the foundation on which policies for colonial
universities were based as per the policies of the post-war Labour government regarding
developments in the colonies. The report recommended the elevation of existing colleges;
Makerere in Uganda, Achimota in Ghana, Ibadan in Nigeria and Gordon Memorial College
in Sudan to university college status.

15.4.2 African reactions

This period marks the beginnings of political agitations to colonial rule. This sometimes took
on a religious perspective in the form of independent churches that aimed at making
Christianity relevant to local needs. They sometimes led to violent revolts e.g. John
Chilebwe’s in Malawi in 1915.

Educated Africans also started challenging colonialism by demanding equality and when this
was not realized they formed political parties. West African students in France or Britain first
started the spirit of African nationalism. They were heavily influenced by the writings of
Africans and west Indian blacks such as Edward Blyden, W.E.DuBois and Marcus Garvey.

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This made Africans to start thinking in terms of Pan – Africanism as the most appropriate
political force in the fight against colonialism.

Other forms of African discontent were expressed through African initiatives in developing
their own education. They criticized missionary education because of its inter-denominational
biases, emphasis on religious and vocational subjects at the expense of serious academic
work as among others.

15.5 The second World War

The Second World War fought between1939 – 1945 became a turning point in the history of
modern Africa. Major political changes on the continent resulted from the following factors.

1. African soldiers who participated in this war were able to see their countries with an
outsider’s perspective. On their return, they became the main sources of new ideas as
well as militant members of the independence struggle.
2. Economic boom brought about by local manufactures that started supplying goods,
which were no longer coming from Europe. This brought a lot of money to local
producers making many people move into towns to take up new jobs. This led to
congestion and unemployment with their attendant social problems. These together
with increased awareness sparked off African agitations for social, economic, and
political reforms.
3. More than the First World War, World War II destroyed the myth of European
superiority. Africans saw the defeat and humiliation of some of the colonial powers.
The African interaction with soldiers from Europe made them realize that they were
not as arrogant as colonialists, settlers, and traders. Furthermore, tales about colonial
mistreatment on the continent only served to embarrass some of the soldiers while
others condemned the British and French rule.
4. Soon after the War, Africans called for revolutionary changes by agitating for self-
government, a situation that exacerbated with European neglect of the colonies during
the reconstruction period.

15.6 The effects the Second World War on education

On the educational front, colonial governments realized that the shortage of educated people
posed a serious problem to development. The systems lacked qualified personnel due to the
few secondary schools at the time. Expatriates were therefore employed to carry out new

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development plans, something that not only proved very expensive but their presence
infuriated the Africans further. The education of Africans therefore became an important
agenda.

1. Primary education, which at the time only provided four years of schooling was
extended to six years with an emphasis on the teaching of European languages.
2. The establishment of more primary TTCs to train more teachers formed a significant
educational development triumphant colonial African in the 1940 s.
3. Secondary schools were increased with the employment of more European teachers as
well as employing some successful Africans. Junior schools were upgraded to senior
secondary status although the development of the six-year program took much longer.
4. In 1943, the Elliot Commission was appointed to look into university education. The
report stressed the necessity of university education for the successive implementation
of the policy of self-government. This led to the opening of four university colleges at
Ibadan in Nigeria, Gordon Memorial College in the Sudan, Achimita in Ghana and
Makerere in Uganda. In 1953, university college of Salisbury in Rhodesia was added.
These colleges were to operate in a special relationship with the University of
London.

The French also trained Africans at higher levels although they preferred sending African
students to established universities in France. Accordingly, French colonies in Africa
continued their dependence on France during this period. However, with time, a higher
institute was established in Dakar in 1950, which developed into a university in 1958. In the
same year, another centre for higher learning was established in Abidjan, which also
gradually developed into a university.

LECTURE SIXTEEN: EDUCATION SINCE INDEPENDENCE

17.1 Educational planning at independence

Most countries in Africa took the education of their people very seriously at the time of
independence because it had been one of the key rallying points during the struggle for
independence. After independence education was charged with the following key tasks:-

1 Assist in the provision of the much needed technical manpower.

2 Enhance the social agenda for a united and cohesive society.

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Consequently, most governments spent a lot of resources on the expansion of educational
facilities, provision of qualified personnel as well as reforming the educational systems. The
impetus for all these came from discussions in a number of conferences on education.

17.1.1 Addis Ababa conference

This conference was meant to give opportunity to African states to decide on their
priorities as per their needs for the promotion of social and economic development. The
conference:

1 Called for more and better opportunities as well as adaptation in education.

2 The need to reform the curriculum - make it relevant to the African situation through
causes on African history and culture.
3 Emphasis in education was to be put on secondary and post – secondary education.
4 It set the target for U.P.E. by 1980 although primary and adult education was to
develop at the same rate.
5 Requested for financial commitment and donor support to realize educational
activities in Africa.
17.1.2 Paris conference
The meeting was called to discuss the implementation of the Addis Ababa conference
resolutions.

The conference resolved among others:

1 Importance of carrying out proper plans in education.

2 Give priority to teacher and secondary education as well as rural schools and adult
education for purposes of productivity.

17.1.3 Tananarive conference

This conference focused as the role of higher education in the development of African
countries. Discussions at the conference centred on targets; planning, curriculum and staffing.
The following recommendations were made:

1. Universities were to have a minimum target population of 5000 students.

2. Called for networking among African institutions instead of dependence on overseas
ones as well as avoid duplication.
3. Enrolment in African universities was to emphasize on science, technology and

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 agriculture.
4. Universities were to avoid elitism “ivory tower” mentality.

17.1.4 Abidjan conference

The conference once again focused on scientific research as well as adult literacy.

1 Also reviewed the question of regional targets set at the Addis Ababa Conference.
2 Place emphasis on the part that education could play in economic and social progress
of communities especially those in rural areas.
3 Scientific research and adult literacy were to be considered in all educational
planning. Adult education was to address issues of literacy and vocational training.
Literacy was made a functional concept, which contributed, to development and use
of resources. This new meaning led to its full recognition and support at the Teheran
Conference in September 1965.
4 Recognized the relationship (co-operation) between O.A.U and U.N.E.S.C.O.
5 Addressed the problem of wastage and primary school leaver unemployment.
17.3.5 Lagos conference
This conference focused on the organization of research and training in Africa in relation to
the study, conservation and utilization of natural resources.

1 Addressed the organization and financing of scientific research and technical training
in Africa to enable African states make the best use of their natural resources to
improve their economies through industrialization.
2 Importance of teaching sciences and the introduction in education of subjects related
to natural resources.
3 Create general awareness in the community the problems relating to natural resources.
17.2 General developments in education and challenges
Deliberations in the above mentioned conferences set the stage for the development of
educational strategies in a number of countries. Emphasis was put on the training of high-
level manpower both in public and private sectors because the colonial established had
denied higher opportunities to Africans. Accordingly, African governments committed large
sums of money to the education sector especially secondary and higher levels.

Most countries embarked on the process of restructuring their educational systems. This was
mostly reflected in curriculum reforms, which emphasised on the local needs.

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 1 Adoption of textbooks and subjects focusing on the African society.
2 Teaching methods.
3 At university, some countries opted for compulsory courses in African studies.
4 The new university courses were also made adaptable to African conditions regardless
of their acceptance within European patterns. These were also followed by the
creation of new degree structures e.g. B.A, B.Sc with Educ and B.Ed. Changes were
also effected in the duration of courses as well as entry points.
The French system on the other hand did not embrace changes and resisted any aspects that
were likely to alter the system from that of the metropolitan. Universities for instance adhered
to the French curricula managed by the Ministry of Education in France.

Guinea was the only country that went for radical changes. Following its demands for
independence, it revised the curriculum and systems in line with the new social and political
goals. Education was made relevant to life and emphasized the relevance of education to the
total cultural life of the community. For example, the teaching of political education
(ideology) was made compulsory.

17.3 Reforms in education

17.4 Julius K. Nyerere
Julius Nyerere, arguably the leading educational reformer on the African continent trained as
a teacher at Makerere College and later proceeded to the University of Edinburgh, Scotland
for postgraduate studies. He worked as a teacher, before joining the struggle for
independence that saw him become the first president of Tanganyika in 1961 and Tanzania in
1964 till his retirement in 1985. Nyerere was one of the most respected African statesmen till
his death in 1999.

Nyerere set out his agenda for education in Tanzania in his famous paper, Education for
Self-Reliance issued in March 1967 as a follow-up to an earlier policy based on socialist
principles, The Arusha Declaration of January 1967. He explained the purpose of education
as that of transmitting from one generation to the next of the accumulated wisdom and
knowledge of society and their active participation in its development. He criticized the
colonial system of education inherited at independence as one that only encouraged
individualism as opposed to the co-operative spirit of the African society.

To correct the situation, Nyerere first defined the nature of his society of Tanzania as:

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 1. A socialist country aspiring for equality and respect for human dignity, equal
distribution of resources and work by everyone and exploitation by none.
2. A society with little capital for industrial development and lacked a skilled workforce,
but with plenty of land with people were willing to work on it.
In view of the observations made above, Nyerere set out to define a new role for education:

1. Foster social goals of living and working together.

2. Prepare young people for constructive role in development.
3. Enhance positive social values; co-operation and not individualism, equality and
responsibility for service and counter intellectual arrogance.
4. Prepare young people for work in rural areas especially in agriculture.
5. Impart into the learners the following characteristics; enquiring minds, ability to learn
from others with discrimination, have confidence as free and equal member of
society, one who values others and is in turn valued by them.

Nyerere faulted the system of education for going against the above stated roadmap by:

1. Being elitist- only accessed by a small group of people and for preparing learners only
for higher levels.
2. Divorced the youth from the society by instilling in them the idea that the educated
were too fragile for the rough and hard life of the masses.
3. Encouraged book learning, and underestimated the traditional African knowledge and
wisdom by teaching the youth to despite their illiterate parents.
4. The school took the youth out of productive work yet they happened to be the
healthiest and the most strong.
To correct these anomalies, Nyerere addressed issues of attendance, content and organization
of education. The school entry age was raised by arguing that older children learnt faster. He
also called for the need to have every level of education as complete and not a mere
preparation for a higher level.

He downgraded the role of examinations which contributed to drilling in schools. He instead

called on schools to prepare the youth for the realities of life by imparting skills and values to
be cherished in a predominantly rural life

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Nyerere changed the running of schools by turning them into communities that practised self-
reliance. Schools were to be communities of teachers and farmers as well as pupils and
farmers who engaged in food production and self-sustenance for purposes of integration. He
recommended that schools encourage freedom allowing learners to participate in their
administration. The pupils were required to engage in community service as a way of
integrating them with normal communal activities. The learners were to be assessed for
participating as part of school examinations.

Nyerere called on universities to play a leading in serving the society by developing a

relevant curriculum that addressed the pressing needs of society instead of engaging in
academic programmes for the sake of it.

Nyerere took a very keen interest in adult education, seen to be very important as it not only
served to better the lives of the people but was also necessary in enhancing democracy in the
country.

In the 1970s, Nyerere emphasized the role of education in liberating the individual by arguing
that a good education was one that made the recipient aware of his or her potential as a
human being. Education had the role of making the individual aware of his personhood and
the power to use circumstances other than being used by circumstances. Instead of turning
people into tools, education should instead turn them into makers of tools, not creatures but
creators. The school according to Nyerere should not act as factory that turned people into
marketable commodities whose values were determined by certificates. A human being
according to Nyerere is not a slave who moved around with a price tag.

SECTION FOUR: EDUCATION IN KENYA

LECTURE EIGHTEEN: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION TO 1920

18.1 Early Missionary Activities

Christian missionaries are the founders of modern or western education in Kenya. The first
missionary contact with the Africans dates back to the time of the Portuguese that first came
to the East African coast in the 15 th century following the successful voyage by Vasco da

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Gamma that took him up to Malindi in 1498. The Roman Catholic missionaries from
Portugal were at work at the coast for a short period in the 16 th and 17th centuries. The Roman
Catholic missionaries from Portugal were at work on the Kenyan coast during the 16th and
17th centuries. For example, in 1557 the Augustinian Friars established a monastery at
Mombasa and later began work further north at Faza and Lamu. Their activities were
confined along the coast where the Portuguese administrative influence had been established.
Although their evangelical work did not last for long, these missionaries are said to have
converted 600 from the local population by 1599. This effort however came to an end after
their defeat and departure.

The second wave of Christian missionary activity which left a lasting impact to the people of
Kenya coincided with the abolition of slave trade. The process was spearheaded by the
Church Missionary Society (CMS) that sent John L. Krapf to Kenya in 1844. He was later
joined by a fellow German missionary, Johann Rebman in 1848. Although the two started
their work in Mombasa, they later moved from this predominantly Muslim town that was by
no means friendly to their activities to establish the CMS station at Rabai Mpia among the
Mijikenda, then known as the Wanyika. Krapf translated parts of the New Testament into
Kiswahili and Kirabai, which became important reading materials for preparing pupils for
baptism. In addition, these missionaries also taught the basics of reading, writing and
arithmetic.

The last journey by David Livingstone together with his writings intensified the anti-slave
activities by the British. He had sensitized the British on the need to send missionaries to
Africa and abolish slave trade. Livingstone’s policy was to spread Christian western
civilization and supplement slave trade by legitimate commerce. He believed that the only
way of ensuring foundations of meaningful conversion was by combining Christian
civilization with economic and spiritual transformation of the African-this implied giving the
African some education.

The abolition of slave trade necessitated the establishment of Christian missionary

settlements. The British warships were rescuing a sizeable number of slaves that were
reaching the coast every year from the interior. There was need to rehabilitate the former
slaves who had to be somehow educated to survive in new and alien conditions. This was
meant to ensure that they were not recaptured and turned into slaves. Accordingly, the CMS
with support from the British government established a freed settlement centre at Frere town

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near Mombasa in 1874. In the plan, the settlement had a central school, an elementary school
and industrial training.

By the late 1880s, the school had over 300 pupils taking a curriculum that consisted of 3Rs,
Swahili, English and vocational education which enabled them to make items such as bags,
mats, blankets etc. The local coastal communities did not see the importance of airing
western education and so attendance was generally poor. Although Frere town was mainly a
settlement to rehabilitate freed slaves by training them to be Christians and artisans, Frere
town schools become pioneers of Western education in Kenya.

It is important to note that missionary activity at the time was concentrated at the coast. This
was largely due to a number of factors that included; rough terrain that made communication
and transport difficult, fear of wild animals, harsh climate leading to diseases and deaths, and
hostile tribes like the Masaai. This however changed at the turn of the century.

A major factor that contributed to missionary expansion to the interior parts of Kenya was the
partitioning of Africa and the establishment of colonial administration. This was prompted by
various European nations scrambling for territories in different parts of the continent. This
culminated in the Berlin Conference of 1884 which established territorial boundaries. In the
Anglo-German Agreement of 1890, Britain took possession of the British East Africa
Protectorate (Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar) while Germany took over German East Africa
(Tanganyika).

Kenya was officially declared British East Africa Protectorate in 1895. Apart from
establishing colonial administrative structures that ensured law and order, the construction of
the Kenya-Uganda Railway (1895-1901) opened the floodgates for missionary intrusion into
the colony. The CMS opened stations at Taita (1885), Kahuruko (1901), Weithaga (1903),
Kahuhia (1906), Mahiga (1908) and Embu (1910). They also extended their work to western
Kenya from Uganda in 1905. The Roman Catholics (Holy Ghost) established stations at
Mombasa (1890), Bura near Voi (1891) and Nairobi (1899). The Consolata Fathers from
Italy opened stations in Kiambu (1902), Limuru (1903), Mangu (1906). Later they reached
Nyeri and Meru. The Mill Hill Fathers extended their activities to western Kenya from
Uganda and established stations at Kisumu (1903), Mumias (1904), Kakamega (1908), Yala
and Nyabururu before 1910. The Church of Scotland Mission after an abortive attempt at
Kibwezi founded stations at Kikuyu (1898) and Tumu Tumu (1908).The African Inland
Mission started a small station in Ukambani but later moved to Kijabe (1901). The Seventh

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Day Adventists (SDA) set up missions at Kamagambo and Nyanchwa. The Friends (Quakers)
settled at Kaimosi (1902).

18.3.1 Missionary Education

The main objective that brought Christian missionaries to Africa was to evangelize the
African population. The missionaries believed that schools would introduce the Africans to
Western civilization which would make it easier to convert them. The Protestant missionaries
were also keen that their converts should be able to read the bible for themselves. Each
mission therefore started what was later to be called Central mission schools. Later, out
schools, village schools or bush schools were also established as feeder schools to the central
ones. The village schools mostly focused on teaching simple literacy skills in reading, writing
and arithmetic alongside religious instruction for baptism and church membership. This led to
a kind of “scramble” for African souls that led to a fierce competition between the Catholic
and Protestant missionaries. Consequently, schools were in most cases established as close as
possible to those of the rival group and taught pupils to mistrust their rivals leading to serious
animosity among the converts.

18.2 Government Involvement in Education

By the beginning of the 20th century, Kenya ended up with two migrant groups that largely
came to direct the system of education in the country. The Asian labourers who came for
railway construction settled in key points between Mombasa and Kisumu while European
settlers were encouraged to come to Kenya to make the protectorate become a going concern
as well as obtain some returns for the construction of the railway line. Charles Elliot, the
Governor encouraged many white settlers who started to arrive in the colony in 1903 from
South Africa, Britain, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. This followed the 1900 Land
Ordinance that alienated Africans from their lands to create white settlements. The
government also introduced hut tax on Africans in 1901 to force them to provide cheap
labour on settler farms.

Up to 1910, education in Kenya was practically in the hands of the missionaries. The
government was not initially involved in education but a number of factors forced it to take
an active part;

a) Pressure from the settlers who wanted education for their children.

b) The colonial government realized that there was need for skilled labour that was

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 cheaper than the expensive labour of India.

c) The government needed the services of literate chiefs, village headmen etc.

d) Some of the European officials and settlers were opposed to the literary education
given to the Africans by the missionaries-they thought it would lead the African to
dissatisfaction and subversiveness. The settlers wanted the Africans given technical
education to provide cheap labour on their farms and in their homes.

An important aspect in the development of education in Kenya during this early period came
in the form of missionary – government co-operation as reflected in the formation of a joint
committee on education by the CMS and CSM in 1908 to provide a forum for the discussion
of common problems in education. This was later transformed into the Mission Board of
Education to represent the interests of a number of protestant churches in 1909. The Board
actively participate in the first education commission in Kenya in 1909 chaired by Professor
Nelson Fraser from Bombay, India.

18.2.1 The Fraser Report of 1909

The Commission was mandated to carry out a survey of education within the British East
Africa Protectorate and advice on the organisation and type of education to be given to the
various racial groups. The major recommendations contained in the Report of Education in
the East Africa protectorate were:

1. Provide Africans with industrial education to guard against the conceit and insolence
that was likely to follow the provision of literary education. This was to be through
apprenticeships with an aim of replacing the arrogant and expensive Indians that
provided artisan services at the time.

2. Education facilities for Africans to be provided by missionary societies in order to

train them in strict obedience to authority as well as ensure a good moral foundation.

3. Establish a Department of Education headed by a Director to administer the system of

education.

4. Education was to be on racial lines i.e. Europeans, Asians and Africans. European and
Asian children were to be given academic education.

These recommendations were in line with the settler interests and established a policy that

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ensured that missionaries could not teach a curriculum that was not approved by the settler
dominated government.

The implementation of the Fraser Commission Report saw the establishment of the
Department of Education in 1911 to regulate educational activities in the colony. James R Orr
was appointed as the first Director of Education. He introduced payment of grants-in aid to
mission schools to experiment the teaching of basic industrial skills like; smithing,
agriculture, carpentry and typing. The department also played an important role in
establishing government schools especially in areas that were not adequately served by the
missionaries. It started by supporting and expanding a school that had been started by a
District Officer in Kitui in 1909, and the establishment of Ukamba native school, Machakos
in 1913. Other government schools were later opened at Narok among the Masaai and Waa
among the Wadigo.

In spite of the development following the Fraser Report, there were still many areas of
discontentment amongst various groups e.g.

a) The missionaries were not happy with the secular schools that the government was
opening.

b) The government had no staff of their own for the schools they started. They depended
on the missionaries to teach for them or provide teachers.

c) The missionaries were experiencing shortage of funds. The grants given were not
adequate and were based on results-i.e. the better the performance, the more the
grants.

d) The Asian and European communities were concerned with improving education for
their children and were agitating for more support from the government-they had to
pay fees and some found it difficult to do so.

e) The rapid expansion of the village schools was not favoured by the colonial
administration as it included literacy which was contrary to colonial policy.

f) There was still the general question as to which agency-mission or government was
best suited to fully undertake the education of Africans.

18.4.2 E.A.P.E.C. Report of 1919

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As a result of these concerns and the settler’s fears that the missionaries were not providing
the Africans with an education that would eventually address their needs led to the
appointment of the East Africa protectorate Education commission of 1918. The Commission
solicited for views from both the settlers and missionaries that formed the basis of the report
of 1919 which recommended that:

2. The missionaries were better placed to educate the Africans because Christianity was
an integral aspect in the process of civilization,

3. There should be regular moral and religious instruction in African schools,

4. That the government should support missionaries in developing African education

through grants- in- aid,

5. That the policy of payment by results should be abolished and a grant should be made
on the general state of efficiency of the school,

6. That the secular government normal schools should not be established. Since the
Commission believed that religious and moral instruction should be given in every
school, it did not think government secular schools, without any religious instruction,
would be a success, and

7. That vernacular should be taught at the beginning levels but later English be taught
for practical and patriotic purposes.

It is important to note that the desire by the Christian missionaries to monopolize the process
of educating Africans was specifically meant to prevent the government from undue
interference since education formed an integral part of evangelization. It was out of such
suspicions that some missionary groups such as AIM, FAM and SDA refused government
grants.

18.3 African response

Despite intensive missionary activities, the period before World War 1 was marked by
African resistance or indifference to Western education by Kenyans-it is generally referred to
as period of resistance. Those who initially got attracted to mission stations did so out of
curiosity which shortly turned into hostility once they realized that the Europeans had come
to stay. The mission stations initially attracted social outcasts and victims of famine, diseases,
and groups of curious people most of who opted not to remain on mission stations. Schools

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were very small because Africans were failed to appreciate the benefits of education and
many of them in their hostility refused to allow their children to attend school. This negative
response resulted from the roles that children were expected to perform in their traditional
settings and the demands that were placed on them at school especially the overemphasis on
manual work as opposed to regular classwork. Some parents even demanded payment for
work done by their children on the mission stations. These coupled with missionary
opposition to traditional cultures led to the establishment of independent churches and
schools. The situation however dramatically changed as new opportunities opened up in the
colonial set up through the western school as opposed to the traditional societies.

LECTURE NINETEEN: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION BETWEEN 1920 AND

1945

The First World War became a turning point in the African demand for western education.
This followed the realization by Africans that education was critical to European economic
and political power. The 1920s and 1930s witnessed tremendous clamour and subsequent
increase in the number of schools for the Africans that were occasioned by the following
factors;

1. The colonial leadership persuaded local leaders to have their sons and subjects attend

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 school as a way of having African elite succeed or assist their illiterate fathers in
discharging administrative duties.
2. The settler economy provided job opportunities and subsequent material benefits at a
time when the traditional society was becoming unattractive to the African youth.
3. Forced conscription to the Kings African rifles during the War plus forced labour on
settler farms drove many Africans to seek refuge on mission stations, a factor that
brought about a sharp increase in pupil attendance.

The War was also instrumental in changing the mind of colonial powers towards their
subjects. Having engaged themselves in a worst war ever recorded in human history, they
could not afford to ignore Africans anymore. The War challenged the Whiteman’s
superiority myth and therefore needed a good philosophy to justify their colonial
activities since the claim of civilizing the African was no longer tenable. The colonial
powers were for example forced to initiate definite policies in education which marked
their official entry in directing the education of the Africans.

19.1 Government involvement

Initial political agitations by the ex-mission boys (new African elite) and opposition to
mission education led to the appointment of the Phelps-Stokes Commission which visited
Kenya in 1924 having already visited West, South and Equatorial Africa. The Commission
was mandated to survey educational programmes and needs in each geographical area,
identify the local, religious, economic, social and health needs and the extent to which they
were being met. The commission was also to assist in the formulation of plans designed for
the educational needs of Africans. The Commission’s recommendations were heavily based
on the theories of Negro education developed at Hampton and Tuskegee institutes in the
USA. These theories emphasized the importance of relating education to the needs of people,
with character training being the most important educational objective (Jones, 1924).

The Commission noted the dismal state of education for Africans both in quantitative and
qualitative terms. They saw the Kenyan problem as being concentration on European and
Asian needs to the detriment of majority of the natives. They saw the solution to this racial
problem and challenge as “combining and promoting the interests of settlers, Asians and
Africans in a fair manner.” They also urged the government to make real effort to develop
agricultural and technical skills primarily for the African community, the majority of whom
lived in rural areas.

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The Commission made the following recommendations; greater cooperation between the
government and the missionaries in the financing and provision of education for Africans.
The commission drew the government’s attention to its neglect of African education. A
uniform system of all the various mission and government schools with increased grants-in-
aid administered by the Department of Education. Establish adequate teacher training centres
with more involvement by the government. The Africans to be given education that would
equip them for rural life. The form of education that would not drive them from their
traditional cultures nor encourage migration to towns in search of white collar jobs. This
meant that education was to focus more on training in agriculture and industry and be adapted
to local needs. So there was call for practical and vocational subjects. That education
continues to be on segregated lines as recommended by Fraser. Expand girl’s education and
higher education in future in form for Africans in form of a college at Kikuyu. English was to
be the medium of instruction in upper classes.

The colonial government responded to the above recommendations by enacting the Education
Ordinance of 1924. This marked the government’s definite commitment in controlling and
directing education in the colony at all levels with the assistance of three advisory committees
to deal with European, Asian and African education. Each administrative area was to have a
District Education Committee to supervise central and village schools. The school area
committees were composed of government officials and representatives of the settlers,
missionaries and Africans. All schools and teachers were to be registered. The Director of
Education was to be given power to inspect all the schools and to close any if necessary. All
schools had to follow a uniform nomenclature regardless of race although the content of
education for each race was different.

A more comprehensive education policy for the colony came with the Kenya Education
Ordinance of 1931. It created separate advisory councils for European, Indian, Arab and
African education to replace the central committees. The ordinance also laid down rules with
regard to the payment of grants to secondary schools, and established rules for primary
teachers certificates categorized as Jeanes School Certificate, Primary Certificate, Lower
Primary Certificate and Elementary Teacher Certificate which remained in force throughout
the 1930s.

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The District Education Board’s Ordinance of 1934 established District Education Boards in
various parts of the country to; handle the allocation of grants, fees and scholarships,
determine salary scales for teachers, maintain a register of schools and the leasing of plots.

In spite of these interventions by the government, African education continued under the
direction of the missionaries and was generally of poor quality. The village schools offered
elementary education that placed a lot of emphasis on religion. Majority of these schools did
not offer education that went beyond the third and fourth year of elementary schooling. Those
people who succeeded in the village schools went to the central schools where they
completed the primary course which by the early 1930s went up to standard VI. Examples of
such central schools were Yala, Maseno, Kaimosi, Kamagambo, Chogoria, Mathani, Tumu
Tumu, Kahuhia, Kikuyu and Kaloleni. By 1931, the missions had 2,266 schools but only 32
had developed into central schools-so the majority of Africans were still only getting
elementary education.

Central schools provided general education which led to teacher training courses, a combined
course of general and vocational instruction that led to a two years course at the National
Industrial Training Depot (NITD) while the general education course led to secondary school
admission. The NITD which crowned industrial training offered by mission schools was
established at Kabete in 1924. Industrial education which involved agriculture, carpentry and
brick making only addressed the needs of missionaries during the 1920s and 1930s. It was in
most cases very elementary such that it even failed to produce qualified artisans. Africans
were said to be only capable of “rough work” and so were not offered specialized technical
courses.

19.3.1 Secondary Education

The development of secondary education was generally a very slow process. The first school
was established at Kikuyu in 1926 and named Alliance after an alliance of four protestant
missionary societies which had decided to take a common approach to the education of
Africans. Apart from offering a junior secondary curriculum, the school was also as teacher
training centre. This was followed by the establishment the Holy Ghost School at Kabaa in
1930 which later moved to Mangu in 1934. Following the recommendations of Earl De La

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Warr Commission on Higher Education in East Africa in1937 coupled with an increase in
passes in the primary school examination, Maseno and Yala were opened as junior secondary
schools in 1938 and 1939 respectively.

The junior secondary schools prepared pupils up to Form II (current Standard 8) during the
1920s. The first candidates at alliance graduated in 1928. Alliance and Kabaa remained junior
secondary schools during the period under review. With time, they started to offer education
up to Form IV (current Form II). Those who passed proceeded to Makerere for two more
years to complete their ‘O’ level education. For example, in 1936, two former Alliance
students sat and passed Cambridge School Certificate Examination. The first candidates sat
for their ‘O’ level examination locally in 1940 at Alliance and Mangu.

19.3.2 Teacher Education

Initially, teachers were recruited from the best pupils in the mission schools who were trained
by the missionaries to be catechists cum teachers. Teachers were trained on the job during the
initial stages. This was a teacher- pupil system where promising primary school leavers
joined the programme that was ran by elementary school managers who were then examined
by government inspectors who inspected schools for grants. It was not until the
recommendations of the East Africa Protectorate Education Commission of 1919, that the
government started giving grants for training teachers and later on for opening training
institutions.

Formal teacher training started at Alliance in 1926. By 1930, every missionary body had
teacher training facilities at one or more of its central schools. By 1931, there were 15
Teacher Training Institutions with 12 of them being run by missionaries. These increased to
26 such institutions by 1934. These were however, mere appendages of either primary or
secondary schools. The missions started to centralize teacher training from 1935 through
government intervention which saw them establish separate training centres from primary or
secondary schools.

The government also took part in training teachers for its own schools. The first institution
was the Jeanes School that was opened in 1924 modelled on Hampton and Tuskegee
experiments for training black African teachers in the USA following the recommendations
of the Phelps-Stokes Commission. The school admitted both the teachers and their wives for
an intensive course in community leadership. Apart from polishing their teaching methods,

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new subjects touching on health, diet, clothing, shelter and crafts were taught. The Jeanes
teachers were then expected to supervise and train village school teachers but were also
supposed to play transformative leadership roles in their communities. By 1935, the school
had produced 71 teachers supervising 349 village schools and 528 teachers. The approach in
the school was to make education African based where learning activities were based on the
local environment. Other government teacher institutions included Machakos Government
School which started training teachers in 1931. Others were Kabianga, Kisii, Mariakani and
Msabweni. The War forced the closure of the Jeanes School in 1939 and it was not until
1948, that it was reopened

19.2 African Initiatives in Education

Soon after the First World War, the Africans started taking an active role in advancing the
education of their children on realizing that the colonial government was not interested in
expanding educational opportunities. Apart from this, they were also dissatisfied with the
kind of education they were receiving. They accused missionaries of offering low quality
education that placed too much emphasis on religion. They also realized that their education
was too vocational oriented with very little literary orientation.

The African demand for more literacy based education was triggered by the following
reasons;

1 They hoped it would enable them to deal with the new conditions of life resulting
from contact with new ideas and methods of the Western industrial world-they had
seen Europeans do all sorts of things that they could not do and doubted that this
ability could come through technical and religious education they were receiving.

2 Literacy and ability to do sums tended to give immediate advantage over those who
did not have such knowledge e.g. good salary for little work and emancipation from
manual work.

3 They wanted to be on equal terms with the alien more educated communities-they
were afraid of being imposed upon by these communities who had the advantage of
superior learning.

4 They hoped this education would enable them face and survive the changing social,
economic and political conditions of their lives.

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 5 They wanted their children to be as efficient in business and contracting as the
Indian traders and competent in office work and accounting.

As a result of such reasons, the Africans wanted the government to start non-denominational
schools which would offer them literate education-they were ready to start such schools in
collaboration with the government or do it alone.

19.4.1 LNC schools

The Local Native Councils (LNCs) were established in 1925 in every district following the
enactment of LNC Act in 1924 to ease the administration of Africans. They were granted
limited powers to levy taxes for local development projects. Within a short time, they had
collected enough money and started to pressurize the government to allow them to start
secular schools for the Africans. They accused the missionaries for offering their children an
education of poor quality that was techno-religious in nature. Although the government was
initially reluctant due to tremendous pressure from the missionaries, African determination
saw them start Government African Schools (GAS) that were run outside the missionary
influence that had dominated the education of Africans. These schools were established at
Kakamega (1932), Kagumo (1934), and Kisii (1935). The LNCs also supported schools that
the government had established earlier on at; Narok(1922), Kabianga (1926), Kajiado (1926),
Tambach (1928) and Loitoktok (1929).

19.4.2 African independent schools

The African independent churches and schools was another important movement that enabled
Africans contribute immensely towards the development of their own education. This started
in Central Kenya among the Agikuyu as a result of the circumcision controversy of 1929
involving some of the fundamentalist missionary groups such as; CMS, Gospel Mission
Society and AIM who were strongly opposed to the practice of circumcising girls which they
labelled barbaric. The African converts found to support the practice were excommunicated.
The Africans saw this as an attack on their culture and with support from the Kikuyu Central
Association (KCA), a powerful political organization at the time, they broke away from
mission churches and founded their own church, the African Independent Pentecostal Church
(AIPC) with an aim of preserving African culture in their Christian practices. Since their
children were not allowed to attend mission sponsored schools, they in turn established their
own schools under the umbrella of the Kikuyu Independent Schools association (KISA).

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The other adherents broke away to form the African Orthodox Church on the pretext that the
African Independent Pentecostal Church had not gone far enough in reclaiming African
values in Christianity. They also established an educational wing known as the Kikuyu
Karinga Educational Association (KKEA) to run their schools.

These two organisations played a major role in establishing schools that enabled the children
of their faithful access education. By1935, they had established 34 schools with a population
of 2,158 pupils. This increased to 44 schools with 3,948 pupils in 1936. By the time these
schools were proscribed in 1952 after the declaration of the State of Emergency in the
Colony, there were 200 such schools with 40,000 pupils.

The government was well aware of the political motive behind the establishment of these
schools but nonetheless recognised and allowed them to follow the official curriculum,
appointed an inspector for them and even allowed them to become members of respective
District Education Boards (D.E.Bs).

An important landmark in these schools came in 1939 with the establishment of the Kenya
African Teachers College at Githunguri. The process had been initiated by Senior Chief
Koinange in 1938 when he organised fund raising campaigns using the traditional age-group
system. Once opened, the college trained teachers for the independent schools in Central
Kenya and other parts of the colony. The college later became a multi-purpose educational
centre and by the time of its forceful closure in 1952, it had over 1000 students.

LECTURE TWENTY: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION BETWEEN 1945 AND

1960
20.3 The Impact of World War II
The Second World War (1939-1945) led to serious negative effects to the education sector.
For example, the financial resources that could have been used on education were diverted to
military use. There was a shortage of teachers as some of the European teachers returned

110
home to help defend their countries while the African teachers were recruited into the army
because it offered better salaries compared to teaching.

On the other hand, the war also served the African cause positively;

i) The war veterans came back with new ideas and consciousness of the world
acquired in the course of their travel and interactions with other people who were
also faced with similar colonial problems in Egypt, the Middle East and South
East Asia. This helped to widen their mental horizons especially the power of
education. On coming back home, they craved for better, more and higher
education for their children.

ii) The war occasioned an economic boom for the Africans who sold agricultural
produce to the many soldiers concentrated in the military camps in Kenya, other
trade activities, gratuities earned by returning soldiers enabled many to send their
children to school, a very viable investment at the time. Many Africans were at the
time convinced that possession of western education was a sine-qua- non in their
struggle for liberation.

iii) The war completely shuttered the European superiority myth paved the way for
the Africans to challenge their domination.

iv) The war also affected the political landscape of Britain. For example, the talk of
“a wind of change” for the colonies after the independence of India and Pakistan
in 1947 and 1948 respectively, coupled with the socialist victory in the 1945
general election in Britain gave new impetus to the nationalist struggle in the
colony.

These and other factors challenged Britain to change its policies towards the colonies,
education included.

20.4 Educational Policies

The 1945 Colonial Development and Welfare Act shifted colonial policies from self-
sufficiency to increasing the amount of aid to the colonies to steer progress towards self-
governance. This led to the issuance of the 1948 Memorandum of Education for Citizens by
the Colonial Office, an important policy step in giving direction to African education. The
document marked the beginning of a more progressive plan by the British government to

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have its colonial subjects work towards self-government. The Memorandum stressed that
acquisition of literacy and technical skills were not enough in a changing world and it was
imperative for the schools to go further and prepare learners for responsibility and
democracy.

20.4 .1 The Ten Year Development Plan

In line with the Colonial Development and Welfare Act, the colonial government developed
the Ten Year Development Plan in 1948. The Plan aimed providing 50% of the school age
children with six years of primary education at the end of the ten years. The need had been
occasioned by the rapid expansion of the system coupled with the lack of proper controls and
supervision which in the final analysis had come to affect the quality of education. The plan
also pledged an adequate supply of teachers and the education of a good number of pupils up
to School Certificate level. Accordingly, the Plan proposed to increase senior secondary
schools from 2 to 16 and elementary teacher training colleges to 24 in ten years. The
objective was to be met through the payment of grants-in-aid in respect of qualified teachers
rather than by increasing the number of schools on the grants-in-aid list. This was an attempt
at improving quality of education which had been greatly compromised by rapid unplanned
expansion and lack of supervision.

The Plan was not implemented due to the inability on the part of the local authorities meet the
cost of primary education.

20.4.2 The Beecher Report

A major problem experienced in the school system at this time and which was a major point
of concern was the rapid expansion of schools and a decline in quality because of lack of
proper control and supervision. To address this problem, a committee under the chairmanship
of Archdeacon Leonard J. Beecher was appointed in March 1949 to “inquire into the scope,
content and methods of the African education”. The Committee among others established that
exapansion at the primary level had been done with no adequate financial provision and
control. The Committee therefore among others recommended that:

3. There was need for strict supervision to control primary school expansion and also
expand teacher training.

4. Responsibility for primary and intermediate schools be placed under the reconstituted
district education boards for purposes of easing the financial burden on local

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 authorities.

5. Maintain co-operation between the government and voluntary agencies (churches) for
purposes of teaching “Christian principles.”

6. Africans were to continue receiving practical education.

7. The system of education to be restructured from the previous 6:2:4 to the 4:4:4 system
of primary intermediate and secondary schools. Each stage was to be a complete
course in itself to ensure that those leaving at any one stage were equipped with
competent and active roles in society.

8. Estimated that only 29% of African children were to go beyond Standard Four and
less than 5% to secondary with only 16 secondary schools to be established by 1957.

9. To ease the financial burden on local authorities, responsibility for primary and
intermediate schools to be placed under revamped District Education Boards (DEBs).

Africans objected to some aspects of the Report especially its emphasis on quality which
meant that enrolment could grow slowly. The new 4:4:4 system was also opposed for
restricting their educational development. They instead wanted a full eight years of primary
education. The Africans also disliked the continuation of government-mission cooperation in
African education. They wanted the government to take charge of African secular education
with Christian missions only being concerned with religious education.

It should be noted that despite the opposition from Africans, the Report was debated by the
Kenya Legislative Council and accepted in 1951 and implemented in 1952.

20.4.3 The Binns Report

In 1951, the Colonial Office and the Nuffield Foundation sponsored a study of Educational
Policy and Practice in British Tropical African Territories. The study was carried out by two
groups, one for West Africa and the other for East Africa. The East Africa group was chaired
by A.L Binns. Among others, the Binns Report recommended:

1. Preservation of tribal vernaculars and advocated the elimination of Kiswahili as a

medium of instruction except where it was the local vernacular. They argued that
retaining Kiswahili as a lingua Franca impeded the learning of both the vernaculars
and English.

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 2. The teaching of agriculture at primary school level especially for those who could not
continue learning. This was aimed instilling the right attitude to agriculture in the
early years of school and the fact that too few students advanced beyond the primary
level to benefit from more advanced training.

3. Improve the quality of primary and intermediate schools through the expansion and
proper co-ordination of teacher training programmes. The Study group was opposed
to the development of many small and scattered teacher training colleges. It proposed
the amalgamation of these centres so by 1955; no training college would be allowed
to operate with less than 120 students. This proposal was however not implemented
until after independence.

In response to the last recommendation, the colonial government set out to establish an
institute of education to co-ordinate teacher training programmes. It started by establishing
two teacher delegacies. These were groups of colleges that came together to co-ordinate all
aspects of teacher education in the regions within which they were located. These were
established at Kagumo in 1957 for the Eastern Delegacy and Siriba in 1959 for the Western
Delegacy. The two delegacies were merged in 1964 to form the Kenya Institute of Education
(K.I.E.).

20.5 Aspects of the education system

The inter-war period witnessed tremendous expansion of educational opportunities for the
Africans. This was felt more at the primary level. However due to lack of control as discussed
above, most of these schools generally offered low quality education.

Prior to 1950, primary education used to take six years and junior secondary schools took two
years leading to the Kenya African Primary Education (KAPE). Those who passed proceeded
to senior secondary, Forms three to Six. The Kenya African Secondary Examinations
(KASE) was taken in Form four while Cambridge School Certificate was offered in Form
Six. This examination was first offered locally in African schools in 1940. By 1947, there
were 51 junior secondary schools and only two government and four missionary secondary
schools of which only Alliance and Mangu taught up to School Certificate.

The 4:4:4 education system as recommended by Beecher was implemented in 1952. Primary
schooling took four years and pupils sat for the Competitive Entrance Examination (CEE) in
Grade Four. Those who passed proceeded to intermediate schools for another four years

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(grades 5 -8). At the time, there were 300 schools and offered English and mathematics
which were essential for secondary school. In addition, practical subjects such as agriculture,
home craft and handicrafts were taught. At the end of the course, the pupils took the Kenya
African Preliminary Examination (KAPE) in Grade Eight. The medium of instruction up to
Grade Four was vernacular while English was used in the upper classes. It was not until 1961
that English as a medium of instruction in school started right from Standard One.

The development of secondary school education was generally poor in the 1950s. The
academic standards were also generally poor. In 1951, there were 59 secondary schools.
Although the Beecher Report had recommended additional 16 senior secondary schools by
1957, this was attained by 1954. Significant expansion at this level started as the country
moved towards independence. For instance, in 1958 there were 22 schools, 1951 (27 schools)
and 1960 (32 schools). Some of the senior secondary schools began courses for the Higher
School Certificate Examination in 1961.

Following Beecher’s Report, the government realized the importance of supervision and
inspection. The colony was divided into five regional educational boards for purposes of
educational administration. Provincial Education Officers, District Education Officers and
Area Education Officers were appointed and mobilized. The idea of quality was further
strengthened when the Kenya Inspectorate was formed in 1955.

Technical education continued to be offered at Kabete and Thika. Later, other technical
schools were started at Sigalagala, Eldoret and Machakos.

Makerere continued to offer university education during the post war period. Following the
recommendations of the Commission of Higher Education in the Colonies (Asquith
Commission), Makerere became a University College for the region in 1950 and started to
offer degree programmes in special relations with the University of London.

In 1949, a committee chaired by G.P Willoughby recommended to the Kenya government the
establishment of a technical and commercial institute in Nairobi in areas not covered by
Makerere.. It was proposed that the college mounts courses leading to the Higher National
Certificate offered by Britain. In addition, the institute was to prepare matriculated students
through full- time study for university degrees in engineering and related courses not offered
by Makerere. This culminated into the establishment of the Royal Technical College that
commenced in 1954 with funds coming from the Colonial and Development Welfare. The

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college opened its doors to students in1956. In March 1957, it merged with the Gandhi
Memorial Academy which had been started by the Asian community in memory of the late
Mahatma Gandhi and established departments of arts, science, commerce, engineering,
domestic science, architecture and surveying. These were three year courses that led to
special certificates.

Two working parties on higher education in East Africa by Sir Alexander Carr-Saunders in
1955 and John F. Lockewood in 1958 saw them recommend that each East African territory
establish a university college. This led to further developments that saw the saw the College
change its name to Royal College, Nairobi in 1961 and began to offer degree courses in
special relation with the University of London just like Makerere. In1963, the name was
changed to University College, Nairobi and together with the University College Dar-es-
Salaam established in 1961 and the already existing Makerere University College; the Federal
University of East Africa was created.

20.6 African initiatives: The Airlifts

During this period, the African initiative was seen in the rise and development of the
independent schools. In addition, student airlifts resulted from lack of adequate higher
education for Africans offered by the colonialists. The move was a brainchild of Tom Mboya,
Julius Kiano, and Oginga Odinga who wanted to prepare young Kenyans educationally so
that they could take over the running of government after independence.

At the time, Mboya had established close relationships with some organizations including
trade unions as well as some prominent politicians in USA who arranged for scholarships for
African students to study in American Universities. Some Americans helped in raising money
for the air tickets but also to some extent, Kenyans participated by organizing “going away
tea parties” to raise money for the same cause.

Oginga Odinga on the other hand secured scholarships from Eastern (Communist) Europe
which enabled a number of Kenyan students to study in the former USSR, Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Germany-Socialist Republic.

The main challenge of these airlifts was the haphazard selection of students and the failure to
match ability with courses. For example, some people went to countries where they did not
get much academic education or took courses which had little relevance to Kenya. Some
dropped out either because of emotional or intellectual reasons. Others opted to stay away

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even when they failed to achieve anything because they were ashamed of coming back
without expected qualifications.

LECTURE TWENTY: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION SINCE

INDEPENDENCE

21.3 Education at independence

As Kenya moved towards the attainment of her independence, the colonial government came
under intense pressure to reform the country’s system of education. This mainly came from
African nationalists who among other things called for:

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 1. More educational opportunities for Africans.
2. Cheaper or free education.
3. Universal primary education (UPE)
4. Africanization of the curriculum and africanization of the teaching staff
5. Change in attitude to allow African culture and personality to flourish

Expansion of the system especially at secondary and higher levels was influenced by several
reports that were published at this time such as; the Addis Ababa Conference of 1961 and the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development commissioned to undertake a survey
of the economic development in Kenya in 1961. In its report, it identified education as one of
the many factors that needed funding. It also pointed out the secondary school level as the
most critical educational need hence the need for its expansion. These Reports greatly
influenced the government in formulating its educational policies as reflected in the first
education commission after independence (the Ominde Commission).

21.4 Developments in education since 1963

21.4.1 The Ominde Report
Soon after independence, the government appointed a commission headed by Professor
Ominde to give direction to education for the new nation. The commission was tasked “to
survey the existing educational resources in Kenya and advise the government in the
formation of national policies for education”.

Like the many publications at the time, the Ominde Report saw a direct link between
education and economic growth through production of high-level human resource. There was
therefore the need to accelerate the development of this sector the country to realise its
objectives at the time.

The commission among others:

1. Emphasised the role of education on man power development, called for solidarity
(unity) among the different peoples of Kenya towards the development of a new
nation as well as the promotion of African values in education. These were
summarized in the following six national goals of education:

 Education for national unity.

 Education for national development.

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 Education for individual development and self-fulfilment.
 Education for social equality and responsibility.
 Education for respect and development of Kenya’s rich and varied culture.
 Education for promotion of international consciousness.

2. Supported the government policy to abolish segregation in schools.

3. Called for national recruitment especially in national Schools to encourage national

unity.

4. Called on expansion of the secondary education level but in link with the expected
economic demand for skilled and professional manpower to guard against the likely
problem of unemployment of the educated.

5. Secondary curricula to include practical training to enable graduates to source jobs in

industries and the agricultural sector.

6. Too many unregistered Harambee schools were coming up. Ominde called for
regulation of such schools to avoid encouraging unemployment and frustration of
their graduates.

7. Recognized the importance of primary education for providing basic education and
candidates for secondary and higher education. However, the Commission
recommended that more emphasis was to be put on secondary and higher education
for economic as well as Africanization of services.

8. Called for reforms of curricula to reflect Kenya’s history and culture - localize the
curricula.

9. Recommended centralized planning in education to be undertaken by the government

but called on local authorities to share in planning educational services and
implementing government plans in their areas. This was to be done by local
authorities running primary schools, paying teachers, supervising and building
schools as well as providing them with other facilities. In fact local authorities and not
churches were to control education. Churches were to remain as sponsors of schools
they started and run.

10. Stressed the importance of adult, technical, and commercial education for economic

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 development.

11. Raised concern about the many untrained teachers and the low teacher morale caused
by poor conditions of service and low pay. The Report called for intensification of
teacher training in systematically planned and consolidated teachers colleges. It also
recommended in service training especially for Primary School teachers.

12. English to be the medium of instruction and Kiswahili to be compulsory from class
one.

13. Change the education structure from Beecher 4:4:2:2 (for Africans) to
7:4:2:3.

14. Respect for all religions.

21.4.2 Developments in Education to 1970.

The government responded by effecting changes to the education sector. Mechanisms were
put in place to address the racial question in the system by offering bursaries to African
students admitted in the then high cost European and Asian schools. By 1966, the initiative
had helped increase the African student population in those schools to 30%. The African
population rose to 65% in 1969 and to almost 100% in1970. Some of the foreign names by
which these schools were known were also changed; Duke of York to Lenana School, Prince
of Wales to Nairobi School, Duke of Gloucester to Jamuhuri and Duchess of Gloucester York
to Pangani, and Delamere to Upper Hill.

In 1966, a uniform non-racial structure was introduced with a 7-year primary cycle for all
primary schools. In addition, a single common syllabus was introduced with one common
examination, the Kenya Preliminary Examination (KPE) that was in 1967 replaced by
Certificate of Primary Education (CPE). A unified syllabus for all secondary schools was also
introduced. The East African Examinations Council was established in 1967 to administer the
East Africa Certificate of Education (EACE) and the East Africa Advanced Certificate of
Education (EAACE). These examinations were to replace the Ordinary (“O” level) and
Advanced (A level) Cambridge examinations. The change in the syllabus and examination
bodies led to improvement in and localizing the content of education.

The old spirit of cooperation among Africans that led to establishment of independent schools
during the colonial period emerged after independence through voluntary self-help activities

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that led to the building of many Harambee schools. The first of such schools was Chavakali
in Maragoli, in Western Province. At the time these recommendations were being made,
many harambee schools were already established in different parts of the country with 50
being set up in 1964 and 30 more in the first half of 1965. By 1966, there were 226 Harambee
schools compared to the government’s 199. Kenya Junior Secondary Examination (KJSE)
was re-introduced in 1966 to assist some students gain access government schools. Some
students went for training courses after this examination. The government started taking over
some of these schools in 1967 and in 1969, it started aiding them by posting qualified
teachers to them. Eventually, these schools which were initially referred to as Aided schools
were completely taken over by the government.

A serious attention to agricultural training and employment potentialities in rural areas led to
a Conference on Education, Employment and Rural Development held at Kericho in 1966 to
look into ways of making education useful to the rural environment. The Conference stressed
the need for integrating education and rural development. Together with the report of the
Agricultural Education Commission (the Weir Report), an elaborate agricultural and adult
education programme was developed in the country. The curriculum was diversified to
include vocational subjects as well as the establishment of 4K Clubs in primary schools while
graduates could access that knowledge from Young Farmers’ Clubs and the pilot village
polytechnics. In addition, the National Youth Service was started to impart practical skills.
The former technical and trade schools that had been operating at a lower level were
upgraded into technical schools to offer pre-vocational skills at a higher level. By 1970, the
country had established15 such schools.

Improvements in teaching training saw the establishment of the Kenya Institute of Education
in 1964 to coordinate activities for teaching profession, for educational research, and for
advisory services. In addition, the Teachers Service Commission was established in 1967 to
become one common employer of teachers in the country. Further improvements led to the
expansion and consolidation of teacher education that saw the reduction of primary teacher
training colleges from 36 to 24 larger and more efficiently administered colleges in 1968.

In 1967, Parliament debated and passed the Education Act of 1968. That gave the legal
framework to education. It gives guidelines on promotion of education and management in
schools. It also directs on registration of private schools, inspection, and control of schools,
examinations, K.I.E, and financing of education. According to this Act, the government

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assumed full responsibility of all education. Local Authorities, Boards of Governors, and
School Committees got legal framework for their operations.

In keeping with the policy of producing high-level manpower, there was a major investment
in university and tertiary education. This saw the total undergraduate enrolment to nearly
treble, from 1964 to 1968, from 602 to 1,173. The University of Nairobi Act of 1970 created
the first full-fledged university.

21.4.3 Developments after 1970

The demand for increased educational opportunities during the first decade of independence
and the need to break away from the colonial past forced the government to prioritize the
expansion of the school system. The 1970s however witnessed a shift in government policy
In addition to expanding educational opportunities, the need to make education relevant to the
individual and the nation as a whole as captured in recommendations by various reports and
policy documents discussed below became equally urgent.

21.4.3.1 The Ndegwa Commission

The Ndegwa Commission Report of 1971 focused on the structure and remuneration of the
public service. On education, the Commission emphasised on the role of education in the
economic development and nation building.

The Ndegwa Commission recommended re-establishment of District Education Boards with

the active participation and involvement of the local community to gradually take over
financial and managerial responsibility for the administration of primary education.

In view of the fact that majority of primary school workforce at the time were of P3
qualification, the committee recommended the phasing out and a possible replacement by
people with higher academic qualifications. Towards this end, they suggested the minimum
grade for teacher training to be the Kenya Junior Secondary Examination (KJSE) as opposed
to the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE) at the time. The Commission recommended a
new structure of teachers’ salaries related to their grades and improvement of housing
allowance.

Since most graduate teachers were expatriates they recommended that it be made more
attractive through the recommended salary structure hopefully to attract more local graduates
to join the teaching profession. The Commission therefore called on the government to ensure

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that adequate finances were availed for expansion of Teacher Education. Special attention
given to shortage of science teachers was even more glaring and it was made even worse by
the fact that there was a shortage of science students who could be trained as science
teachers.

The Commission also recommended the diversification of the curriculum at secondary level
to provide technical and vocational subjects to meet the manpower needs in a more even
manner.

21.4.3.2 The Bessey Report

An advisory mission of United Kingdom consultants under the chairmanship of Bessey was
appointed in 1972 to study the curriculum. The mission among others was to review and
evaluate existing curricula, examinations and current effort to develop them and recommend
the development of new curricular that would be relevant to Kenya’s needs

Some of the recommendations of the Bessey Report were;

 Primary education be re-directed by broadening the curriculum and intensify the
learning process to help school learners adapted and become resourceful.
 An element of person-guided choice in Forms 3 and 4 be introduced but students in
Forms 1 and 2 follow a common curriculum. The main curriculum objective in
secondary school was to be to provide young people with opportunities for developing
a high degree of personal adaptability and responsibility.
 Teacher training colleges to be further consolidated to improve the quality of teachers.
 The inspectorate to ensure proper implementation of the curriculum and to work
closely with K.I.E. to enhance the licensing of teachers.
Although the Bessey Report recommendations were never fully adopted by the government,
it provided great motivation for curriculum reforms in the 1970’s.

21.4.3.3 Gachathi Report of 1976

The National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies (NCEOP) was appointed
against the following backdrop of rapid expansion of education to meet manpower needs and
an increase in unemployment of school leavers due to attitudinal problem that formal
education automatically led to a good paying job most likely in the urban areas. It should be
noted that the ILO Report of 1972 on Kenya titled: Employment, Income, and Equality – a

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strategy for increasing productive employment in Kenya, had raised these concerns and
among others called for the introduction of a prevocational and practical curriculum in
primary and secondary schools.

The main recommendations by the Gachathi report were:

 After re-examining and reemphasizing the National goals of Education in
relationship to development of values, the committee recommended the teaching of
religion and social ethics in the education system and the promotion of traditional
practices
 With the realization that the majority of Kenyans lived in the rural areas and to stop
the rural/urban migration, the committee called for the educational system to respond
to the expectations of the rural population in terms of basic education.
 To address the serious shortage of employment opportunities, the committee
recommended practical education and a diversification of the curriculum that would
lead to self-reliance.
 The Committee argued that by the time the children left primary school after 7 years
they were too young for gainful employment and therefore recommended an
additional 2 years to this level to make 9years of basic education
 On higher Education the committee recommended that Kenyatta University College
should be developed into a full university and that a third university should be
developed opened. They also advocated for setting up of a permanent commission
on Higher Education under government’s proposed higher education bill that
ministry of education had been processing.
 Concerning technical and post school vocational training the committee encouraged
planned expansion of village polytechnics and establishment of a national policy for
guiding future developments of harambee institutes of technology to give them a
more national outlook they had tended to be too localized.

21.5 The 8.4.4 System of Education

The introduction of the 8.4.4 system of education in the mid-1980s marked a radical shift in
the conceptualization of education Kenya since independence. The new system was hoped to
address the biting unemployment problem experienced in the country from the 1970s. This
was to be done by refocusing the system to impart some pre-vocational skills to the learners.
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 21.5.1 The Mackay Report

The introduction of the 8.4.4-education system followed the recommendations by the

Presidential Working Party on the Establishment of a Second University in Kenya commonly
known as the Mackay Report of 1981. However, a proper interpretation of the system should
be done in the following contexts: previous government efforts to emphasise non-formal
education, a conference on education, employment and rural development held at Kericho in
1966 which stressed the need for integrating education and rural development, the
International Labour Organisation mission report entitled: employment, incomes and
equality: A strategy for increasing productive employment of 1972; and the recommendations
of the National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies (Gachathi Report) of
1975.

The 7-4-2-3 policy was criticized in two major areas (2001): -

i) The policy was being too academic and therefore not suitable for direct employment. Thus
the policy lacked orientation to employment.
ii) The policy encouraged elitist and individualistic attitudes among school leavers,
something that was considered incompatible to the African socialist milieu.

The Mackay Report among others suggested the restructuring of the country’s education
system from the then 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4. Accordingly, the primary cycle was lengthened by one
year; the secondary stage shortened to four years by scrapping the advanced “A” level
segment while the university level was lengthened by one year.

In short, the 844 system of education was meant to make education more relevant to the
world of work and produce skilled and high level workforce to meet the demands of the
economy. This was to be addressed through the teaching pre-vocational and vocational
subjects both at the primary and secondary levels of education. These changes were meant to
ensure that education adapted the learners to the needs and tasks of society and guard against
the pre-occupation with white-collar jobs among school-leavers.

The recommendations by the Working Party led to the establishment of the second university,
Moi University in 1984 of Moi University to focus more on rural development with a
predominant orientation towards agriculture and technology.

The implementation of the primary cycle of the 8-4-4 system of education started in January,

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1985 with the introduction of Standard 8 classes. The new examination, Kenya Certificate of
Primary Education (KCPE) was written at the end of 1985. The secondary cycle of the 8-4-4
system started in January 1986 with the admission of the first Form One class. The last
Kenya Certificate of Education (KCE) or “O” level examination was attempted in 1988. The
last Kenya Advanced Certificate of Education (KACE) or “A” level Examination that used to
mark the end of the secondary cycle was written in 1989. The same year witnessed the
writing of the first examination for the secondary level, Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Education (KSCE) that paved the way for the first selection of students under the new system
to the universities (Otiende, et. al.1992).

Challenges Faced by the 8.4.4 System of Education

 The learners held negative attitudes towards manual work despite massive campaigns
to popularize practical education. Preference was still given to academic instead of
pre-vocational careers.

 Pre-vocational education was generally taken to be inferior and of low status in

society. It was seen as a system for the poor as the elite continued with foreign
curricula.

 The hasty implementation of a practical system without adequate resources

compromised the system and affected the teaching of practical subjects that were
taught minus demonstration and project work.

 The hasty implementation of the system also meant that many teachers did not receive
proper orientation to the new curriculum. Many ended up teaching practical subjects
in which they had little or no knowledge about.

 The negative effects of examinations did a lot in undermining the practical orientation
in the 8.4.4. Teachers continued with the drilling methods for purposes of helping
students pass examinations instead of helping them to develop creative and reasoning
skills.

The shortcomings highlighted above rendered the system ineffective and in the final analysis
failed to realize the intended objectives.

21.5.2 The Kamunge Report

Important changes to the system of education in the country during this period were ushered
by the Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next Decade

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and Beyond, popularly known as the Kamunge Report of 1988. Although the Party
welcomed the 844 system of education especially its vocational curriculum, it affirmed that
the new curriculum required the provision of additional and appropriate teachers, physical
facilities, equipment, teaching, and learning materials and qualified teachers. The report was
accepted by the government for implementation in phases through Sessional paper No.6 of
1988.

The rising cost in the financing of education and training led the government to adopt cost-
sharing strategies between the government and communities, parents and beneficiaries.

The major highlights of the Sessional paper were:

 intensify environmental studies in education and training institutions to educate young

people about the conservation and enhancement of the environment,

 use education and training, under the 844 system of education to equip school leavers
with appropriate skills and attitudes for life and employment in rural areas,

 future secondary schools be established as day schools as a more cost-effective way of

expanding and providing accessibility to secondary education,

 the categorisation of schools as high or low cost be abolished

 untrained primary school teachers be trained only through the in-service teacher
training programme,

 students in public educational and training institutions, including the universities,

should pay the full cost of boarding and feeding,

 Students’ Loan Scheme for needy students be continued but managed by commercial
banks and appropriate measures be taken to recover all outstanding loans.

The Report effected reforms in education largely influenced by the structural adjustment
programmes (SAPs) that forced the government to effect cost-sharing measures in education,
a factor that impacted negatively on its efforts towards the provision of education.
Households were now required to meet about 95% of the schools’ recurrent expenditure. The
failure by many families to meet their obligations led to the non-enrolment of many eligible
children and high dropout rates.

This SAP induced policy impacted negatively on the government’s commitment towards the
attainment of education for all (EFA) by the year 2000 as articulated during the World

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Conference on Education for All held in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990.

21.5.3 The Koech Report

In May 1998, the President appointed a Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of
Kenya which submitted its report in August 1999. The Commission was mandated to prepare
the country to face the challenges of the 21st century and the 3rd Millennium through
education and training. The increased poverty levels in the country had also made it difficult
for many parents to educate their children.

The following were identified as some of the challenges to be addressed by any new system
of education:

 Provision of quality education for all eligible learners within available resources.

 The threat posed by the HIV/AIDS epidemic and the need for the education system to
target the youth for desirable behaviour change.

 The role of education in the industrialization process of the country.

 The role of higher education for the envisaged industrial development, and hence to
rejuvenate higher education, emphasizing the importance of research and its
utilization for development.

The Commission proposed a new system of education “Totally Integrated Quality Education
and Training (TIQET)”. Among the proposed changes in the system were:

 Expansion of access to basic education from 8 to 12 years,

 Introduction of a manageable curriculum content at all levels of education that does

not overburden the learners and educators.

 A comprehensive new legal framework that addresses previously omitted aspects of

education.

On the whole, a majority of the population including the educationalists were in agreement
with the report but the government appeared less enthusiastic possibly as a result of the huge
resources required for its implementation as well as the political considerations. However,
some recommendations, such as curriculum rationalization were adopted and implemented
(RoK, 2005). The revised curriculum was implemented with the aim of reducing the
workload. The examinable subjects were reduced from 7 to 5 at primary and 10 to 8 at the
secondary level. The implementation of the new curriculum was carried out gradually in

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phases from 2003 to 2006.

21.6 Free Primary Education

Free Primary education was recommended by the Ominde report in1964. However, it was not
until 1974 that an attempt was made when free education was introduced from class 1 to 4
and later it was extended to the rest of primary school cycle from 1979. The major challenges
at the time included; inadequate planning and lack of financing among others. The
introduction of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) by the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the 1980s saw the erosion of the gains made at the
time when user charges were introduced in schools, which could not be met by many
families.

The year 2003 marked a major step upwards the realization of universal education, a dream
that had defied many initiatives since independence. This came after the National Rainbow
Coalition (NARC) formed wan the December, 2002 General Elections against the Kenya
African National Union (KANU). This followed the party’s promises on education during
the campaigns that had to be fulfilled. A major characteristic in this initiative was seen in the
way the government developed budgetary allocations where money was given to the schools
directly. The programme was however implemented in a hurry without proper planning, a
factor that occasioned unprecedented congestion in schools especially those located in urban
centres. It was for example estimated that 1.8 of eligible primary school pupils previously out
of school got enrolled during the first year of the programme. In addition to overcrowding,
quality was affected by the inadequate supply of teachers. It should be appreciated that this
bold move came at a time when the country was still reeling under the unpopular SAPs where
the government was under firm instructions to cut on the Ministry’s huge wage bill.

It was against this background that the MOES&T convened The National Conference on
Education and Training in November, 2003 which brought about together over 800 key
stakeholders in the education sector. The conference among others mandated the Ministry to
develop a new policy framework to guide the education sector. Based on the
recommendations of the conference as well as other studies undertaken on the sector, the
government issued Sessional Paper no.1 of 2005, as the basis of the government’s policy on
education and training. The paper aimed at harmonizing various policies, Acts, guidelines
and legislations as well as addressing emerging priorities and issues since the last Sessional
paper, in 1988.

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The Paper noted the government’s commitment towards the provision of all-inclusive quality
education that was accessible and relevant to Kenyans. The pledge was being made against
the backdrop that quality education and training contributes significantly to economic growth
and the expansion of employment opportunities.

A major problem with this initiative arises from the ad hoc manner in which it was
introduced. Political pronouncements in education have worked against educational
developments in the country since independence. This has continued to date as seen in the
manner that the free secondary education initiative that was introduced as another political
campaign promise in 2007. Its implementation has also come with serious challenges In an
attempt towards free and universal basic education, the government scrapped tuition fees in
government secondary schools from January 2008. However, because of the inflation rate,
secondary education has continued to be expensive. The parents still have to contribute a lot
for students’ upkeep and maintenance of schools.

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