Resonance

In physics, resonance is a
phenomenon in which a vibrating
system or external force drives another
system to oscillate with greater
amplitude at specific frequencies.

Frequencies at which the response

amplitude is a relative maximum are
known as the system's resonant
frequencies or resonance
frequencies. At resonant frequencies,
small periodic driving forces have the
ability to produce large amplitude
oscillations, due to the storage of
vibrational energy.

Increase of amplitude as damping decreases and frequency approaches

Contents resonant frequency of a drivendamped simple harmonic oscillator.[1][2]
Overview
Examples
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
International Space
Station
Types of resonance
Mechanical and acoustic
resonance
Electrical resonance
Optical resonance
Orbital resonance
Atomic, particle, and
molecular resonance
Theory
Resonators
Q factor
See also
References
External links

Overview
Resonance occurs when a system is able to store and easily transfer energy between two or more different storage modes (such as
kinetic energy and potential energy in the case of a simple pendulum). However, there are some losses from cycle to cycle, called
damping. When damping is small, the resonant frequency is approximately equal to the natural frequency of the system, which is a
frequency of unforced vibrations. Some systems have multiple, distinct, resonant frequencies.
Resonance phenomena occur with all types of vibrations or waves: there is mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance,
electromagnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), electron spin resonance (ESR) and resonance of quantum wave
functions. Resonant systems can be used to generate vibrations of a specific frequency (e.g., musical instruments), or pick out
specific frequencies from a complex vibration containing many frequencies (e.g., filters).

The term resonance (from Latin resonantia, 'echo', from resonare, 'resound') originates from the field of acoustics, particularly
observed in musical instruments, e.g., when strings started to vibrate and to produce sound without direct excitation by the player
.

The name of the musical note "Re" in the solfège scale may come from the word resonare, as it appears in a religious anthem for
Guido of Arezzo.[3]
John the Baptist in Latin. This was due to the naming of musical notes by the Italian medieval scholar

Examples
A familiar example is a playground swing, which acts as a pendulum.
Pushing a person in a swing in time with the natural interval of the swing
(its resonant frequency) makes the swing go higher and higher
(maximum amplitude), while attempts to push the swing at a faster or
slower tempo produce smaller arcs. This is because the energy the swing
absorbs is maximized when the pushes match the swing's natural
oscillations.

Resonance occurs widely in nature, and is exploited in many manmade

devices. It is the mechanism by which virtually all sinusoidal waves and
vibrations are generated. Many sounds we hear, such as when hard
objects of metal, glass, or wood are struck, are caused by brief resonant Pushing a person in a swing is a common
vibrations in the object. Light and other short wavelength example of resonance. The loaded swing, a
electromagnetic radiation is produced by resonance on an atomic scale, pendulum, has a natural frequency of
such as electrons in atoms. Other examples of resonance: oscillation, its resonant frequency, and resists
being pushed at a faster or slower rate.
Timekeeping mechanisms of modern clocks and watches,
e.g., the balance wheel in a mechanical watch and the quartz
crystal in a quartz watch
Tidal resonance of the Bay of Fundy
Acoustic resonances of musical instruments and the human vocal tract
Shattering of a crystal wineglass when exposed to a musical tone of the right pitch (its resonant frequency)
Friction idiophones, such as making a glass object (glass, bottle, vase)vibrate by rubbing around its rim with a
fingertip
Electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios and TVs that allow radio frequencies to be selectively received
Creation of coherent light by optical resonance in a laser cavity
Orbital resonance as exemplified by somemoons of the solar system's gas giants
Material resonances in atomic scale are the basis of severalspectroscopic techniques that are used incondensed
matter physics

Electron spin resonance

Mössbauer effect
Nuclear magnetic resonance

Tacoma Narrows Bridge

The dramatically visible, rhythmic twisting that resulted in the 1940 collapse of "Galloping Gertie", the original Tacoma Narrows
Bridge, is misleadingly characterized as an example of resonance phenomenon in certain textbooks. The catastrophic vibrations that
destroyed the bridge were not due to simple mechanical resonance, but to a more complicated interaction between the bridge and the
winds passing through it—a phenomenon known as aeroelastic flutter, which is a kind of "self-sustaining vibration" as referred to in
the nonlinear theory of vibrations. Robert H. Scanlan, father of bridge aerodynamics, has written an article about this
misunderstanding.[4]

International Space Station

The rocket engines for the International Space Station (ISS) are controlled by an autopilot. Ordinarily, uploaded parameters for
controlling the engine control system for the Zvezda module make the rocket engines boost the International Space Station to a
higher orbit. The rocket engines are hinge-mounted, and ordinarily the crew doesn't notice the operation. On January 14, 2009,
however, the uploaded parameters made the autopilot swing the rocket engines in larger and larger oscillations, at a frequency of
[5]
0.5 Hz. These oscillations were captured on video, and lasted for 142 seconds.

Types of resonance

Mechanical and acoustic resonance

Mechanical resonance is the tendency of a mechanical system to absorb more energy when the frequency of its oscillations matches
the system's natural frequency of vibration than it does at other frequencies. It may cause violent swaying motions and even
catastrophic failure in improperly constructed structures including bridges, buildings, trains, and aircraft. When designing objects,
engineers must ensure the mechanical resonance frequencies of the component parts do not match driving vibrational frequencies of
motors or other oscillating parts, a phenomenon known asresonance disaster.

Avoiding resonance disasters is a major concern in every building, tower, and bridge construction project. As a countermeasure,
shock mounts can be installed to absorb resonant frequencies and thus dissipate the absorbed energy. The Taipei 101 building relies
on a 660-tonne pendulum (730-short-ton)—a tuned mass damper—to cancel resonance. Furthermore, the structure is designed to
resonate at a frequency that does not typically occur. Buildings in seismic zones are often constructed to take into account the
oscillating frequencies of expected ground motion. In addition, engineers designing objects having engines must ensure that the
mechanical resonant frequencies of the component parts do not match driving vibrational frequencies of the motors or other strongly
oscillating parts.

Clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in abalance wheel, pendulum, or quartz crystal.

The cadence of runners has been hypothesized to be energetically favorable due to resonance between the elastic energy stored in the
lower limb and the mass of the runner.[6]

Acoustic resonance is a branch of mechanical resonance that is concerned with the mechanical vibrations across the frequency range
of human hearing, in other words sound. For humans, hearing is normally limited to frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz
(20 kHz),[7] Many objects and materials act as resonators with resonant frequencies within this range, and when struck vibrate
mechanically, pushing on the surrounding air to create sound waves.This is the source of many percussive sounds we hear
.

Acoustic resonance is an important consideration for instrument builders, as most acoustic instruments use resonators, such as the
strings and body of a violin, the length of tube in aflute, and the shape of, and tension on, a drum membrane.

Like mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance can result in catastrophic failure of the object at resonance. The classic example of
ficult in practice.[8]
this is breaking a wine glass with sound at the precise resonant frequency of the glass, although this is dif

Electrical resonance
Electrical resonance occurs in an electric circuit at a particular resonant frequency when the impedance of the circuit is at a minimum
in a series circuit or at maximum in a parallel circuit (or when the transfer function is at a maximum). Resonance in circuits are used
[9]
for both transmitting and receiving wireless communications such as television, cell phones and radio.
Optical resonance
An optical cavity, also called an optical resonator, is an arrangement of mirrors
that forms a standing wave cavity resonator for light waves. Optical cavities are
a major component of lasers, surrounding the gain medium and providing
feedback of the laser light. They are also used in optical parametric oscillators
and some interferometers. Light confined in the cavity reflects multiple times
producing standing waves for certain resonant frequencies. The standing wave
patterns produced are called "modes". Longitudinal modes differ only in
frequency while transverse modes differ for different frequencies and have
different intensity patterns across the cross-section of the beam. Ring resonators
Animation illustrating electrical
and whispering galleries are examples of optical resonators that do not form
resonance in a tuned circuit, consisting
standing waves. of a capacitor (C) and an inductor (L)
connected together. Charge flows back
Different resonator types are distinguished by the focal lengths of the two
and forth between the capacitor plates
mirrors and the distance between them; flat mirrors are not often used because of through the inductor. Energy oscillates
the difficulty of aligning them precisely. The geometry (resonator type) must be back and forth between the capacitor's
chosen so the beam remains stable, i.e., the beam size does not continue to grow electric field (E) and the inductor's
with each reflection. Resonator types are also designed to meet other criteria magnetic field (B).
such as minimum beam waist or having no focal point (and therefore intense
light at that point) inside the cavity.

Optical cavities are designed to have a very large Q factor.[10] A beam reflects a large number of times with little attenuation—
therefore the frequencyline width of the beam is small compared to the frequency of the laser
.

Additional optical resonances are guided-mode resonances and surface plasmon resonance, which result in anomalous reflection and
high evanescent fields at resonance. In this case, the resonant modes are guided modes of a waveguide or surface plasmon modes of a
dielectric-metallic interface. These modes are usually excited by a subwavelength grating.

Orbital resonance
In celestial mechanics, an orbital resonance occurs when two orbiting bodies exert a regular, periodic gravitational influence on each
other, usually due to their orbital periods being related by a ratio of two small integers. Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual
gravitational influence of the bodies. In most cases, this results in an unstable interaction, in which the bodies exchange momentum
and shift orbits until the resonance no longer exists. Under some circumstances, a resonant system can be stable and self-correcting,
so that the bodies remain in resonance. Examples are the 1:2:4 resonance of Jupiter's moons Ganymede, Europa, and Io, and the 2:3
resonance between Pluto and Neptune. Unstable resonances with Saturn's inner moons give rise to gaps in the rings of Saturn. The
special case of 1:1 resonance (between bodies with similar orbital radii) causes large Solar System bodies to clear the neighborhood
around their orbits by ejecting nearly everything else around them; this ef
fect is used in the currentdefinition of a planet.

Atomic, particle, and molecular resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is the name given to a physical resonance phenomenon involving the observation of specific
quantum mechanical magnetic properties of an atomic nucleus in the presence of an applied, external magnetic field. Many scientific
techniques exploit NMR phenomena to study molecular physics, crystals, and non-crystalline materials through NMR spectroscopy.
NMR is also routinely used in advanced medical imaging techniques, such as in
magnetic resonance imaging(MRI).

All nuclei containing odd numbers of nucleons have an intrinsic magnetic moment and angular momentum. A key feature of NMR is
that the resonant frequency of a particular substance is directly proportional to the strength of the applied magnetic field. It is this
feature that is exploited in imaging techniques; if a sample is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field then the resonant frequencies of
the sample's nuclei depend on where in the field they are located. Therefore,
the particle can be located quite precisely by its resonant frequency
.

Electron paramagnetic resonance, otherwise known as Electron Spin

Resonance (ESR) is a spectroscopic technique similar to NMR, but uses
unpaired electrons instead. Materials for which this can be applied are much
more limited since the material needs to both have an unpaired spin and be
paramagnetic.

The Mössbauer effect is the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption
of gamma ray photons by atoms bound in a solid form.

Resonance in particle physics appears in similar circumstances to classical

physics at the level of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. However,
they can also be thought of as unstable particles, with the formula above valid
if Γ is the decay rate and Ω replaced by the particle's mass M. In that case, the
formula comes from the particle's propagator, with its mass replaced by the
NMR Magnet at HWB-NMR, Birmingham,
complex number M + iΓ. The formula is further related to the particle's decay
UK. In its strong 21.2-tesla field, the
rate by the optical theorem. proton resonance is at 900 MHz.

Theory
The exact response of a resonance, especially for
frequencies far from the resonant frequency, depends on the
details of the physical system, and is usually not exactly
symmetric about the resonant frequency, as illustrated for
the simple harmonic oscillator above. For a lightly damped
linear oscillator with a resonance frequency Ω, the intensity
of oscillations I when the system is driven with a driving
frequency ω is typically approximated by a formula that is
symmetric about the resonance frequency:[11]

"Universal Resonance Curve", a symmetric approximation

Where the susceptibility links the amplitude of the to the normalized response of a resonant circuit;abscissa
oscillator to the driving force in frequency space:[12] values are deviation from center frequency , in units of
center frequency divided by 2Q;ordinate is relative
amplitude, and phase in cycles; dashed curves compare the
range of responses of real two-pole circuits for aQ value of
The intensity is defined as the square of the amplitude of 5; for higher Q values, there is less deviation from the
universal curve. Crosses mark the edges of the 3 dB
the oscillations. This is a Lorentzian function, or Cauchy
bandwidth (gain 0.707, phase shift 45° or 0.125 cycle).
distribution, and this response is found in many physical
situations involving resonant systems. Γ is a parameter
dependent on the damping of the oscillator, and is known as the linewidth of the resonance. Heavily damped oscillators tend to have
broad linewidths, and respond to a wider range of driving frequencies around the resonant frequency. The linewidth is inversely
proportional to the Q factor, which is a measure of the sharpness of the resonance.

In electrical engineering, this approximate symmetric response is known as the universal resonance curve, a concept introduced by
Frederick E. Terman in 1932 to simplify the approximate analysis of radio circuits with a range of center frequencies and Q
values.[13][14]
Resonators
A physical system can have as many resonant frequencies as it has degrees of freedom; each degree of freedom can vibrate as a
harmonic oscillator. Systems with one degree of freedom, such as a mass on a spring, pendulums, balance wheels, and LC tuned
circuits have one resonant frequency. Systems with two degrees of freedom, such as coupled pendulums and resonant transformers
can have two resonant frequencies. As the number of coupled harmonic oscillators grows, the time it takes to transfer energy from
one to the next becomes significant. The vibrations in them begin to travel through the coupled harmonic oscillators in waves, from
one oscillator to the next.

Extended objects that can experience resonance due to vibrations inside them are called resonators, such as organ pipes, vibrating
strings, quartz crystals, microwave and laser cavities. Since these can be viewed as being made of millions of coupled moving parts
(such as atoms), they can have millions of resonant frequencies. The vibrations inside them travel as waves, at an approximately
constant velocity, bouncing back and forth between the sides of the resonator. If the distance between the sides is d, the length of a
roundtrip is 2d. To cause resonance, the phase of a sinusoidal wave after a roundtrip must be equal to the initial phase, so the waves
reinforce the oscillation. So the condition for resonance in a resonator is that the roundtrip distance, 2d, be equal to an integer number
of wavelengths λ of the wave:

If the velocity of a wave isv, the frequency is f = vλ so the resonant frequencies are:

So the resonant frequencies of resonators, called normal modes, are equally spaced multiples of a lowest frequency called the
fundamental frequency. The multiples are often called overtones. There may be several such series of resonant frequencies,
corresponding to different modes of oscillation.

Q factor
The Q factor or quality factor is a dimensionless parameter that describes how under-damped an oscillator or resonator is,[15] or
equivalently, characterizes a resonator's bandwidth relative to its center frequency.[16] Higher Q indicates a lower rate of energy loss
relative to the stored energy of the oscillator, i.e., the oscillations die out more slowly. A pendulum suspended from a high-quality
bearing, oscillating in air, has a high Q, while a pendulum immersed in oil has a low Q. To sustain a system in resonance in constant
amplitude by providing power externally,the energy provided in each cycle must be less than the ener
gy stored in the system (i.e., the
Q
sum of the potential and kinetic) by a factor of2π . Oscillators with high-quality factors have lowdamping, which tends to make them
ring longer.

Sinusoidally driven resonators having higher Q factors resonate with greater amplitudes (at the resonant frequency) but have a
smaller range of frequencies around the frequency at which they resonate. The range of frequencies at which the oscillator resonates
is called the bandwidth. Thus, a high-Q tuned circuit in a radio receiver would be more difficult to tune, but would have greater
selectivity, it would do a better job of filtering out signals from other stations that lie nearby on the spectrum. High Q oscillators
operate over a smaller range of frequencies and are more stable. (Seeoscillator phase noise.)

The quality factor of oscillators varies substantially from system to system. Systems for which damping is important (such as
dampers keeping a door from slamming shut) have Q = 12 . Clocks, lasers, and other systems that need either strong resonance or high
frequency stability need high-quality factors. Tuning forks have quality factors around Q = 1000. The quality factor of atomic clocks
and some high-Q lasers can reach as high as 1011[17] and higher.[18]

There are many alternate quantities used by physicists and engineers to describe how damped an oscillator is that are closely related
to its quality factor. Important examples include: the damping ratio, relative bandwidth, linewidth, and bandwidth measured in
octaves.
See also
Acoustic resonance Limbic resonance
Antiresonance Nonlinear resonance
Center frequency Positive feedback
Cymatics Q factor
Damping Resonance disaster
Driven harmonic motion Resonator
Earthquake engineering Schumann resonance
Electrical resonance Simple harmonic motion
Electric dipole spin resonance Stochastic resonance
Formant Sympathetic string
Harmonic oscillator Tuned circuit
Impedance Vibration

References
1. Katsuhiko Ogata (2005).System Dynamics (4th ed.). University of Minnesota. p. 617.
2. Ajoy Ghatak (2005). Optics, 3E (https://books.google.com/books?id=jStDc2LmU5IC&pg=PT97&dq=damping-decrea
ses+resonance+amplitude#v=onepage&q=damping-decreases%20resonance%20amplitude&f=false) (3rd ed.). Tata
McGraw-Hill. p. 6.10. ISBN 978-0-07-058583-6.
3. McNaught, W. G. (1893). "The History and Uses of the Sol-fa Syllables"(https://books.google.com/books?id=nNYP
A
AAAYAAJ&pg=PA35). Proceedings of the Musical Association. London: Novello, Ewer and Co.19: 35–51.
ISSN 0958-8442 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0958-8442).
4. K. Yusuf Billah and Robert H. Scanlan (1991)."Resonance, Tacoma Narrows Bridge Failure, and Undergraduate
Physics Textbooks" (http://www.ketchum.org/billah/Billah-Scanlan.pdf) (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 59 (2):
118–124. Bibcode:1991AmJPh..59..118B(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991AmJPh..59..118B) .
doi:10.1119/1.16590 (https://doi.org/10.1119/1.16590). Retrieved 2011-05-29.
5. Oberg, James (4 February 2009)."Shaking on Space Station Rattles NASA"(http://www.nbcnews.com/id/28998876/
#story). NBC News.
6. Snyder; Farley (2011)."Energetically optimal stride frequency in running: the ef
fects of incline and decline"(http://je
b.biologists.org/content/214/12/2089.long). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 214: 2089–95.
doi:10.1242/jeb.053157 (https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.053157). PMID 21613526 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubme
d/21613526). Retrieved 1 Sep 2014.
7. Harry F. Olson Music, Physics and Engineering.(https://books.google.com/books?id=RUDTFBbb7jAC&pg=P A248)
Dover Publications, 1967, pp. 248–249. "Under very favorable conditions most individuals can obtain tonal
characteristics as low as 12 Hz."
8. Breaking Glass with Sound(http://www.physics.ucla.edu/demoweb/demomanual/acoustics/effects_of_sound/breakin
g_glass_with_sound.html)
9. "The Physics Of Resonance"(http://www.intuitor.com/resonance/circuits.html). Intuitor. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
10. Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and T echnology - Q factor, quality factor, cavity, resonator, oscillator, frequency
standards (http://www.rp-photonics.com/q_factor.html)
11. A. E. Siegman (1986).Lasers (https://books.google.com/books?id=1BZVwUZL TkAC&pg=PA107&dq=resonance-app
roximation+amplitude+linewidth+frequency+Lorentzian+real#v=onepage&q=resonance-approximation%20amplitud
e%20linewidth%20frequency%20Lorentzian%20real&f=false) . University Science Books. pp. 105–108.ISBN 978-0-
935702-11-8.
12. Aspelmeyer M.; et al. (2014). "Cavity optomechanics". Review of modern physics. p. 1397.
13. Frederick Emmons Terman (1932). Radio Engineering (https://books.google.com/books?d=8rE8AAAAIAAJ&q=inaut
hor:terman+inauthor:frederick+universal&dq=inauthor:terman+inauthor:frederick+universal)
. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
14. William McC. Siebert (1986).Circuits, Signals, and Systems(https://books.google.com/books?id=zBTUiIrb2WIC&pg
=PA113&dq=siebert+universal-resonance-curve#v=onepage&q=&f=false). MIT Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-262-
19229-3.
15. James H. Harlow (2004).Electric Power Transformer Engineering(https://books.google.com/books?id=DANXjaoauc
YC&pg=PT241&dq=q-factor+damping#v=onepage&q=q-factor%20damping&f=false) . CRC Press. pp. 2–216.
ISBN 978-0-8493-1704-0.
16. Michael H. Tooley (2006). Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and Applications(https://books.google.com/books?id=8f
uppV9O7xwC&pg=PA77&dq=q-factor+bandwidth#v=onepage&q=q-factor%20bandwidth&f=false) . Newnes. pp. 77–
78. ISBN 978-0-7506-6923-8.
17. Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and T
echnology: Q factor (http://www.rp-photonics.com/q_factor.html)
18. Time and Frequency from A to Z: Q to Ra(http://tf.nist.gov/general/enc-q.htm)Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20080504160852/http://tf.nist.gov/general/enc-q.htm)2008-05-04 at the Wayback Machine.

External links
Definition of Resonance- "The increase in amplitude of oscillation of an electric or mechanical system exposed to a
periodic force whose frequency is equal or very close to the natural undamped frequency of the system."
Resonance - a chapter from an online textbook
Greene, Brian, "Resonance in strings". The Elegant Universe, NOVA (PBS)
Hyperphysics section on resonance concepts
Resonance versus resonant(usage of terms)
Wood and Air Resonance in a Harpsichord
Java applet demonstrating resonances on a string when the frequency of the driving force is varied
Java applet demonstrating the occurrence of resonance when the driving frequency matches with the natural
frequency of an oscillator
Breaking glass with sound, including high-speed footage of glass breaking

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Resonance&oldid=851648372

"

This page was last edited on 23 July 2018, at 17:50(UTC).

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.