COS 101: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING SCIENCE

DR. O.U. EKWEALOR

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA.
A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data input,
processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.

Functionalities of a Computer

If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions:

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.

Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Step 4 − Generates the output.

Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers

High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in
paper work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces
the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers

No I.Q (Intelligent Quotient)

 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike
humans.

Components of Computer

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and

 instructions into the computer
system.
Saving data and instructions so that
2 Store Data they are available for processing as
and when required.
Performing arithmetic, and logical
Processing operations on data in order to
3
Data convert them into useful
information.
The process of producing useful
Output information or results for the user,
4
Information such as a printed report or visual
display.
Directs the manner and sequence in
Control the
5 which all of the above operations
workflow
are performed.

Input Unit

This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit
creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information
into a form understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the
operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has the following three components

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

  Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Output Unit

The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the
computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the
computer's output into a form understandable by the users.


CPU(Central Processing Unit)

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit:This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results.
This unit supplies information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known
as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access
Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit: This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry
out any actual data processing operations.

Functions of this unit include:

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units
of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation
of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): This unit performs all the arithmetic and logical operations
in the system. It consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section: Arithmetic section performs arithmetic operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section: Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.

History of Computers

The naive understanding of computation had to be overcome before the true power of
computing could be realized. The inventors who worked tirelessly to bring the computer into
the world had to realize that what they were creating was more than just a number cruncher or
a calculator. They had to address all of the difficulties associated with inventing such a
machine, implementing the design, and actually building it. The history of the computer is the
history of these difficulties being solved.

19th Century
1801 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, a weaver and businessman from France, devised a loom that
employed punched wooden cards to automatically weave cloth designs.

1822 – Charles Babbage, a mathematician, invented the steam-powered calculating machine

capable of calculating number tables. The “Difference Engine” idea failed owing to a lack of
technology at the time.

1848 – The world’s first computer program was written by Ada Lovelace, an English
mathematician. Lovelace also includes a step-by-step tutorial on how to compute Bernoulli
numbers using Babbage’s machine.
1890 – Herman Hollerith, an inventor, creates the punch card technique used to calculate the
1880 U.S. census. He would go on to start the corporation that would become IBM.

Early 20th Century

1930 – Differential Analyzer was the first large-scale automatic general-purpose mechanical
analogue computer invented and built by Vannevar Bush.

1936 – Alan Turing had an idea for a universal machine, which he called the Turing machine,
that could compute anything that could be computed.

1939 – Hewlett-Packard was discovered in a garage in Palo Alto, California by Bill Hewlett
and David Packard.

1941 – Konrad Zuse, a German inventor and engineer, completed his Z3 machine, the world’s
first digital computer. However, the machine was destroyed during a World War II bombing
strike on Berlin.

1941 – J.V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry devise a computer capable of
solving 29 equations at the same time. The first time a computer can store data in its primary
memory.

1945 – University of Pennsylvania academics John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert create an
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was Turing-complete and capable
of solving “a vast class of numerical problems” by reprogramming, earning it the title of
“Grandfather of computers.”

1946 – The UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was the first general-purpose
electronic digital computer designed in the United States for corporate applications.

1949 – The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), developed by a team at
the University of Cambridge, is the “first practical stored-program computer.”

1950 – The Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) was built in Washington, DC,
and it was the first stored-program computer completed in the United States.

Late 20th Century

1953 – Grace Hopper, a computer scientist, creates the first computer language, which
becomes known as COBOL, which stands for COmmon, Business-Oriented Language. It
allowed a computer user to offer the computer instructions in English-like words rather than
numbers.
1954 – John Backus and a team of IBM programmers created the FORTRAN programming
language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation. In addition, IBM developed the 650.

1958 – The integrated circuit, sometimes known as the computer chip, was created by Jack
Kirby and Robert Noyce.

1962 – Atlas, the computer, makes its appearance. It was the fastest computer in the world at
the time, and it pioneered the concept of “virtual memory.”

1964 – Douglas Engelbart proposes a modern computer prototype that combines a mouse and
a graphical user interface (GUI).

1969 – Bell Labs developers, led by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, revealed UNIX, an
operating system developed in the C programming language that addressed program
compatibility difficulties.

1970 – The Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip, is unveiled by Intel.

1971 – The floppy disc was invented by Alan Shugart and a team of IBM engineers. In
the same year, Xerox developed the first laser printer, which not only produced billions of
dollars but also heralded the beginning of a new age in computer printing.

1973 – Robert Metcalfe, a member of Xerox’s research department, created Ethernet, which is
used to connect many computers and other gear.

1974 – Personal computers were introduced into the market. The first were the Altair Scelbi &
Mark-8, IBM 5100, and Radio Shack’s TRS-80.

1975 – Popular Electronics magazine touted the Altair 8800 as the world’s first minicomputer
kit in January. Paul Allen and Bill Gates offer to build software in the BASIC language for the
Altair.

1976 – Apple Computers is founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, who expose the world
to the Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board.

1977 – At the first West Coast Computer Faire, Jobs and Wozniak announce the Apple II. It
has colour graphics and a cassette drive for storing music.

1978 – The first computerized spreadsheet program, VisiCalc, is introduced.

1979 – WordStar, a word processing tool from MicroPro International, is released.

1981 – IBM unveils the Acorn, their first personal computer, which has an Intel CPU, two
floppy drives, and a colour display. The MS-DOS operating system from Microsoft is used by
Acorn.

1983 – The CD-ROM, which could carry 550 megabytes of pre-recorded data, hit the market.
This year also saw the release of the Gavilan SC, the first portable computer with a flip-form
design and the first to be offered as a “laptop.”

1984 – Apple launched Macintosh during the Superbowl XVIII commercial.

1985 – Microsoft introduces Windows, which enables multitasking via a graphical user
interface. In addition, the programming language C++ has been released.

1990 – Tim Berners-Lee, an English programmer and scientist, creates HyperText Markup
Language, widely known as HTML. He also coined the term “WorldWideWeb.” It includes
the first browser, a server, HTML, and URLs.

1993 – The Pentium CPU improves the usage of graphics and music on personal computers.

1995 – Microsoft’s Windows 95 operating system was released. A $300 million promotional
campaign was launched to get the news out. Sun Microsystems introduces Java 1.0, followed
by Netscape Communications’ JavaScript.

1996 – At Stanford University, Sergey Brin and Larry Page created the Google search engine.

1998 – Apple introduces the iMac, an all-in-one Macintosh desktop computer. These PCs cost
$1,300 and came with a 4GB hard drive, 32MB RAM, a CD-ROM, and a 15-inch monitor.

1999 – Wi-Fi, an abbreviation for “wireless fidelity,” is created, originally covering a range of
up to 300 feet.

21st Century
2000 – The USB flash drive is first introduced in 2000. They were speedier and had more
storage space than other storage media options when used for data storage.

2001 – Apple releases Mac OS X, later renamed OS X and eventually simply macOS, as the
successor to its conventional Mac Operating System.

2003 – Customers could purchase AMD’s Athlon 64, the first 64-bit CPU for consumer
computers.
2004 – Facebook began as a social networking website.

2005 – Google acquires Android, a mobile phone OS based on Linux.

2006 – Apple’s MacBook Pro was available. The Pro was the company’s first dual-core, Intel-
based mobile computer.

Amazon Web Services, including Amazon Elastic Cloud 2 (EC2) and Amazon Simple Storage
Service, were also launched (S3)

2007 – The first iPhone was produced by Apple, bringing many computer operations into the
palm of our hands. Amazon also released the Kindle, one of the first electronic reading
systems, in 2007.

2009 – Microsoft released Windows 7.

2011 – Google introduces the Chromebook, which runs Google Chrome OS.

2014 – The University of Michigan Micro Mote (M3), the world’s smallest computer, was
constructed.

2015 – Apple introduces the Apple Watch. Windows 10 was also released by Microsoft.

2016 – The world’s first reprogrammable quantum computer is built.

Generations of Computers

In the history of computers, we often refer to the advancements of modern computers as

the generation of computers. We are currently on the fifth generation of computers. So let us
look at the important features of these five generations of computers.

 1st Generation: This was from the period of 1940 to 1955. This was when
machine language was developed for the use of computers. They used vacuum
tubes for the circuitry. For the purpose of memory, they used magnetic
drums. These machines were complicated, large, and expensive. They were
mostly reliant on batch operating systems and punch cards. As output and input
devices, magnetic tape and paper tape were implemented. For example, ENIAC,
UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, and so on.

 2nd Generation: The years 1957-1963 were referred to as the “second generation
of computers” at the time. In second-generation computers, COBOL and
FORTRAN are employed as assembly languages and programming languages.
Here they advanced from vacuum tubes to transistors. This made the computers
 smaller, faster and more energy-efficient. And they advanced from binary to
assembly languages. For instance, IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600,
and so forth.

 3rd Generation: The hallmark of this period (1964-1971) was the development
of the integrated circuit. A single integrated circuit (IC) is made up of many
transistors, which increases the power of a computer while simultaneously
lowering its cost. These computers were quicker, smaller, more reliable, and less
expensive than their predecessors. High-level programming languages such as
FORTRON-II to IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were utilized. For example, the
IBM-360 series, the Honeywell-6000 series, and the IBM-370/168.

 4th Generation: The invention of the microprocessors brought along the fourth
generation of computers. The years 1971-1980 were dominated by fourth
generation computers. C, C++ and Java were the programming languages utilized
in this generation of computers. For instance, the STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1,
CRAY-X-MP, and Apple II. This was when we started producing computers for
home use.

 5th Generation: These computers have been utilized since 1980 and continue to
be used now. This is the present and the future of the computer world. The
defining aspect of this generation is artificial intelligence. The use of parallel
processing and superconductors are making this a reality and provide a lot of
scope for the future. Fifth-generation computers use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) technology. These are the most recent and sophisticated computers. C,
C++, Java,.Net, and more programming languages are used. For instance, IBM,
Pentium, Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook, and so on.

Types of Computers

1. Analog Computers – Analog computers are built with various components such as gears
and levers, with no electrical components. One advantage of analogue computation is that
designing and building an analogue computer to tackle a specific problem can be quite
straightforward.

2. Digital Computers – Information in digital computers is represented in discrete form,

typically as sequences of 0s and 1s (binary digits, or bits). A digital computer is a system or
gadget that can process any type of information in a matter of seconds. Digital computers are
categorized into many different types. They are as follows:
a. Mainframe computers – It is a computer that is generally utilized by large enterprises for
mission-critical activities such as massive data processing. Mainframe computers were
distinguished by massive storage capacities, quick components, and powerful computational
capabilities. Because they were complicated systems, they were managed by a team of
systems programmers who had sole access to the computer. These machines are now referred
to as servers rather than mainframes.

b. Supercomputers – The most powerful computers to date are commonly

referred to as supercomputers. Supercomputers are enormous systems that are purpose-built
to solve complicated scientific and industrial problems. Quantum mechanics, weather
 forecasting, oil and gas exploration, molecular modelling, physical simulations,
aerodynamics, nuclear fusion research, and cryptoanalysis are all done on supercomputers.

c. Minicomputers – A minicomputer is a type of computer that has many of the same features
and capabilities as a larger computer but is smaller in size. Minicomputers, which were
relatively small and affordable, were often employed in a single department of an organization
and were often dedicated to a specific task or shared by a small group.

d. Microcomputers – A microcomputer is a small computer that is based on a microprocessor

integrated circuit, often known as a chip. A microcomputer is a system that incorporates at a
minimum a microprocessor, program memory, data memory, and input-output system (I/O). A
microcomputer is now commonly referred to as a personal computer (PC).

e. Embedded processors – These are miniature computers that control electrical and mechanical
processes with basic microprocessors. Embedded processors are often simple in design, have
limited processing capability and I/O capabilities, and need little power. Ordinary
microprocessors and microcontrollers are the two primary types of embedded processors.
Embedded processors are employed in systems that do not require the computing capability of
traditional devices such as desktop computers, laptop computers, or workstations.

Input/Output Devices

Input Devices
An input device is a hardware device that takes instructions from the user and passes it to a
processing unit, such as a CPU. Input devices can transmit data to other devices by taking it
from one device but cannot receive data. Example: the keyboard or the mouse.
Some commonly used input devices include:
1. Keyboard: It is a hardware device with keys with alphabets and numbers on it and is
used to take alphanumeric input. It is the most commonly used input device.
2. Mouse: It is a hardware device that takes input by clicking on keys on the surface of
the mouse. The mouse is a pointing device that points to icons on the screen to select
them.
3. Microphone: It takes sound as a form of input and can convert it to a digital or
electrical form.
4. Joystick: It is usually used to play games. It has a stick that is inclined to angle to
control movement in video games.
5. Light Pen/stylus: It is a device used to give input by touching the device. A stylus is
a light-dependent tool.
6. Scanner: It is used to scan images, text, or documents to convert them into digital
form.
Output Devices
Output devices are hardware devices that receive data from the processing unit and other
devices and return the result of the data—for example, monitors and speakers.
Some commonly used output devices include:
1. Monitor: It is a device through which we see and operate our software. All icons, text,
and images are displayed here. We see all the outputs on this screen.
2. Printer: It produces hard copies or prints of images, text, or documents on the
computer.
3. Speakers: They yield output in the form of audio and allow users to listen to music,
game sounds, etc. Speakers can be wired and wireless.
4. Projector: It produces output by projecting images and videos on a big screen. When
connected to a computer, the image on the monitor will only be displayed on the
screen.
5. Headphones: These devices also produce audio outputs but are only for personal use.

Input/Output Devices
An input/output device can perform the job of both input and output devices. In other words,
it can receive data from other devices or users (input) and send it to other devices (output).
Examples of input/output devices include:
 CD/DVD drives: They copy data received from the computer and store it. They can
also transfer data on the drive and pass it to the computer’s storage
 USB/Flash drives: They receive and send data from the computer to the drive and
vice-versa

Computer Peripheral
A computer peripheral, also known as a peripheral device, is an external device that connects
to a computer to expand its capabilities. Peripheral devices are not essential to the functioning
of a computer, but they enhance its functionality. These devices can be input devices, output
devices, or both. Examples of input devices include a keyboard, mouse, scanner, and
microphone, while output devices include a printer, speaker, and display. Other peripherals
include storage devices such as external hard drives and flash drives, and networking devices
such as routers and modems.
Peripheral devices can be connected to a computer through wired or wireless connections.
Wired connections include USB, HDMI, DVI, ethernet, and serial ports. Wireless
connections include Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and infrared. To connect a peripheral device to a
computer, the device should be plugged into the appropriate port on the computer or
connected wirelessly. After a peripheral is connected, drivers may need to be installed to
ensure the device functions properly
.
There are many types of computer peripherals, including input devices, output devices,
storage devices, and networking devices. Common input devices include a keyboard, mouse,
scanner, microphone, and webcam. Output devices include a printer, speaker, and display.
Storage devices include external hard drives, USB flash drives, and SD cards. Networking
devices include routers, modems, and network adapters.

Computer Hardware, software and Human ware.

Computer is made up of two major parts: hardware and software.

Hardware: This refers to the physical or tangible components of a computer. Computer
Hardware is any part of the computer that we can touch. These are the primary electronic
devices used to build up the computer. Examples of hardware in a computer are the Processor,
Memory Devices, Monitor, Printer, Keyboard, Mouse, and Central Processing Unit.

Different Types of Computer Hardware

 Input Devices: Input Devices are those devices through which a user enters data and
information into the Computer or simply, User interacts with the Computer. Examples
of Input Devices are Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, etc.
 Output Devices: Output Devices are devices that are used to show the result of the
task performed by the user. Examples of Output Devices are Monitors, Printers,
Speakers, etc.
 Storage Devices: Storage Devices are devices that are used for storing data and they
are also known as Secondary Storage Data. Examples of Storage Devices
areCDs,DVDs, Hard Disks, etc.
 Internal Component: Internal Components consist of important hardware devices
present in the System. Examples of Internal Components are the CPU, Motherboard,
etc.

Software: Software is a collection of instructions, procedures, and documentation that

performs different tasks on a computer system. We can say also Computer Software is a
programming code executed on a computerprocessor. The code can be machine-level code or
code written for an operating system.
Examples of software are MS- Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Google Chrome, Photoshop,
MySQL, etc.
Different Types of Computer Software
 System Software: System Software is a component of Computer Software that
directly operates with Computer Hardware which has the work to control the
Computer’s Internal Functioning and also takes responsibility for controlling
Hardware Devices such as Printers, Storage Devices, etc. Examples of system
software are Operating Systems, Language processors and Device Drivers.

 Application Software: Application Software is the software that works the basic
operations of the computer. It performs a specific task for users. Application
Software includes Word Processors, Spreadsheets, etc. Types of Application
software include General Purpose Software, Customized Software, etc.

Difference Between Hardware and Software

Parameters Hardware Software

Hardware is a physical part of

Software is a set of instructions that
Basic the computer that causes the
tells a computer exactly what to do.
Definition processing of data.

Development It is manufactured. It is developed and engineered.

Hardware cannot perform any The software can not be executed

Dependency task without software. without hardware.

Process of Electronic and other materials Created by utilizing a computer

creating are used to create hardware. language to write instructions.

Hardware is tangible as Software is intangible as we can see

hardware is a physical electronic and also use the software but can’t
Tangible device, that can be touched. touch them.

The software does not wear out with

Hardware typically wears out
time. However, it may contain flaws
over time.
Durability and glitches.

It has four main categories:

It is mainly divided into
 Input Devices
 System software
Types  Output Devices
 Application software.
 Storage Devices
Parameters Hardware Software

 Internal Components.

Hardware is not affected by Software is affected by computer

Virus effect computer viruses. viruses.

It cannot be transferred from one

It can be transferred via a network
place to another electrically
means.
Transfer through the network.

The program accepts human-readable

Only machine-level language is
input, interprets it in machine-level
known to be understood by
Machine-Level language, and sends it to hardware for
hardware.
language additional processing.

If the hardware is damaged, it is If the software is damaged, its backup

Replacement replaced with a new one. copy can be reinstalled.

Dust, overheating, humidity, and Overloading, systematic error, major-

other factors are commonly minor version error, and other factors
responsible for hardware are commonly responsible for software
Failures failures. failures.

Ex: Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Ex: MS

Printer, CPU, Hard Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Photoshop,
Examples disk, RAM, ROM, etc. MySQL, etc.

Humanware: Humanware, also known as human-computer intearction refers to the

components, systems and processes that connect and facilitate interaction between users and
technology. It is the combination of hardware and software elements that make human
interaction with a device as good as possible. Often, developing humanware begins by
defining who the computer's potential users are, what they are interested in, and what they
need before designing the infrastructure.
Computer/Digital Applications

Computer has become an integral part of modern generation and is widely used across various
fields. Some of these common uses of computer include:

1. Business: Almost every business uses computers nowadays. They can be used to store
and maintain accounts and personnel records, manage projects, track inventory and create
presentations and reports. They enable communication with people both within and
outside the business using various technologies such as e-mail. They can also be used to
promote business and enable direct interaction with customers.

2. Education: Computers can be used to provide learners with audio-visual packages,

interactive exercises and remote learning, including tutoring over the internet. They can
be used to access educational information from intranet and internet sources or via e-
books. They can be used to maintain and monitor student performance through online
examinations, projects and assignments.
3. Healthcare: Healthcare is being revolutionized by computers. Medical information are
now digitized making it easier to store and access patient data. /Complex information can
also be analysed by software to aid discovery of diagnoses, as well as search for risks of
diseases. Computers control lab equipment, heart rate monitors, and blood pressure monitors.
They enable doctors to have greater access to information on the latest drugs and provide
them with the ability to share information on diseases with other medical specialists.

4. Retail and Trade: Computers can be used to buy and sell products online. This enables
sellers to reach a wider market with low overheads and buyers to compare prices, read
reviews and choose delivery preferences. They can be used for direct trading and advertising
too using sites such as eBay, Craigslist or local listings on social media or independent
websites.

5. Government: Various government departments use computers to improve the quality and
efficiency of their services. Examples include city planning, law enforcement, traffic and
tourism. Computers can be used to store information, promote services, communicate
internally and externally, as well as for routine administrative purposes.

6. Marketing: Computers enable marketing campaigns to be more precise through the

analysis and manipulation of data. They facilitate the creation of websites and promotional
materials. They can be used to generate social media campaigns. They enable direct
communication with customers through email and online chat.

7. Science: Scientists were one of the first groups to adopt computers as a work tool. In
science, computers can be used for research, sharing information with other specialists both
locally and internationally, as well as collecting, categorizing, analysing and storing data.
Computers also play a vital role in launching, controlling and maintaining spacecraft, as well
as operating other advanced technology.

8. Publishing: Computers can be used to design any type of publication. These might include
newsletters, marketing materials, fashion magazines, novels, or newspapers. Computers are
used in the publishing of both hard-copy and e-books. They are also used to market
publications and track sales.
9. Arts and Entertainment: Computers are now used in virtually every branch of the arts
including the wider entertainment industry. Computers can be used to create drawings,
graphic designs, and paintings. They can be used to edit, copy, send and print photographs.
They can be used by writers to create and edit. They can be used to make, record, edit, play
and listen to music. They can be used to capture, edit and watch videos. They can also be
used for playing games.

10. Communication: Computers have made real-time communication over the internet easy,
thanks to software and videoconferencing services such as Skype and Zoom. Families can
connect with audio and video, businesses can hold meetings between remote participants, and
news organizations can interview people without the need for a film crew. Modern computers
usually have microphones and webcams built-in nowadays to facilitate software like Skype or
web-based services like Zoom. Older communications technologies such as email are also
still used widely.

11. Banking and Finance: Most banking in advanced countries now take place online. You
can use computers to check your account balance, transfer money, or pay off credit cards.
You can also use computer technology to access information on stock markets, trade stocks
and manage investments. Banks store customer account data, as well as detailed information
on customer behaviour which is used to streamline marketing.

12. Transport: Road vehicles, trains, planes, and boats are increasingly automated, with
computers being used to maintain safety and navigation systems. Computers are also
increasingly used to drive, fly, or steer. They can also highlight problems that require
attention, such as low fuel levels, oil changes or a failing mechanical part. Computers can be
used to customize settings for individuals, for example, seat setup and air-conditioning
temperatures.

13. Navigation: Navigation has become increasingly computerized, especially since computer
technology has been combined with GPS technology. Computers combined with satellites
mean that it's now easy to pinpoint your exact location, know which way you are moving on
a map, and have a good idea of amenities and places of interest around you.
14. Working from Home: Computers have made working from home and other forms of
remote working increasingly common. Workers can access necessary data, communicate, and
share information without commuting to a traditional office. Managers are able to monitor
workers' productivity remotely.

15. Military: Computers are used extensively by the military. They are used for training
purposes. They are used for analysing intelligence data. They are used to control smart
technology, such as guided missiles and drones, as well as for tracking incoming missiles and
destroying them. They work with other technologies, such as satellites, to provide geospatial
information and analysis. They aid communications. They help tanks and planes target enemy
forces.

16. Security and Surveillance: Computers are often combined with other technologies to
monitor people and goods. Computers combined with biometric passports make it harder for
people to fraudulently enter a country or gain access to a passenger airplane. Face-recognition
technology makes it easier to identify terrorists or criminals in public places.

Driver plates can be auto-scanned by speed cameras or police cars. Private security systems
have also become much more sophisticated with the introduction of computer technology and
internet technology.
17. Weather Forecasting: The world's weather is complex and depends upon a multitude of
factors that are constantly changing. It's impossible for human beings to monitor and process
all the information coming in from satellite and other technologies, talk more of performing
the complex calculations that are needed to predict what is likely to happen in the future.
Computers can process large amounts of meteorological information.

18. Robotics: Robotics is an expanding area of technology which combines computers with
science and engineering to produce machines that can either replace humans or do specific
jobs that humans are unable to do. One of the first uses of robotics was in manufacturing to
build cars. Since then, robots have been developed to explore areas where conditions are too
harsh for humans.

19. Agriculture: Computers assist in precision agriculture by analysing data from sensors,
satellites, and drones to optimize planting, irrigation, and harvesting processes.

Information Processing

Information processing plays a central role in society by enabling people to acquire, process,
and use information to make decisions. It is a fundamental part of human life and also a key
component of modern operations and business.

Roles of information Processing in society

 Decision-making

Information processing helps people make decisions by providing them with

relevant, accurate, and up-to-date information.
 Social and economic development
Information processing can help improve access to education, employment, and
social awareness.
 Business
Information processing is critical in business operations, where it's used to create,
use, distribute, and manipulate data.
 Human behavior
Information processing affects how people think, feel, and behave, which in turn
influences society as a whole.
How information processing works

 Information acquisition: People encounter stimuli that trigger their senses, which
lead to responses.
 Information processing: People analyze the stimuli and decide on actions based on
that analysis.
 Information storage: People store information in their memory, which can be short-
term or long-term.
 Information retrieval: People retrieve information from their memory when it's
needed.

Internet

The Internet is the foremost important tool and the prominent resource that is being used by
almost every person across the globe. It connects millions of computers, webpages, websites,
and servers. Using the internet we can send emails, photos, videos, and messages to our loved
ones. Or in other words, the Internet is a widespread interconnected network of computers
and electronic devices. It creates a communication medium to share and get information
online. If your device is connected to the Internet then you will be able to access all the
applications, websites, social media apps, and many more services. The Internet nowadays is
considered the fastest medium for sending and receiving information.

History of the Internet

The Internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first working model
called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency). It allowed multiple computers to
work on a single network which was their biggest achievement at that time. ARPANET uses
packet switching to communicate multiple computer systems under a single network. In
October 1969, using ARPANET first message was transferred from one computer to another.

Setting Up Internet
The internet is set up with the help of physical optical fiber data transmission cables or
copper wires and various other networking mediums like LAN, WAN, MAN, etc. For
accessing the Internet even the 2G, 3G, and 4G services and the Wifi require these physical
cable setups to access the Internet. There is an authority named ICANN (Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) located in the USA which manages the
Internet and protocols related to it like IP addresses.

How Internet Works

The actual working of the internet takes place with the help of clients and servers. Here the
client is a laptop that is directly connected to the internet and servers are the computers
connected indirectly to the Internet and they are having all the websites stored in those large
computers. These servers are connected to the internet with the help of ISP (Internet Service
Providers) and will be identified with the IP address.
Each website has its Domain name as it is difficult for any person to always remember the
long numbers or strings. So, whenever you search for any domain name in the search bar of
the browser the request will be sent to the server and that server will try to find the IP address
from the Domain name because it cannot understand the domain name. After getting the IP
address the server will try to search the IP address of the Domain name in a Huge phone
directory known as DNS server (Domain Name Server). After getting the IP address, the
browser will pass on the further request to the respective server and now the server will
process the request to display the content of the website which the client wants. If you are
using a wireless medium of Internet like 3G and 4G or other mobile data then the data will
start flowing from the optical cables and will first reach towers, from there the signals will
reach your cell phones and PCs through electromagnetic waves and if you are using routers
then optical fiber connecting to your router will help in connecting those light-induced
signals to electrical signals and with the help of ethernet cables, internet reaches your
computers and hence the required information.

IP Address

IP Address stands for Internet Protocol Address. Every PC/Local machine is having an IP
address and that IP address is provided by the Internet Service Providers (ISPs). These are
some sets of rules which govern the flow of data whenever a device is connected to the
Internet. It differentiates computers, websites, and routers. Every laptop and desktop has its
own unique IP address for identification. It is an important part of Internet technology.

An IP address is displayed as a set of four-digit like 192.154.3.29. Here each number on the
set ranges from 0 to 255. Hence, the total IP address range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
You can check the IP address of your Laptop or desktop by clicking on the Windows start
menu -> then right-click and go to network -> in that go to status and then Properties you can
see the IP address. There are four different types of IP addresses are available:
1. Static IP Address
2. Dynamic IP Address
3. Private IP Address
4. Public IP Address

World Wide Web (WWW)

The world wide web is a collection of all the web pages, and web documents that you can see
on the Internet by searching their URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) on the Internet. For
example, www.yahoo.com is the URL of the yahoo website and all the content of this site
like webpages and all the web documents are stored on the world wide Web. Or in other
words, the world wide web is an information retrieval service of the web. It provides users
with a huge array of documents that are connected to each other by means of hypertext or
hypermedia links. Here, hyperlinks are known as electronic connections that link the related
data so that users can easily access the related information hypertext allows the user to pick a
word or phrase from text, and using this keyword or word or phrase can access other
documents that contain additional information related to that word or keyword or phrase.

World wide web was created by Timothy Berner’s Lee in 1989, for researchers to work
together effectively at CERN. It is an organization, named World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C), which was developed for further development in the web.
Difference Between World Wide Web and the Internet
The main difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet are:

World Wide Web Internet

All the web pages and web

documents are stored there on the
The Internet is a global network of computers that is
World wide web and to find all that
accessed by the World wide web.
stuff you will have a specific URL
for each website.

The world wide web is a service. The Internet is an infrastructure.

The world wide web is a subset of

The Internet is the superset of the world wide web.
the Internet.

The world wide web is software-

The Internet is hardware-oriented.
oriented.

The world wide web uses HTTP. The Internet uses IP Addresses.

The world wide web can be

considered as a book from the The Internet can be considered a Library.
different topics inside a Library.

Applications of the Internet

Some of the important usages of the internet are:
 Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made our life
easier, e-commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, and Myntra are providing very
spectacular services with just one click and this is a great use of the Internet.
 Cashless Transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering services to
their customers to pay the bills of the products online via various digital payment
apps like Paytm, Google Pay, etc. UPI payment gateway is also increasing day by
day. Digital payment industries are growing at a rate of 50% every year too
because of the INTERNET.
 Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of educational
material to everyone through any server across the web. Those who are unable to
attend physical classes can choose any course from the internet and can have
point-to-point knowledge of it just by sitting at home. High-class faculties are
teaching online on digital platforms and providing quality education to students
with the help of the Internet.
  Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to connect
people all over the world. With the help of social networking sites, we can talk,
and share videos, and images with our loved ones when they are far away from us.
Also, we can create groups for discussion or for meetings.
 Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There are numerous
entertainment options available on the internet like watching movies, playing
games, listening to music, etc. You can also download movies, games, songs, TV
Serial, etc., easily from the internet.

Security and the Internet

Very huge amount of data is managed across the Internet almost the time, which leads to the
risk of data breaching and many other security issues. Both Hackers and Crackers can lead to
disrupting the network and can steal important information like Login Credentials, Banking
Credentials, etc.

Steps to Protect the Online Privacy

 Install Antivirus or Antimalware.

 Create random and difficult passwords, so that it becomes difficult to guess.
 Use a private browsing window orVPNfor using the Internet.
 Try to useHTTPSonly for better protection.
 Try to make your Social Media Account Private.
 If you are not using any application, which requires GPS, then you can turn GPS
off.
 Do not simply close the tab, first log out from that account, then close the tab.
 Try to avoid accessing public Wifi or hotspots.
 Try to avoid opening or downloading content from unknown sources.

Advantages of the Internet

 Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us to transfer money
online through the net banking system. Money can be credited or debited from one
account to the other.
 Education, Online Jobs, Freelancing: Through the Internet, we are able to get
more jobs via online platforms like Linkedin and to reach more job providers.
Freelancing on the other hand has helped the youth to earn a side income and the
best part is all this can be done via the INTERNET.
 Entertainment: There are numerous options for entertainment online we can
listen to music, play games can watch movies, and web series, and listen to
podcasts, youtube itself is a hub of knowledge as well as entertainment.
 New Job Roles: The Internet has given us access to social media, and digital
products so we are having numerous new job opportunities like digital marketing
and social media marketing online businesses are earning huge amounts of money
just because the Internet is the medium to help us to do so.
 Best Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been removed
from the Internet. You can send messages via email, Whatsapp, and Facebook.
Voice chatting and video conferencing are also available to help you to do
important meetings online.
  Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so many
things like shopping online it can be anything from stationeries to clothes, books
to personal items, etc. You can books train and plane tickets online.
 GPS Tracking and google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is that
you are able to find any road in any direction, and areas with less traffic with the
help of GPS on your mobile.

Disadvantages of the Internet

 Time Wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet surfing social media apps
and doing nothing decreases your productivity rather than wasting time on
scrolling social media apps one should utilize that time in doing something skillful
and even more productive.
 Bad Impacts on Health: Spending too much time on the internet causes bad
impacts on your health physical body needs some outdoor games exercise and
many more things. Looking at the screen for a longer duration causes serious
impacts on the eyes.
 Cyber Crimes:Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and stealing data are some
of the crimes which are on the verge these days. Your system which contains all
the confidential data can be easily hacked bycybercriminals.
 Effects on Children: Small children are heavily addicted to the Internet watching
movies, and games all the time is not good for their overall personality as well as
social development.
 Bullying and Spreading Negativity: The Internet has given a free tool in the
form of social media apps to all those people who always try to spread negativity
with very revolting and shameful messages and try to bully each other which is
wrong.

The Impact of the Internet on the World

The internet has revolutionized the way we live our lives. It has changed the way we
communicate, access information, and conduct business.

 Communication: The most significant impact of the internet has been on

communication. The internet has made it easier than ever to communicate with people
from all over the world. Email, social media, and instant messaging apps have made it
possible to stay in touch with friends and family, regardless of their location. Video
conferencing has also made it possible for businesses to conduct meetings remotely,
saving time and money. The internet has also had a profound impact on the way we
consume news and information. In the past, we relied on traditional media sources such
as newspapers, radio, and television to stay informed. Now, we have access to a vast
amount of information on the internet, from news websites to blogs and social media.
This has made it easier than ever to stay up-to-date on current events and to learn about
new topics.

 Education: The internet has also transformed the way we learn. Online courses and
educational resources have made it possible for people to learn new skills and pursue
degrees from anywhere in the world. This has made education more accessible and
 affordable for many people, particularly those who live in remote areas or cannot
afford traditional education.

 Business: The internet has also had a significant impact on the way businesses operate.
E-commerce has made it possible for businesses to sell products and services online,
opening up new markets and opportunities. Social media has also become an important
tool for businesses, allowing them to reach new customers and build relationships with
existing ones. The internet has also made it easier for businesses to communicate and
collaborate with partners and customers around the world.

 Social Impact: The internet has also had a significant impact on society. Social media
has changed the way we interact with each other, allowing us to connect with people
from all over the world and to share our thoughts and experiences. However, social
media has also been criticized for contributing to the spread of misinformation and for
facilitating cyberbullying and other forms of online harassment.

 Privacy and Security: The internet has also raised concerns about privacy and security.
With so much personal information available online, there is a risk of identity theft and
other forms of cybercrime. The internet has also been used by governments and
corporations to collect data on individuals, raising concerns about surveillance and the
erosion of privacy.

Despite the challenges posed by the internet, it is undeniable that it has brought about
tremendous positive change. It has created new opportunities for education, business, and
communication, and has connected people across the world in ways that were once
unimaginable. The internet has also given voice to marginalized communities, allowing
them to share their stories and experiences with a global audience.

One of the most notable impacts of the internet has been on the economy. E-commerce has
made it possible for businesses of all sizes to reach customers around the world, opening up
new markets and opportunities. Online marketplaces like Amazon and eBay have created
new ways for entrepreneurs to sell their products and reach customers, while platforms like
Etsy have enabled artists and craftspeople to sell their handmade goods to a global audience.

The internet has also had a significant impact on the job market. While it has created new
opportunities for remote work and freelancing, it has also disrupted traditional industries
and led to the automation of many jobs. This has raised concerns about the impact of the
internet on employment, and has led to calls for governments and businesses to invest in
retraining and education programs to help workers adapt to the changing job market.

Another area where the internet has had a profound impact is on politics and activism.
Social media has given people a platform to express their opinions and mobilize for change.
The internet has also played a role in bringing about political change, from the Arab Spring
to the election of Donald Trump in the United States.
Despite its many benefits, the internet has also raised concerns about privacy and security.
The vast amount of personal information available online has made it easier for hackers and
cybercriminals to steal identities and commit fraud. Governments and corporations have
also been criticized for collecting and using data on individuals without their consent,
raising concerns about surveillance and the erosion of privacy.

As we continue to navigate the digital age, it is important to be aware of the impact of the
internet on our world and to work together to address its challenges. This means investing
in education and training programs to help workers adapt to the changing job market, and in
privacy and security measures to protect individuals from cybercrime and government
surveillance. It also means promoting digital literacy and responsible use of technology,
and working to ensure that the internet remains an open and accessible platform for all.

Different Areas/Programs of the Computing Discipline.

i. Artificial Intelligence (AI): this is the study and design of systems that can function
autonomously from human input. Examples of AI are programs that offer music
recommendations based on your previous listening habits or programs that can play
complex games like chess against a human competitor. Some AI studies focus on
creating machines that can perform human tasks like visual perception or speech
recognition. Machine learning is a subset of AI that focuses specifically on the possibility
of creating a machine that can use algorithms and programming to mirror the processes
of the human mind.
ii. Programming languages :Programming languages are an integral part of computer
science because most other disciplines use programming languages to function. To use a
computer, the programmer translates commands into a specific programming language
the computer can read. The study of programming languages and logic focuses on
designing these languages as well as analyzing them and characterizing and classifying
their individual features. Practical application of this study includes optimizing these
languages so they can write complex programs using the smallest amount of code that
the computer can understand.
iii. Scientific computing applications: this is an area of computer science that uses
computer algorithms and modeling capabilities to predict the outcome of scientific
experiments that scientists cannot conduct physically.
iv. Theory of computation: This is a discipline that focuses on determining what problems
computational algorithms solve and if they can solve them completely or partially. The
ultimate purpose of this subject is to determine what the fundamental capabilities and
limitations of computers are.
v. Data structures and algorithms: This discipline focuses on the way data structures and
algorithms can interact and how computer scientists can improve them to create better
computer programs. A data structure is a location where you can organize and store data.
An algorithm is a set of tasks you can command from a computer. You can use an
algorithm to retrieve and perform computations on the data, which creates a computer
 program. The focus of this discipline is to study the overlap of these two functions and
optimize them
vi. Computer architecture and organization: This discipline focuses on the study, design,
implementation and operation of a computer system. Architecture focuses on how the
design of hardware like computers, storage devices and network connection components
store programs, transmit data and facilitate connections with other devices. Organization
is how those components connect and how to optimize those connections.

vii. Computer networks: The study of computer networks focuses on the analysis, design
and implementation of networks that link computers together. For example, the internet
is a type of network that links computers together. Computer scientists study how to
develop these links using different connections, like light signals or radio waves. They
also work to develop protocols that establish limitations and protections for these
networks.
viii. Computer Security in cryptography: This discipline of computer science focuses on
how to protect information stored on computers. This can include creating hardware that
is more difficult to tamper with but mostly includes creating software that is invulnerable
to theft, destruction, fraud or access by an unauthorized user. Cryptography is a part of
computer security developed to protect data. It is the practice of using algorithms to
encrypt information by translating it from its natural state into a hard-to-decipher pattern
using a set of rule-based computations, as well as using algorithms to decrypt data.
ix. Database and data mining: focuses on how computer scientists organize and store data.
Big data is a term for large sets of data that are collected from a specific source. An
example of big data would be the location data, browsing habits and app usage that cell
phones collect to aid their users. Data mining is combing through that data to identify
patterns. One important emphasis of this discipline is to create database structures that
allow for the efficient organization and recall of data from a big data set, as well as
facilitating easy and quick data mining
x. Computer graphics and visualisation: This discipline of computer science focuses on
the display of computer systems and the control of images on the computer screen. This
includes studying and improving the hardware capabilities of a computer
xi. Image and sound processing: this focuses on studying the forms that information can
take and how to interpret and process that information. Image processing is when you
use a digital computer to interpret an image as a set of data that you can manipulate.
Manipulating the set of data can create more exact changes to the image than altering it
manually. A digital computer can manipulate sound and other forms of information with
the same process. Studying how to translate images and sound into data sets accurately
and then manipulating those sets is the primary purpose of this discipline.
xii. Concurrent, parallel and distributed computing: This discipline is the study of
computers and networks that have multiple computations happening at once. The central
question of this topic is how to design machines or strategies that can improve the speed
and correctness with which these simultaneous tasks occur. Concurrent computing is
 when multiple computations happen once. Computer scientists can improve concurrent
computing is through a distributed system, which is when multiple computers connect to
a network and process individual computations at one time.
xiii. Humanan- computer interaction:This topic within computer science focuses on how
users interact with computers and the user interface This topic within computer science
focuses on how users interact with computers and the user interface that facilitates this
interaction. The central aim of this discipline is to construct hardware and software that
makes using the computer easy and manageable for its user, without insisting on their
knowing computer science. This discipline incorporates user psychology, anthropology
and engineering because it focuses on interpreting users' instincts and expectations. Then,
computer scientists construct hardware and software that meets those expectations.
xiv. Software engineering: on using engineering approaches to the theory and practice of
building software systems. The cost and time involved in developing complex software
includes teams of computer scientists.
xv. Information and coding theory: Information theory studies the transmission and
processing of information. Coding theory studies how to translate information into codes
that can transmit information, as well as how to reduce the error rate when transmitting
data and how fast a computer can process a digital signal. In this discipline, computer
scientists use codes to determine the limits of how much they can compress, store or
transmit data.

Job Specializations for Computing Professionals

Professionals who specialize in computer science are often knowledgeable about internet
security, programming languages and application development. They may work in roles that
require them to improve and maintain the technological capabilities of a company and build
products to satisfy clients and stakeholders. Exploring career opportunities that include
expertise in computer science can enable you to find a position tha is right for you and
calculate your earning potential. Below are computer science specializations and the
jobspecialization.

Computer science specialization is a sub-field that focuses on a specific function of

computers, including the development of its programs, the security of the information it
stores and the management of the activities it performs. Professionals who have
specialization in computer science also have expertise in technology, which means they're
knowledgeable about conceptualizing programs and assessing existing programs for
issues. Some computer specializations where professionals can work include:
 Software Engineering: Aside from the hardware, which contains the physical parts that
make up a computer, the technology relies on software to run programs that display on
the screen and engage users. Software engineering involves the development, testing and
maintenance of software applications
 Cyber Security: Companies often store sensitive information in storage applications that
are accessible online, requiring security measures to protect the records from unapproved
use. With cybersecurity, professionals can monitor activities on the internet and find and
minimize threats before they escalate.
 Artificial Intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to technology's ability to
exercise similar abilities to a human being, such as speaking, recognizing pictures and
making recommendations. Professionals may strive to incorporate AI into heavy
machinery, such as vehicles, or everyday devices, such as smartphones.
 Cloud computing: With the cloud, users can back up and store data from the software
applications they use on their mobile devices and computers. The sub-field of cloud
computing entails engineering the internet-based cloud to work effectively and safeguard
the data it keeps.
 Game design: Modern technology has advanced the design of video games, creating
lifelike, animated characters and incorporating advanced special effects that enhance the
user experience. The game design specialization includes developing code that creates an
appealing interface and includes functions that allow users to immerse in the visual
elements they're seeing while playing.
Job Specializations
Job Specializations for computer professionals include:
 Cybersecurity analyst: A cybersecurity analyst is a professional who protects an
organization's network from threats in the digital landscape. Working closely with upper
management, the cybersecurity analyst recommends safeguards to keep information
confidential and authorize internal employees to use parts of the network. They also
develop procedures to respond to emergencies and restore or backup digital items
 User experience researcher: A user experience researcher is a data expert who analyzes
members of target audiences to understand what they look for when using a digital
program. To help develop a product that satisfies users, the UX researcher determines
what problems the product can address and what functions are most appealing to the
demographics that are likely to use the product. The professional often uses quantitative
research, such as surveys, and qualitative research, which includes interviews.
 Business Intelligence Analyst: Business Intelligence analyst is a professional who
evaluates the operations of a company to identify ways to make it more successful. With
expertise in data science, the business intelligence analyst determines if the company is
making progress toward its goals by assessing the resources it uses and the challenges it's
faced. Another responsibility is performing a competitor analysis, which helps the
professional stay informed about the industry and develop strategies to exceed competing
businesses.
 Database administrator: A database administrator oversees activities in software
databases that a company uses to store and organize information, such as user login
credentials, client interactions and survey results. To maintain the confidentiality of the
records, the database administrator ensures the structures are working effectively, and
they install security procedures to identify threats, remove viruses and restore lost data.
 The administrator may also install updates on the databases to boost their performance
and expand their capabilities.
 User Experience designer: A UX designer is a professional who develops computer
programs by prioritizing the needs and desires of end-users. Working by themselves or
with a group of developers, the UX designer creates technology that's accessible and
appealing to users and is functional enough to help them reach their goals. The work of a
UX designer may appear on a website or a mobile or computer application.
 Systems engineer: A systems engineer is an industry expert who creates a process for
conceptualizing, developing and implementing a system, such as a new software
application or piece of computer hardware. To maximize efficiency for the process, the
systems engineer compiles a list of necessary resources, collaborating with professionals
and establishing parameters to evaluate the success of the project. They also prioritize the
safety and security of their products and lend technical expertise to assist other
technology specialists on their team.
 Algorithm engineer: An algorithm engineer is a professional who specializes in the
development and implementation of algorithms, which are sets of rules that can solve
issues within technology. After the design process is complete, the algorithm engineer
conducts experiments to determine if the algorithm can address a particular problem that
a client or organization has with their software applications. They also use the findings of
their experiments to optimize the performance of the algorithm before the
implementation process begins.
 Front-end developer: A front-end developer is an industry expert who builds the front
end of a website, which is the part that users can see when they use the product. To
create the interface, the front-end developer uses programming languages, such as
HTML, and they control how information and visual elements display on the screen so
users can navigate the website. The professional also ensures the interface performs
optimally and maintains its layout regardless of the browser and type of device the user
chooses to access the website.
 Network security engineer: A network security engineer is an IT professional who
installs safeguards to protect a computer network from harm, which can include viruses
and malware. Network security engineers analyze the performance of the computer to
identify malfunctions and prevent them from recurring, and they conduct tests to see how
vulnerable the network is to external threats. Examples of defense mechanisms for the
network include encrypting the data on important files, implementing firewalls to stop
the entry from unauthorized users.
 Software engineer: A software engineer is a technology specialist who participates in
the development of new software products, such as video games, operating systems and
computer programs. After evaluating the needs of users, the software engineer works
with developers to write the code that allows the applications to perform specific
functions, and they test the performance of the software to fix bugs. Other
responsibilities include identifying needs for updates in current programs and
recording product development for future reference on upcoming projects.
 Cloud engineer: A cloud engineer is an IT professional who oversees cloud-based
programs on behalf of a company or organization. To keep the systems secure and
functional, the cloud engineer authorizes information that the systems can store, and they
perform maintenance to identify and resolve issues. They also work closely with upper
management and fellow IT specialists to discuss the process for transporting company
records to databases on the cloud.
 Machine learning engineer: A machine learning engineer is an artificial intelligence
expert who creates algorithms that enable a program to work effectively. Using research
and testing protocols, the machine learning engineer finds data sets that make up the
algorithm, and they use the results of the tests to identify ways for the systems to
improve. Machine learning engineers may work on a team of technology specialists,
which can include software developers, information technology experts and data scientist
 Mobile application developer: A mobile application developer is a type of engineer who
designs and builds programs that are compatible with mobile devices, such as cell phones,
tablets and laptops. They use source code that allows the program to perform certain
tasks and execute commands, and they conduct testing to determine the program's
compliance with the devices that consumers typically use. Once the products are
available for users to download, the mobile application developer performs maintenance
on the products and creates updates to boost their performance.
 Full-stack developer: A full-stack developer is a versatile technology specialist who
manages all elements of a computer system, including the front end and the back end. To
build quality products, full-stack developers examine the parts of the programs that users
can see and manipulate, such as the navigation menu on a mobile application, and they
develop the internal architecture that allows the programs to work properly. They also
look for connections between the front and back ends to make sure the hidden
components are executing commands the visible components are displaying as intended.