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plants
T H E C U LT U R A L H I S T O RY O F
plants
T H E C U LT U R A L H I S T O RY O F

SIR GHILLEAN PRANCE

CONSULTING EDITOR
MARK NESBITT
SCIENTIFIC EDITOR

Routledge
New York • London
Published in 2005 by
Routledge
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New York, NY 10016
www.routledge-ny.com
Published in Great Britain by
Routledge
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Milton Park, Abingdon
Oxon 0X14 4RN U.K.
Copyright © 2005 by Routledge
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cultural history of plants / edited by Ghillean Prance.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-415-92746-3 (Hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Crops–History. I. Prance, Ghillean T., 1937-
SB71.C86 2004
630'.9–dc21 2002012820

ISBN 0-203-02090-1 Master e-book ISBN

 Contents

Part 1 The Seeds of Time

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Ghillean Prance
The Hunter-Gatherers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ivan Crowe
Origins and Spread of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
David R. Harris

Part 2 The Migration of Plants

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Ghillean Prance
Gathering Food from the Wild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Andrea Pieroni
Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Mark Nesbitt
Roots and Tubers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Helen Sanderson
Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Charles Clement
Herbs and Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Jane Renfrew and Helen Sanderson
Nuts, Seeds, and Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Georgina Pearman
Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Barbara Pickersgill
Caffeine, Alcohol, and Sweeteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Hans T. Beck
Psychoactive Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Richard Rudgley
Plants as Medicines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Michael Heinrich, Andrea Pieroni, and Paul Bremner

v
vi • Contents

Fragrant Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Sue Minter
Ornamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Peter Barnes
Natural Fibers and Dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Frances A. Wood and George A.F. Roberts
Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Tony Russell
Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Daphne Hakuno

Part 3 Today and Tomorrow

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Ghillean Prance
Age of Industrialization and Agro-Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Andrew Jacobson
Invasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Vernon Heywood
Conservation of Wild Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
David R. Given and Nigel Maxted
Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Nigel Maxted and David R. Given

Plant Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

General References on the History of Useful Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
 List of Contributors

Peter Barnes Vernon Heywood

Freelance horticultural botanist and writer, Professor Emeritus, School of Plant Sciences,
UK The University of Reading, UK

Hans T. Beck Andrew Jacobson

Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Former Curator/Archivist, and Director of
Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, USA Collections, New Jersey Museum of
Agriculture, USA
Paul Bremner Archivist, AIG: American International
Centre for Pharmacognosy & Phytotherapy, Group, Inc., New York, NY, USA
School of Pharmacy, University of London,
UK Nigel Maxted
School of Biosciences, University of
Charles R. Clement Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da
Amazônia—INPA, Manaus, AM, Brazil Sue Minter
Horticultural Director, Eden Project,
Ivan Crowe Cornwall, UK
Independent Scholar, UK
Mark Nesbitt
David R. Given Centre for Economic Botany, Royal Botanic
Botanical Services Curator, Christchurch City Gardens, Kew, UK
Council, New Zealand
Georgina Pearman
Daphne Hakuno Researcher, Eden Project, Cornwall, UK
New York Botanic Gardens, New York, USA
Barbara Pickersgill
David R. Harris School of Plant Sciences, University of
Institute of Archaeology, University College Reading, UK
London, UK
Andrea Pieroni
Michael Heinrich School of Life Sciences, University of
Centre for Pharmacognosy & Phytotherapy, Bradford, UK and Department of Social
School of Pharmacy, University of London, Sciences, Wageningen University,
UK Netherlands

vii
viii • List of Contributors

Ghillean Prance Tony Russell

Former Director of the Royal Botanic Writer, Broadcaster and former Head
Gardens at Kew, UK, and Scientific Director of Forester of Westonbirt Arboretum,
the Eden Project in Cornwall, UK Gloucestershire, UK

Jane Renfrew Helen Sanderson

Lucy Cavendish College, University of Centre for Economic Botany, Royal Botanic
Cambridge, UK Gardens, Kew, UK

George A.F. Roberts Frances A. Wood

Emeritus Professor of Textile Science, Nottingham Trent School of Art & Design,
Nottingham Trent University, UK Nottingham Trent University, UK

Richard Rudgley
Institute of Social and Cultural
Anthropology, University of Oxford, UK
 Part I
The Seeds of Time

GHILLEAN T. PRANCE

All animals are dependent upon plants, since plants are the organisms at the base of the food chain,
because of their capacity to photosynthesize—that is, to turn water and carbon dioxide into oxygen
and sugars, in the presence of sunlight. As life on Earth gradually evolved from simple unicellular
organisms to the variety of organisms we know today, the complexity of interactions between
plants and animals increased, but plants remained the basis for life on Earth. Plants support all ani-
mal life. Humans are no exception to this rule, and we are just as dependent upon plants as any
other animal. We depend on plants not only for their role in producing the oxygen we breathe, but
also for food, shelter, medicines, clothing, and countless other uses.
The first chapter in this book describes how primates gradually developed into the hominids and
eventually into our species, Homo sapiens. With the advent of Homo, an intelligent being, more
than a basic subsistence from plants developed and a cultural relationship between plants and peo-
ple began to evolve. The managed use of fire began at a very early stage, perhaps even by our ances-
tor Homo erectus, who began to use fire to flush out game from the vegetation. Later our species
developed cooking, thus enabling the use of so many previously inedible species of plants. Because
of this gradual evolution of our species, amongst many other animal species and with complete
dependence on the plants around them, humans seem to have an inborn love of nature. This con-
cept was termed “biophilia” by the great Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson. It was therefore a
natural reaction for humans to develop a close relationship with plants and with the landscape
around them. Early in the evolutionary sequence of our australopithecine ancestors, dependence on
plants was confirmed by the need for vitamin C in their diet. Unlike almost all other mammals,
their bodies were unable to manufacture vitamin C. This meant that from an early stage plants were
an essential part of their diet.
Today we still have a few glimpses of how a hunter-gatherer society works from studies of the
indigenous peoples of the Amazon, New Guinea, and a few other places. These Stone-Age societies
are very much plant-based cultures, and it is amazing how many uses for plants they have devel-
oped. They are much more in touch with plants than most people are today. The culture of indige-
nous peoples very much depends upon which plants they put to use and how they use them: to eat,
as materials from which to build their houses, as medicines to heal, as tools for hunting and other
tasks, in rituals to commune with their spirits through narcotics, and as materials to make their
clothing. Studies by ethnoarcheologists and ethnobotanists show that the cultural history of plants
began long before history began to be documented.

1
2 • The Cultural History of Plants

Between ten and twelve thousand years ago, a major change occurred that completely revolu-
tionized human culture and its relationship to the environment. This was the invention of agriculture.
It is interesting that this took place independently in various parts of the world, based on the local
plant resources. In eastern Asia, rice was the basis of agriculture, whereas in the Middle East or
western Asia wheat and barley became the staple crops. In Central and South America, maize was
the cereal that enabled agriculture to prosper. The second chapter gives some of the fascinating
details of the multiple origins of agriculture. Cultivation of plants led to a major cultural change
because people no longer wandered from place to place as hunter-gatherers, but became settled in
towns and villages near their agricultural fields. The greater availability of food led to population
growth and consequently to greater destruction of the environment as demand increased for build-
ing materials and other resources from the natural ecosystems. The use of agriculture allowed peo-
ple the spare time to develop in other ways, and so the great civilizations of the Incas, the Maya,
China, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Middle East all gradually developed. At the same time many
new uses for plants were developed (including new building materials and systems of medicine),
and a greater variety of food crops were needed to sustain the growing population. The inborn bio-
philia in humans also led to the use of plants for ornamentation, to which the legendary hanging
gardens of Babylon and the intricate Egyptian gardens attested. People began to use plants to flavor
their food with spices and to produce pleasant odors with perfumes, incenses, and embalming.
These first two chapters will take us back to the roots of the cultural history of plants and of human
relationships to plants.
 1
The Hunter-Gatherers

IVAN CROWE

Introduction
Living in a global economy based on agriculture, we tend to forget that wild plant foods previously
played a pivotal role in the evolution of the primates, including humans. Wild resources also con-
tinue to sustain some of the few surviving hunter-gatherer societies. Over the past millions of years,
since the appearance of the first humans, hunter-gatherers have occupied a vast array of different
climatic zones and habitats, learning to survive by utilizing a staggering variety of flora and fauna.
The means by which they exploited natural resources influenced the forms of agriculture and ani-
mal husbandry that have emerged in different locations throughout the world. This chapter surveys
the role plant foods have played in human evolution and culture from the appearance of the first
primates to the beginnings of cultivation.

Primate Diets
It was the spread of the flowering plants that provided the springboard for primate evolution. By
65 million years ago, toward the end of the Cretaceous period, the Angiosperms (flowering
plants) had already become well established, and broad-leafed, fruit-bearing trees began to dom-
inate the vast forests that eventually covered much of the Earth.
Fossil fruits and seeds indicate that the inland forests seem to have been dominated by species
related to today’s sweet-sop, Annona squamosa, and sour-sop, Annona muricata, with mangrove
and swamp palms in coastal regions. Early forms of pistachio, walnuts, and mango appear to have
been present. Trees such as bay, cinnamon, magnolias, and black gum trees grew alongside palms,
Sequoia conifers and climbing plants such as vines and lianas.
The birds had already adapted to this change by feeding on fruit and nectar from the flowering
plants. The new plants meant that a wider range of food became available, and in greater abun-
dance. It was a mutually beneficial relationship, in which the birds ate the fruit and thereby helped
to distribute seeds on their bills and feet and by defecation. Insects already played an active part in
this relationship by transmitting pollen from plant to plant in their search for nectar.
The primates were able to exploit this ecology to great advantage. Their immediate ancestors
were in all probability insectivores and it may well have been the presence of insects that
initially led them to adapt to a life in the trees. Birds’ eggs too could have provided an additional

3
4 • The Cultural History of Plants

Inuit berry pickers between 1900 and ca. 1930. Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division.

source of valuable nutrients. The earliest primates, being small, most probably had a predomi-
nately insectivorous diet. Small mammals lose body heat more quickly than larger creatures, so
they need a mainly carnivorous diet in order to maintain the higher metabolic rate required to
compensate for this heat loss. Plant foods generally take longer to digest. Thus a mainly plant-
based diet was only possible for primates who evolved to a size that limited their heat loss and thus
reduced their metabolic rate.
Initially, while continuing to obtain most of the protein they needed from insects, some pri-
mate species increasingly derived many of their energy requirements from plant resources such as
nectar, gum, and fruit. Seeds and nuts provided an alternative source of proteins and lipids;
eventually insects would play a less important role in the primates’ diet as they exploited the plant
foods available in the forest.
One peculiar aspect of the primate diet that was most probably acquired during this early period
of evolution is the need to regularly include a source of vitamin C in what is eaten. Vitamin C is not
a necessary component of the diet for most creatures, including some other mammals. It is proba-
bly safe to assume that the primates lost the ability to synthesize vitamin C because their diet was
one that always included plenty of plants and fruit, which ensured the inclusion of vitamin C in
most of what was being eaten. Color vision, a characteristic shared with the birds, probably also
evolved during this period to enable the primates to locate and discriminate between poisonous
and edible fruit (Crowe 2000, 18).
 The Hunter-Gatherers • 5

We know from today’s primates that diet is closely linked with body size (Kay and Covert 1984),
as explained previously. Small animals, because of their immediate energy demands, cannot tolerate
the delay between eating the leaves and deriving energy from them. Hence smaller primates whose
diet does include large quantities of leaves also have to eat fruit to obtain energy, as leaves contain
fewer sugars that can be easily assimilated. Some primatologists have concluded that any species
that came to rely mainly upon leaves for its survival must at some time have gone through an inter-
mediate frugivore stage during the course of its evolution.
The largest of the living primates, the gorilla, has a largely folivorous diet. But leaves are a low-
grade food. Depending on the species of plant, bacterial fermentation has to occur in either the
stomach or in the intestines of folivorous primates in order to process the leaves before any
nutritive value can be extracted. Therefore, the evolutionary increase in body weight seen in foli-
vores was a necessary adaptation to accommodate modifications in the digestive tract. This adapta-
tion is effectively a cul-de-sac as any radical changes in habitat resources can lead to the extinction
of a species. Even when favored fruit is seasonally available the gorilla must continue to consume
leaves, simply in order to maintain the gut micro-organisms it normally requires for digesting the
plants that form the bulk of its diet during the rest of the year (Tutin 1992). This may well have been a
factor that, much later in hominoid evolution, contributed to the eventual demise of the robust
australopithecine (the upright ape preceding and probably ancestral to humans) during the early
Pleistocene period (Crowe 2000, 18), as they were believed to be dependent upon similar resources
(Foley 1989).
In contrast, frugivory (fruit eating) gives primates a flexibility of diet that allows them to avoid
the specialization of either eating predominantly meat or predominantly leaves that is normally
characteristic of most other mammals. It also enabled different primate species to adapt in
varying degrees to their habitat, and to supplement their basic diet of fruit with insects, small mam-
mals, or leaves and other similar vegetable matter.
One notable disadvantage of eating nothing but plant foods is that no single plant can provide
all the amino acids required by the body as the building blocks to produce animal protein. A
wide variety of plants must always be included in the diet to ensure that all the essential amino
acids are present. This is reflected in the behavior of chimpanzees, whose dietary needs often lead
them to engage in opportunistic hunting activities (Lawick and Goodall 1971, 182) to supple-
ment their diet by eating meat. This is because the meat of all animals, unlike plant material,
contains all the amino acids any other creature needs to synthesis their own body tissue. The diet
of chimpanzees as a result is even more diverse than that of humans and this severely limits the
habitats in which they can survive. In fact it is one of the main reasons why they are so endan-
gered as a species. Our own ancestors, the slender australopithecines, on the other hand, proba-
bly owed their survival, after the demise of their robust cousins, to the fact that they were
scavengers and possibly opportunistic hunters of small animals while inhabiting the fringes of
the African savanna (Foley 1989).
The underlying factor here is that an exclusively, or predominantly, vegetarian diet can place a
huge burden on animals whose habitat and particular digestive system limit the edible plant foods
available to them. Climate and seasonality can both compound the problem. Once the early pri-
mates migrated to more temperate climes, suitable plants for primates’ diets were both in short
supply and often widely dispersed—this was especially so at certain times of the year.

The Value of Fire

Plants contain a wide range of structural tissues, such as cellulose, and contain chemical com-
pounds that ward off predators. As a result, many plant tissues are inedible—and sometimes even
poisonous—in their raw state. Nevertheless plants are an essential part of our diet and an important
6 • The Cultural History of Plants

source of energy as well as of nutrients, vitamins, and essential trace elements. The effective exploita-
tion of these diverse resources is therefore essential to our survival.
What made human survival possible in many regions was acquiring the use of fire. The control of fire
was possibly first achieved by Homo erectus, the direct descendants of the australopithecines, maybe as
long ago as two million years ago, while they were still confined to the African continent. Fire may not
have originally been used to cook food but employed to keep dangerous animals at bay and to keep
warm. The effects of fire on animal flesh and plants must have been observed in the aftermath of the fires
that often swept across the savanna after lightening strikes during the routine thunderstorms.
When considering the exploitation of food plants alone, the control of fire was absolutely pivotal
to our success as a species. Many otherwise inedible plants are made more palatable and more
nutritious, and rendered free of toxins, by cooking. This means that, once our ancestors began to
employ fire to cook their food, many plants that would previously have been inedible could be
included in the diet; this vastly increased the potential resource base (Hillman 1999, personal
communication). Cooking also helps to preserve most foods.
There is another important side effect of cooking; the process of cooking roots—and some other
parts of plants—has the effect of bursting the cells, thereby releasing the nutrients stored by the plant
to aid its growth when spring arrives. Therefore the advent of cooking not only made more plant
resources available as food, but the nutritional value of those plants was also increased. Mastication
of cooked material was also easier than that of the raw resource and this benefited the youngest and
eldest alike and particularly those without a full head of teeth. Well-cooked vegetable matter can also
be used as a weaning food. All these things must have aided the survival rate among those hominid
populations possessing fire. Wrangham et al. (1999) has also suggested that access to additional
nutrients, from root foods especially, could have helped fuel the evolutionary development of a
larger hominid brain (Wandsnider 1997; McKie 2000, 110). Archaeological evidence for use of fire
by Homo erectus is still controversial, but appears well established from at least 700,000 years ago.

Fats and Carbohydrates

Whilst relying heavily on scavenging, Homo erectus were also foragers, as were all humans until the
advent of farming. Plants are particularly important as a source of carbohydrate and to a lesser
extent fats in primate diets. This is especially so when the animals being taken in hunting are suffer-
ing from nutritional stress and themselves have depleted fat reserves (Speth 1990). On the African
savanna this would have been a familiar scenario nearly every year during the dry season among the
herbivores being hunted or scavenged, when arid conditions adversely affected the vegetation.
The importance of fats and carbohydrates in the human diet can best be explained by relating
what happens when none are available. Proteins cannot be properly absorbed by the human body
without the regular consumption of either fats or carbohydrates, which are needed to aid the
metabolization of protein. When both of these nutrients are missing from the diet individuals may
begin to show signs of protein toxemia. There have been extreme instances of people who have had
nothing but protein-rich foods to eat over a period of several months becoming so disoriented that
they seem to be suffering from a form of dementia; and yet once fats or carbohydrates are reintro-
duced into their diet they make a rapid and complete recovery within a matter of days if not hours.
In the longer term death can result (Speth 1990). It is this kind of problem that our hominid ances-
tors would have encountered first as scavengers and then later as hunters on the African savanna. It
is a problem that some hunter-gatherers still experience today.
The range of nutrients that can be obtained from the foods available is obviously crucial to sur-
vival. At times people have to go to extraordinary lengths when processing their food to make up for
the deficits in particular food groups. Sometimes, though, there seems to be little or no ergonomic
advantage, with far more energy being used in the processing procedure than the amount of energy
Exploring the Variety of Random
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 But a second glance revealed the fact that it was not animate and
could consequently do them no harm.
It was of some peculiar quality of dark colored greenish stone, and
was a remarkably life-like representation.
‪“Jupiter!” exclaimed Buckden, “‪ but that gave me a start.”
‪“I must confess to the same,” said Frank, with a smile.
“It is a clever imitation of a dragon, isn’t it?”
‪“Indeed, it is.”
Both adventurers now advanced and began to examine the
monster critically.
It was a wonderful bit of workmanship in very truth.
“‪ Indeed!” exclaimed Buckden, ‪“I doubt if our sculptors of the
present day could ever equal this.”
‪“I do not think they could surpass it much.”
“‪ It certainly attests that the ancient inhabitants of Mazendla were
a remarkably talented people.”
‪“Right you are.”
‪“But the question now is, how are we to get out of this place?”
‪“Exactly.”
“There certainly must be some other way out besides that through
which we came—ah!”
Frank gave a gasping cry and came to a halt.
Just at his feet was a ghastly sight.
It was a heap of bones.
 In a promiscuous fashion they were heaped there. Human bones
and those of the cayman, a species of crocodile, were there all piled
up together.
The two explorers gazed at the spectacle with amazement.
This was the first indication of human remains that they had found
thus far.
There were human skulls and the compete skeletons of the
crocodiles. A quick comprehension came to Frank.
‪“I have it!” he cried.
‪“Well?”
“‪ In my opinion this lake was once the abode of these crocodiles.
The ancient rulers placed them there for a certain purpose.”
‪“What could it have been?”
“‪ Well, supposing a man committed some crime. It may be that he
was thrown into this place as a method of punishment, for the
crocodiles to tear to pieces.”
“‪ Indeed, I believe you are right, Mr. Reade,” cried Buckden, ‪“but
what a number of victims they must have had.”
“‪ For aught we know the bed of this lake may be paved with
human skeletons.”
It was a grim, horrible thing to think of.
Both men shivered.
Then Tony reached over to pick up one of the skulls.
The mere motion caused the horrid pile to disintegrate and
relapse into a heap of gray dust.
 Ages had passed since these bones had been deposited there, as
this very action would attest.
“‪ Come away,” said Frank, with a shiver. “Let’s find our way out of
here.”
Together they passed by the heap of moldering bones.
A deep, arched passage lay before them. It was not a long one,
and suddenly came to an end in a startling manner.
A huge iron gate made of transverse bars confronted them.
It was a ponderous affair, and there were huge bolts to hold it
shut.
It did not seem as if they could ever hope to pass through it.
“‪ My soul, we are badly stuck!” cried Tony. “We’ll never get out of
here alive, Frank.”
Frank looked aghast.
There seemed no means at command to force the mighty gate.
It certainly seemed an insurmountable barrier. It also seemed the
only means of exit from the place.
The two men looked at each other in utter dismay.
What was to be done?
Could they remain here in this place and suffer tamely a death by
starvation? Frank was resolute.
“‪ There is just one thing about it,” he declared. “We’ve got to force
our way through that gate.”
‪“Good for you!” cried Tony. “I’m with you!”
‪“It must be done!”
 ‪“But can it be done?”
“‪ I see no reason why not. We will make a valiant effort. It is better
than tamely submitting to death.”
‪“Indeed, much better.”
‪“Here goes!”
Frank advanced and placed both hands upon one of the iron bars
of the gate.
It was thickly encrusted with rust; yet neither looked for the result
which followed.
Frank gave the gate a quick, sharp pull. Then he gave a leap
backward.
It was just in time.
He was not a moment too soon.
Down came the whole affair in a clanging heap.
If it had struck Frank he might have been seriously injured. But
fortunately it did not.
The action of time had rusted hinges and locks, and the gate was
just ready to fall.
A great cloud of dust was raised which nearly overwhelmed the
two explorers.
They emerged from it completely covered and wheezing and
puffing.
“‪ Jupiter!” gasped Tony, “there’s no question about getting out of
here now, Frank.”
“No, not if this dust don’t kill us,” replied Frank.
‪“Whew! it is fearful.”
 After a time, however, the dust cloud was dispelled and they
emerged all safe.
Then the first impulse was to break through the archway.
This they did and came to a flight of stairs.
Up these they ran at full speed.
Arrived at the top, they were confronted by an astounding fact.
They stood in a small square chamber. So far as they could see
there was no door or window or other mode of exit.
Only bare walls of stone were about them upon all sides.
“‪ Well!” exclaimed Frank, in amazement. ‪“What the deuce does this
mean?”
‪“Where are we?”
‪“Sure enough.”
‪“Can you see any way out of here?”
‪“I cannot.”
The two men looked at each other blankly. It was some time
before either ventured to speak.
“‪ This is the toughest yet,” said Buckden, finally. ‪“What is your
idea, Frank?”
A light broke across the young inventor’s handsome face.
‪“I have an idea!” he cried.
‪“What is it?”
Frank went and critically examined the walls of the chamber
before he ventured to answer.
 “‪ This is a sealed chamber,” he said, finally. ‪“It is sealed that
nobody may find the secrets of this underground charnel house.”
“‪ A sealed chamber!” gasped Buckden. ‪“My God! then we are lost,
for that is equivalent to being buried alive. Our end has come!”
 CHAPTER XI.
OUT OF IMPRISONMENT.

It was a terrible despairing cry which Tony Buckden gave.

It came from the depths of his soul, and embodied utter
hopelessness.
Indeed, the situation looked to be a desperate one. If it was
indeed true that they were the inmates of a sealed chamber their
fate seemed sealed.
What was to be done?
Surely they could not submit to a slow lingering death by
starvation in that wretched place.
Frank went forward and began to examine the masonry of the
chamber walls.
The stone was a peculiar sandstone, and while it showed evidence
of age and the discolorations of time it was yet firm and hard.
But the mortar would yield to the point of the knife. Frank at once
began work upon it.
“‪ My plan,” he declared, ‪“is to displace the mortar as far as
possible, and perhaps we can loosen some of these stones and
make an aperture large enough to get out through.”
‪“Good!” cried Buckden, joyfully. “You’ve hit the mark, Frank.”
“‪ I hope so,” said the young inventor, modestly; ‪“time will tell. First
we must make sure that the mortar will give way.”
Together they went to work upon the mortar.
 It yielded readily to the points of their knives and soon had been
displaced about one of the smaller stones.
To their joy this yielded and the stone was removed.
But a second layer was discovered just beyond. How many more
were beyond this they could not guess.
But Frank believed that only this layer separated them from the
outer air and freedom.
Accordingly with renewed hope the two imprisoned men went to
work.
With a will they hacked away at the crumbling stone and mortar.
In a very short space of time another stone had been loosened. A
third was quickly displaced, making an aperture sufficiently large
enough to allow a body to pass through.
Now the second layer was attacked. To the agreeable surprise of
both it was a very rotten stone and yielded readily.
In a very few moments daylight streamed into the place.
‪“Hurrah!” cried Frank. ‪“We are sure to escape, Tony!”
“‪ So it seems!” cried the young New Yorker, cheerily. ‪“This is what
comes of good pluck.”
‪“You are right.”
Peering through the small hole made, Frank saw that they would
come out right in the main body of the temple.
Both men now worked like beavers.
In a few moments one of the stones was displaced. Another
quickly followed, and then they crawled through and into the open
air.
 The relief experienced was beyond description.
To drink in the pure air and the health-giving sunlight once more
was a boon of no small sort.
But after a time they began to think of Barney and Pomp and the
Steam Man.
It was certainly advisable to find them at once.
The fate of the Steam Man was a matter of conjecture. But Frank
arose from his reclining position and said:
“Come, Tony, old man, we can’t stay here any longer. There’s work
for us to do.”
‪“All right, Frank.”
Frank started to leave the temple, but Tony chanced to glance
across an inner court-yard.
‪“Wait a moment, Frank!” he cried.
‪“What is it?”
‪“Just look across that court-yard. What is it?”
Frank looked and gave a start of surprise.
‪“Upon my soul!” he exclaimed. “‪ What sort of a creature can it be?”
‪“Let us investigate.”
‪“All right.”
‪“Lead the way.”
Through a series of arches they went and reached the court-yard.
Across it they made their way.
The object of their surprise was a strange looking statue.
 It was sculptured out of the same peculiar greenish stone as the
dragon seen below stairs.
The statue was a compromise between a man and some strange
wild animal resembling the panther.
Certainly a more life like and hideous monstrosity they had never
beheld before. They gazed upon it in wonderment.
‪“Have you ever seen its equal?” asked Tony in amazement.
‪“Never!”
‪“What is it intended to represent?”
“‪ Like the statues of Bacchus and the Centaurs found in ancient
Greece, it is a creation of mythical sort.”
“I believe you’re right. Hello! What is this? Another trapdoor?”
Tony paused before a heavy iron ring set in the tiled floor.
“Don’t trouble it,” said Frank. ‪“It may let us down into another
underground lake.”
‪“Do you believe it?”
‪“I should fear it.”
But Tony could not resist the temptation to insert his fingers in the
ring and give the stone a lift. It was a reckless thing to do.
The result was startling.
The stone yielded, and the next moment Buckden lifted it from its
bed, disclosing a cavity beneath some four feet long by two wide.
Stone steps were revealed leading downward. For a moment the
two explorers looked at each other.
‪“What will we do?” asked Buckden.
 ‪“Investigate,” said Frank, tersely.
‪“But it is dark down there.”
“That doesn’t matter,” said the young inventor, coolly. ‪“We will
regulate that.”
Then, from his pocket, Frank produced a small folding pocket
lantern, an invention of his own.
He lit this and boldly ventured down into the place.
He went down a dozen steps, and then a wonderful sight was
spread before him.
A large chamber, about fifteen feet in length by ten in breadth,
hewn out of solid rock, was revealed.
The walls were adorned with shelves, and about the stone floor
were chests of metal.
These chests contained coins and silver and gold cups, flagons,
pots and all sorts of ware, thrown about promiscuously and in
heaps.
For a moment the two explorers, astounded, gazed at the scene
before them.
Both were so dumbfounded that they could not speak.
One thing was apparent to them, and it brought the blood in
surges to their temples.
The treasure of Mazendla was found.
It would be quite impossible to enumerate its mighty value.
But it would seem that it must be up in the millions. For how
many centuries it had remained here it would be quite hard to say.
 “‪ Heavens!” gasped Frank. ‪“Here is enough to enrich us many
times, Tony.”
‪“I should say so.”
‪“It is the wealth of a king.”
‪“To be sure.”
‪“But what great good can it do us? We have got enough.”
‪“That is so.”
The two explorers proceeded to make an examination of the
contents of the treasure room.
Among all the gold and silver Frank looked for diamonds.
But these seemed scarce.
However, he did find a few in a small silver casket. These he
secured, and, with Tony, took several bags of the coins and some of
the quaint silverware.
“‪ Well,” said Tony, speculatively, ‪“what shall we do with all this
stuff, Frank? It is too bad to leave it here.”
‪“I have an idea.”
‪“What?”
“‪ Let us take it to New York, convert it into greenbacks and
disperse it in charities.”
‪“Good!” cried Tony, readily, “‪ that is a fine idea.”
They now ascended to the main room of the temple.
For the first time Frank thought of Barney and Pomp.
The two servitors had wandered off in some other part of the
temple and were not in sight.
 Frank shouted for them, but no answer came back.
This seemed a little strange to the young inventor, and he began
to fear that some harm had come to the two men.
‪“That is queer!” he muttered. “Why don’t they answer?”
Again Frank shouted. This time an answer came back, but it
seemed a mile away.
Frank was not a little vexed.
‪“Confound the rascals!” he muttered. ‪“Where have they gone to?”
“‪ We had better go in quest of them,” suggested Tony. ‪“Harm may
have overtaken them.”
‪“You are right!”
They were about to follow up this plan when a startling thing
occurred.
Suddenly from the distance beyond the temple doors there came a
thrilling and yet familiar sound.
It was a prolonged shriek, a distant note from the ear-splitting
whistle of the Steam Man.
 CHAPTER XII.
WHICH IS THE END.

Frank Reade, Jr., gave a great cry of surprise and joy.

‪“They have found the Man,” he cried. “‪ We are in luck.”
“‪ No,” said Tony, putting a hand on Frank’s arm. ‪“You are wrong.
That is not so. Listen!”
The shrill whistle of the Steam Man was still going.
“‪ I have it,” said Buckden, positively. ‪“In some manner the whistle
valve has opened, and it will continue to blow until steam is all
blowed off!”
“‪ Right!” cried Frank, excitedly; “why didn’t I think of that. Let us
go at once in quest of the machine.”
The two men started at once out of the temple.
But as they reached the paved street below Tony hesitated.
‪“Wait,” he said.
‪“What for?” asked Frank.
‪“What about Barney and Pomp?”
Here was a conundrum.
There was little time in which to decide. But Frank decided quickly.
“‪ Enough!” he cried; ‪“they must take care of themselves. They are
abundantly able. Our life all depends upon recovering the Steam
Man.”
 ‪“You are right!” cried Buckden.
So away the two men sped.
It was easy enough to locate the Man now, as the whistle was an
infallible guide.
Straight across the plaza they ran, and turned into a broad
avenue. Here, on the verge of a clump of palms, they beheld a
thrilling sight.
There was the Steam Man standing motionless on the edge of the
palm clump.
The huge anaconda was yet writhing in the cage. Frank guessed
the meaning of all at once.
The Steam Man had been saved by a lucky chance.
The snake, in its writhings, had not only closed the throttle by
twisting the rein about its body, but had also pulled open the whistle
valve in the same manner.
The two explorers came to a halt at first, and regarded the
spectacle with much wonder.
Then Frank cried:
“Hurrah! We’ve got the best of it. We can easily end the fight
now.”
Straight up to the cage Frank ran. It was an easy matter to climb
up and draw aim at the anaconda’s head through the loophole.
Crack!
The shot pierced the snake’s brain.
The head dropped lifeless, but the huge body continued to writhe
in the throes of death.
 Frank swung the door of the cage open.
“‪ Come, Tony!” he cried, cheerily. “Let’s pull the monster out, and
we will then have the Steam Man once more in our possession.”
Buckden needed no urging.
Both laid hold of the snake’s huge coils. It was a hard tug, but the
huge monster was finally pulled out of the cage.
Then the two men sprang in and proceeded to put things to
rights.
The snake had done no material damage, but the odor of its
presence in the cage was something frightful.
However, Frank quickly dispelled this with a chemical, and then
the Man’s course was set for a return to the treasure temple.
No obstacle was encountered upon the return.
Soon the Steam Man came in sight of the temple.
As it did so, Barney and Pomp were seen rushing down the steps.
Their joy to discover that the Steam Man had been safely
recovered knew no bounds.
“I tell yo’, Marse Frank, dat dar am big piles ob gold an’ silver in
dat ar temple,” cried Pomp.
“Bejabers, that’s so!” cried Barney. “An’ I cud hardly get the
naygur to come away from it.”
‪“Where did you rascals go?” asked Frank, sharply.
‪“Way up in de top ob de temple,” replied Pomp.
“Didn’t you hear me when I called?”
“Bejabers, we did that, an’ it was mesilf as answered yez,” replied
Barney. “But I couldn’t get the naygur to come away.”
 ‪“Did you hear the whistle of the Steam Man?”
“I did that, an’ that brought us down quick enough,” replied
Barney.
“‪ Well,” said Frank, with satisfaction, ‪“we are in luck. Now for
home.”
“Ki dar, Marse Frank. What about dat gold an’ silver?” cried Pomp.
Frank looked at Buckden.
‪“Is it worth while to return for it?” he asked.
‪“Oh, I think so,” replied the New Yorker.
‪“All right.”
Barney and Pomp eagerly started for the steps of the temple, but
a startling sight caused them to draw back.
Suddenly, from what seemed like a deep archway leading into
black depths beyond at the lower end of the temple wall, a large
anaconda glided into view.
It was a monster of its species.
‪“Back into the cage,” shouted Barney and Pomp.
The two servitors had barely time to accomplish this move when
the snake glided swift as the wind up over the temple steps.
“Look—look!” cried Buckden.
An astounding sight was next witnessed. Out from the archway
there emerged more of the huge reptiles.
Some of them were monstrous in proportions.
The archway was literally choked with them.
 All seemed to be making for the temple. Truly, the wonderful tale
rendered by Metlo was true after all.
There seemed legions of the snakes. They swarmed over the
temple wall and through all the passages.
Dumfounded, our adventurers stood and watched them.
‪“Great heavens!” gasped Frank Reade, Jr., “‪ what a sight that is!”
‪“I never saw its equal!”
“Golly! amn’t dem de bigges’ snakes we’se seed yit?”
“Tare an’ ’ounds! av the divils get afther the Steam Man——”
‪“Look out!”
Several of the huge reptiles seemed making for the Steam Man.
Frank’s hand was on the throttle rein, and he was about to pull it,
when a terrible thing happened.
There was a dull, distant rumbling like thunder.
The air became suddenly still and oppressive. Instinctively Frank
knew at that moment what was coming.
“‪ The earthquake!” he shouted. ‪“Steady, all! Look out for
yourselves!”
Frank gave the throttle rein a yank. The Steam Man ran instantly
to the center of the plaza and came to a halt.
Then a mighty, sullen roar was heard, a terrific gust of wind swept
down the avenue, and the earthquake came.
For a moment it seemed as if the Steam Man would be
overturned.
The ground rose and fell in billows.
The air was filled with the thunder and crash of falling buildings.
 The temple of treasure, which was full of the anacondas, was
literally leveled to the dust.
It remained a great, moldering heap of ruins. Dozens, perhaps
hundreds of the huge snakes were crushed in the ruins.
The treasure of Mazendla was beyond the reach of our
adventurers now.
In three minutes the entire disturbance was over.
The city presented a vastly different aspect now.
Many of the mammoth buildings were a heap of ruins. Trees were
uprooted, and a scene of havoc was upon every hand.
“Golly fo’ goodness!” gasped the startled Pomp, as he pulled
himself together. “I kain’t say dat I’m stuck on yarthquakes, am yo’
Marse Frank?”
“‪ No,” replied Frank, as he adjusted a sprained shoulder. ‪“And what
is more, we will start this very moment for civilization, and the land
where earthquakes never happen.”
‪“Good!” cried Tony Buckden. “I’m with you.”
“Bejabers, I’m the same,” cried Barney.
Not one gave thought to the deeply buried treasure of Mazendla
now.
It proved in after days that their decision was a wise one.
The silverware preserved by Frank and Tony, as well as coins,
turned out to be a weak alloy. The diamonds were the real treasure,
and Frank had secured them all.
So the treasure of Mazendla yet remains unearthed. Certainly, it
was never thought worth while by our explorers to ever return for it.
It required some time to pick their way out of the ruined city.
 But they finally succeeded, and emerged upon the vast table-land
of Tanada once more.
The Steam Man at a rapid rate of speed kept on the return route
to Campeachy.
But the return trip was not devoid of incident.
When two days out from Mazendla, the Steam Man came to a vast
morass between high mountains, and surrounded by tall reeds.
The Steam Man on the way out had found little difficulty in skirting
this to the eastward.
But rains had since fallen and the morass was a lake.
Any attempt to go over the return route now must result in sinking
the Steam Man in great depths of mire.
So a halt was called and a consultation held.
There seemed to be no other way of surmounting this obstacle
but to camp and wait patiently for the water to subside.
This meant a delay of several days, but it was a virtuous necessity,
as it was clearly impossible for the Steam Man to climb the rough
mountain sides.
Accordingly camp was made.
A good clump of palms was found and the fires in the furnace
were banked.
It was entirely out of the question for four men to remain cooped
up three or four days in the cage of the Steam Man, inactive and
dull.
The natural project was a hunting trip and this was at once
decided upon.
 What sort of game our explorers were in quest of it is not easy to
say. In fact, it might as well be said that their quest was as much
one of exploration as quest of game.
They started early one morning and climbed the mountain side.
This was rocky, but fortunately clear of brush or dense chaparral.
Several rabbits were bagged and some birds of beautiful plumage.
Then just as they were upon the verge of the crater of an extinct
volcano, the stirring events of the day began.
Suddenly Barney, who was skirting the edge of the crater, gave a
sharp cry, and as his companions turned, they were horrified to see
him suddenly disappear from sight.
‪“Great heavens!” gasped Frank. ‪“What has become of Barney?”
All rushed to an opening in the ground through which the Celt had
disappeared.
As they reached it, a terrific roar came up from below.
It required but a glance for the explorers to perceive a horrible
state of affairs.
Below, at a depth of some forty feet, was a cavern.
The entrance seemed to be from the crater, and clinging vines
lined the passage down which Barney had fallen.
A treacherous coating of moss had covered the hole, and the
unsuspecting Irishman had stepped full upon it, with the result we
have seen.
In falling, Barney had clutched wildly at the vines, and now he
hung twenty feet from the bottom by a single vine, which swayed
and seemed likely to snap at any moment.
 Just below, upon the floor of the cavern, crouched two fierce
tigers.
They roared and snarled savagely and made upward leaps to
reach the Celt.
Barney was white with fear and clung desperately to the swinging
vine.
‪“Help!” he shouted in terror. “‪ Misther Frank, save me.”
“‪ Have courage, Barney!” cried Frank, resolutely. ‪“Hang on and I
will do my best.”
Barney did hang on with all his strength, and Frank cried, turning
to the others:
‪“Draw a bead on the tigers. Be sure and make your shots tell.”
The three rifles cracked, and one of the tigers turned over and lay
limp and lifeless upon the bottom of the cavern.
The other was hit, but not badly wounded.
The wound, however, had the effect of exciting the animal’s rage
and with a roar it vanished from sight for a moment.
When it came into sight again it was seen coming up over the
edge of the crater to attack its human foes.
Up over the rocks it came with mad leaps.
‪“Look out!” cried Frank Reade, Jr.; “‪ take good aim at the beast.”
The three explorers fired. Whether the bullets struck the beast or
not it was not easy to say.
But the tiger came on with long bounds.
Before the repeaters could be worked again the tiger was upon
them. He struck Pomp first and the darky went over like a ten-pin.
 Buckden rushed to his rescue with clubbed rifle.
But the tiger knocked the rifle from his hands and tumbled him
over in a heap.
That moment would have been Tony’s last but for Frank, who
rushed forward and thrust the muzzle of his rifle close against the
hide of the beast.
The bullet penetrated the tiger’s heart and he fell dead over
Buckden’s prostrate form.
It was a narrow escape for all, for the tiger might have killed one
of them. Haste was made to relieve Barney from his irksome
position.
The exploration was continued, but no other such serious
adventure befell our friends.
A few days later they were able to leave the morass behind them.
Nothing worthy of note occurred during the remainder of the trip.
Campeachy was safely reached and there the party received an
ovation.
Tony’s many friends were overjoyed to see him back alive.
A few days later, however, saw them aboard a return steamer.
New Orleans was safely reached in due time.
Here Mr. Buckden met the party and welcomed them home.
He embraced Tony joyfully and at once made out a check to Frank
Reade, Jr., for the reward offered of $50,000.
But Frank politely declined it, refusing to accept more than enough
to cover the actual expenses of the trip.
Tony and his father returned to New York city. At last accounts the
young explorer had given up traveling and was engaged in the
banking business with his father.
Frank Reade, Jr., Barney and Pomp returned to Readestown safely
with the new Steam Man.
But their travels with the new Steam Man were not yet concluded
by any means, and a complete account of their thrilling experiences
in their next trip may be found in No. 4 of the Frank Reade Library,
entitled:

‪“Frank Reade, Jr., With His New Steam Man in Texas; or, Chasing the
Train Robbers.”
HOW TO COLLECT STAMPS AND COINS.—Containing valuable
information regarding the collecting and arranging of stamps
and coins. Handsomely illustrated. Price 10 cents. For sale by
all newsdealers in the United States and Canada, or sent free
of postage upon receipt of the price. Address Frank Tousey,
publisher, 34 and 36 North Moore Street, New York. Box 2730.
HOW TO BE A DETECTIVE.—By Old King Brady, the world known
detective. In which he lays down some valuable and sensible
rules for beginners, and also relates some adventures and
experiences of well-known detectives. Price 10 cents. For sale
by all newsdealers in the United States and Canada, or sent
to your address, post-paid, on receipt of the price. Address
Frank Tousey, publisher, 34 and 36 North Moore Street, New
York. Box 2730.
HOW TO KEEP BIRDS.—Handsomely illustrated, and containing full
instructions for the management and training of the canary,
mocking-bird, bobolink, blackbird, paroquet, parrot, etc., etc.
Price 10 cents. For sale by all newsdealers, or sent, post-paid,
on receipt of the price. Address Frank Tousey, publisher, 34
and 36 North Moore Street, New York. P. O. Box 2730.
HOW TO BECOME A SPEAKER.—Containing fourteen illustrations,
giving the different positions requisite to become a good
speaker, reader and elocutionist. Also containing gems from
all the popular authors of prose and poetry, arranged in the
most simple and concise manner possible. For sale by all
newsdealers in the United States and Canada, or sent to your
address, postage free, on receipt of ten cents. Address Frank
Tousey, publisher, 34 and 36 North Moore Street, New York.
Box 2730.
“NONAME’S” Latest and Best Stories
—— ABOUT——-

Frank Reade and Frank Reade, Jr.,

ARE PUBLISHED WEEKLY IN
FRANK READE LIBRARY.

Price 5 Cents Per Copy.

The Following Have Already Been Published:

No. 1. Frank Reade, Jr., and His New Steam Man; or, The Young By
Inventor’s Trip to the Far West, ‪“Noname.”
” 2. Frank Reade, Jr., With His New Steam Man in No Man’s Land; or, By
On a Mysterious Trail, ‪“Noname.”
By
” 3. Frank Reade, Jr., With His New Steam Man in Central America,
‪“Noname.”
” 4. Frank Reade, Jr., With His New Steam Man in Texas; or, Chasing By
the Train Robbers, ‪“Noname.”
” 5. Frank Reade, Jr., With His New Steam Man in Mexico; or, Hot By
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