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Telephone No.:486-0806

COMP101 – Introduction to Computer Science

WEEK 2
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

The computer is one of the most imposing forms of

Information Technology. While any computing
device may be technically considered a computer,
the modern computer is one that is continuously
improving and capable of performing various tasks
to make life easier and better for the society in
general.

The modern computer is an electronic device

capable of interpreting and performing programmed
instructions. It performs mathematical and logical operations on data within its Central
Processing Unit (CPU), based on a set of program instructions, and produces the results in the
form meaningful and useful output.

Data Processing Cycle

Data is defined as any collection of facts,

figures or numbers. It is of little value if it
remains in this form. Only when it is
collected, used in the computation and
analyzed that it attains its real value.

When a data has been manipulated into

a more useful form. It has become an information. This transformation is considered as data
processing. Regardless of the kind of data processed, all data processing systems involved at
least three basic steps: input, processing, and output.

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 Data Processing Cycle
1. Input. This phase involves capturing or obtaining raw data and placing it into the data
processing system. Initially, the data processing cycle begins with data entry. It can be
recorded keyboard or other direct input devices.
2. Process. The conversation of gathered data will be manipulated using any of the
operations:
 Classification – data are organized into groups or classes by assigning
predetermined codes to the items being arranged. Codes may be numeric,
alphabetic, and alphanumeric characters.
 Calculation – It makes use of the arithmetic operation in the manipulation of data.
 Sorting – It arranges the data in a logical sequence from first to last, smallest to
biggest, or oldest to newest.
 Summarizing – It reduces the bulk of data to a more concise and usable form.
3. Output. These data are the results of the processing activities. They are transferred or
communicated electronically to other locations, or they may be produced by printers or
similar machines.
4. Storage. The data, information, and programs are stored in computer in a form that can
be accessed such as floppy disk, CD-ROMs, magnetic tape.

TYPES OF DATA PROCESSING

1. Manual System. All operations from data gathering to output preparations are
performed by man without the aid of any single machine.
2. Mechanical Data processing. Processing is done by man using some mechanical
devices for assistance.
3. Electro-mechanical or the Punch Card System. Data is gathered and then it is
transcribed into cards that are then fed into an electromechanical device like the key-
punched machine.
4. Electronic Data Processing. The bulk of operation is performed by the computer to
generate the desired output.

METHODS OF DATA PROCESSING

1. Batch Processing. This processing method refers to the running to several computer
programs one after another without the need of human operator to run each program
individually. Data are accumulated and processed in groups or batches to permit
convenient and efficient processing.
2. On-line Processing. It uses computers devices which are directly connected by wire,
cables, or telephone lines. In this method, data are processed instantaneously to update
current information immediately after a transaction is made. Examples are current and
saving deposit, requisition of stocks in the inventory, seat reservations, etc.

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2 DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER
Man used his fingers and toes to calculate, later they realized that by using some
object to represent digits it might be possible to perform computation beyond the limited scope
of one’s toes. Shell, chicken bones and pebbles were use. Actually, the word calculation
comes from the latin word calculi, which means pebbles.

MECHANICAL COMPUTERS
Abacus. The first man made computing device historians believe that the early abacus used
pebbles strung on wires and the wires arranged in rows. It was used to add and subtract large
numbers.

Napier’s Bones. John Napier was a Scottish mathematician

who becomes famous for his invention of logarithms. The use
of “logs” enabled him reduce any multiplication problem to a
problem of addition. His bones are set of eleven rods with
numbers mark on them in such a way that by simply placing
the rods side by side, products and quotients of large numbers
can be obtained.

Oughtred’s slide rules. It was designed by an

English mathematician, William Outghtred, in the
17th century. It consist of two movable rulers placed
side by side. Each ruler marked off such a way that
the actual distances from the beginning of the ruler are proportional to the logarithms on the
numbers printed on the ruler. By sliding the rulers one can quickly multiply and divide.

Pascaline. Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, in

1642 invented this mechanical device that can add and
subtract. Unlike ABACUS were hands were used to
move the beads, pascaline used wheel to move the
counters.

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Leibnitz Calculator. In 1674, GOTTFRIED WILHELM
VON LEIBNITZ, a German mathematician invented
calculus at the age of 26. He continued the work of
PASCAL and made a machine that can perform
multiplication and division, as well as exact square roots.

Jacquard’s Loom. An automatic loom invented by a French

weaver, JOSEPH MARIE JACQUARD in 1801 become the first
successful machine to operate the punch cards. The punched
holed supplied instruction that controlled the selection of threads
in an application.

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Difference Engine. In 1833, CHARLES BABBAGE together
with LADY AUGUSTA ADA BYRON, both English
mathematician designed the analytical Engine which was the
first wholly conceived automatic, general purpose digital
computer. This device had the following features:

 Had flexible arithmetic controls that performed the

calculation required,
 Had a memory unit capable of storing one thousand
number,
 Stored data in a form of holes punched in cards
 Had as output mechanism that could print like a
typewriter, and
 Had the ability machine check the data for errors

This machine was never complete because the technical sciences of that age were not
sufficiently advance for practical implementation of the analytical engine. Today, however, some
credits have been to Babbage for this contribution to the development of computers. He is often
referred to as the father of Modern Computers. His analytical engine become the forerunner of
today’s electronic computers. Lady Augusta Byron is often referred to as the first programmer.

ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPUTERS
Key-punched Machine.

The rapid growth of the United States in 1890 and

the availability of electricity gave rise to the invention
of DR. HERMAN HOLLERITH’s Census Machine.
He developed a machine system of recording,
compiling, and tabulating Census data through the
use of series of punched data in the form of hole into
3 x 5-inch card (divided into square approximately
one fourth inch in size) by a hand-operated punch.

The first pieces of equipment in a punch card

installation were the card punch, manual feeder and
card reader. Tabulator is used for counting results, sorting box. Hollerith later decided to leave
the Census Bureau and engaged in the manufacture of punch card equipment. He formed his
own company in 1896 and by 1911; International Business Machine (IBM) was born out of the
union between his company and with two other firms.

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Electromechanical Accounting Machine (EAM).

In the mid 50’s more punched card devices and sophisticated

capabilities marked the improvement of the punch-card
technology. This device included the card punch, verifier,
producer, and the accounting machine.

Mark I.

In 1944, an Harvard University professor named HOWARD

AIKEN was able to produce a machine called the Automatic
Sequence Controlled Calculator. It was the first successful
general purpose digital electromechanical computer built in
conjunction with the graduate students of engineers in IBM.

VACUUM TUBE: The First Generation

The vacuum tube is an electronic tube about the size of a light bulb. It was used a build radios
and other electrically driven machines. It was the circuit element used as the internal component
of the first generation computers. In this generation the computer language used was machine
language, which uses number instead of spoken words.

The ENIAC.

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator was designed

in 1946 by J. Mauchly of More School of Engineering at
University of Pennsylvania. It has no moving parts and uses
vacuum tubes their circuit. It was programmable and had the
capability to store problem calculations. It was 100 times faster
than MARK 1 and became the Electronic version of MARK 1.

The EDSAC.

Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer was built in

1949 under the direction of M.V. Wilkes of the Cambridge
University in England. It was named as the first storage
program of electronic computer.

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The EDVAC.

Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed

and built through the join efforts Neumann, Eckert and
Mauchly. It made used of binary numbers and internal storage
of instruction written in digital form.

The UNIVAC 1.

In 1950 the company established by Eckert and Mauchly was

acquired by Reminton-rand and developed the UNIVAC1, the first
commercial digital computer. The digital computer distinguishes
itself from the analog in that it holds discrete digits of information
in the form of electrical current or mechanical cams. It was first
installed at the bureau of Cencus and user of the full decade
before it was retired.

The TRANSISTOR: The Second Generation

When three Bell Lab scientist developed by transistor, the
second generation of computers began. They were J. Bardeen,
B.W. Brattain and W. Shockly invented this small device that
transfers electric signals across a resistor. The signals represent
sound, picture or some piece of data. It can be said that the
transistor revolutionized the world of electronics, specifically
computers. It was smaller than the vacuum tubes and consumed
less energy.

Assembly Language

This generation also marked the development of programming languages from machine
language to assembly language. Assembly language, also known as symbolic language, used
abbreviations for instruction rather than numbers which made programming less difficult.

High Level Language

High level languages came in next after the development of symbolic languages. The
FORTRAN (1954) and COBOL (1959) were more English-like than assembly languages.

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The IBM 604

In the 1906s, IBM built 4,000 general-purpose computers

known as 604s. Data were input via punch cards, it is known
as a card programming calculator.

It can be considered that second generation computers like the

Honeywell 400 was less costly to operate, thereby enabling
business companies, universities and government organization
to utilize it.

In 1963, the PDP-8, the first successful microcomputer, was introduced by the Digital
Equipment Corporation. Its success confirms the tremendous demand for small computers.

The INTEGRATED CIRCUIT: The 3rd Generation

Starting in 1965, integrated circuit began to replace transistors in
computers. An integrated circuit (IC) is a complete electronic
circuit in a small chip of silicon (a non-metallic substance found in
common beach sand, and practically in an all rocks and clay).

It was able to replace an entire circuit board of transistor with one

chip of silicon much smaller than one transistor. The IC made of
silicon because it is a semiconductor—a crystalline substance
that conduct electric current when mixed the chemical impurities
implanted in its lattice-like structure.

In 1964, IBM introduced the 360 series thereby ushering into the third generation of computers.
This computer was known as system 360 was basically designed for both business and
scientific uses. It came to be the forefront in interactive processing, which used a terminal to put
the user to direct contact with the computer. The customer service industry thus began to
flourish with his kind of access, especially in areas of reservations and credit checks.

The MICROPROCESSOR: The 4th Generation

The fourth generation of computer was mere extension of the third
generation technology. It had however improved in terms of speed,
reliability, and storage capacity. A specialized chips were developed
for computer memory and logic was later known as the
microprocessor.

The most prominent business venture during the early years of the
personal computer was the Apple II computer. The Apple II was
originally design for home use by two computer enthusiasts: Steven
Jobs and Steve Wozniak. It was this company who introduced the popular brand Macintosh.

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In 1981, IBM introduced the personal computers or the PC. It growth
in sales had made IBM PC the standard for microcomputer industry.

At Present, the invention of smaller sized computers but greater in

storage capacity has made Microsoft Corporation a major software
developer in the world that caters to most computer users in the
world. A lot of other developments include lap-top, computer
notebook, programmable calculators, modems, e-mail, networking,
internet, optical disk, virtual office, etc.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: The 5th Generation

The fifth generation computers are those powerful,
intelligent computers that can include the expert systems,
fuzzy logic, problem-solving, natural language, and robotics.
Collectively these key areas are known as artificial
intelligence.

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3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
According to Age
1. First Generation: 1951-1958
Characteristics:
 Large, bulky machines
 Employed vacuum tubes in their circuitry
 Operating speed measured in milliseconds
 Memory capacity: 2000-4000 characters
o Examples: UNIVAC1, CRT 102, IBM 701, IBM 650

2. Second Generation: 1959-1964

Characteristics:
 Use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes
 Smaller, generate almost no heat and require minimum power
 Operating speed measured in microseconds
 Memory capacity: 30000 characters
o Examples: IBM 1401, B-200, GE-225, NCR 315, RCA 301, UNIVAC 1004

3. Third Generation: 1964-1970

Characteristics:
 Reduced physical size
 Increased durability
 Operating speed measured in nanoseconds
 Memory capacity: at least 100,000 characters
 Designed to process both scientific-oriented and business-oriented problem (general
purpose computers)
o Examples: IBM 360, SPECTRA 70

According to size
1. Supercomputers. These are high capacity machines and are considered the fastest
processing devices. These are used in modelling complex phenomena such as oil
exploration, weather forecasting, nuclear explosions, airplane design, etc. Examples are:
Cray Research, Intel Supercomputers, Convex, Fujitsu, NEC, etc.
2. Mainframes. Mainframe computers are water or air-coiled computers which are capable
of great processing speed and data storage. It is used in banks, airlines, insurance
companies, government agencies such as BIR.
 Memory capacity: minimum of 5 megabytes
 Execution speed: 100 nanoseconds
 Used for general applications
Examples: IBM 360/20, NCR 3, UNIVAC 9400

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Large scale computers are actual high-level machines that have storage capacities in the
million-byte range. They process full control systems with minimal operator conventions. They
are also capable of linking up with dozens of high-level I/O devices and performing operations at
phenomenal rates.

Examples: IBM 360/85, IBM 370, B-700

3. Minicomputer. These are machines used either as single workstations or as a system

feed my network to several terminals. These are used by medium-sized companies for
accounting, billing, inventory, payroll and other business transaction. Developers include
digital equipment corp., Data General, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Tandem, etc.
 Memory capacity: 48 kilobytes-640kilobytes
 Execution speed: 0.5 to 0.2 nanoseconds
 Used for general applications but may be configures for specialized ones
4. Microcomputer. Microcomputers are small computers used as a personal computer or
as terminals to a network. It is generally used for specialized applications like
processing, numerical control and small communication systems. These type of
computers come in several size, as follow:
 Desktop. Those in which the system cabinet sits on a desk, with keyboard and monitor
located in front. The system motherboard is enclosed in a mini-tower casing.
 Laptop. It is a portable computer equipped with flat display screen and weighs just
about 3.5 to 8 kilograms. The top computer opens up and serves as the screen.
 Notebook. A portable computer similar to the size of a thick notebook and weighs 1.5 to
3.3 kilograms. The display screen and keyboard are similar that the desktop.
 Pocket PC. A handheld computer that weighs about 0.4 kilograms and are used as
electronic diaries, personal communicators like cellular phones, and as pocket
organizers.
 Wearable computer. The key glasses through which computer images are displayed (in
particular, these can be images of real reality). A pair of stereo glasses can be fitted with
a pair of stereo speakers, and a microphone in a VR-helmet.

According to Design
1. General-purpose computer
 Designed to program a variety of operations.
 Has the ability to store different programs of instructions in its internal storage
 The ability to perform a variety of operations is achieved at the expense of speed and
efficiency of performance.
2. Special-purpose computer
 Designed for a specific operation and usually satisfies the need of a particular type of
problem.
 The instructions that control the machine are built into it.
 Specialization of the machine results in the economical, efficient and effective
performance of a specific operation.

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 Examples: ATM (Automated Teller Machines), factory robots, computers used for collecting
highway tolls, airline reservations, and industrial process control.

According to application
1. Business computer
 Requires the processing of large number of records or vast amount of data
 Perform relatively little computation/manipulation on each record/data
 Large volume of output in the form of reports
 Emphasize on high-speed input and output instructions to facilitate the conversion
(editing) of sorted data into report format
2. Scientific computer
 Requires the processing of a relatively small amount of data
 Performs extensive internal computation on data
 Produces little output
 Uses high-speed internal processing but have limited input/output capabilities

According to Operation
1. Digital Computer
 Operates directly on decimal digits that represents either discrete data or symbols
 Takes input and gives output in the form of numbers, letters and special characters
represented by holes in punched cards, spots on magnetic tapes, printing on paper,
etc.
 Generally used for business and scientific data processing.
 Capable of achieving varying degrees of accuracy in both intermediate and final
values of data.
 Possesses greater accuracy than the analog computer.
2. Analog Computer
 It measures continuous electrical or physical magnitudes like current length,
pressure, voltage, temperature, shaft rotations, which represent or are analogous, to
the number under consideration.
 It can process data faster than a digital computer.
3. Hybrid Computer
 it has the ability to solve problems at a speed faster than analog computers and
greater accuracy than digital computers.

According to the Number of Users

1. Stand-alone Computer

C PU

USER

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 2. Multi-user Computer
a) Time sharing
Disadvantage: System slows down as the number of users increase.
Remarks: Users request are processed on a first come, first serve basis

CPU

TIME SLICER

USER 1 USER 2 USER 3 USER 4

b) Multi-processor

Disadvantage: System is expensive to set up

Remarks: All arithmetic/ logical operations required by each user are performed by the
corresponding slave CPU while the main CPU performs all I/O operations necessary for
all users.

CPU

TIME SLICER

SLAVE CPU SLAVE CPU SLAVE CPU SLAVE CPU

USER 1 USER 2 USER 3 USER 4

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INTRODUCING TODAY’S TECHNOLOGY (PPT FILE)
New Technology Trends for 2025
1. Generative artificial intelligence (AI) is a type of AI that creates new content, such as
images, text, audio, and videos. It uses machine learning models to learn patterns in
data and generate new data based on those patterns.
How it works
Foundation models: Large AI models that can perform tasks like summarization, classification,
and Q&A
Deep learning models: Algorithms that simulate the human brain's learning and decision-
making processes
Fine tuning: Feeding the model labeled data to improve its accuracy and relevance
What it can do :

 Create a short story based on an author's style

 Generate a realistic image of someone who doesn't exist
 Compose a symphony in the style of a famous composer
 Create a video clip from a textual description
 Analyze data to identify potential risks
 Help enterprises comply with sustainability regulations
 Applications
 Gaming, Entertainment, Product design, Scientific research, Music generation, and
Healthcare.
 Challenges
 Ensuring the accuracy and appropriateness of algorithm outputs
 Managing the complexities of ownership of AI-generated content and training data
 Ensuring ethical design and regulatory compliance

2. 5G Expansion

5G expansion is the process of increasing the number of areas covered by 5G networks.

5G networks are expanding to provide faster, more reliable internet services to more
people.

How is 5G expanding?

Expanding radio spectrum

5G networks use a wider range of radio spectrum than 4G networks, including sub-3
GHz and 100 GHz.

Rolling out new sites

Companies are building new 5G sites in areas that previously lacked 5G coverage.

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 Using energy-efficient technology
Companies are using technology that reduces energy consumption and carbon
emissions.

3. Virtual Reality (VR) 2.0

(VR) is a technology that creates a simulated 3D environment that users can interact
with in real time. VR uses devices like headsets, gloves, or body suits to create the
illusion that the user is immersed in a virtual world.

How it works

Headsets
A VR headset or helmet is a device that displays the virtual environment to the user.
Motion sensors
Motion sensors track the user's movements and adjust the view on the screen in real
time.
Gesture recognition
Gesture recognition or handheld controllers track the user's hands and body.
Haptic feedback
Haptic feedback, or touch-sensitive feedback, can be incorporated into the device.
Applications
Entertainment: VR can be used to create immersive entertainment experiences.
Education: VR can be used to help students visualize and understand complex
concepts.
Business: VR can be used to train employees safely and efficiently.
Meditation: VR can be used to help people meditate, reduce anxiety, and increase
mindfulness.

History

In 1968, Ivan Sutherland and Bob Sproull created the first VR head-mounted display,
called the Sword of Damocles.

Jaron Lanier coined the term "virtual reality" in 1987

4. Augmented Reality (AR)

a technology that combines the real world with computer-generated content to create an
interactive experience. AR can use visual, auditory, and other sensory stimuli.
How it works
AR software scans the real world and identifies objects and features that can be
augmented.
AR uses a camera-enabled device to overlay digital content onto the real world.
Users can interact with the real world and computer-generated content simultaneously.

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 Examples of AR

Gaming: Players can locate and capture Pokemon characters in the real world.
Navigation: Users can see a route to their destination overlaid on a live view of the
road.
Manufacturing: Industrial users can work more efficiently with machines and systems.
Archaeology: AR can help archaeologists reconstruct sites and experience excavation
sites as if they were there.

5. Synthetic Media
is a term for media that has been artificially created or modified using technology, such
as artificial intelligence (AI). It can include images, videos, text, and audio.
How it's created
Synthetic media is created using AI algorithms, machine learning, and other automated
means.
The technology is capable of creating realistic content that may be difficult to identify as
synthetic.
What it can be used for
Synthetic media can be used to mislead people or change the meaning of original
content.
It can also be used for positive purposes, such as in education, healthcare, and
entertainment.
Examples of synthetic media
Deepfakes: A popular type of synthetic media that uses AI to create hyper-realistic
versions of people.
AI-written music: Music created using AI.
Text generation: Text created using AI.
Voice synthesis: Voices created using AI.
Interactive language lessons: Language lessons created using AI.
Medical training simulations: Virtual patients created using AI to help medical
professionals practice procedures.

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WEEK 3
The Computer System

What is a computer system?

A computer system is a collection of hardware and software that performs specific tasks. The
term “system” refers to the interconnection of individual components, which work together to
perform an overall task or set of tasks.

Computer systems will include the computer along with any software and peripheral devices
that are necessary to make the computer function. Every computer system, for example,
requires an operating system.

The term “computer system” is often used interchangeably with the term “computer,” but they do
not actually mean the same thing. A computer system can be as simple as a single device, or it
can be an entire network of devices working together.

Hardware in a computer system includes the central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage
devices, input/output (I/O) interfaces, network connections, and other components. Software
consists of applications or programs that run on the CPU to perform various functions for users.

What are examples of computer systems?

There are many different types of computer systems that can be used by businesses and
organizations but also by consumers. The most common type of computer system is the
desktop computer, which is a personal computer that sits on a desk or table and can be used by
one person at a time.

A laptop or notebook computer is similar to a desktop and is also a computer system, but it has
an internal battery pack so it can be taken with users when they travel. In an increasingly mobile
world, mobile phones and other mobile devices are also considered types of computer systems.

Components of Computer System

Let us now understand the following basic components of a computer system.

Hardware – tangible parts (physical)

Software – intangible parts

Humanware - is the combination of hardware and software elements that make human interaction with a device as
good as possible.

Firmware - is a form of microcode or program embedded into hardware devices to help them operate effectively.

Bridgeware - Hardware or software that converts data or translates programs from one format into another.

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The physical components collectively form the hardware of a computer system. Hardware
comprises of the equipment that helps in the working system of the computer.

Following are the different types of hardware components (which have specific functions) −

Monitor − It displays (visual) the result.

CPU − It is the Central Processing Unit that controls the computer’s functions and transmits
data.
Motherboard − It is mainly accountable to establish communication between components and
transmission of information.
RAM − It is the Random Access Memory and responsible for the storage of programs that are
currently running and also stores data temporarily.
Hard Disk Drive − It is a permanent memory storage device.
Floppy Disk Drive − It is hardly being used in recent times.
Optical disks − It is a device that also store data. For example, CD, DVD, etc.

What is meant by Computer Architecture?

Computer architecture refers to the design and basic structure of a computer system, including
its hardware structures, their interconnections, and the principles that guide their organization. It
encompasses the higher-level aspects of computer design, such as the instruction set
architecture (ISA), memory hierarchy, and the organization of the central processing unit (CPU).
Computer architecture sets the foundation for building efficient, reliable, and high-performance
computer systems.

Computer architecture refers to those attributes of the system that are visible to the software
programmer and have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program, like the number of
bits used to represent various data types, the instruction set of the computer, technique for
addressing memory, method used for input, output, etc. It basically defines the system in an
abstract manner and deals with the concepts that the programmer deals with directly.

The following 3 main categories are considered while considering the design of
architecture:

 System Design (contains hardware components that are used for building the
system)
 Instruction Set Architecture (includes all the instructions provided to the computer
system)
 Micro Architecture (give minute detail about storage element)

Computer architecture plays a critical role in determining the overall performance, power
efficiency, and scalability of a computer system. Design choices in architecture impact a

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system's ability to handle various workloads, support future technologies, and deliver a
satisfactory user experience.

What is meant by Computer Organization?

Computer organization refers to the way the various components of a computer system are
interconnected and work together to perform tasks and execute programs. It encompasses the
design and arrangement of hardware components, including the central processing unit (CPU),
memory, input/output devices, and control units, to ensure efficient and effective operation of
the computer.

Computer organization deals with the physical components of a computer. So, it refers to the
operational unit and the interconnection between them that achieves the architectural
specifications. It tells us about the different functional blocks of the system. It is basically the
realization of architecture and deals with functional structure and various structural
relationships.

Computer organization includes the physical connection component, like circuits with adder
subtractor. If we talk about CPU organization, its three types are:

 Single Accumulator Organization

 General Register Organization
 Stack Organization

Computer organization plays a crucial role in determining the overall performance and efficiency
of a computer system. Designing efficient interactions between hardware components is
essential for achieving optimal processing speeds and responsiveness.

Difference between Computer Architecture And Computer Organization

Key differences between computer architecture and computer organization are summarized
below:

Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Computer Architecture is concerned with the Computer organization is concerned with the way
structure and behavior of the computer hardware components are connected together to
system as seen by the user. form a computer system.

It is a blueprint for design. So, while

Computer organization is decided after the
designing a computer system, architecture is

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decided first. architecture.

It involves logical components such as It involves physical units such as circuit

Instruction Set, Addressing Modes etc. design, adders, signals, peripherals, etc.

It describes how a computer system is

It describes how a computer system works.
designed.

It acts as an interface between hardware It deals with the components of a computer and the
and software. interconnection of components.

Computer architecture deals with high-level Computer organization deals with low-level design
design issues. issues.

Computer architecture defines the logical Computer organization defines the physical aspects
aspects of a computer system. of the computer system.

It deals with the functional behavior of the It deals with the organizational structure of the
computer system. computer and the various structural relationships.

It is also called an instruction set

It is also called microarchitecture.
architecture.

Concerned with - What to do? (Instruction Concerned with - How to do?(implementation of the
Set) architecture)

COMPUTER PROGRAMS:

Bachelor of Science in Computer Science (BSCS) is a four-year program that includes the
study of computing concepts and theories, algorithmic foundations, and new developments in
computing.

Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (BSIT) is a four-year program that prepares

students to be IT professionals well-versed on IT applications, including web, database,
programming, and networking technologies.

Bachelor of Science in Information System (BSIS), is a four year degree program that deals
with the design and implementation of solutions that integrate information technology with
business processes.

Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering specifically prepares graduates for a career in

the computer engineering field. Computer engineers apply principles from electrical engineering

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and computer science to design and analyze all hardware and software required for a computer
system.

WEEK 4
4 ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING
There are different types of data processing system and each performs one or more
required operations on data by means of various devices. When the machine performs most of
the required operations, the systems is called an Automatic Data Processing (ADP) system.
When that machine is an electronic digital computer, the system is described as an Electronic
Data Processing (EDP) system or simply as a computer system.

The Computer System refers to the machines, programs and operating aids that cause these
machines to function; the procedures required to prepare and process the data; and people who
keep the hardware, software and procedure effectively functioning. In technical term, it is also
called as Technoware.

HARDWARE

It refers to the physical components of a computer. These include the equipment’s

associated with a computer system such as input and output devices, the processor, and data
storage devices, it can also be defined as the physical equipment itself.

Hardware accessories such as keyboard, mouse, screen, and printers are called peripherals.
The computer system has four basic components. Input devices accept data. These data are
kept in the memory of the computer in storage for later use. Processing of these data takes
place in the computer. Finally, results flow through output devices.

SOFTWARE

It refers to programs that direct the activities of the computer system. It can be considered into
three major categories: general-purpose software, applications software, and system software.

•General Purpose Software provides a framework for a great number of businesses,

scientific and personal application. Examples are word processing, spread sheet, computer
aided design.

•Application Software are programs designed and written to perform specific personal,
business, or scientific processing tasks such as payroll processing, inventory management and
that like.

•System Software is independent of any general purpose software package or any

specific applications area. In this software category, it controls or in some way supports
software in the other two categories.

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The Operating System. The nucleus of any computer system is its operating system. It
monitors and controls all input/output and processing activities within computer system. Some of
the popular operating systems for microcomputer include:

•MS-DOS. The operating system used with IBM-compatible personal computers

designed by Microsoft Corp.

•OS/2. The successor of MS-DOS. (Microsoft Corp./IBM Corp.)

•MS Windows Operating System. Microsoft released Window 3.0, Windows 3.1 and 3.11 in
the market in the early 1990’s with the help of MS-DOS to operate. But the first Windows that
makes use of the Graphical User Interface (GUI) in the operating system was Windows 95.
Later on, an update version was released with a web browser named Internet Explorer in the
Windows 98 release. Then there’s the Windows Me (Millennium Edition) that makes use of the
digital video editing and multi-media support and capabilities. Windows 2000 professional
combines the user-friendly interface of Windows 98 and the capability in networking of
Windows NT (New Technology) used for networking (Windows NT Workstation and Windows
NT Server). With the release of Windows XP, both the Home and Professional Edition, the PC
desktop has more three-dimensional (3D) look. It has advanced networking and
communications feature. The Windows Vista was design to strengthen the Web integration and
the improvement of wireless capability. Unlike Windows Vista which introduced a large number
of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the
Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which
Windows Vista was already compatible. Windows 8 has been “reimagined from the chipset to
the user experience” to connect more with the user. It features a new user interface inspired by
Microsoft’s Metro design language that can be used for multiple input methods, including
touchscreen input similar to that in Windows Phone and physical button input similar to the Xbox
360 and a PC.

•Macintosh System. The operating system of all Macintosh line of computers. (Apple
Computer, Inc.) Popularly known as Mac OS X, is based on the Unix operating system code
(Berkeley System Distribution). This system supports graphics, multi-media and publishing
projects.

•UNIX. Originally a mainframe operating system particularly used for network operations. It is
used in critical applications such as Web servers that are used for online transactions,
maintaining Internet domain name, and large database servers for data warehouses.

•LINUX. An operating system for microcomputer networking that is applied for multiple users
and multiple processors. It can run on nearly any type of computers and supports any type of
software applications. The most popular Linux operating system distributions are from Red Hat
Linux and Novell Linux and are registered as FOSS, meaning free software.

•Palm Pilot OS. Another kind of operating systems that are used on most communications
gadgets which are directly built into the circuitry of an electronic device such as in our Personal
Digital Assistant (PDA), cell phones, medical equipment’s bar code readers and the like. It

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makes use of the following operating systems: Microsoft Windows CE.NET and windows XP
embedded, Palm Pilot OS, Microsoft Pocket PC OS, Symbian OS, and lately Android.

Knoware

The term know are or also called people ware represents the personnel involved in
systems analysis, programming, computer operations, system maintenance, and many more.

System analysis and design is the job of the systems analyst. Program development is
the specialty of the programmer. Systems development is carried out by a computer operator,
input data preparation staff, and output preparation clerks.

An example of EDP organization structure

The personal who work in the EDP position are as follows:

•System Analyst – The one responsible for analysing the requirements of a company based
applications, indicating their design, and the development of appropriate systems
documentation.

•Programmer – Develops, writes, compiles, tests, and debugs program logic, analyses program
specifications provided by the systems analyst and prepares program documentation.

•Computer Operator – Runs computer programs, conducts test runs for system being
developed, responds to program request, reports problem to programmers, label files, and
performs back-up procedures.

•Computer Engineer – Design computer system using the latest technology and development
of the same for fast and efficient use.

•Database Administrator – Analyses the company information needs, designs, maintains, and
control the company record keeping safe.

•Network administrator, network analyst or network engineer – is a person responsible for

the maintenance of computer hardware and software that comprises a computer network. This
normally includes deploying, configuring, maintaining and monitoring active network equipment.

•Communication Analyst – Plans, designs, and reviews the installation of communication

network needed to support the computerization requirement of the company.

•EDP Librarian – Stores, control, and issues data files required for processing computer jobs,
retrieves back-up files from storage files, and maintains records of data files.

•Computer Technician - Responsible for the troubleshooting, repair and maintenance of

computer equipment

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5 PERIPHERALS
Devices connectable to a computer are referred to as peripherals. The major categories of
peripherals are devices for:

 Input: alphanumeric keyboard, musical keyboard, microphone, tape-recorder, tablet

and stylus, scanner, digital photo camera, video camera, sensor, and probes.
 Output: monitor, printer, projector, headphones, speaker.
 Controls: motors, lights for robotics construction kit, and sensors.
 Communication: modems, communication lines, satellite and local network
equipment, and wireless networks.

Different components of a computer as well as peripheral devices need to be connected via

channels for information flow. In most computers today, cable do this, but wireless connection is
increasingly possible as well.

WEEK 5
INPUT DEVICES
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

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Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data
to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although
there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys
or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows –

1. Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control

device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses
the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when
the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the
screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Input devices act like the eyes and tears of the computer system. They accept data in a form
that the computer can use and send these data to the computer or processor. Data are usually

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entered by a user through input devices which include keyboards, mouse, joysticks, and
scanners.

The Keyboard is the primary input device for computer systems. The lay out of the keys
resembles that of a typewriter, but special keys and function keys, among others, have been
included. The computer has many advantages over a typewriter, ever apart from its more
sophisticated software and other applications. The first of this is how easy it makes it to change,
delete or insert any word or phrase. The next is the ability to copy any text fragment and to
move it as a solid object anywhere within a text, or to another text, usually referred to as cut-
and-paste. Touch-typing (not looking to a keyboard using 10 fingers) is a useful skill in
educational contest today. Students can learn touch-typing faster than writing: they can type
faster than they can write; and the results are more attractive and much easier to edit revise.

Another popularly used input device is the mouse. It is a hand-held object that is pushed
around a desktop, is essentially a pointing device that allows the user to do many operations
more quickly that they could with the keyboard alone.

There are other devices to transform information manipulation inside the computer similar to the
mouse. They all act similarly, but the physical movements of a human hand working with them
can be quite different:

A handheld mouse, not lying on the table, can have a small gyroscope inside, and is useful
when something is shown to others on a big screen.

A track pad is a small panel (about 3 by 4 cm) over which can be move by the index finger to
control the cursor.

A trackball is a ball about the size of an egg embedded into a panel, which can be rotated.

A joystick is a smaller lever (as in a car transmission gearshift) used mostly in computer
games.

There are also very small joystick inside some keyboards called trackpoints, which can be
pushed and deflected with the fingers.

Wireless mice that have no moving parts are more reliable and have become more popular.
Among them there are hand held mice that are not place on a table but move in 3D space.

Another type of input is to draw or wright with a pen. The difference between a computer pen or
stylus and ordinary one is that the computer pen o moves over a special surface called
graphical tablet, and the trace of the move can be represented on screen. The computers can
also measure levels of pressure. With appropriate software, a computer can imitate almost all
existing drawing techniques and create some existing new ones. The computer is very useful for
technical drawing – now, mostly part of computer-aided design or CAD.

Touch Screen

Another promising type of device combines seeing with touching, allows the user, for example,
to outline an object on the screen with the finger and then move it to a different position with the
same finger. This is already achieved with touch screens. A finger cannot indicate a very small

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object on a screen. However, this limitation can be relaxed by using a stylus on the screen (a
kind of pen or pencil designed for this kind of interaction).

Scanner

Are devices that scan visual images or text, and convert them to electronic pulses that can be
processed and displayed by output devices like the screen or printer. Scanners look like copying
machines, but are smaller and usually work more slowly. Instead of producing a paper copy of
an image, a scanner transmits an image in digital form to a connected computer. Scanners can
be used to transform information from a paper source – a text, an image from a book, a
drawing, or a photograph – into digital image.

There are printed pattern of wide and narrow vertical bars that are used to represent numerical
codes in machine readable form, these are called Bar Codes. They are printed on almost all
products in the market and conforms with the Universal Product Code (UPC). It is a format that
lists the product maker’s identification number and a product number. Scanning devices such as
Bar Code Reader translate images of text, drawing, and photos into digital forms.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) reader senses data using photoelectric device. When
an image is a text (or text combined with graphics) in printed or handwritten form, a software
can be used to transform or convert this text image into a computer text file. This process of
transformation from picture of text is called Optical Character Recognition (OCR). It is used for
printing credit card receipts.

Fax Machine is a device that scans images and sends it as electronic signals over telephone
lines. The image is sent to a receiving fax machine which re-creates the image on the paper.
Voice Input is a new input device that captures data using the normal speaking voice. The
computer digitizes the sound of each system word and stores the digitized data in its memory.

Microphones transform sounds into electric signals for storage or transmission. Information
converted by a microphone into electrical signals can be transmitted via a wired or wireless
channel to other devices.

Sound recording can be done using the computer, which is converted into digital form by the
use of a microphone. In this case, the computer serves as a recorder. Digital recorders to store
sound in digital form using flash cards are becoming increasingly popular. Modern computers
can easily store hours of speech. Music recordings, processed and compressed by computer (in
MP4 format, for example), occupy very little memory. Also during the last few years, software
has been developed that allows a computer to transform human speech into a text file similar to
the conversion of handwriting, this makes Speech Recognition possible.

Sensors for input

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Measurement of the environment like temperature, humidity, acceleration, or magnetic field, can
be input to a computer-linked device called a sensor. A sensor generates an electrical signal
that is then usually transmitted to a computer via an interface more sophisticated sensors can
measure such parameters, store, and display them, even if a sensor is not connected to a
computer. This can be done by individual sensors or by what is called a data logger, a special
device or small box to collect and store data. The content of measurements can then be
transferred to a computer. Very promising in school education is the growing number of sensors
–from those that measure acid rain and heavy metal oxides ratio in potable water to the Global
Positioning System (GPS), which allows anyone to find geographic coordinates and related on
the earth’s surface.

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WEEK 6
6 THE PROCESSORS
The processors can be likened to then brain of the human body which is responsible for
processing what our eyes see, what our ears hear, and what our skin feels. It accepts data from
input devices. The processor contains the electronic circuitry to manipulate data and helps carry
out instructions or commands, in order to perform various tasks. Data are sometimes sent to
storage or retrieved from storage during processing.

The speed of the microprocessor to perform its tasks is measured in called megahertz (MHz).
Currently, computers run on 2 Gigahertz (GHz) or more. Mega is a unit of measurement that
means million and the term Giga refers to a billion. Many software applications make use of
intensive graphics and large amount of data that require faster CPU speed.

The performance of the microprocessor is dictated mainly by its architecture or the number of
bits of data it can process at any one time. Most personal computers are designed using the
Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC). The other microprocessor architecture used for
UNIX-based computers is called Reduced Instruction set Computing (RISC).

BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE MICROPROCESSOR

Microprocessor is a sophisticated and highly complex electronic device that contains the
electronic circuitry necessary to execute stored program instructions. The limits of a computer’
capabilities are determined by its microprocessor. Some of the microprocessor found in today’s
personal computers are:

. 8088, 8086 and Turbo Compatibles. These chips were used in the 1970 personal computers
like Apple II. It has pre-installed software, an operating system called CP/M (Controlled
Processor for Microcomputers). Most of the software available today cannot run with these
microprocessors.

. 80286, 80386, 80486 is used for IBM PC XT’s computers with a conventional memory with the
introduction of DX and SX models. It runs using the DOS (Disk Operating System) with speed of
4.77 MHz, 16 KB of RAM and a floppy disk drive. Sun Microprocessor and the next generation
microprocessors.

. 80586/Pentium. It is the enhance advance version of 80486 microprocessors such as Pentium

MMX, Pentium pro, Pentium IV. Intel Corporation developed the following microprocessors:
Pentium, Celeron, Centrino, Itanium, and Xeon. AMD developed Athlon, Duron. Opteron, and
Turion. Both Intel and AMD produced 64-bit microprocessors.

Central Processing Unit (CPU). Considered as the brain of the computer system, it controls
and monitors the entire system and performs actual arithmetic and logical operations on data. It
consists of three main units.

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Control Unit. It direct and coordinated all the activity of the computer including:

. Control of I/O devices

. Entry and removal of information from storage

. Routing of information between storage and ALU

. Direction of arithmetic/logical operation

Arithmetic/Logical Operations (ALU). Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

Register. These are storage locations internal the processor. CPU instructions operate on these
values directly. On RISC processors, all data must be moved into a register before it can be
load data from RAM, process it, and save the result back out but the fastest operations work
directly with registers. Also, there are registers that are set aside for certain tasks, these
generally include a program counter, stack, and flags. Each register also has a size that
determines the maximum amount of data that can be processed at a time. The register on
Pentium chips, for example, is 32 bits.

Clock. The clock dictates the timing of the microprocessor’s operation by generating precisely
timed electronic pulses that synchronize the function of the microprocessor’s
other components. The clock is the amount of GHZ the processor can handle.
For example, the clock of a Core2Duo is of 2.4GHZ. Overclocking means
increasing the GHZ’s the processor can handle.

Buses. Inside the microprocessor it provides the means for data to travel from various
registers to the central processing unit. Buses are electrical pathways inside the
microprocessor that behave very much like the highways and flyovers in a busy
city.

WEEK 7-8
OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices display, or show, processed results in a form it can be used or work with,
like a printout or a picture on a screen. It is the end result of what the computer is all about.

The most common output devices are monitor and printers. But there are output devices
used for special tasks such as over-head projectors, plotter, and speakers. Sophisticated
electronic devices are also used as output equipment for engineering, research, and specialized
medicine.

Monitor. Screens or Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRT) show temporary results generated by the
program being run on the computer. It can be classified according to three basic attributes:
color, size and resolution.

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Color. In most computer applications, the image on the screen is discrete and consists of
millions of picture element called pixels. The color and brightness of each element appears as a
combination of three color called RGB for red (R), green (G), and blue (B), with varying
brightness for each color. In reality, for every particular screen, each of these three basic color
consists of the entire spectrum of light waves. The brightness (intensity) of the three basic color
is coded by a symbol from a finite range. The symbol and the range of old computers were just
one byte (8 bits). Today, colors are usually presented by 3-byte coding (24-bits) representing
millions of color) or 4-byte coding (32-bits) representing billions of color. The latest technology
appears to be able to capture all possible variations in color.

.Size. The size of the monitor is measured in inches and corresponds to the diagonal length
across the screen.

.Resolution. This is measured according to the number of horizontal and vertical pixels, or
picture elements, contained in the screen. A pixel consists of dots that are arranged in a large
matrix and can be turned on or off selectively to display alphabetic and numeric characters as
well as graphic image. It is usually name by acronyms such as SVGA (800x600) and XGA
(1024x768). The ratio of the two factors is 4:3. The resolution is limited by characteristics of the
screen, but mainly by a computer’s power to refresh image quickly, which is needed to make
visualization of the processes adequate and the computer-human interface smooth. XGA is the
most widespread resolution in use today but higher resolution called SXGA and UXGA are
coming. TV screens similar to, or the same as, computer screen used today, offer a slightly
different way of presenting information – partly digital, partly analog. Generally, today’s TVs
produce less detailed images than good computers though the newest TV standards have
image of the same quality as good computer images. This improved definition is called HDTV
(high definition TV). The move to HDTV is accompanied by a trend to change the aspect ratio
(the fraction of screen width to its height) from 3:4 to 9:16 which is the ratio usually seen on
cinema screens.

Projectors. Computer images can be projected onto a screen. Information objects to be

projected can be made on computer or be input to a computer and presented on computer
screen. Special software used for projection of screen images constructing, and organizing
them is called presentation software One of the popular software products here is Microsoft’s
PowerPoint. Electronic technology has made is possible to project computer-generated images
as well as images from a camera and from a VCR (video cassette recorder). The projected
images, different from a computer monitor or TV screen, can be of any size. The only limitation
here is that the brightness of the images is reduced proportionally to the area (or squared linear
size) of the image. If the ambient light in a room is stronger than the projector’s light, differences
in color and brightness of different parts of the image on the screen are not seen clearly enough
or, in some cases, at all. The projector device is usually called a multimedia projector or LCD-
projector (indicating, not in all cases correctly, the technology used), or beamer.

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One of the important trends for monitors and projectors is standardization of the digital interface
between computer and the device. The DVI (digital Video Interface) Standard describes the
digital interaction between monitor and computer.

The Printer. A printer transforms screen images into images on paper, so-called hard copy.
Printers are classified according to the means by which images are transferred on paper. They
may either be of impact or non-impact.

Impact Printers. Images are transferred on paper by physically striking the ribbon against the
paper by the Printer hammer. Impact printer rely on dot-matrix and daisy wheel technology.

Fully-formed character printer produces fully formed character on paper in a single

operation in very much the same way as a typewriter does.

Dot- matrix printer has vertical rows of needle pins that are individually fired against a
ribbon as it moved across the paper. Each pin produces a single dot as it strikes the paper. It is
the pattern or arrangements of the dots that forms the individual characters. This can print 80-
200 characters per second.

Non-Impact Printers

Thermal Dot-Matrix Printer relies on heat to scorch dots on a special paper to

produces Characters in a dot-matrix printer.

Electrographic Dot-Matrix Printer is similar to the above printer expect that electricity,
rather than heat is used to produce dots on an electricity sensitive paper.

Ink-Jet Printer are tiny jets of special ink that are fired at a special paper to form
characters made up of individual dots. This printer is exceedingly fast. It can print an entire page
in a second.

Laser Printer uses a beam to produce characters on a ordinary paper similar to the
technology utilized by xerographic copy machines.

A recent invention in printers is so-called Random Movement Printing Technology

(RMPT). Printers using this technology can be the size of a computer mouse and used in the
same way: randomly moving it over a sheet of paper of any size leave text printed on it. A
device similar to a printer in its functionality, but based on a different technology, is a plotter in
which an image on paper appears, not as a combination of dots, but as a continuous line of ink.

Plotter is a typically like a printer but its primary use is for scientific and engineering
applications, since it can print large format images such blue print drawing on large papers.

Synthesizers are specialized type of computers that are designed to generate sound
electronically. It can be used to produce music or noise. Most PC’s have built-in synthesizers for
producing sounds.

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 Headphones or headsets can play in a music in a PC or laptop without disturbing others
within the area.

The LCD (Liquid-crystal display) Project is a type of video projector for displaying
video images or computer data on a screen or other flat surface. It is a modern equivalent of the
slide projector or overhead projector.

8 THE DATA STORAGE

Data or raw facts from which information are derived. There are two basic forms of a
storage devices: primary storage and secondary storage. Primary storage provides the
processor a temporary storage for data and instructions. During processing, the data and
instructions are transferred to the primary storage for a secondary storage before data are
processed and instructions are executed.

Types of Memory
In the computer, the primary storage comes into to types: the Random-Access Memory
(RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM)

Random-Access Memory. The RAM chip holds data and instructions that the computer use.
The contents can be read and altered or even put new data. Moreover, RAM chip is volatile
which means that its contents disappear when the power is turned off and never come back
even if the computer is turned on again.

Read Only Memory. The contents of the ROM chip cannot be changed by the end-user. Data
can be only read, hence the term read only. ROM chip usually contains instruction and data that
are recorded at the factory. Its chip is non- volatile, meaning its contents do not disappear even
the power is off.

Primary Storage Capacity

The storage capacity is expressed in terms of unit of data called byte. The computer’s
unit of capacity is expressed in kilobytes which is 1024 bytes. Hence, a computer with a
capacity of 640 KB can hold 655,360 bytes of data. Memory capacity can also be
expressed in terms of megabytes or one million bytes and gigabytes or roughly one
billion bytes.

Secondary Storage
The secondary storage is a permanent storage. It holds data programs, and results for
future use. Unlike the primary storage, the secondary storage is physically separated
from the computer. They are actually two classification of secondary storage devices,
depending on the type of materials used. They are the paper and magnetic storage
devices.

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Magnetic storage devices have replace paper storage devices in recent years because
data retrieval and storage with the magnetic tape are much faster and more reliable
than paper devices. Likewise, magnetic devices can be reuse for long periods of time
and more information can be stored in less physical space.

Magnetic storage devices store data in much the same way as music is recorded on
cassette tapes or stereo records. A magnetic material such as iron oxide or any
magnetic oxide is coated on the base of the storage device, which is usually a metal or
a plastic material.

The Magnetic Tape. A high Speed medium that can serve as input to, or output from a
computer. It is generally 2,400-3,600 feet and long ½ inch wide. It is made of plastic
with iron oxide coating that can me magnetized to represent data.

Advantage of Magnetic Tape:

• has one of the faster data transfer rates among input/output devices
• capable of storing large amounts data in compact form
• data is easily retrievable
• reusable for up to 50,000 passes through a tape read-write unit
• relatively inexpensive medium of storing data
• less bulky and more convenient to handle

Disadvantages of Magnetic Tape:

• require the arranging of data stored it in some meaningful sequence. This makes it
difficult to insert a new record into an already established sequence. Data must be in a
batch of large group to make processing feasible.
• data on tape is not man-readable.
• Data on tape is easily erasable.

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The Magnetic Disk. Magnetic disk come in two kinds, the hard disk or floppy disk (also
called the diskette) which come in a variety of sizes.
The hard disk is a thin metal plate coated with a magnetic oxide. It is found inside the
main part of computers. Hard disks come in various sizes, 8, 5 ¼ and 3 ½ inches. The
hard disk can hold up 1000 gigabytes of memory.
The floppy disk is a thin, circular piece of polyester coater with a magnetic material. It
is encased in thick plastic case for protection. It can be used to transfer data or
programs from one computer to another.

The diskette is the basic input and output medium for microcomputers. There are the
three sizes available in the market. These are 8-inch diameter, 5-inch & ¼ - inch
diameter diskette and 3-inch diameter diskette.

Parts of Floppy Disk

1. label – describes certain aspects of diskette such as its brand, property no.,
contents data formatted etc.
2. plastic jacket/casing- serves as a protective covering for the diskette.
3. spindle hole- where the spindle fits into the diskette to rotate it.
4. Index hole/sector hole – points to the sector on the diskette where I/O operation
begin.
5. Access window-opening on the plastic jacket which exposes a portion of the
diskette to allow I/O operations to be performed.
6. write-protect notch/tab- a cut in the edge of the diskette which can be covered to
prevent the according or erasure of files on the diskette.

Magnetic Disk Drive

A device that is used to record information onto the disk and to read information from it.
It has read-write head that is used to read information from and record information onto
any of the tracks on the disk.
Advantages of a Magnetic Disk Drive:
• can storage numbers of records in a condensed area
• high speed device
• record length is not fixed.

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• may perform random or sequential processing
Disadvantages of a Magnetic Disk Drive:
• relatively expensive
• sophisticated procedures are required to process disks, thus a relatively small number
of disk drives can be used at given installation
• external and internal labels are required since data are not visibly read

Flash cards are additional memory chips that can easily be inserted into and removed
from the body of current computers. It does not require batteries to keep information
stored. The capacity of one card today is in the range of 10MB to 1GB and access is
fast enough for most applications. Flash cards are widely used in digital cameras and
other applications. They are rapidly replacing discs. Some versions if ROM cards are
used in game consoles where they are also called cartridges.

Optical discs store information on a disc as an optical trace. This principle is exploited
in compact discs (CD), widely used now for storing music. The capacity of a CD-ROM is
approximately 1GB. Access speed may not be fast enough fir sine applications involving
sound or moving pictures. To address this problem, observe the different speeds
marked on CD-drives: 2x, 6x,… 48x… A newer from of CD-ROM is called digital
versatile disc or DVD, which looks similar to a CD and rewritable DVDs have appeared
in recent years.

USB Flask Disk is a small and lightweight flash memory mass storage device that is
rewritable and removable. USB flash drive is generally faster and can hold more data
and reliable to use.

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WEEK 10-11 FINAL TERM
COMMUNICATIONS
Data Communication Is a process by which electronic data and information are moved
and transmitted from one place to another over land, in the air, and under the sea. It
consists of the Source or the Sender, the Medium and the Receiver are normally
transmitted through computers, telephone lines, satellites, coaxial cable, microwave
links, radio signal, etc.
Data Communication System
The two methods of moving data from source to destination are wire and wireless
transmission. In wire transmission, a signal moves through a wire such as telephone
wire, coaxial cable or frequencies and require different type of receivers. This includes
radio and television broadcasting, microwave, radar, and satellite transmission.
Connectivity. This refers to the ability to which hardware devices can be functionally
linked to other devices through communication lines. It is also considered as networking
of all hardware, software and data bases of connected groups. It permits access to
computers, local area networks, fill serves via Electronic Data Interchange (EDI).
Modem. It stands for MOdulator/DEModulator, a device used to convert computer-
compatible signals to signals suitable for data communication facilities, and vice versa.
Multiplexor. A Down-line Processor also called as controller or concentrator used to
collect the data from several low speed device like workstations and serial printers for
transmission over a single high speed line.
Data PBX. Also known as Data Private Branch Exchange. A switching device similar to
old-time telephone switchboard that electronically connects computers and workstations
for information distribution.

COMPUTER NETWORKS
It is system of interconnected computers, telephones, or other communications devices
that can communicative with one another and share applications and databases.

Local Area Network (LAN). A privately owned communications network that serves as
users within a confined geographical area. In this set-up, one or more computers can
serve as a “server” (the main computer), while the computers connected to it are called

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workstation or client PCs. The server used as the storehouse for software and data that
are shared by many users who are connected with it through cables or antennae.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). This covers a geographical area the size of city a
suburb. Cellular phones are examples of a MAN.
•Wide Area Network (WAN). It covers a wide geographic area such as a country or a
state. An example of this is the telephone system and the internet.
•Telephone Networks. It make use of inter-connecting telephones either as PBX’s
(Private Branch exchange) or Integrate Service Digital Network (ISDN).
•Broadcast Networks. Networks for radio and television via cable. Electronic
superhighway opens a vast range of choices including video-on-demand,
telecommunications, and interactive multimedia services such as home shopping,
education and videogames.
Basic Network Structure
There are two popular basic network structures that used in our country today, the
client/server and peer-to-peer networks. These two differs in many ways, most
especially in terms of system security, accessing resources, reliability and scalability.

Peer-to-Peer Networks
In its simplest form, a peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two or more PCs are
connected and share resources without going through a separate server computer. A
P2P network can be ad hoc connection-a couple of computers connected via a
Universal Serial Bus to transfer files. A P2P network also can be a permanent
infrastructure that links a half-dozen computer in a small office over copper wires. Or a
P2P network can be a network on a much grander scale in which special protocols and
applications set up direct relationships among users over the Internet.
Client/Server Networks
In a client/server environment, a computer functions a central or main computer while
the others functions as clients or workstation. Each and every client PCs on the network
share the processing and storage workload with the main computer also called as
server.
One of the most common usage of this type is in the operation of a relational database
management system (RDBMS) such as Oracle, SQL Server, PostgreSQL and even
MySQL which are installed in the main computer for centralized access of its resources.
Network Hardware

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Networking Media. Most of our networking systems make use of both wire-based and
wireless media to form a hybrid computer network. Most of the cables or wires used are
called unshielded-twisted-pair (UTP) wire. Each pair of wire consist of insulated or
coated rubberized plastic and is twisted around each other.
The two-cable design made of copper that is used to connect networking devices are
straight-through or cross-over cable. When connecting to similar network devices such
as computer to computer, switch to switch, router to router, or hub to switch and like a
cross-over cable is used.
On the other hand, when connecting to dissimilar networking devices such as
connecting the computer to a switch or hub, and connecting a router to a switch or hub,
a straight-through cable is used.
Another cable used in networking is the fiber-optic cable which unlike the UTP wire
which is made of copper is made of fiber-glass. The signal that passes through it is I the
form of light.
Wireless media user radio signal or infrared signal that travels through the air for
transmitting data.

Network Interface Card

The network interface card(NIC) is used to control the data that is being transmitted
through a cable wi-fi from one computer to another. This printed circuit board (PCB) is
also called network adapter card that provides and RJ-45 port where the network cable
such as UTP is attached or plugged.

Switch. The switch is an intelligent hub which has a built-in Internetwork Operating
System (IOS). The IOS Manages the network traffic in a fast and efficient way. It is used
to ease bandwidth shortages and network bottlenecks

Router. It is network device with the most intelligence of any networking devices found
in the network. It is capable of determining and deciding where to transmit the data from
one computer to another and choose the best path in order to deliver the data to
receiver successfully regardless of distance and time. It has a very powerful IOS.
Wireless Access Points (WAP). It is a device that allows wireless devices to connect
to a wired network using WiFi, Bluetooth or related standards. The WAP usually
connects to a router (via a wired network) if its stand lone device or part of router itself.

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Digital Connections
DSL connection. The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is usually use by internet users at
home. It is a family of technologies that provide internet access by transmitting digital
data over the wires of a local telephone network.
In telecommunications marketing, the term DSL is widely understood to mean
Asymmetric Digital Subscribe Line (ADSL), the most commonly installed DSL
technology.DSL service is delivered simultaneously with wired telephone service on the
same telephone line. This is possible because DSL uses higher frequency bands for
data separated by filtering.
Broadband Connections. It is simply described as a network connection that can do.
Some of the broadband connections utilize WAN technologies such as T1, T3,
Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN), and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
Cable Modern Connections. Cable modem service enables cable operators to provide
broadband using the same coaxial cables that deliver pictures and sound to your TV
set.
Most cable modems are external devices that have two connections: one to the cable
wall outlet, the other to a computer. They provide transmission speeds of 1.5 Mbps or
more.
Subscribers can access their cable modem services by simply turning on their
computers, without dialing-up ISP. You can still watch cable TV while using it.
Transmission speeds vary depending on the type of cable modem, cable network, and
traffic load. Speeds are comparable to DSL.
Wireless Connection. Refers to any type of computer network that is not connected by
cables of any kind. It is a method by whice homes, telecommunications networks and
enterprise (business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a
building, or as a connection between various equipment locations. Wirelees
telecommunications networks are generally implemented and administered using a
transmission system called radio waves. This implemention takes places at the physical
level (layer) of the OSI model network structure.
Uses of Communication
Connectivity and communications enable the users to use the telephone and other
related services such as fax, voice mail, electronic mail, and teleconferencing.

. Fax Machine. Fax stands for facsimile transmission or reproduction that sends
and receives documents over transmission lines to and from other fax machines. Also a

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fax modem installed in a computer system can send signals directly from the computer
to another computer with a fax modem.
. Voice Mail or V-mail. It works like a telephone answering machine. It digitizes
incoming voice messages and stores them in a recipient”s voice mail box in digitized
from. It then converts the digitized versions back to voice messages when retrieved by
the user.
. Electronic Mail or E-mail. This links the computers by wired or wireless
connections and allows users, through their keyboards, to post messages and to read
responses on their display screens.
. Teleconferencing. Is a meeting among people without traveling. They are linked by
a communications device suck as telephone, television or Computer

Electronic Data Interchange or Workgroup Computing. It is a direct electronic

exchange between organizations’ computer system of standard business documents,
such as purchase order, invoices, and shipping documents. Some of the application
using EDI are:
. On-line Information Services. It Provides access to all kinds of databases and
electronic meeting places to subscribers equipped with telephone-linked
microcomputers. It is used for research, electronic mail, Games, Travel services, &
Shopping
. Electronic bulletin board system. Is a centralized information source and
message switching system for a particular computer- linked interest group.
. Internet. It is an international network connecting approximately tens of
thousands of smaller networks.

11: THE INTERNET

The use of internet has rapidly change the configurations of businesses, lifestyle,
Knowledge, research, and learning environment. In the year 2007 there were already
about 1.3 billion users Connected to the internet and approximately connected to 50
million servers. It has become a public tool in information gathering, electronic mail,
advertising, video conferencing and worldwide presence. Internet stands for
INTERnational NETwork. A network or sometimes called Net is a group of computers
and associated facilities that are linked together to enable the sharing of resources

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among computers. Today the internet is the biggest ever network channel and source of
human information. Over the decade, the Internet has grown exponentially in numbers
of participants and in the amount of information available. Access to Internet is possible,
not only with the average personal computer, but also with simpler equipment called a
network computer, which has an Internet source and connection but computer software
and storage.
WORD WIDE WEB
The WORLD WIDE WEB (www) is based on the concept of Multimedia and Hypertext; a
language that provides single view of information regardless of its location or format.
Hypertext information system enables the user to read and navigate text and visual
information. It can be accessed by using and application called Internet browser. A
browser is used to view and navigate the widely used browsers are Microsoft Internet
Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape Navigator, and Chrome. Some of the applications of
www are as follows:

INFORMATION SHARING
Users can obtain information suck as product description, research papers, professional
journals, encyclopedia, map, financial market data, etc.

. Software Distribution and Retrieval. New releases of software and updates to

existing software can be retrieved promptly by the user.
. Telecommuting. It allows the conduct of business from a remote site. The web
provides business the international presence and facilitates quick response to business
transactios.
. Advertising. Many web sites are created to promote products and services.
. Marketing. On-line feedback forms can be created to solicit marketing
information about the customer’s preference with their products and services.
. Technical Support. The web provides a good medium to post technical support
solutions and product updates that can be accessed worldwide.
. On-line Shopping. Purchase order can be accepted through the internet.

WEB BROWSER

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The web browser is a type of software application designed and developed to find
hypertext documents on the Web and use to open the document. It provides a
graphical-user-interface (GUI) that enables the web surfer to click the hyperlinked text
and images to jump to other documents or view other information on the Web.
Its primary function is to able to access the information pointed by the Uniform
Resource Locator (URL). The URL is an internet system of addressing to locate where
the information is to be retrieved. The most common scripting languages used to design
and develop a Web page are Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) and Javascript. A
set of protocols called as Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) are used by the
computers to connect to the Internet and provide means to communicate with each
other.
Besides HTTP, there is another technology known as FTP (File Transfer Protocol) that
enables the user to send or receive files, images, pictures, MP3s, Videos or software to
any computer connected to Internet.
WEB SERVER
Web server can refer to either the computer (hardware) or the computer application
(software) the helps to deliver Web content that can be accessed through the internet.
Its most common use is to host websites and other uses such as gaming, Data storage
or running enterprise solutions.
WEB SITE
A website. Also written as Web site, web site, or simply site, is a set of related web
pages containing content such as text images, video, audio, etc. A website is hosted on
at least oneweb server, accessible via a network such as the internet or a private LAN
through a URL. All publicity accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide
Web. Some websites collectively subscription to access some or all their content.
Examples of subscription websites include many business sites, parts of news websites,
academic journal websites, gaming websites, file sharing websites, message boards,
web-based email, social networking websites, and many more.
Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

Electronic mail is use to computers to send a retrieve text messages or documents

addressed to individual people or locations. The e-mail user is identified by an
individual account, ususally based on preson’s name and also serves as the person’s e-
mail address. The general format is:
[name@[name of institution].[type of Institution]

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Examples of e-mail address are: [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]
Internet Service Providers. Connection to the Internet is provided by the ISP. The
Philippines is one of the most number of ISP in the Asia-Pacific Region with users
nearly a million and still growing. DigitelOne and ePLDT are examples of service
providers. Users Subscribe to certain amount depending on the internet using either
Serial Line Internet Protocol or Point-to-Point Protocol (SLIP/PPP) Provides minimal
charge since the connection does not need the use of service provider system.

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WEEK 12: ELECTRONIC COMMERCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 Understand the key features of the Internet audience, the basic concepts of
consumer behavior and purchasing and how consumers behave online.
 Identify and describe basic digital commerce marketing and advertising
strategies and tools.
 Identify and describe the main technologies that support online marketing.
 Understand the costs and benefits of online marketing communications
E-commerce is doing business on-line through web store fronts. It could be either
selling or buying products. Some of the products traded are books, services, virtual
education, Knowledge-based Products, etc.
The e-commerce bill in the Philippines intends to facilitate the use of modern means of
communication and storage of information such as electronic Data Interchange (EDI) or
e-mail telecopy.
The study of electronic commerce often focuses on security, cryptography, electronic
currency and payment.
The e-commerce has given companies around the world a different way of conducting
business compared to the traditional business transactions. Using large online database
and powerful websites, companies can sell goods, and customer can order it online,
send invoices to customers and receive payment through credit cards or other forms of
electronic payment.
In e-commerce the B2B (business-to-Business) transaction is the most popular
implementation. In this case, the transaction is more of a company to company, not
from the company to customer or consumer, hence B2B

INTERNET AUDIENCE
Keeping your audience’s attention is difficult. Very little content holds their attention and
much less motivates them to engage.
By analyzing and profiling your target audience, you can apply strategies that not only
find the right audience out of the billions of internet users but also get them to engage
you.

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Additionally, different types of user data will reveal different aspects of your audience.
Demographics provide general user data like age, gender, location, socio-economic
status, marital status, and education level. These characteristics can indicate where
your audience is living, what social media platforms they might prefer, what needs they
might have and more.
Behavioral data shows how users get to your website, what terms they use to find you
and the products or services they’re searching for, if they click on advertisements, what
content they’re interested in (or not interested in), and more.
Know what metrics matter.
Once you understand your online audience, you can begin to target them. Similar to
user data, there is a lot of data you can gather to see if your targeting is effective. To
know what your key metrics are for measuring efficacy, begin by identifying what goals
you want a particular campaign to achieve. Remember, while the final goal may be
“making a sale,” most customer journeys involve multiple touch points before making a
purchase. As such, creating unique content for target audiences at different points in the
decision-making process can shepherd prospects through the sales process.

To begin, identify a goal that you want to achieve.

Common digital goals are:
Increased brand awareness
Increased engagement
Increased web traffic
Conversions on key call to actions
Community building
Then, identify which metrics will indicate success. By matching key metrics to an
appropriate goal, you can create targeted content and advertisements to prompt your
audience to respond a certain way. As a business, you might run a brand awareness
campaign with the hopes of becoming a familiar brand to your audience. As you run
your campaign, you’ll monitor your reach to determine how many unique individuals at
least saw your content. And, many of the social platforms will track common metrics tied
to those common digital goals.

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Common key metrics are:

Impressions and reach (brand awareness)

Reactions, engagements, and engagement rate (engagement)
Audience match, acquisition, browsing Habits (web traffic)
Clicks, direct message, call to action (conversions)
Behavior insights, comments, page likes (community building)

Whether you have an active campaign tracking these metrics or not, it is recommended
to always record them to establish benchmarks for future campaigns.
ONLINE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Consumer behavior observes how people choose, use, and discard products and
services, encompassing their emotional, cognitive, and behavioral reactions.
Understanding consumer behavior is key for businesses.
The influence of technology on consumer behavior: Impossible to ignore
New technology has empowered consumers. They have unlimited access to information
and demand products and services when they want. Social media has given consumers
a bigger voice and new channels to communicate with brands and share their opinions
with peers.
As the speed of technology and trends in consumer behavior accelerate, companies
have to evolve quickly. The brands that deliver on consumer demands will thrive, and
those that are slow to react will not survive.

The 3 effects of technology on today's consumer:

1. Consumers Are More Connected
Consumers are more connected to business than ever before. Using smartphones, they
can research products, ask sales questions, and purchase products no matter where
they are and what they are doing.

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With consumers becoming hyper-connected, there is an increasing number of
opportunities to engage new and existing customers. However, companies need to
understand how they can cut through the noise and meet consumer demand.
What Do Businesses Need to Do?
To take advantage of this change in consumer behaviour, it's vital that the brand has a
strong social media and digital presence. That starts with a dynamic digital ecosystem.
Companies need to integrate all marketing channels to deliver a cohesive customer
experience irrespective of the channel used to reach your business.
2. Consumers Use Multiple Devices
In 2019, mobile accounted for 50.44% of total global internet traffic and 77% of total
digital minutes in the US. Along with increased household penetration of tablets and
wearables, consumers use a wide variety of devices to access the internet and
purchase products.
Consumers don't use a single device throughout the buyer's journey. According to a
Google report, 90% of consumers use more than one device to accomplish a single task
online. A shopper looking to purchase a product might start the journey after seeing an
advertisement on television and research products using their smartphone. After
evaluating different products, they might use their laptop to check pricing and complete
the purchase.
Companies need to be there with the right messaging at the right time, whichever
device their customer uses to reach out. Determining how to reach every audience
segment and how digital touchpoints interconnect is the challenge that needs to be
overcome.
3. Customers Have Higher Expectations

Consumers' expectations are at an all-time high as a result of the influence of

technology. With digital pioneers continually raising the bar, your customers compare
the experience of buying from you to your competitors and the experience they receive
from Amazon, Netflix, etc. Consumers expect more responsive, relevant, and targeted
communication, products, and services from the companies they buy from.

Technologies that supports online marketing:

Email Marketing. Even with the emergence of social media, mobile applications and
other channels, email is still one of the most effective marketing ..

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Content Marketing. Content marketing refers to informational, valuable content like
blog posts, how-to videos, and other instructional materials.
Affiliate marketing utilizes the ever-growing popularity of industry experts and social
media influencers.
Artificial Intelligence (CHATBOT). Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of
human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans ...
Ad Optimization: AI can analyze the performance of different ads and automatically
adjust them to improve results. It can also help with targeting ads.
Affiliate and Influencer Marketing. Working with an affiliate or influencer can help
increase your audience reach by engaging with their existing audience.
Social media marketing. Social media is a great strategy for reaching out to existing
customers, new audiences, and building brand identity.
SEO, or search engine optimization, is about getting your content seen by the right
people.
Video marketing can also take the form of product demonstrations, customer
testimonials or live-streaming events. It can engage viewers, raise brand awareness.

HERE ARE THE 5 MOST COMMON TYPES OF ONLINE SHOPPING:

Retail Shopping
Online retail shopping refers to buying products directly from retail websites. It allows
you to purchase gift items, home decor, toys, books, sports supplies, and other
merchandise typically found in physical stores.
So, why online shop? Well, it all boils down to convenience. The convenience of
browsing virtually all types of retail products from home and selecting products with just
a few clicks makes online retail shopping one of the most popular forms of e-commerce.
Grocery Shopping
Buying groceries online has become more prevalent in recent years. Many
supermarkets and grocery stores now offer the option to order food and household
items for delivery or curbside pickup. The selection often includes fresh and frozen
foods, toiletries, and dry goods.

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The benefits include saving time, limiting potential exposure to germs, and being able to
compare prices while sitting on your couch. However, some items, like produce, can be
lower quality than what you would pick out yourself in-store.

Fashion and Apparel Shopping

Online clothing stores provide a huge selection of stylish fashions at your fingertips.
Options include major department stores, specialty retailers for specific brands, fashion
boutiques, and marketplaces that offer clothing from many sellers.

Features like sizing charts, model photos, product videos, and customer reviews make
finding apparel that suits your taste and fit easier. Returns and exchanges are also often
convenient.

Electronics Shopping
With so many consumer electronics now available, online stores provide an excellent
environment for researching and comparing features, prices, and reviews to help make
the right purchasing decisions.

Online-only electronics retailers offer the lowest prices due to lower overhead costs,
while popular marketplace sellers and brand names guarantee quality and warranties.
Easy shipping and fast delivery help seal the deal. Still, some shoppers prefer seeing
and testing devices in person before buying, especially for high-priced or complex
items.

Marketplace Shopping
Online marketplaces like Amazon, eBay, and Etsy connect shoppers directly with third-
party sellers offering a massive assortment of products. In addition to major retail
categories like home goods, baby products, toys, and electronics, you’ll also find niche
items and rare collectibles from smaller businesses and individual entrepreneurs.

Marketplaces provide a trusted platform with robust buyer protection policies, though
scams and counterfeits occasionally slip through. The shopping experience is easy and
fun due to the endless options and competitive prices.

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CONCLUSION
The variety of ways to shop online continues to grow rapidly. The digital world offers
exciting new consumer options, from utilizing social media marketplaces to personalized
product recommendation engines.

The core reason people love online shopping is convenience. With a few clicks,
shoppers can find exactly what they need and have it delivered directly. As long as
online retailers continue to optimize for speed, selection, and simplicity, internet
commerce will continue to reshape the future of shopping.

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DIGITAL MARKETING
Digital marketing is the practice of promoting products or services with the help of
digital devices and technology.

In simple words, digital marketing is any form of marketing that occurs online with the
help of mobile, laptop, internet, etc. In addition to digital signage and technology that
may not be connected to the internet. It can range from anything as complex as
automated email marketing initiatives all the way down to the content choices on your
website’s blog.

Why is Digital Marketing Important?

 It reaches a broad spectrum of internet users who spend their time and money
online.
 It pins small businesses in top-ranking positions over brick-and-mortar firms with
a meagre advertising budget.
 It provides businesses with laser-focused control to ensure target audiences read
their messages.
 It allows personal-level marketing to provide comfort and security for customers
to subscribe to the messages and purchase.
 It enables tracking ads and communicating with the target audience.
 It provides scaling and adaptability for growing businesses to get instant results
and optimize accordingly, reducing lost revenues and wasted ad spend.
 It influences the purchase decisions of internet users who look for services,
products, or anything they desire online.
 It allows businesses to market to people by various means that show individual
respect.

What are the 4 main types of digital marketing?

Digital marketing can be categorized into several types. The 4 most promising and
popular types of digital marketing are -

 Content Marketing
 Social Media Marketing
 Paid Marketing or PPC (pay per click)
 Search Engine Marketing

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What skills do I need for digital marketing?

Here are some top skills that a professional for digital marketing needs:

 Communication Skills
 Writing Skills
 Creativity
 SEO Knowledge
 Design Knowledge

How to Strategically Deliver Words that Get People to Take Action

Copywriting is one of the most essential elements of effective online marketing.

Copywriting is the art and science of strategically delivering words (whether written or
spoken) that get people to take some form of action. Copywriters are some of the
highest-paid writers in the world.

Here are skills that will make you better at writing copy.

1. Attention to detail

Lack of attention to detail will have a major negative impact on your copy.

Sure, typos and spelling mistakes can be inevitable, especially in long form content like
blog writing, but spotting and fixing these errors is crucial.

Otherwise, you'll hinder your content's credibility, and readers will probably click the
back button right away.

2. Understand reader psychology and use it

Knowing a thing or two about psychology is excellent for persuasive writing.

It helps tap into the minds of your target audience and create compelling content that
connects with readers.

A few popularly used psychological triggers in copywriting are:

Urgency. This is commonly reflected in limited-time sales and offers like upsells once
you have already purchased an item.

Scarcity. You've likely seen "limited stock" - a classic example of scarcity. It can also be
conveyed in other similar ways such as "First X buyers receive Y" and so on.

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Priming. Priming works by exposing users to short term memory associations that favor
the introduction of a primary offer.

Decoys. Most often seen in pricing, a decoy agent is used to make other offers seem
like a much better value for money. (30 days money back guarantee)

Authority bias. Users attribute higher degrees of importance to an authority figure so

you'll often see brands associate themselves with other non competing authoritative
brands or personalities.

3. Use copywriting formulas

Copywriting formulas help streamline your workflow and write more compelling copy.

These are tried and tested copywriting frameworks designed to hook the audience and
boost productivity.

Like the Problem-Agitate-Solution (PAS) formula.

Let's dissect the Problem Agitate Solution framework to see what it is.

Problem: Identify and acknowledge your reader's pain points. This helps you empathize
with your audience and spark curiosity.

Agitate: Emphasize the problem's gravity. This adds a sense of urgency and causes
readers to react emotionally, getting them invested in your content.

Solution: Explain how your product or service solves the reader's problems. This
prompts readers to convert or keep reading your content.

Manipis na buhok? Huwag mo nang patagalin at hintaying tuluyang makalbo.

Try [brand x], proven and tested ingredients that will help for your hair growth problem.

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 PART IV

MALWARE AND OTHER THREATS

WHAT IS MALWARE?
As software designed to interfere with a computer's normal functioning, malware is a
blanket term for viruses, trojans, and other destructive computer programs threat
actors use to infect systems and networks in order to gain access to sensitive
information.
Malware Definition
Malware (short for “malicious software”) is a file or code, typically delivered over a
network, that infects, explores, steals or conducts virtually any behavior an
attacker wants. And because malware comes in so many variants, there are
numerous methods to infect computer systems. Though varied in type and
capabilities, malware usually has one of the following objectives:

 Provide remote control for an attacker to use an infected machine.

 Send spam from the infected machine to unsuspecting targets.
 Investigate the infected user’s local network.
 Steal sensitive data.

Types of Malware Attacks

Malware also uses a variety of methods to spread itself to other computer systems
beyond an initial attack vector. Malware attack definitions can include:

Email attachments containing malicious code can be opened, and therefore executed
by unsuspecting users. If those emails are forwarded, the malware can spread
even deeper into an organization, further compromising a network.
File servers, such as those based on common Internet file system (SMB/CIFS) and
network file system (NFS), can enable malware to spread quickly as users
access and download infected files.
File-sharing software can allow malware to replicate itself onto removable media and
then on to computer systems and networks.
Peer to peer (P2P) file sharing can introduce malware by sharing files as seemingly
harmless as music or pictures.
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 How to Prevent Malware:
A variety of security solutions are used to detect and prevent malware. These include
firewalls, next-generation firewalls, network intrusion prevention systems (IPS),
deep packet inspection (DPI) capabilities, unified threat management systems,
antivirus and anti-spam gateways, virtual private networks, content filtering and
data leak prevention systems. In order to prevent malware, all security solutions
should be tested using a wide range of malware-based attacks to ensure they
are working properly.
Cyber Threat Categories
There are many different types of cyber security threats, but they can generally be
broken down into four main categories:
1. Malware
is a type of malicious software that is designed to damage or disable computers and
computer systems. It can spread via email attachments, file-sharing networks,
online advertisements, and infected websites.
2. Phishing
Phishing is a type of online fraud that involves tricks or deception to get victims to reveal
personal information such as credit card numbers, passwords, and account
numbers. Phishing attacks are typically carried out via email but can also occur
through instant messages, social media messages, and text messages.
3. Ransomware
Ransomware is a type of malware that can encrypt or lock files on your computer and
demand a ransom to decrypt them. This type of ransomware attack can be
devastating for businesses, as it can result in the loss of important data or
systems being taken offline.

4. Social engineering
Social engineering is a type of attack that relies on human interaction to trick victims into
revealing information or performing actions that they wouldn’t normally do. These
social engineering attacks can include anything from phony phone calls and
emails to fake websites and social media profiles.

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15 TECHNOLOGY ENTREPRENEURS
Who are Technology Entrepreneurs?
Technopreneurs, also known as technology entrepreneurs, are the innovators who
weave advancement via their fervor for technology. These individuals, hailing from
diverse backgrounds, share a common thread—a fervor for harnessing technology to
not just build businesses but to reshape industries and create uncharted territories.
Technology entrepreneurs are passionate pioneers, imaginative pioneers, daring risk-
takers, strong in the face of difficulty, and flexible innovators. They understand the
possibilities in technology, look to the future, take calculated risks, overcome obstacles,
and adjust to change, which helps their businesses stay flexible and current in the ever-
changing tech sector.
The Impact & Importance of Technology in Entrepreneurship
In the dynamic landscape of entrepreneurship, technology has become a game-
changer, profoundly impacting how businesses are conceived, developed, and thrive.
The impacts are not just incremental. They are revolutionary, changing the very nature
of entrepreneurial ventures.
1. Technology Lowered the barrier to entry
For would-be entrepreneurs, starting a business is now more convenient and less
expensive thanks to technology. Large upfront expenditures are eliminated by cloud
computing and e-commerce systems like Shopify and WooCommerce. Social media
sites such as Facebook and Instagram allow business owners to interact with possible
clients. the elements that are transforming the virtual world into a thriving market.
2. Technology Leveled the playing field
Technology, particularly cloud computing, has improved the competitive landscape for
businesses of all sizes. It enables small enterprises to compete with larger ones on
price and quality. It bridges the gap between them and fosters healthy competition.
3. Technology Created new opportunities
Technology has revolutionized the gig economy, enabling entrepreneurs to start
businesses on their own terms. Artificial intelligence and blockchain are transforming
traditional industries, enabling entrepreneurs to develop innovative products like
chatbots (BOTCAKE, MANYCHAT) and revolutionizing currency, payment systems,
and digital identities.

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4. Technology Increased productivity
Technology is boosting entrepreneurs’ productivity through automation tools like CRM
software, streamlining tasks like lead generation and email marketing, and project
management software, facilitating seamless team collaboration and tracking project
progress.
5. Technology Improved decision-making
Technology aids entrepreneurs in making informed decisions through analytics
software, tracking website traffic, social media engagement, and sales data. This data-
driven approach is crucial for marketing strategies and product development, setting
entrepreneurs apart in the competitive entrepreneurial market.
Examples Of Technology in Entrepreneurship
Technology is more than just a tool in the passionate world of entrepreneurship. It
transforms the game of doing business. It forces businesses to new heights. Let’s look
at a few inspiring examples of smart entrepreneurs using technology to steer their
endeavours toward success.
E-commerce Evolution
Entrepreneurs are capitalizing on e-commerce platforms. Examples like Shopify and
WooCommerce revolutionized the way they do business. These platforms enable them
to set up and run online stores with ease. It does away with the requirement for a
physical storefront. Entrepreneurs may effortlessly connect with a worldwide audience
by doing this. Without the limitations of physical stores, they can exhibit their goods or
services.

AI Innovation
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a formidable ally for entrepreneurs seeking
innovation. Entrepreneurs are deploying AI to craft cutting-edge products and services,
automate routine tasks, and enhance customer experiences. An illustrative example is
the use of AI in developing chatbots that can adeptly handle customer queries and
provide support, streamlining customer interactions.
FAQS ON TECHNOLOGY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP
What are technology entrepreneurship examples?

 Think about Jeff Bezos, the visionary behind Amazon. He is the massive online
retailer that transformed the retail industry.

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  Elon Musk is a name synonymous with technological prowess. He established
SpaceX, Tesla, and Neuralink. All these companies push the limits of what is
conceivable.
 Bill Gates co-founded Microsoft, a tech titan shaping the digital landscape. While
Facebook, the behemoth of social networking, allowed Mark Zuckerberg to unite
people worldwide.
Why is information technology important in entrepreneurship?

 Information technology (IT) is the unsung hero of entrepreneurship, unlocking

doors to success.
 With the power to automate tasks and streamline workflows, IT becomes the
silent efficiency partner, freeing up time for entrepreneurs to focus on growth.
 Moreover, IT provides the data-driven insights entrepreneurs need to make
savvy business decisions, ensuring their ventures not only survive but thrive in
the digital age.
What are the technological factors of entrepreneurship?
Technological factors of entrepreneurship include:

 Having access to vital technology resources, from cloud computing to cutting-

edge software and hardware, is akin to having a toolkit for innovation.
 Entrepreneurs leverage technology to solve problems and birth new products
and services, staying ahead in the competitive landscape.
 The ability to adapt to ever-evolving technologies is crucial, ensuring businesses
stay agile in the face of change, riding the wave of progress rather than being
swept away by it.
Why is techno entrepreneurship important?
Techno entrepreneurship isn’t just a fancy term; it’s the heartbeat of innovation, creating
pathways to economic growth. Techno entrepreneurs, with their knack for developing
groundbreaking products and services, don’t just improve lives; they define the future. In
essence, techno entrepreneurship isn’t just important; it’s the driving force propelling
societies into a future where possibilities are limitless and technological frontiers
continue to expand.

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