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Joachim Stoke, Dieter Suter

Quantum Computing

A Short Course f r o m Theory to Experiment

Joachim Stoke, Dieter Suter

Quantum Computing
A Short Course from Theory to Experiment

WILEY-
VCH
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
Authors This hook was carefully produced. Nevertheless,
authors and publisher do not warrant the inlor-
Jutrc.hin7 S~ulzu niatioii contained therein to be free of errors.
liniversitiit Dorlmund, lnstitut fur Physik Readers arc advised 10 kccp in mind that statc-
stolzc~~'physik.uni-dortniuiid.dc mcnts, data, illustrations. procedural details o r
other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
Llieter Siirer
IJniversit3t Dortmund, lnstitut fur Physik Library of Congress Card Nu.: applied for
dicter.suter~'~~liysik.uiii-dortniund.de British Library Catalnging-in-Pnhlicatinn Data:
A calaloguc rccord lor this book is available f r o m
the British 1,ibrxy

Bibliographic information published by

Cover Picture Die Deutsche nihliothek
Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in
Quantum computittion requires ii physical basis to the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie: detailed
store the inlormetion.'l'liis is rcprcscnlcd by the bibliographic data is available in the Intcrnct at
row of endohedm1 fuilereneq (N(n?C60or PCWXO) <hit p:/ldn b.dd b.de>.
that could scrvc as "qubits" or quantum bits.lhc
truth table of the reversible logical oper;ltion
C'NO'I' symbolizes the quantum algorithms 02004 WILEY-VCH GmbH & Co. KGaA,
from which quantum computers derive their Weinheim
power. while the trajcctory on the sphcrc rcprc-
sents how such a logic operation (in this ciise the All righlh reserved (including those o f translation
Hadatnard gate H ) is iniplcmciitcd as a rotation of into other lariguages). N o part ofthis book may
a spin 112.The background contains representa- be reproduced in any form - n o r transmitted or
tions of an ancient iiiccliaiiical computcr arid a translated into machine laiiguagz without written
current palmtop computer. permission from the publishers. Registered
names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even
when not specifically marked as such, are not t o
be considered unprotected by law.

Printcd in tlic Federal Kcpuhlic of Cicrmany

Priiitcd on acid-free paper

Printing Strauss Offsctdruck GrnbH, Miirlcnbach

Bankhinding Groflhuchbinderei .T. SchBffcr
GmbH & Co. KG, Cirunstadt

ISBN 3-527-40438-4
Contents

Preface XI

1 Introduction and survey 1

1 .1 Information. computers and quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 . 1 .1 Digital information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I .1 .2 Moore’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Emergence of quantum behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Energy dissipation in computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Quantum computer basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Quantum information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Quantum communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Basics of quantum information processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
I .2.4 Decoherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.5 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 History of quantum information processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Initialideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
I .3.2 Quantum algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.3 Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Physics of computation 15
2 .I Physical laws and information processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.1 Hardware representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2 Quantum vs . classical information processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Limitations on computer performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 Switching energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Entropy generation and Maxwell’s demon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.3 Reversible logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.4 Reversible gates for universal computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.5 Processing speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.6 Storage density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 The ultimate laptop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Processing speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.2 Maximum storage density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Elements of classical computer science 27
3.1 Bits of history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Boolean algebra and logic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.1 Bits and gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.2 2-bit logic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.3 Minimum set of irreversible gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.4 Minimum set of reversible gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.5 The CNOT gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.6 The Toffoli gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.7 The Fredkin gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Universal cornputcrs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.1 The Turing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 The Church-Turing hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Complexity and algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.1 Complexity classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.2 Hard and impossible problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4 Quantum mechanics 39
4. I Gcncral structurc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.1 Spectral lines and stationary states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.2 Vectors i n Hilbert space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.3 Operators in Hilbert space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.1.4 Dynamics and the Hamiltonian operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.1 .5 Measurcmcnts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Quantum states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2.1 The two-dimensional Hilbert space: clubits, spins, and photons . . . . 44
4.2.2 Hamiltonian and evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.3 Two or more qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2.4 Density operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.5 Entanglement and mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.6 Quantification of entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2.7 Bloch sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2.8 EPR correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.9 Bell’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.10 Violation of Bell’s inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2. I I The no-cloning theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3 Measurement revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3.1 Quantum mechanical projection poslulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3.2 Thc Copcnhagen interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3.3 Von Neumann’s model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5 Quantum bits and quantum gates 63

5.1 Single-qubit gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1. I Tntrotiuction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.2 Rotations around coordinate axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Contents VTI

5.1.3 General rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

5.1.4 Composite rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Two-qubit gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.1 Controlled gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.2 Composite gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.3 Universal sets of gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3. I Choice of set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.2 Unitary operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.3 Two qubit operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.4 Approximating single-qubit gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6 Feynman’s contribution 75
6.1 Simulating physics with computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.1.1 Discrete system representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.1.2 Probabilistic simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.2 Quantum mechanical computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2.1 Simple gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2.2 Adder circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2.3 Qubit raising and lowering operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.2.4 Adder Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

7 Errors and decoherence 83

7.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.1.1 Sources of error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.1.2 A counterstrategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.2 Decoherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.2.1 Phenomenology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.2.2 Semiclassical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.2.3 Quantum mechanical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2.4 Entanglement and mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.3 Error correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.3.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.3.2 Classical error correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.3.3 Quantum error correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.3.4 Single spin-flip error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.3.5 Continuous phase errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.3.6 General single qubit errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.3.7 The quantum Zen0 effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.3.8 Stabilizer codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.3.9 Fault-tolerant computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.4 Avoiding errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.4.1 B a s i c s . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.4.2 Decoherence-free subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.4.3 NMR in Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.4.4 Scaling considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8 Tasks for quantum computers 10s
8. IQuantum versus classical algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i05
8.1.1 Why Quantum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8. I .2 Classes of quantum algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.2 The Deutsch algorithm: Looking at both sides of a coin at the same time . . . 107
8.2. I Functions and their propcrties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.2.2 Example: one-qubit functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.2.3 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.2.4 Manyqubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.2.5 Extensions and generalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.3 The Shor algorithm: It's prime time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.3.1 Some number theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.3.2 Factoring strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.3.3 The core of Shor's algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.3.4 The quantum Fourier transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.3.5 Gates for the OFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.4 'The Grover algorithm: Looking for ;I needle i n it haystack . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.4.1 Oracle functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.4.2 The search algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.4.3 Geometrical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.4.4 Quantum counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.4.5 Phase estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.5 Quantum simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.5.1 Potential and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.52 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.5.3 Simulated evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
83.4 lmplerllentatiorls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

9 How to build a quantum computer 133

9.1 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.1.1 The network model ........................... 133
9 . I .2 Some existiilg and proposed implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.2 Requiremeiltsforquantuminformationprocessinghardware . . . . . . . . . 135
9.2.1 Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.2.2 Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.2.3 Decoherence time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.2.4 Quantum gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.2.5 Readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.3 Converting quantum to classical information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.3.1 Principle and strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.3.2 Example: Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.3.3 Effect of correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.3.4 Repeated measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.4 Alternatives to the network model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.4.1 Linear optics and ineasureme~lts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Contents IX

9.4.2 Quantum cellular automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

9.4.3 One-way quantum computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

10 Liquid state NMR quantum computer 145

10.1 Basics of NMR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.1.1 System and interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10. I .2 Radio frequency field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.1.3 Rotating frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.1.4 Equation of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.1.5 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.1.6 NMR signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1SO
10.1.7 Refocusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.2 NMR as a molecular quantum computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.2.1 Spins as qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.2.2 Coupled spin systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.2.3 Pseudo / effective pure states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.2.4 Single-qubit gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.2.5 Two-qubit gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.2.6 Readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.2.7 Readout in multi-spin systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.2.8 Quantum state tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
10.2.9 DiVincenzo’s criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.3 NMR Implementation of Shor’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
10.3.1 Qubit implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
10.3.2 Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.3.3 Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.3.4 Readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.3.5 Decoherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

11 ion trap quantum computers 173

1 1.1 Trapping ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.1.1 Ions. traps and light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.1.2 Linear traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.2 Interaction with light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
11.2.1 Optical transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
1 1.2.2 Motional effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.2.3 Basics of laser cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
1 1.3 Quantum information processing with trapped ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.3.1 Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.3.2 Single-qubit gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
1 1.3.3 Two-qubit gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.3.4 Readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
1 1.4 Experimental implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.4.1 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.4.2 Some results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.4.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
X Cot1trt1t.s

12 Solid state quantum computers 189

12.1 Solid state NMWEPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
I2 . I . I Scaling behavior of NMR quantum infomiation processors . . . . . . 189
12.1.2 ‘i‘Pinsilicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
1 2 . I .3 Other proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.1.4 Single-spin readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
12.2 Superconducting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.2.1 Charge qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.2.2 Flux qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.2.3 Gate operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12.2.4 Readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12.3 Semiconductor qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.3.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.3.2 Excitons in quantum dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.3.3 Electron spin qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

13 Quantum communication 20 I
13.1 “Quantum only” tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
13.1.1 Quantitni teleportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
13.1.2 (Super-) Dcnsc coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
13.1.3 Quantum key distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
13.2 Information theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
13.2.1 A few bits of classical information theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
13.2.2 A few bits ofquantutn information theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Appendix
A Two spins- 112: Singlet and triplet states 22 1

B Symbols and abbreviations 223

Hi bliography 227

Index 24 1
Preface

During the past decade the field of quantum information processing has experienced extremely
rapid progress. Many physicists and computer scientists have become interested in this excit-
ing new field, and research activities were started in many places, including the University of
Dortmund, where several groups from experimental and theoretical condensed-matter physics
and from computer science, joined forces in a program called “Materials and methods for
quantum information processing”. Since that program involved graduate students from sev-
eral countries, and with different scientific backgrounds, we decided to teach an introductory
course on the fundamentals of quantum information processing. The idea was to provide the
graduate students working on highly specialized research projects in, for example, magnetic
resonance, semiconductor spectroscopy, or genetic algorithms, with a common language and
background connecting their areas of research. In that course we tried to discuss on equal foot-
ing both theoretical foundations and experimental opportunities and limitations. The present
book contains the material presented in our course, in an edited and slightly updated form.
We are well aware of the existence of a number of excellent books and courses relevant to
our subject. Nevertheless, we feel that a compact introduction to both theory and experiment
aimed at advanced students of physics is still lacking. We assume that our readers have a
reasonably good background in physics, notably in quantum mechanics, plus some knowledge
in introductory statistical mechanics and solid-state physics. We did not attempt to make
our book self-contained by explaining every concept which is needed only occasionally. We
do hope, however, that we have succeeded in explaining the basic concepts from quantum
mechanics and computer science which are used throughout the book and the whole field of
quantum computing and quantum communication.
We are grateful to the students who attended our course or participated in a seminar based
partly on the course material. Their questions and comments were helpful in shaping the
material. Of course all errors and inaccuracies (which are present, no doubt) are entirely our
own responsibility. We would like to express our thanks to many colleagues for many things:
to Bernd Burghardt for BTEX help, to Hajo Leschke for clarifying remarks, to Heinz Schuster
and Claudius Gros for encouragement, to Michael Bortz, Hellmut Keiter (who fought his way
through the entire manuscript when it was still in an intermediate state), and AndrC Leier for
reading parts of the manuscript, and to AndrC Leier for also supplying material on quantum
error correction.
Joachim Stolze and Dieter Suter

Dortmund, March, 2004

 Quantum Computing: A Short Course from Theory to Experiment
Joachirn Stoke, Dieter Suter
Copyright8 Z W 4 WILEY-VCW GmbH & Co. KGaA

1 Introduction and survey

1.1 Information, computers and quantum mechanics

1.1.1 Digital information
Storage, interchange and processing of information is a defining feature of human culture as
well as the basis of our economic system. Over the last fifty years, all these processes have
undergone dramatic changes, driven by the evolution of microelectronics technology. The in-
creasing availability of cheap storage, fast processors and global telecommunication (includ-
ing the Internet) has prompted a shift from a number of different conventional techniques used
to store, process and transmit information, which used different, mostly analog techniques, to
those which use all-digital forms of representing information.
This convergence of technologies has also eased the connection between storage, process-
ing and communication and made the most of the ongoing processes transparent or invisible
to the person who is actually using them. A search for a picture over an Internet search engine,
e.g., which typically involves typing a few words and results in a long list of “hits”, involves
all three types of processes mentioned several times:
0 The computer on which the person works interprets the input and uses its locally stored
information to decide what action it has to take.
0 It communicates with routers to obtain the address of the search engine.
0 It sends the request over the Internet to the search engine. The transfer of information
over the Internet involves multiple steps of processing and using stored information about
connections at all nodes.
The search engine receives the request and compares the keywords to those stored in its
files.
0 It uses stored rules to rank the hits.
0 The result is sent back over the Internet.
0 The workstation receives the information and uses stored information to display the in-
formation.
Each of these steps can be further subdivided into smaller steps that may again include differ-
ent types of actions on the information being exchanged between many different parties (most
of them electronic circuits).
2 I Introduction and survey

These fundamental changes of the way in which information is represented and processed
have simultaneously changed the way in which we use information. One consequence is that,
very often, information can no longer be localized or associated with a specific physical de-
vice. While hand-written notes represented unique instances of the pertinent information,
every electronic mail is stored (at least temporarily) on many different computers. It is there-
fore not only available for later retrieval by the person who wrote it, but also to many others
like system managers, hackers, or government agencies.
Most users of digital information experience the paradigm shift from Conventional forms
of information representation to a unilied digital form as an exciting possibility for improved
communication, easier access to vital information and additional choices for entertainment.
This attitude has driven the growth of the microelectronics industry over the last decades and
is likely to remain an important economic force for the foreseeable future.
At the same time, the global availability of information and the difficulty of controlling
one's personal data have prompted concerns about maintaining privacy. The emerging field of
quantum information processing holds promises that are relevant for both issues, the further
evolution of microelectronics as well as the concerns about privacy. This field, which com-
bines approaches from physics, mathematics, and computer science, differs from conventional
approaches by taking into account the quantum mechanical nature of the physical devices that
store and process the infortnation. In this monograph, we concentrate on the aspect of "quan-
tum computers". which refers to machines built on the basis of explicitly quantum mechanical
systems and designed to process information in a way that is much more efficient than con-
ventional computers. While it is still unclear at what time (and if ever) such computers will
be more powerful than classical computers, it is quite clear that at least some of the underly-
ing physics will he incorporated into future generations of information processing hardware.
The related field of quantum communication, which promises to deliver ways of exchanging
information that cannot be tapped by any eavesdropper, will only be mentioned here briefly.

1.1.2 Moore's law

The evolution of micro- and optoelectronic devices and the associated digitization of infor-
mation has relied on improvements in the fabrication of semiconductors that have led to ever
smaller and faster components. The decrease in size, in particular, has allowed more compo-
nents to be packed onto a chip, thus making them more powerful by integrating more func-
tions. Simultaneously, the decrease in size is a prerequisite for making faster devices, as long
as they rely on a fixed, systemwide clock. As early as 1965, Gordon Moore noticed that the
number of components that could be placed on a chip had grown exponentially over many
years, while the feature size had shtunk at a similar rate [Moo65]. This trend continued over
the next forty years and is expected to do so for the foreseeable future.
Figure 1.1 shows the current expectations: it represents the projections that the semicon-
ductor industry association makes for the coming decade. As shown in Fig. I . I , the feature
s k e of electronic deviccs is now in the range of 100 nm and decreasing at a rate of some 12%
per ycar. According to this roadmap, feature sizes of 50 nm will be reached in the year 2013.
This trend could in principle continue for another forty years before the ultimate limit is
reached, which corresponds to the size of an atom. Much before this ultimate limit, however,
the fealure size will become smaller than some less well defined limit, where the electrons that
I. I Information, computers and quantum mechanics 3

9 Semiconductor Industry

E
-.E
a
N
.C
vi

2000 2020 2040

Year
Figure 1.1: Prospective evolution of fcaturc size in microelectronic circuits (source: interna-
tional scrniconductor association roadrnap).

do the work in the semiconductor devices, will start to show that their behavior is governed by
quantum mechanics, rather than the classical physical laws that are currently used to describe
their behavior.

1.1.3 Emergence of quantum behavior

The reduction of feature size also implies a decrease in operation voltage, since the internal
fields would otherwise exceed the breakthrough fields of all available materials. Within the
next ten years, the operational voltage is expected to decrease to less than one Volt. The
capacitance of a spherical capacitor is C = 47reor.. For a spherical capacitor with radius
50 nm, the capacitance is therefore of the order of 5 . F. A change in the voltage of
0.1 V will then move less than four electrons in such a device, again making quantization
effects noticeable. While the capacitance of real capacitors is higher, the number of electrons
stored in a memory cell will become a small integer number in the near future, again bringing
quantum physics into play.
Classical physics is an approximation of the more fundamental laws of quantum mecha-
nics, which represents a useful approximation in many fields of engineering. Quantum mecha-
nics is required in order to understand the properties of semiconductors, such as current - volt-
age curves of diodes, from their microscopic structure. Once these properties are established,
however, it becomes possible to describe the operation of semiconductor devices on the basis
of the classical theory of electrodynamics.
This classical description of the operation of semiconductor devices will become impos-
sible when the feature size reaches the coherence length. This quantity depends on the details
of the material, the processing and the temperature at which the device operates, but typically
is in the range of a few nanometers to some tens of nanometers.
Figure 1.2 shows how the transition to the quantum regime will change the way in which
typical electronic devices operate. Capacitors, which are present in many electronic circuits,
exhibit a direct proportionality between applied voltage and stored charge in all classical de-
4 I Inrroduction clnd survey

Classical Quantum mechanical

4

Voltage Voltage
Figure 1.2: Current/vnltagc chardclcrislics of classical capacitor (left) and its analog in thc
quantum regime, where individual electrons can or cannot cntcr thc dcvice.

vices. When the capacitance becomes small enough, the transfer of a single electron will
change the potential of the capacitor by a large enough amount that it takes a significantly
larger voltage to transfer additional charges.
This makes it obvious that the progress that we have today will soon lead to a situation
where it is no longer possible to describe the flow of electricity as a classical current. While
a classical device, such as the workhorse FGT, requires a continuous relationship between
current and voltage, this will no longer be the case in the quantum mechanical regime, as
experimental prototypes clearly show.

1.1.4 Energy dissipation in computers

Possibly even more impressive than the reduction in €eature size over time is a correspond-
ing trend in thc energy dissipated in a logical step. Over the last fifty years, this number has
decreased by more than ten orders of magnitude, again following an exponential time depeii-
dence. A straightforward extrapolation shows that this trend would decrease the dissipated
energy to lcss than X:BT(at room temperature) in little more than ten years. This ainount was
long taken as the minimum that any working switch would have to dissipate. If this were the
case, it would definitely put an end to the increase in packing density and speed of microelec-
tronics, which would otherwise become too hot to operate.
While it is now known that there is no principal limit to the amount of energy that is dis-
sipated during a logical step, it is clear that devices that operate bclow the k,jT limit must
function differently, using so-called reversible logic, rather than the usual Boolean logic. In-
terestingly enough, devices that operate by the laws of quantum mechanics are inherently
reversible. The two trends - reduction of dissipated power and reduction of size - therefore
appear to converge towards devices that use quantum mechanics for their operation.
While the limitations that force the use of quantum devices in the future may appear as a
nuisance to many engineers, they also represent an enormous potential, since these future de-
vices may be much more powerful than conventional (classical) devices. They citn implement
1.2 Quantum cornpurer husics 5

all the algorithms that run on today’s classical computers, but in addition, they also can be
used to implement a different class of algorithms, which explicitly use the quantum mechani-
cal nature of the device. A few such quantum algorithms have been designed to solve specific
problems that cannot be solved efficiently on classical computers. While many questions re-
main unanswered concerning the feasibility of building devices that fulfill all the stringent
requirements for a useful quantum computer, the possibilities offered by this emerging tech-
nology have generated a lot of attention, even outside the scientific community.

1.2 Quantum computer basics

1.2.1 Quantum information
We discuss here exclusively digital representations of information. Classically, information is
then encoded in a sequence of bits, i.e., entities which can be in two distinguishable states,
which are conventionally labeled with 0 and 1. In electronic devices, these states are encoded
by voltages, whose values vary with the technological basis of the implementation (e.g. TTL:
0 -low is represented by voltages < 0.8 V and 1 -high by voltages > 2.4 V).
Classical hit Quantum bit = qubit Spin 1i2

0 I-yo 0
Figure 1.3: Representation of information in a classical computer (Icft) vs. quantum computer
(center). The spin 1/2 (right) is the prototypical example of a qubit.

The same principle applies to quantum systems that represent information: to represent a
single bit of information, two distinguishable states of the system are needed. “Distinguish-
able” means, in a quantum system, that the two states must differ in some quantum numbers,
i.e., they must be different eigenstates of at least one operator. A typical example is a spin 1/2,
which has two possible states. Another example is a photon, which can be polarized either
vertically or horizontally. One of these states is identified with the logical value 0 (or false),
the other with the value 1 (or true).
The main difference between quantum mechanical and classical information is that, in the
quantum mechanical case, the system is not necessarily in the state 0 or 1. Instead it can be in
an arbitrary superposition (linear combination) of these states. To emphasize this difference
between quantum and classical bits, the term “qubit” (short for quantum bit) has been adopted
for the quantum mechanical unit of information.
The power of quantum computers is directly related to this possibility of creating super-
positions of states and applying logical operations to them: this allows one to perform many
operations in parallel. A system consisting of N qubits has 2N mutually orthogonal basis
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 THE HUNTINGTON-HEBERLEIN PROCESS
FROM THE HYGIENIC STANDPOINT[30]
By A. Biernbaum
(October 14, 1905)
With regard to the hygienic improvements which the Huntington-
Heberlein process offers, we must first deal with the questions:
What were the sources of danger in the old process, and in what
way are these now diminished or eliminated? The only danger which
enters into consideration is lead-poisoning, other influences
detrimental to health being the same in one process as the other.
With the reverberatory-smelting and roasting-sintering furnaces,
the chief danger of lead-poisoning lies in the metallic vapor evolved
during the withdrawal of the roasted charge from the furnace. It is
true that appliances may be provided, by which these vapors are
drawn off or led back into the furnace during this operation; but,
even working with utmost care, it is impossible to insure the
complete elimination of lead fumes, especially in wheeling away the
pots filled with the red-hot sintered product. Moreover, the work at
the reverberatory-smelting and roasting-sintering furnaces involves
great physical exertion, wherefore the respiratory organs of the
workmen are stimulated to full activity, while the exposure to the
intense heat causes the men to perspire freely. Hence, as has been
established medically, the absorption of the poisonous metallic
compounds (which are partially soluble in the perspiration) into the
system is favored both by inhalation of the lead vapor and by its
penetration into the pores of the skin, opened by the perspiration.
A further danger of lead-poisoning was occasioned by the
frequently recurring work of clearing out the dust flues. The smoke
from the reverberatory-smelting furnace especially contained
oxidized lead compounds, which on absorption into the human body
might readily be dissolved by the acids of the stomach, and thus
endanger the health of the workmen.
In the Huntington-Heberlein furnaces, on the other hand, although
the charge is raked forward and turned over by hand, it is not
withdrawn, as in the old furnaces, by an opening situated next to
the fire, but is emptied at a point opposite into the converters which
are placed in front of the furnace. Moreover, the converters are filled
with the charge at a much lower temperature. Inasmuch as this
charge has already cooled down considerably, there can be
practically no volatilization of lead. The small quantity of gas which
may nevertheless be evolved is drawn off by fans through hoods
placed above the converters.
A further improvement, from the hygienic point of view, is in the
use of the mechanical furnaces, from which the converters can be
filled automatically (almost without manual labor, and with absolute
exclusion of smoke). The converters are then placed on their stands
and blown. This work also is carried out under hoods, as gas-tight as
possible, furnished with a few closable working apertures. During
the blowing of the material, the work of the attendant consists solely
in keeping up the charge by adding more cold material and filling
any holes that may be formed. It does not entail nearly as much
physical strain as the handling of the heavy iron tools and the
continued exposure of the workmen to the hottest part of the
furnace, which the former roasting process involved.
Some experiments carried out with larger converters (of 4 and 10
ton capacity) have indicated the direction in which the advantages
mentioned above may probably be developed to such a point that
the danger of lead-poisoning need hardly enter into consideration.
Both the charging of the revolving-hearth furnaces and the filling of
the converters are to be effected mechanically. Furthermore, in the
case of the large converters the filling up of holes becomes
unnecessary, and no manual work of any kind is required during the
whole time of blowing. The converters can be so perfectly enclosed
in hoods that the escape of gases into the working-rooms becomes
impossible, and lead-poisoning of the men can occur only under
quite unusual circumstances.
The beneficial influence on the health of the workmen attending
on the roasting furnaces, occasioned by the introduction of the
Huntington-Heberlein process, can be seen from the statistics of
sickness from lead-poisoning for the years 1902 to 1904, as given
herewith:

Lead-poisoning
Cases Contracted
No. of Cases Days of Sickness
At Rever.
Method of No. of Per 100 Per 100 At H.
Year Total Total and Sint.
Working Men Persons Persons H. Fur.
Fur.
1902 93 15 16.1 246 264.5 11 4
Old
1903 86 12 13.9 222 258.1 7 5
H.-H. 1904 87 8 9.2 242 278.2 6 2

This shows a gratifying decrease in the number of cases, namely,

from 16.1 to 9.2 per cent.; this decrease would have been still
greater if Huntington-Heberlein furnaces had been in use exclusively.
However, most of the time two or three sintering furnaces were fired
for working up by-products, 16 to 18 men being engaged on that
work. The Huntington-Heberlein furnaces alone (at which, in the
year 1904, 69 men in all were occupied) show only 2.9 per cent. of
cases. That the number of days of illness was not reduced is due to
the fact that the cases among the gang of men working at the
sintering furnaces were mostly of long standing and took some time
to cure.
The noxious effects upon the health of the workmen in running
the shaft furnaces are due to the fumes from the products made in
this operation, such as work-lead, matte and slag, which flow out of
the furnace at a temperature far above their melting points. Even
with the old method of running the shaft furnaces the endeavor has
always been to provide as efficiently as possible against the danger
caused by this volatilization, and, wherever feasible, to install safety
appliances to prevent the escape of lead vapors into the work-
rooms; but these measures could not be made as thorough as in the
case of the Huntington-Heberlein process.
The principal work in running the shaft furnaces, aside from the
charging, consists in tapping the slag and pouring out the work-lead.
Other unpleasant jobs are the barring down (which in the old
process had to be done frequently) and the cleaning out of the
furnace after blowing out.
In the old process the slag formed in the furnace flows out
continuously through the tap-hole into iron pots placed in front of
the spout. A number of such pots are so arranged on a revolving
table that as soon as one is filled the next empty can be brought up
to the duct; thus the slag first poured in has time to cease fuming
and to solidify before it is removed. The vapors arising from the slag
as it flows out are conveyed away through hoods. At the same time
with the slag, lead matte also issues from the furnace. Now the
greater the quantity of lead matte, the more smoke is also
produced; and, with the comparatively high proportion of lead matte
resulting from the old process, the quantity of smoke was so great
that the ventilation appliances were no longer sufficient to cope with
it, thus allowing vapors to escape into the work-room.
The work-lead collects at the back of the furnace in a well, from
which it is from time to time ladled into molds placed near by. If the
lead is allowed to cool sufficiently in the well, it does not fume much
in the ladling out. But when the furnace runs very hot (which
sometimes happens), the lead also is hotter and is more inclined to
volatilize. In this event the danger of lead-poisoning is very great,
for the workman has to stand near the lead sump.
A still greater danger attends the work of barring down and
cleaning out the furnace. The barring down serves the purpose of
loosening the charge in the zone of fusion; at the same time it
removes any crusts formed on the sides of the furnace, or
obstructions stopping up the tuyeres. With the old furnaces, and
their strong tendency to crust, this work had to be undertaken
almost every day, the men being compelled to work for rather a long
time and often very laboriously with the heavy iron tools in the
immediate neighborhood of the glowing charge, the front of the
furnace being torn open for this purpose. In this operation they were
exposed without protection to the metallic vapors issuing from the
furnace, inasmuch as the ventilating appliances had to be partially
removed during this time, in order to render it at all possible to do
the work.
In a similar manner, but only at the time of shutting down a shaft
furnace, the cleaning out (that is to say, the withdrawing of no
longer fused but still red-hot portions of the charge left in the
furnace) is carried out. In this process, however, the glowing
material brought out could be quenched with cold water to such a
point that the evolution of metallic vapors could be largely avoided.
Lastly, the mode of charging of the shaft furnace is also to be
regarded as a cause of poisoning, inasmuch as it is impossible to
avoid entirely the raising of dust in the repeated act of dumping and
turning over the materials for smelting, in preparing the mix, and in
subsequently charging the furnace.
By the introduction of the Huntington-Heberlein process, all these
disadvantages, both in the roasting operation and in running the
shaft furnaces, are in part removed altogether, in part reduced to
such a degree that the danger of injury is brought to a minimum.
In furnaces in which the product of the Huntington-Heberlein roast
is smelted, the slag is tapped only periodically at considerable
intervals; and, as there is less lead matte produced than formerly,
the quantity of smoke is never so great that the ventilating fan
cannot easily take care of it. There is therefore little chance of any
smoke escaping into the working-room.
As the production of work-lead, especially in the case of the large
shaft furnace, is very considerable, so that the lead continually flows
out in a big stream into the well, the hand ladling has to be
abandoned. Therefore the lead is conducted to a large reservoir
standing near the sump, and is there allowed to cool below its
volatilizing temperature. As soon as this tank is full, the lead is
tapped off and (by the aid of a swinging gutter) is cast into molds
ready for this purpose. Both the sump and the reservoir-tank are
placed under a fume-hood. The swinging gutter is covered with
sheet-iron lids while tapping, so that any lead volatilized is conveyed
by the gutter itself to a hood attached to the reservoir; thus the
escape of metallic vapors into the working space is avoided, as far as
possible.
This method of pouring does not entail the same bodily exertion
as the ladling of the lead; moreover, as it requires but little time, it
gives the workmen frequent opportunity to rest.
But one of the chief advantages of the Huntington-Heberlein
process lies in the entire omission of the barring down. If the
running of the shaft furnace is conducted with any degree of care,
disorders in the working of the furnace do not occur, and one can
rely on a perfectly regular course of the smelting process day after
day. No formation of any crusts interfering with the operation of the
furnace has been recorded during any of the campaigns, which
have, in each case, lasted nearly a year.
As regards the cleaning out of the furnace, this cannot be avoided
on blowing out the Huntington-Heberlein shaft furnace; but at most
it occurs only once a year, and can be done with less danger to the
workmen, owing to the better equipment.
Further, the charge is thrown straight into the furnace (in the case
of the large shaft furnace); thus the repeated turning over of the
smelting material, as formerly practised, becomes unnecessary, and
the deleterious influence of the unavoidable formation of dust is
much diminished.
The accompanying statistics of sickness due to lead-poisoning in
connection with the operation of the shaft furnace (referring to the
same period of time as those given above for the roasting furnaces)
confirm the above statements.

Year No. of Men Lead-Poisoning—Shaft Furnaces

 Cases Days of Illness
Total Per 100 Persons Total Per 100 Persons
1902 250 58 23.2 956 382.4
1903 267 59 22.1 1044 391.0
1904 232 24 10.3 530 228.4

If it were possible to make the necessary distinctions in the case

of the large shaft furnace, the diminution in sickness from lead-
poisoning would be still more apparent; for, among the furnace
attendants proper, there has been no illness; all cases of poisoning
have occurred among the men who prepare the charge, who break
up the roasted material, and others who are occupied with
subsidiary work. Some of these are exposed to illness through their
own fault, owing to want of cleanliness, or to neglect of every
precautionary measure against lead-poisoning.
Thus far we have dealt only with the advantages and
improvements of the Huntington-Heberlein process; we will now, in
conclusion, consider also its disadvantages.
The chief drawback of the new process lies in the difficulty of
breaking up the blocks of the roasted product from the converters, a
labor which, apart from the great expense involved, is also
unhealthy for the workmen engaged thereon. Seemingly this evil is
still further increased by working with larger charges in the 10 ton
converters, as projected; but in this case it is proposed to place the
converters in an elevated position, and to cause the blocks to be
shattered by their fall from a certain hight, so that further breaking
up will require but little work. Trials made in this direction have
already yielded satisfactory results, and seem to promise that the
disadvantage will in time become less important.
Another unpleasant feature is the presence (in the waste gases
from the converters) of a higher percentage of sulphur dioxide, the
suppression of which, if it is feasible at all, might be fraught with
trouble and expense.
 That the roaster gases from the reverberatory-smelting and
sintering furnaces did not show such a high percentage of sulphur
dioxide must be ascribed chiefly to the circumstance that the
roasting was much slower, and that the gases were largely diluted
with air already at the point where they are formed, as the work
must always be done with the working-doors open. In the
Huntington-Heberlein process, on the other hand, the aim is to
prevent, as far as possible, the access of air from outside while
blowing the charge. The more perfectly this is effected, and the
greater the quantity of ore to be blown in the converters, the higher
will also be the percentage of sulphur dioxide in the waste gases.
This circumstance has not only furnished the inducement, but it has
rendered it possible to approach the plan of utilizing the sulphur
dioxide for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. If this should be done
successfully (which, according to the experiments carried out, there
is reasonable ground to expect), the present disadvantage might be
turned into an advantage. This has the more significance because an
essential constituent of the lead ore—the sulphur—will then no
longer, as hitherto, have to be regarded as wholly lost.[31]
 THE HUNTINGTON-HEBERLEIN PROCESS
By Thomas Huntington and Ferdinand Heberlein
(May 26, 1906)
This process for roasting lead sulphide ores has now fairly
established itself in all parts of the world, and is recognized by
metallurgical engineers as a successful new departure in the method
of desulphurization. It offers the great advantage over previous
methods of being a more scientific application of the roasting
reactions (of the old well-used formulæ PbS + 3O = PbO + SO2 and
PbS + PbSO4 + 2O = 2PbO + 2SO2) and admits of larger quantities
being handled at a time, so that the use of fuel and labor are in
proportion to the results achieved, and also there is less waste all
around in so far as the factors necessary for the operation—fuel,
labor and air—can be more economically used. The workman’s time
and strength are not employed in laboriously shifting the ore from
one part of the furnace to another with a maximum amount of
exertion and a minimum amount of oxidation. The fuel consumed
acts more directly upon the ore during the first part of the process in
the furnace and its place is taken by the sulphur itself during the
final and blowing stage, so that during the whole series of
operations more concentrated gases are produced and consequently
the large excess of heated air of the old processes is avoided to such
an extent that the gases can be used for the production of sulphuric
acid.
With a modern well-constructed plant practically all the evils of the
old hand-roasting furnaces are avoided, and besides the notable
economy achieved by the H.-H. process itself, the health and well-
being of the workmen employed are greatly advanced, so that where
hygienic statistics are kept it is proved that lead-poisoning has
greatly diminished. It is only natural, therefore, that the H.-H.
process should have been a success from the start, popular alike
with managers and workmen once the difficulties inseparable from
the introduction of any new process were overcome.
Simple as the process now appears, however, it is the result of
many years of study and experiment, not devoid of disappointments
and at times appearing to present a problem incapable of solution.
The first trials were made in the smelting works at Pertusola, Italy,
as far back as 1889, where considerable sums were devoted every
year to this experimental work and lead ore roasting was almost
continuously on the list of new work from 1875 on.
It may be interesting to mention that at this time the
Montevecchio ores (containing about 70 per cent. lead and about 15
per cent. sulphur, together with a certain amount of zinc and iron)
were considered highly refractory to roast, and the only ores
approved of by the management of the works at this date were the
Monteponi and San Giovanni first-class ores (containing about 80 per
cent. lead), and the second-class carbonates (with at least 60 per
cent. lead and 5 per cent. sulphur). It must be noted that a modified
Flintshire reverberatory process was in use in the works, which could
deal satisfactorily only with this class of ore, so that, as these easy
ores diminished in quantity every year and their place was taken by
the “refractory” Montevecchio type, the roasting problem was always
well to the front at the Pertusola works.
It may be asserted that almost every known method of
desulphurization was examined and experimented upon on a large
scale. Gas firing was exclusively used on certain classes of ores for
several years with considerable success, and revolving furnaces of
the Brückner type—gas fired—were also tried. Although varying
degrees of success were obtained, no really great progress was
made in actual desulphurization; methods were cheapened and
larger quantities handled at a time, but the final product—whether
sintered or in a pulverulent state—seldom averaged much under 5
per cent. sulphur, while the days of the old “gray slags” (1 per cent.
to 2 per cent. sulphur) from the reverberatories totally disappeared,
together with the class of ores which produced them.
 During the long period of these experiments in desulphurization
various facts were established:
(1) That sulphide of lead—especially in a pulverulent state—could
not be desulphurized in the same way as other sulphides, such as
sulphides of iron, copper, zinc, etc., because if roasted in a
mechanical furnace the temperature had to be kept low enough to
avoid premature sintering, which would choke the stirrers and cause
trouble by the ore clogging on the sides and bottom of the furnace.
If, however, the ore was roasted in a “dry state” at low temperature,
a great deal of sulphur remained in the product as sulphate of lead,
which was as bad for the subsequent blast-furnace work as the
sulphide of lead itself. When air was pressed through molten galena
—in the same way as through molten copper matte—a very heavy
volatilization of lead took place, while portions of it were reduced to
metal or were contained as sulphide in the molten matte, so that a
good product was not obtained.
(2) That no complete dead roast of lead ores could be obtained
unless the final product was thoroughly smelted and agglomerated.
(3) That a well roasted lead ore could be obtained by oxidizing the
PbS with compressed air, after the ore had been suitably prepared.
(4) That metal losses were mainly due to the excessive heat
produced in the oxidation of PbS to PbO, and other sulphides
present in the ore.
It was by making use of these facts that the H.-H. roasting
process was finally evolved, and by carefully applying its principles it
is possible to desulphurize completely the ore to a practically dead
roast of under 1 per cent. sulphur; in practice, however, such
perfection is unnecessary and a well agglomerated product with
from 2 to 2.5 per cent. sulphur is all that is required. During some
trials in Australia, where a great degree of perfection was aimed at,
a block of over 2000 tons of agglomerated, roasted ore was
produced containing 1 per cent. sulphur (as sulphide); as the ores
contained an average of about 10 per cent. Zn, this was a very fine
result from a desulphurization point of view, but it was not found
that this 1 per cent. product gave any better results in the
subsequent smelting in the blast furnace than later on a less
carefully prepared material containing 2.5 per cent. sulphur.
In the early stages of experiment the great difficulty was to obtain
agglomeration without first fusing the sulphides in the ore, and
turning out a half-roasted product full of leady matte. Simple as the
thing now is, it seemed at times impossible to avoid this defect, and
it was only by a careful study of the effects of an addition of lime,
Fe2O3 or Mn2O3, and their properties that the right path was struck.
Before the introduction of the H.-H. process lime was only used in
the reverberatory process (Flintshire and Tarnowitz) to stiffen the
charge, but as Percy tells us that after its addition the charge was
glowing, it must have had a chemical as well as a mechanical effect.
In recognition of this fact fine caustic lime or crushed limestone was
mixed with the ore before charging it into the furnace and exposing
it to an oxidizing heat.
It was thought probable that a dioxide of lime might be
temporarily formed, which in contact with PbS would be
decomposed immediately after its formation, or that the CaO served
as Contactsubstanz in the same way as spongy platinum, metallic
silver, or oxide of iron. As CaSO4 and not CaSO3 is always found in
the roasted ore, this may prove that CaO is really a contact
substance for oxygen (see W. M. Hutchings, Engineering and Mining
Journal, Oct. 21, 1905, Vol. LXXX, p. 726). The fact that the process
works equally well with Fe2O3 instead of CaO speaks against the
theory of plumbate of lime. Whatever theory may be correct, the
fact remains that CaO assists the roasting process and that by its
use the premature agglomeration of the sulphide ore is avoided. A
further advantage of lime is that it keeps the charge more porous
and thus facilitates the passage of the air.
The shape and size of the blowing apparatus best adapted for the
purpose in view occupied many months; starting from very shallow
pans or rectangular boxes several feet square with a few inches of
material over a perforated plate, it gradually resolved itself into the
cone-shaped receptacle—holding about a ton of ore—as first
introduced together with the process. In later years and in treating
larger quantities a more hemispherical form has been adopted,
containing up to 15 tons of ore.
It is probable about eight years were employed in actually working
out the process before it was introduced on any large scale at
Pertusola, but by the end of 1898 the greater part of the Pertusola
ores were treated by the process. Its first introduction to any other
works was in 1900, when it was started outside its home for the first
time at Braubach (Germany). Since then its application has gradually
extended, proceeding from Europe to Australia and Mexico and
finally to America and Canada, where recognition of its merits was
more tardy than elsewhere. It is now practically in general use all
over the world and is recognized as a sound addition to metallurgical
progress. It is doubtless only a step in the right direction and with its
general use a better knowledge of its principles will prevail, so that
its future development in one direction or another, as compared with
present results, may show some further progress.
The present working of the H.-H. process still follows practically
the original lines laid down, and by preliminary roasting in a furnace
with lime, oxide of iron, or manganese (if not already contained in
the ore), prepares the ore for blowing in the converter. Mechanical
furnaces have been introduced to the entire exclusion of the old
hand-roasters, and the size of the converters has been gradually
increased from the original one-ton apparatus successively to 5, 7
and 10 ton converters; at present some for 15 tons are being built in
Germany and will doubtless lead to a further economy.
The mechanical furnace at present most in use is a single-hearth
revolving furnace with fixed rabbles, the latest being built with a
diameter of 26½ ft. and a relatively high arch to ensure a clear
flame and rapid oxidation of the ore. The capacity of these furnaces
varies, of course, with the nature of the ores to be treated, but with
ordinary lead ores (European and Australian practice) of from 50 per
cent. to 60 per cent. lead and 14 per cent, to 18 per cent. sulphur,
the average capacity may be taken at about 50 to 60 tons of crude
ore per day of 24 hours. The consumption of coal with a well-
constructed furnace is very low and is always under 8 per cent.—6
per cent. being perhaps the average. These furnaces require very
little attention, being automatic in their charging and discharging
arrangements.
The ore on leaving the furnace is charged into the converters by
various mechanical means (Jacob’s ladders, conveyors, etc.). The
converter charge usually consists of some hot ore direct from the
furnace, on top of which ore is placed which has been cooled down
by storage in bins or by the addition of water. The converter is
generally filled in two charges of five tons each, and the blowing
time should not be more than 4 to 6 hours. The product obtained
should be porous and well agglomerated, but easily broken up,
tough melted material being due to an excess of silica and too much
lead sulphide. Attention, therefore, to these two points (good
preliminary roasting and correction of the charge by lime) obviates
this trouble. This roasted ore should not contain more than about
1.5 to 2 per cent. sulphur, and in a modern blast furnace gives
surprisingly good results, the matte-fall being in most cases reduced
to nothing, and the capacity of the furnace is largely increased, while
the slags are poorer.
If the converter charge has been properly prepared, the blowing
operation proceeds with the greatest smoothness and requires very
little attention on the part of the workmen, the heat and oxidation
rise gradually from the bottom and volatilization losses remain low,
so that it is possible, if desired, to produce hot concentrated
sulphurous gases suitable for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
Besides the actual economy obtained in roasting ores by the
process, a great feature of its success has been the remarkable
improvement in smelting and reducing the roasted ore as compared
with previous experience. This is due to the nature of the roasted
material, which, besides being much poorer in sulphur than was
formerly the case, is thoroughly porous and well agglomerated and
contains—if the original mixture is properly made—all the necessary
slagging materials itself, so that it practically becomes a case of
smelting slags instead of ore, and to an expert the difference is
evident.
Experience has shown that on an average the improvement in the
capacity of the blast furnace may be taken at about 50 to 100 per
cent., so that in works using the H.-H. process—after its complete
introduction—about half the blast furnaces formerly necessary for
the same tonnage were blown out. The matte-fall has become a
thing of the past, so that, except in those cases where some matte
is required to collect the copper contained in the ores, lead matte
has disappeared and the quantity of flue dust as well as the lead and
silver losses have been greatly reduced.
Referring to the latest history of the H.-H. process, and the theory
of direct blowing, it may be remarked—putting aside all legal
questions—that the idea, metallurgically speaking, is attractive, as it
would seem that by eliminating one-half of the process and blowing
the ores direct without the expense of a preliminary roast a
considerable economy should be effected. Upon examination,
however, this supposed economy and simplicity is not at all of such
great importance, and in many cases, without doubt, would be
retrogressive in lead ore smelting rather than progressive. When
costs of roasting in a furnace are reduced to such a low figure as
can be obtained by using 50 ton furnaces and 10 to 15 ton
converters, there is very little margin for improvement in this
direction. From the published accounts of the Tarnowitz smelting
works (the Engineering and Mining Journal, Sept. 23, 1905, Vol.
LXXX, p. 535) the cost of mechanical preliminary roasting cannot
exceed 25c. per ton, so that even assuming direct blowing were as
cheap as blowing a properly prepared material, the total economy
would only be the above figure, viz., 25c.; but this is far from being
the case.
 Direct blowing of a crude ore is considerably more expensive than
dealing with the H.-H. product, because of necessity the blowing
operation must be carried out slowly and with great care so as to
avoid heavy metal losses, and whereas a pre-roasted ore can be
easily blown in four hours and one man can attend to two or three
10 ton converters, the direct blowing operation takes from 12 to 18
hours and requires the continual attention of one man. In the first
case the cost of labor would be: One man at say $3 for 50 tons (at
least), i.e., 6c. per ton, and in the second case one man at $3 for 10
tons (at the best), i.e., 30c., a difference in favor of pre-roasting of
24c., so that any possible economy would disappear. Furthermore, as
the danger of blowing upon crude sulphides for 12 or 18 hours is
greater as regards metal losses than a quick operation of four hours,
it is very likely that instead of an economy there would be an
increase in cost, owing to a greater volatilization of metals.
These remarks refer to ordinary lead ores with say 50 per cent.
lead and about 14 per cent. sulphur. With ores, however, such as are
generally treated in the United States the advantages of pre-roasting
are still more evident. These ores contain about 10 to 15 per cent.
lead, 30 to 40 per cent. sulphur, 20 to 30 per cent. iron, 10 per cent.
zinc, 5 per cent. silica, and lose the greater part of the pyritic
sulphur in the preliminary roasting, leaving the iron in the form of
oxide, which in the subsequent blowing operation acts in the same
way as lime. For this reason the addition of extra fluxes, such as
limestone, gypsum, etc., to the original ore is not necessary and only
a useless expense.
In certain exceptional cases and with ores poor in sulphur, direct
blowing might be applicable, but for the general run of lead ores no
economy can be expected by doing away with the preliminary roast.
 MAKING SULPHURIC ACID AT BROKEN HILL
(August 11, 1904)
The Broken Hill Proprietary Company has entered upon the
manufacture of sulphuric acid on a commercial scale. The acid is
practically a by-product, being made from the gases emanating from
the desulphurization of the ores, concentrates, etc., by the
Carmichael-Bradford process. The acid can be made at a minimum
of cost, and thus materially enhances the value of the process
recently introduced for the separation of zinc blende from the
tailings by flotation. The following particulars are taken from a
recently published description of the process: The ores,
concentrates, slimes, etc., as the case may be, are mixed with
gypsum, the quantity of the latter varying from 15 to 25 per cent.
The mixture is then granulated to the size of marbles and dumped
into a converter. The bottom of the charge is heated from 400 to
500 deg. C. It is then subjected to an induced current of air, and the
auxiliary heat is turned off. The desulphurization proceeds very
rapidly with the evolution of heat and the gases containing
sulphurous anhydride. The desulphurization is very thorough, and no
losses occur through volatilization. The sulphur thus rendered
available for acid making is rather more than is contained in the ore,
the sulphur in the agglomerated product being somewhat less than
that accounted for by the sulphur contained in the added gypsum.
Thus from one ton of 14 per cent. sulphide ore it is possible to make
about 12 cwt. of chamber acid, fully equaling 7 cwt. of strong acid.
The plant at present in use, which comprises a lead chamber of
40,000 cu. ft., can turn out 35 tons of chamber acid per week. This
plant is being duplicated, and it has also been decided to erect a
large plant at Port Pirie for use in the manufacture of
superphosphates. It is claimed that the production of sulphuric acid
from ores containing only 14 per cent. of sulphur establishes a new
record.
 THE CARMICHAEL-BRADFORD PROCESS
By Donald Clark
(November 3, 1904)
Subsequent to the introduction of the Huntington-Heberlein
process in Australia, Messrs. Carmichael and Bradford, two
employees of the Broken Hill Proprietary Company, patented a
process which bears their name. Instead of starting with lime, or
limestone and galena, as in the Huntington-Heberlein process, they
discovered that if sulphate of lime is mixed with galena and the
temperature raised, on blowing a current of air through the mixture
the temperature rises and the mass is desulphurized. The process
would thus appear to be a corollary of the original one, and the
reactions in the converter are identical. Owing to the success of the
acid processes in separating zinc sulphide from the tailing at Broken
Hill, it became necessary to manufacture sulphuric acid locally in
large quantity. The Carmichael-Bradford process has been started for
the purpose of generating the sulphur dioxide necessary, and is of
much interest as showing how gases rich enough in SO2 may be
produced from a mixture containing only from 13 to 16 per cent.
sulphur.
Gypsum is obtained in a friable state within about five miles from
Broken Hill. This is dehydrated, the CaSO, 2H2O being converted into
CaSO4 on heating to about 200 deg. C. The powdered residue is
mixed with slime produced in the milling operations and concentrate
in the proportion of slime 3 parts, concentrate 1 part, and lime
sulphate 1 part. The proportions may vary to some extent, but the
sulphur contents run from 13 to 16 or 17 per cent. The average
composition of the ingredients is as given in the table on the next
page.
These materials are moistened with water and well mixed by
passing them through a pug-mill. The small amount of water used
serves to set the product, the lime sulphate partly becoming plaster
of paris, 2CaSO, H2O. While still moist the mixture is broken into
pieces not exceeding two inches in diameter and spread out on a
drying floor, where excess of moisture is evaporated by the conjoint
action of sun and wind.

Slime Concentrate Calcium Sulphate Average

Galena 24 70 — 29
Blende 30 15 — 21
Pyrite 3 — — 2
Ferric oxide 4 — — 2.5
Ferrous oxide 1 — — 1
Manganous oxide 6.5 — — 5
Alumina 5.5 — — 3
Lime 3.5 — 41 10
Silica 23 — — 14
Sulphur trioxide — — 59 12

The pots used are small conical cast-iron ones, hung on trunnions,
and of the same pattern as used in the Huntington-Heberlein
process. Three of these are set in line, and two are at work while the
third is being filled. These pots have the same form of conical cover
leading to a telescopic tube, and all are connected to the same
horizontal pipe leading to the niter pots. Dampers are provided in
each case. A small amount of coal or fuel is fed into the pots and
ignited by a gentle blast; as soon as a temperature of about 400 to
500 deg. C. is attained the dried mixture is fed in, until the pot is
full; the cover is closed down and the mass warms up. Water is first
driven off, but after a short time concentrated fumes of sulphur
dioxide are evolved. The amount of this gas may be as much as 14
per cent., but it is usually kept at about 10 per cent., so as to have
enough oxygen for the conversion of the dioxide to the trioxide. The
gases are led over a couple of niter pots and thence to the usual
type of lead chamber having a capacity of 40,000 cu. ft. Chamber
acid alone is made, since this requires to be diluted for what is
known as the saltcake process.
 The plant has now been in operation for some time and, it is
claimed, with highly successful results. The product tipped out of.
the converter is similar to that obtained in the Huntington-Heberlein
process, and is at once fit for the smelters, the amount of sulphur
left in it being always less than that originally introduced with the
gypsum; analysis of the desulphurized material shows usually from 3
to 4 per cent. sulphur.
 THE CARMICHAEL-BRADFORD PROCESS
By Walter Renton Ingalls
(October 28, 1905)
As described in United States patent No. 705,904, issued July 29,
1902, lead sulphide ore is mixed with 10 to 35 per cent. of calcium
sulphate, the percentage varying according to the grade of the ore.
The mixture is charged into a converter and gradually heated
externally until the lower portion of the charge, say one-third to one-
fourth, is raised to a dull-red heat; or the reactions may be started
by throwing into the empty converter a shovelful of glowing coal and
turning on a blast of air sufficient to keep the coal burning and then
feeding the charge on top of the coal. This heating effects a reaction
whereby the lead sulphide of the ore is oxidized to sulphate and the
calcium sulphate is reduced to sulphide. The heated mixture being
continuously subjected to the blast of air, the calcium sulphide is re-
oxidized to sulphate and is thus regenerated for further use. This
reaction is exothermic, and sufficient heat is developed to complete
the desulphurization of the charge of ore by the concurrent reactions
between the lead sulphate (produced by the calcium sulphate) and
portions of undecomposed ore, sulphurous anhydride being thus
evolved. The various reactions, which are complicated in their
nature, continue until the temperature of the charge reaches a
maximum, by which time the charge has shrunk considerably in
volume and has a tendency to become pasty. This becomes more
marked as the production of lead oxide increases, and as the desired
point of desulphurization is attained the mixture fuses; at this stage
the calcium sulphide which is produced from the sulphate cannot
readily oxidize, owing to the difficulty of coming into actual contact
with the air in the pasty mass, but, being subjected to the strong
oxidizing effect of the metallic oxide, it is converted into calcium
plumbate, while sulphurous anhydride is set free. The mass then
cools, as the exothermic reactions cease, and can be readily
removed to a blast furnace for smelting.
The reactions above described are as outlined in the original
American patent specification. Irrespective of their accuracy, the
Carmichael-Bradford process is obviously quite similar to the
Huntington-Heberlein, and doubtless owes its origin to the latter.
The difference between them is that in the Huntington-Heberlein
process the ore is first partially roasted with addition of lime, and is
then converted in a special vessel. In the Carmichael-Bradford
process the ore is mixed with gypsum and is then converted directly.
The greatest claim for originality in the Carmichael-Bradford process
may be considered to lie in it as a method of desulphurizing gypsum,
inasmuch as not only is the sulphur of the ore expelled, but also a
part of the sulphur of the gypsum; and the sulphur is driven off as a
gas of sufficiently high tenor of sulphur dioxide to enable sulphuric
acid to be made from it economically. Up to the present time the
Carmichael-Bradford process has been put into practical use only at
Broken Hill, N. S. W.
The Broken Hill Proprietary Company first conducted a series of
tests in a converter capable of treating a charge of 20 cwt. These
tests were made at the smelting works at Port Pirie. Exhaustive
experiments made on various classes of ores satisfactorily proved
the general efficacy of the process. The following ores were tried in
these preliminary experiments, viz.:
First-grade concentrate containing: Pb, 60 per cent.; Zn, 10 per
cent.; S, 16 per cent.; Ag, 30 oz.
Second-grade concentrate containing: Pb, 45 per cent.; Zn, 12.5
per cent.; S, 14.5 per cent.; Ag, 22 oz.
Slime containing: Pb, 21 per cent.; Zn, 17 per cent.; S, 13 per
cent.; Ag, 18 oz.
Lead-copper matte containing: Fe, 42 per cent.; Pb, 17 per cent.;
Zn, 13.3 per cent.; Cu, 2.4 per cent.; S, 23 per cent.; Ag, 25 oz.
 Other mattes, of varying composition up to 45 per cent. Pb and
100 oz. Ag, were also tried.
The results from these preliminary tests were so gratifying that a
further set of tests was made on lead-zinc slime, with a view of
ascertaining whether any volatilization losses occurred during the
desulphurization. This particular material was chosen because of its
accumulation in large proportions at the mine, and the unsatisfactory
result of the heap roasting which has recently been practised. The
heap roasting, although affording a product containing only 7 per
cent. S, which is delivered in lump form and therefore quite suitable
for smelting, resulted in a high loss of metal by volatilization (17 per
cent. Pb, 5 per cent. Ag).
The result of nine charges of the slime treated by the Carmichael-
Bradford process was as follows:

Assays Contents
Cwt. Pb Ag. Zn S
Pb% Ag oz. Zn% S%
cwt. oz. cwt. cwt.
Raw slime 128.1 16.78
27.28 115.3 26.2
Raw gypsum 54.9 21.3 18.0 16.8 13.1 9.88
Total 183.0 27.28 115.3 25.2 26.66
Sintered material 109.88 20.7 17.2 — 4.80 22.74 94.5 — 5.27
Middling 14.47 17.7 15.7 — 6.20 2.56 11.3 — 0.89
Fines 11.12 19.0 14.8 — 7.50 2.11 8.2 — 0.83
Total 135.47 — — — 5.17 27.41 113.0 — 6.99

These results indicated practically no volatilization of lead and

silver during the treatment, the lead showing a slight increase, viz.,
0.47 per cent., and the silver 1.13 per cent. loss. A desulphurization
of 70.4 per cent. was effected. A higher desulphurization could have
been effected had this been desired. In the above tabulated results,
the term “middling” is applied to the loose fritted lumps lying on the
top of the charge: these are suitable for smelting, the fines being
the only portion which has to be returned.
 In order to test the practicability of making sulphuric acid, a plant
consisting of three large converters of capacity of five tons each,
together with a lead chamber 100 ft. by 20 ft. by 20 ft., was then
erected at Broken Hill, together with a dehydrating furnace, pug-mill,
and granulator. These converters are shown in the accompanying
engravings.
A trial run was made with 108 tons of concentrate of the following
composition: 54 per cent. lead; 1.9 per cent. iron; 0.9 per cent.
manganese; 9.4 per cent. zinc; 14.6 per cent. sulphur; 19.2 per
cent. insoluble residue, and 24 oz. silver per ton.
The converter charge consisted of 100 parts of the concentrate
and 25 parts of raw gypsum, crushed to pass a 1 in. hole and
retained by a 0.25 in. hole, the material finer than 0.25 in. (which
amounted to 5 per cent. of the total) being returned to the pug-mill.
After desulphurization in the converter, the product assayed as
follows: 48.9 per cent. lead; 1.80 per cent. iron; 0.80 per cent.
manganese; 7.87 per cent. zinc; 3.90 per cent. sulphur; 1.02 per
cent. alumina; 5.80 per cent. lime; 21.75 per cent. insoluble residue;
8.16 per cent. undetermined (oxygen as oxides, sulphates, etc.);
total, 100 per cent. Its silver content was 22 oz. per ton. The
desulphurized ore weighed 10 per cent. more than the raw
concentrate. During this run 34 tons of acid were made.
A trial was then made on 75 tons of slime of the following
composition: 18.0 per cent. lead; 16.6 per cent. zinc; 6.0 per cent.
iron; 2.5 per cent. manganese; 3.2 per cent. alumina; 2.1 per cent.
lime; 38.5 per cent. insoluble residue; total, 100 per cent. Its silver
content was 19.2 oz. per ton.
The converter charge in this case consisted of 100 parts of raw
slime and 30 parts of gypsum. The converted material assayed as
follows: 16.1 per cent. lead; 14.0 per cent. zinc; 3.6 per cent.
sulphur; 5.42 per cent. iron; 2.25 per cent. manganese; 4.10 per
cent. alumina; 8.60 per cent. lime; 39.80 per cent. insoluble residue;
6.13 per cent. undetermined (oxygen, etc.); total, 100 per cent.; and
silver, 17.5 oz. per ton. The increase in weight of desulphurized ore
over that of the raw ore was 11 per cent. During this run 22 tons of
acid were manufactured.
The analysis of the gypsum used in each of the above tests (at
Broken Hill) was as follows: 76.1 per cent. CaSO4, 2H2O; 0.5 per
cent. Fe2O3; 4.5 per cent. Al2O3; 18.9 per cent. insoluble residue.
The plant was then put into continuous operation on a mixture of
three parts slime and one of concentrate, desulphurizing down to 4
per cent. S, and supplying 20 tons of acid per week, and additions
were made to the plant as soon as possible. The acid made at
Broken Hill has been used in connection with the Delprat process for
the concentration of the zinc tailing. At Port Pirie, works are being
erected with capacity for desulphurization of about 35,000 tons per
annum, with an acid output of 10,000 tons. This acid is to be utilized
for the acidulation of phosphate rock.

Fig. 15.—Details of Converters.

The cost of desulphurization of a ton of galena concentrate by the

Carmichael-Bradford process, based on labor at $1.80 per 8 hours,
gypsum at $2.40 per 2240 lb., and coal at $8.40 per 2240 lb., is
estimated as follows:
0.25 ton of gypsum $0.60
Dehydrating and granulating gypsum .48
Drying mixture of ore and gypsum .12
 Converting .24
Spalling sintered material .12
0.01 ton coal .08
Total $1.64

The lime in the sintered product is credited at 12c., making the

net cost $1.52 per ton (2240 lb.) of ore.
The plant required for the Carmichael-Bradford process can be
described with sufficient clearness without drawings, except the
converters. The ore (concentrate, slime, etc.) to be desulphurized is
delivered at the top of the mill by cars, conveyors, or other
convenient means, and dumped into a bin. Two screw feeders
placed inside the bin supply the mill with ore, uniformly and as fast
as it is required. These feeders deliver the ore into a chute, which
directs it into a vertical dry mixer.
A small bin, on the same level as the ore-bin, receives the crude
gypsum from cars. Thence it is fed automatically to a disintegrator,
which pulverizes it finely and delivers it into a storage bin
underneath. This disintegrator revolves at about 1700 r.p.m. and
requires 10 h.p. The body of the machine is cast iron, fitted with
renewable wearing plates (made of hard iron) in the grinding
chamber. The revolving parts consist of a malleable iron disc in
which are fixed steel beaters, faced on the grinding surface with
highly tempered steel. The bin that receives the floured gypsum
contains a screw conveyor similar to those in the ore-bin, and dumps
the material into push conveyors passing into the dehydrating
furnace. They carry the crushed gypsum along at a speed of about 1
ft. per minute, and allow about 20 ft. to dehydrate the gypsum. This
speed can, of course, be regulated to suit requirements.
The dehydrated gypsum runs down a chute into an elevator boot,
and is elevated into a bin which is on the same level as the ore-bin.
This bin also contains a screw conveyor, like that in the ore-bin. The
speed of delivery is regulated to deliver the right proportion of
dehydrated gypsum to the mixer.
 The mixer is of the vertical pattern and receives the sulphide ore
and dehydrated gypsum from the screw feeders. In it are set two
flat revolving cones running at different speeds, thus ensuring a
thorough mixture of the gypsum and ore. The mixed material drops
from the cones upon two baffle plates, and is wetted just before
entering the pug-mill. The pug-mill is a wrought-iron cylinder of ¼
in. plate about 2 ft. 6 in. diameter and 6 or 8 ft. long, and has the
mixer fitted to the head. It contains a 3 ft. wrought-iron spiral with
propelling blades, which forces the plastic mixture through ¾ in.
holes in the cover. The material comes out in long cylindrical pieces,
but is broken up and formed into marble-shaped pieces on dropping
into a revolving trommel.
The trommel is about 5 ft. long, 2 ft. in diameter at the small end
and about 4 ft. at the large end. It revolves about a wrought-iron
spindle (2½ in. diameter) carrying two cast-iron hubs to which are
fitted arms for carrying the conical plate ⅛ in. thick. About 18 in. of
the small end of the cone is fitted with wire gauze, so as to prevent
the material as it comes out of the pug-mill from sticking to it. The
trommel is driven by bevel gearing at 20 to 25 r.p.m. The granulated
material formed in the trommel is delivered upon a drying conveyor.
The conveyor consists of hinged wrought-iron plates flanged at
the side to keep the material from running off. It is driven from the
head by gearing, at a speed of 1 ft. per minute, passing through a
furnace 10 ft. long to dry and set the granules of ore and gypsum.
This speed can, of course, be regulated to suit requirements. The
granulated material, after leaving the furnace, is delivered to a
single-chain elevator, traveling at a speed of about 150 ft. per
minute. It drops the material into a grasshopper conveyor, driven by
an eccentric, which distributes the material over the length of a
storage bin. From this bin the material is directed into the converters
by means of the chutes, which have their bottom ends hinged so as
to allow for the raising of the hood when charging the converters.
The converters are shown in the accompanying engravings, but
they may be of slightly different form from what is shown therein,
i.e., they may be more spherical than conical. They will have a
capacity of about four tons, being 6 ft. in diameter at the top, 4 ft. in
diameter at the false bottom, and about 5 ft. deep. They are swung
on cast-iron trunnions bolted to the body and turned by means of a
hand-wheel and worm (not shown). They are carried on strong cast-
iron standards fitted with bearings for trunnions, and all necessary
brackets for tilting gear. The hood has a telescopic funnel which
allows it to be raised or lowered, weights being used to balance it.
At the apex of the cone a damper is provided to regulate the draft. A
4 in. hole in the pot allows the air from the blast-pipe, 18 in. in
diameter, to enter under the false perforated bottom, the connection
between the two being made by a flexible pipe and coupling. Two
Baker blowers supply the blast for the converters. The material, after
being sintered, is tipped on the floor in front of the converters and is
there broken up to any suitable size, and thence dispatched to the
smelters.

Fig. 16.—Arrangement of Converters.

The necessary power for a plant with a capacity of 150 tons of ore
per day will be supplied by a 50 h.p. engine.
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