3.

LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

In this chapter, we discuss linear and quadratic functions. We will focus more on quadratic
functions.

3.1 LINEAR FUNCTIONS

Definition 3.1.1

The function defined by

ax  by  c  0 or y  mx  c or f ( x)  ax  b,

where a, b, c and m are real constants, is called a linear function.

Note that the graph of a linear function is a straight line. Moreover, when it is written in the
form y  mx  c, m is the gradient of the line and c is the y  intercept.

We can easily solve equations involving linear functions as the next example shows.

Example 3.1.1
Solve the equations
2 x  5 5x
(i) 4x  5  x  7 (ii)  x
2 x 1
Solution
(i) 4x  5  x  7
4x  x  7  5
3 x  12
x4
2x  5 5x
(ii)  x
2 x 1

(2 x  5)( x  1)  5 x(2)
x
2( x  1)
2 x2  5x  2 x  5  2 x2  2 x
x  1

1
3.2 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

Definition 3.2.1

The function that can be defined by

f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c,

where a , b and c are real constants and a  0, is called a quadratic function.

Example 3.2.1

The following are quadratic functions:

1 2
(i) f ( x)  x 2 (ii) f ( x)  x 2  1 (iii) x 2  x  1 (iv) f ( x)  x 2  7 x 
3 5

3.2.1 Factorising Quadratic Functions

A quadratic function can be written in terms of its linear functors. For example,

(3x  1)( x  1)  3x 2  3x  x  1  3x 2  2 x  1.

Thus, certain quadratic functions can be factorised into linear factors. To do that, find the
factors of the product " ac " whose sum is "b ". For example, to factorise 3x 2  2 x  1 , note that
a  3, b  2 and c  1 implying that ac  3(1)  3 . Thus,

3  1 3  1  3  2  b
3  1 3  1  3  2  b
 The two factors are  1 and 3.

Then, we can factorise by grouping:

3x2  2 x  1  3x2  x  3x  1  3x2  x   3x  1  x 3x  1  13x  1  3x  1 ( x  1).

Example 3.2.2

Factorise the following:

(a) f ( x)  x 2  4 x  3 (b) f ( x)  2 x 2  3x  2

2
Solutions

(a) Exercise

(b) f ( x)  2 x 2  3x  2 ac  4, b  3

  2 x 2  4 x    x  2   f  4, 1
 2 x( x  2)  1( x  2)
 ( x  2)(2 x  1)

Certain functions can be expressed in “quadratic form” and can be factorised using the method
for factorising quadratic functions, as the next example shows:

Example 3.2.3

Factorise completely each of the following:

(a) f ( x)  x 4  12 x 2  32 (b) g ( x)  27 x 6  26 x3  1 (c) m( x)  x  7 x  10

Solutions:

(a) The only powers of x in f ( x ) are 4, 2 and 0 so we can write it as a quadratic

function of x 2 . Let p  x 2 , then

f ( x)  x 4  12 x 2  32  ( x 2 ) 2  12 x 2  32  p 2  12 p  32  ( p 2  4 p)  (8 p  32)
 p( p  4)  8( p  4)  ( p  4)( p  8)

 f ( x)  ( x 2  4)( x 2  8) since p  x 2

 
 ( x  2)( x  2) x  8 x  8 ,  by difference of two squares
 ( x  2)( x  2)  x  2 2  x  2 2  .

(b) Let r  x3 so that g ( x)  27( x3 )2  26 x3  1  27r 2  26r  1  (27r 2  27r )  (r  1)

g ( x)  (27r  1)(r  1)  g ( x)  (27 x3  1)( x3  1)  [(3x)3  13 ][ x3  1]

i.e. g ( x)  (3x  1)(9 x 2  3x  1)( x  1)( x 2  x  1), by sum and difference of two
cubes.
NOTE: Difference of two cubes: a3  b3  (a  b)(a 2  ab  b 2 )

Sum of two cubes: a3  b3  (a  b)(a 2  ab  b 2 )

(c) Let y  x 2 . Then,

1

3
    7x
2
m( x)  x  7 x  10  x 2
1 1
 10  y 2  7 y  10  ( y  2)( y  5)  ( x 2  2)( x 2  5).
1 1
2

3.2.2 Graphs of Quadratic Functions

We start by sketching the graph of f ( x)  x 2

y  f ( x)

0 x

Note that this graph has a turning point (0, 0) which can also be said to be the minimum point.
In general, quadratic functions have either a maximum or a minimum point. You can determine
whether the function has a maximum or minimum by using the value of " a ". If a  1, then
the quadratic function has a minimum and the graph opens upwards. If a  1, then the quadratic
function has a maximum and the graph opens downwards.

We can shift the graph of y  f ( x)  x 2 horizontally and/or vertically to sketch graphs such
as

(i) f ( x)  x 2  k , k is a real constant.

4
 (ii) f ( x)  ( x  h) 2 , h is a real constant.

(iii) f ( x)  p( x  h)2  k , p  0, h and k are real constants.

We have seen that to sketch the graph of the general quadratic function f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c,
we need to express it in the form

f ( x )  p ( x  h)  k , (3.1)

where p, h and k are real constants. We use the method called completing the square to
express any quadratic function in the form (3.1). This is done as follows:

 b c
f ( x)  a  x 2  x   (factor out a )
 a a
 b b  b   b  c
2 2

 a  x2  x x       (divide the coefficient of x by 2,

 2a 2a  2a   2a  a 
square it and use it to write a "special zero")
  b   b  b     b  c 
2 2

 a   x 
2
x x           factorise by grouping
  2a   2a  2a     2a  a 

5
   b  b  b  b2 c 
 a  x  x     x    2  
  2a  2a  2a   4a a
 b  b  b 2  4ac 
 a  x   x   
 2a  2a  4a 2 
 b  b 2  4ac 
2

 a  x    
 2a  4a 2 

b  b 2  4ac
2

 a x    .
 2a  4a

2
 b 
Since  x    0 , the expression within the bracket has its minimum value when
 2a 

b b b 2  4ac
x  0 , i.e. x   . For this value of x, the minimum is  , i.e.
2a 2a 4a

b 2  4ac
f  b
2a 
4a

 b b 2  4ac  b
if a  0 . The point  ,   is called the turning point and the line x   is called
 2a 4a  2a

b
the line of symmetry. If a  0, then the quadratic function has a maximum value at x  
2a
, i.e.

b 2  4ac
f  b
2a 
4a

 b b 2  4ac 
and the turning point is  , .
 2a 4a 

Example 3.2.4

1 7
Sketch the graph of f ( x)   x 2  x  .
2 2

Solution

By completing the square, we get

f ( x)   x 2  x     x 2  2 x  7 
1 7 1
2 2 2
6
   ( x 2  x)  ( x  1)  1  7 
1
2
1
   x( x  1)  1( x  1)  6
2
1
  ( x  1) 2  6 
2
1
  ( x  1) 2  3.
2

1
 x  1  0  x  1 is the line of symmetry and (1, 3) is the turning point. Since a    0,
2

the quadratic function has a maximum value 3 at x  1 and the graph opens downwards.
7
We can also find the y  intercept, i.e. when x  0, y   .
2

x  1 0 x

( 1, 3) 3

1 7
 72 y  f ( x)   x 2  x 
2 2

3.2.3 Quadratic Equations

The equation of the form

ax 2  bx  c  0 (3.2)
is called a quadratic equation. Solving this equation implies finding values of x that satisfies
equation (3.2). These values are sometimes called x  intercepts or zeroes or roots of the
quadratic equation. We can solve equation (3.2) by

 Factorisation
 Completing the square
 Quadratic formula
 Graphing

7
Example 3.2.5

1. Solve the quadratic equation x 2  4 x  3  0 by factorisation.

2. Solve the quadratic equation 2 x 2  5 x  4  0 by completing the square.

Solutions

1. x 2  4 x  3  0  ( x 2  3x)  ( x  3)  0
 x( x  3)  1( x  3)  0
 ( x  3)( x  1)  0
 x  3  0 or x  1  0
 x  3 or x  1
2. Note that 2 x 2  5 x  4 is cannot be factorised. We use completing the square.
 5 
2 x2  5x  4  0  2  x 2  x  2  0
 2 
  5 5  5    5 
2 2

 2  x 2  x  x         2  0
  4 4  4    4  
  5 5 5   25 
 2  x  x     x      2  0
  4 4 4   16 
 5  57 
2

 2  x      0
 4  16 
2
 5  57
 2 x    0
 4 8
2
 5  57
 2 x   
 4 8
2
 5  57
x  
 4  16
5 57
 x 
4 16
5 57 5  57
x  
4 4 4
5  57 5  57
x or x 
4 4

We can also use the quadratic formula to solve quadratic equations which cannot be factorised.
b  b2  4ac
2

Remember that ax  bx  c can be written as ax  bx  c  a  x   
2 2
. Thus,
 2a  4a
ax 2  bx  c  0 implies

8
 b  b2  4ac b  b2  4ac
2 2
 
a x     0  a x   
 2a  4a  2a  4a

b  b 2  4ac
2

x  
 2a  4a 2
b b 2  4ac
 x 
2a 4a 2
b b 2  4ac b  b 2  4ac
x   .
2a 2a 2a

Thus, the quadratic formula is

b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

The expression inside the square root b 2  4ac is called the discriminant.

Example 3.2.6

Solve the quadratic equation 3 x 2  x  10 using the quadratic formula.

Solution

3x 2  x  10  3x 2  x  10  0

Here a  3, b  1 and c  10. Thus,

b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
(1)  (1) 2  4(3)(10)

2(3)
1  1  120

6
1  121

6
1  11

6
1  11 12 1  11 5
x   2 or x   .
6 6 6 3

9
All quadratic equations have two roots/solutions. These roots are real (Distinct or equal) or
complex. You can determine the nature of the roots of a given quadratic equation by calculating
the value of the discriminant.

If

(i) D  b 2  4ac  0 , then the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots.

(ii) D  b 2  4ac  0 , then the quadratic equation has one real root.

(iii) D  b 2  4ac  0 , the quadratic equation has complex roots (no real roots).

Thus, we can use the discriminant to check the shape of the graph of a quadratic function.
Below are some graphs of y  f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c :

a0 y

111111111111
y y

0 x 0 x 0 x

D0 D0 D0

Two distinct roots One repeated root Complex roots (no real roots)

a0

y y y

0 x 0 x

0 x

D0 D0 D0

Two distinct roots One repeated root Complex roots (no real roots)

10
Example 3.2.7

Show that kx 2  2 x  (k  2)  0 has real roots for any value of k .

Solution:

We use the discriminant of the given equation.

b2  4ac  22  4(k )((k  2))  4  4k (k  2)  4  4k 2  8k  4(k 2  2k  1)  4(k  1) 2  0.

Since the discriminant is greater or equal to zero for all values of k , the equation has real
roots (equal or distinct) for all values of k . Hence shown!

Quadratic functions are used to model and solve many real-life applications as the next example
shows:

Example 3.2.8

A diver launches himself off a springboard. The height of the diver, in metres, above the pool
t seconds after launch can be modelled by the function

h(t )  5t  10t 2  10, t  0.

(i) How high is the springboard above the water?

(ii) Use the model to find the time at which the diver hits the water.

(iii) Rearrange h (t ) into the form h(t )   A(t  B)2  C and give the values of A, B and C.

(iv) Using your answer to part (iii), or otherwise, find the maximum height of the diver, and
the time at which this maximum is reached.

11
Solutions:

The sketch of the problem is shown below:

y  h(t )  5t  10t 2  10

h(0)

water

(i) The height of the springboard above the water is the y  intercept of the quadratic function.

 h(0)  5(0)  10(0) 2  10  10 i.e. 10 metres above the water.

(ii) The diver hits the water at the x  intercepts of the quadratic function. Thus,

h(t )  0  10t 2  5t  10  0

Using the quadratic formula, we get

5  25  400 1  17
t 
20 4

1  17 1  17
t  or t 
4 4
1  17
t  seconds since t  0.
4

2
 1   1 1 1   1  85
(iii) h(t )  10t  5t  10  10 t 2  t  1  10 t 2  t    1  10  t   
2

 2   2 16 16   4 8

1 85
 A  10, B  , C  .
2 8

12
 1
(iv) Using part (iii), we have that after seconds, the diver reaches the maximum height
4

85
metres.
8

3.2.4 Relations between zeros and coefficients of the quadratic equations

If  and  are roots of a given quadratic equation, then the standard form of a quadratic
equation is

x 2  (   ) x    0

b c
and dividing equation (3.2) by " a " throughout, we get x 2  x   0 . On comparing the two
a a
equations, we get:

b c
   and  
a a

Example 3.2.9

Without solving, form a quadratic equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of the
equation 2 x 2  x  6  0 .

Solution

Let  and  be the roots of the given equation 2 x 2  x  6  0 . Then,

b 1 c 6
   = and     3
a 2 a 2

We need to find an equation whose roots are  2 and  2 . Since (   )2   2  2   2 ,

the sum of the roots for the new equation is
2
 1 1 25
    (   )  2      2(3)   6 
2 2 2

 2 4 4

and the product is

 2 . 2  ( )2  (3) 2  9.

13
Therefore, the required equation is

25
x 2  ( 2   2 ) x   2 . 2  0  x 2  x9  0,
4

which simplifies to 4 x 2  25 x  36  0 .

3.2.5 Linear and Quadratic Inequalities

Expressions involving inequality signs such as ,  , >, or ,  are called inequalities. These
type of inequalities do not demand one value as an answer but a set of values which will satisfy
the inequality. In this subsection, we consider only linear and quadratic inequalities.
Inequalities involving other functions will be considered later.

PROPERTY

For all real numbers a , b and c ,

1) If a  b, then a  c  b  c.
2) If a  b and c  0, then ac  bc.
3) If a  b and c  0, then ac  bc.

Note that (3) implies that if both sides of an inequality is multiplied by a negative number,
then the inequality sign must be reversed. The next example illustrates how linear and quadratic
inequalities can be solved.

Example 3.2.10

Solve the following inequalities:

3x  2
(1) 3(2 x  1)  8 x  7 (2) 2  7 (3) 6 x 2  17 x  14  0
2

Solutions

(1) 3(2 x  1)  8 x  7

6 x  3  8 x  7  6 x  8 x  7  3

14
 2 x  4
2 x 4
  (multiplying by 21 reverses the inequality sign)
2 2
x2
 The solution set is {x : x  2, x  }
or
The solution set is the interval  2,   .

(2) We can solve this inequality by separating it into two inequalities, and then find the
intersection of the two solutions.

3x  2 3x  2
2  and 7
2 2
2(2)  3 x  2 and 3 x  2  7(2) (multiplying a positive constant does not affect the inequalities sign)
4  3x  2 and 3 x  2  14
4  2  3x and 3 x  14  2
 2  x and x  4

2 0 4

 The solution set is the interval ( 2, 4).

We can also solve this inequality “directly”.

3x  2
2   7   2(2)  3 x  2  7(2)
2

 4  3x  2  14
 4  2  3x  2  2  14  2
 6  3x  12
 2  x  4

 The solution set is {x : 2  x  4, x  } or The solution set is the interval  2, 4  .

(3) We first find the zeros of the quadratic function on the left-hand side of the inequality sign.

7 2
6 x 2  17 x  14  0  (6 x 2  4 x)  (21x  14)  0  (2 x  7)(3x  2)  0  x   or x  .
2 3

15
We now test the intervals formed by these values.

7 2
 4   0 1
2 3

2x  7   

3x  2   

6 x 2  17 x  14   

 

Since the quadratic function on the left-hand side of the inequality is greater than or equal to
 7 2   7 2
zero, the solution set is  ,     ,   or  x : x   or x   .
 2 3   2 3

We can also find the solution by sketching the graph of the quadratic function on the left-
hand side.
y

 72 0 2
3 x

14

THE END!

16