Lecture#1:

The 8051 microcontroller, introduced by Intel in 1980, is one of the most popular and widely used
microcontrollers in embedded systems. It is an 8-bit microcontroller, meaning it processes 8 bits of
data at a time. Below is a detailed overview of its features:

Key Features of the 8051 Microcontroller

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• 8-bit processor.

• Executes most instructions in 1 or 2 machine cycles.

• Provides arithmetic, logic, and data manipulation capabilities.

2. Memory

• Internal RAM (Data Memory):

o 128 bytes of on-chip RAM for temporary data storage.

o Organized into:

▪ 32 bytes for register banks (R0 to R7, four banks).

▪ 16 bytes for bit-addressable memory.

▪ 80 bytes for general-purpose memory.

• Internal ROM (Program Memory):

o 4 KB of on-chip ROM for storing programs.

o Can be extended using external memory.

3. Input/Output Ports

• Four 8-bit parallel I/O ports (P0, P1, P2, P3):

o Each port can be configured as input or output.

o Port 0 and Port 2 can also function as address/data buses for external memory.

4. Timers/Counters

• Two 16-bit timers/counters (Timer 0 and Timer 1):

o Used for time delay generation, event counting, or pulse width modulation.

o Can operate in different modes:

▪ Mode 0: 13-bit Timer.

▪ Mode 1: 16-bit Timer.

▪ Mode 2: 8-bit auto-reload.

5. Serial Communication

• UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter):

o Supports full-duplex serial communication.

o Configurable baud rate.

6. Interrupts

• Five interrupt sources:

o External interrupts: INT0 and INT1.

o Timer interrupts: Timer 0 and Timer 1.

o Serial communication interrupt.

• Each interrupt has a priority level (high or low).

7. Oscillator and Clock

• Built-in oscillator circuitry with an external crystal oscillator.

• Typically operates at 12 MHz.

• A machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods.

8. Power Consumption

• Low-power operation with idle and power-down modes.

• Idle mode: CPU stops, but peripherals remain active.

• Power-down mode: CPU and peripherals shut down; RAM contents are retained.

9. Addressing Modes

• Immediate Addressing: Operand is a part of the instruction.

• Direct Addressing: Operand address is specified in the instruction.

• Indirect Addressing: Operand address is specified by a register.

• Register Addressing: Data is in registers R0–R7.

• Indexed Addressing: Used with program memory access.

10. Instruction Set

• 111 instructions, categorized as:

o Data transfer instructions.

o Arithmetic instructions.

o Logical instructions.

o Boolean instructions.
 o Program branching instructions.

11. Bit Addressability

• 8051 supports bit-level operations on specific memory locations (16 bytes in RAM and
certain SFRs).

12. Special Function Registers (SFRs)

• Registers with predefined purposes for controlling the microcontroller.

• Examples include:

o ACC: Accumulator.

o B: Multiplication/division register.

o PSW: Program Status Word.

o SP: Stack Pointer.

o DPTR: Data Pointer (used for external memory access).

o PC: Program Counter.

13. Expandability

• Supports up to 64 KB of external program memory.

• Supports up to 64 KB of external data memory.

14. Versatility

• Available in various packages (DIP, QFP, PLCC) with 40 or more pins.

• Widely used in control systems, communication devices, robotics, and more.

In the context of the 8051 microcontroller, the term "8-bit" refers to the fact that the
microcontroller's data bus, registers, and the width of its Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) are all 8 bits
wide. Here's a breakdown of what this means:

Key Implications of "8-bit"

1. Data Width

o The microcontroller can process data in 8-bit chunks at a time.

o For example, when performing arithmetic or logical operations, the operands and
results are 8 bits long.

o This means the largest number it can directly handle in a single operation is
28−1=2552^8 - 1 = 25528−1=255 (unsigned) or from −128-128−128 to 127127127
(signed).

2. Registers
 o General-purpose registers like A (Accumulator) and B are 8 bits wide.

o This width defines how much data can be stored in a single register.

3. Memory Access

o Each memory address stores 8 bits of data.

o Instructions that move or process data typically operate on 8 bits at a time.

4. Instruction Size

o Many instructions in the 8051 microcontroller deal with 8-bit operands or generate
8-bit results.

5. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

o The ALU performs operations (like addition, subtraction, AND, OR, etc.) on 8-bit data.

o If operations involve data larger than 8 bits (e.g., 16-bit or 32-bit data), it requires
additional instructions to handle the extra bits.

6. External Interfaces

o The data bus, which connects the CPU to external peripherals or memory, is 8 bits
wide, enabling the transfer of 8 bits of data in a single operation.

Example

• When you add two numbers, say 150 and 100:

o These numbers are represented in 8 bits: 150=10010110150 =

o The result, 150+100=250150 + 100 = 250150+100=250, is still an 8-bit number.

However, if the result exceeds the 8-bit limit (e.g., 255+1255 + 1255+1), it causes an overflow, which
must be handled separately using carry or additional instructions.

Summary

The term 8-bit signifies the microcontroller's fundamental data-handling capabilities. It directly
affects the architecture, instruction set, and the type of applications the microcontroller can
efficiently handle.