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 Page i

GREEK SCIENCE OF THE HELLENISTIC ERA

We all want to understand the world around us, and the ancient Greeks were the first to try to do so in a way we can properly call scientific. Their thought and writings
laid the essential foundations for the revivals of science in medieval Baghdad and renaissance Europe. Now their work is accessible to all, with this invaluable
introduction to almost a hundred scientific authors active from 320 BCE to 230 CE.
The book begins with an outline of a new socio­political model for the development and decline of Greek science. Eleven chapters of fully translated source material
follow, with the disciplines covered ranging from the science which the Greeks saw as fundamental—mathematics—through astronomy, astrology and geography,
mechanics, optics and pneumatics, and then on to the non­mathematical sciences of alchemy, biology, medicine, and “psychology.” Each chapter contains an accessible
introduction on the origins and development of the topic in question, and all the authors are set in context with brief biographies.
No other one­volume survey is as up to date, has such broad yet detailed coverage, or offers as many primary sources—several of which are not available
elsewhere. With clear, accurate translations, and numerous illustrations, this is an essential resource for students of the history of science in general, and ancient science
in particular.
Georgia L.Irby­Massie studied mathematics and classics at the University of Georgia, and took her PhD in classics at the University of Colorado. Her publications
include works on ancient religion, Roman epigraphy, and ancient science. She currently teaches classics at Louisiana State University.
Paul T.Keyser studied physics and classics at St. Andrew’s School, Duke, and Boulder. He did further study at the Center for Hellenic Studies, and has also taught
classics. His publications include work on gravitational physics, and on ancient science. He is currently crafting Java for IBM’s Watson Research Center.
 Page ii

This page intentionally left blank.

 Page iii

GREEK SCIENCE OF THE HELLENISTIC ERA

A Sourcebook

Georgia L.Irby­Massie and Paul T.Keyser

London and New York

 Page iv

First published 2002

by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e­Library, 2003.

Selection and editorial matter © 2002 Georgia L.Irby­Massie and Paul T.

Keyser. Individual contributions © 2002 the original copyright holders.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging­in­Publication Data
Irby­Massie, Georgia L. (Georgia Lynette), 1965–
Greek Science of the Hellenistic Era: a sourcebook/Georgia L.Irby­Massie and Paul
T.Keyser.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Science—Greece—History—To 1500. 2. Science, Ancient. I. Keyser, Paul T. (Paul
Turquand), 1957– II. Title.
Q127.G7 172 2002
509.38–dc21 2001041999

ISBN 0­203­46986­0 Master e­book ISBN

ISBN 0­203­24385­4 (OEB Format)

ISBN 0­415­23847­1 (hbk)
ISBN 0­415­23848­X (pbk)
 Page v

BRIEF CONTENTS
Detailed contents vii
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxiv
Figure and maps credits xxix
Timeline of authors excerpted xxxi
Map 1 Greece and the Aegean region xxxvi
Map 2 The Mediterranean region xxxvii
1 Introduction 1
2 Mathematics 18
3 Astronomy 47
4 Astrology 82
5 Geography 113
6 Mechanics 150
7 Optics 180
8 Hydrostatics and Pneumatics 204
9 Alchemy 226
10 Biology: Botany and Zoology 255
11 Medicine 290
12 “Psychology” 331
 Page vi

Bibliography 360
Sources of translations quoted 360
Texts newly translated 362
Works cited 364
Select further reading 368

Indexes 371

Index of term 371

Index of all metals, plants, stones, animals 375
Index of people (not including extracted authors) 378
Index of places 382
Concordance of passages cited (not excerpted) 385
 Page vii

CONTENTS
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxiv
Figure and maps credits xxix
Timeline of authors excerpted xxxi
Map 1 Greece and the Aegean region xxxvi
Map 2 The Mediterranean region xxxvii
1 Introduction 1
2 Mathematics 18
2.1 Eukleidês 20
Elements 1. Definitions: in plane geometry; Postulates; Common notions; 1.47: “Pythagoras’ Theorem”; 2.11: constructing the proportion
used in the Parthenon; 3.16: the infinitesimal “horn­angle” between a circle and a tangent line; 7. Definitions: in number theory; 9.20: prime
numbers; 9.35: sum of geometric series; 10. Definitions: commensurable and incommensurable numbers; 10.1: Eudoxos’ approach to the limit
bypassing infinitesimals (‘‘exhaustion”); 10.3: greatest common divisor; 12.2: “exhaustion” used to determine circular area; 12.10: Demokritos’
theorem
2.2 Archimedes of Syracuse 27
Area of the Circle
Spirals Definitions 1
Sand­Reckoner 3.1–4: expressing large numbers in base­one­hundred­million
Method Praeface: quadrature of the parabola
2.3 Eratosthenes of Kurênê 31
Duplication of the Cube: using a mechanical calculator similar to a slide­rule
Epigram: on the same subject
 Page viii

2.4 Apollonios of Pergê 32

Conics 1. Preface; Proposition 8: our “parabola”
2.5 Combinatorics 35
(in Plutarch, Dinner­table Talk 8.9)
2.6 Heron of Alexandria 35
Mensurations 1.8: area of triangle
2.7 Menelaus of Alexandria 36
Spherics 1. Definitions
2.8 Nikomachos of Gerasa 36
Introduction to Arithmetic 1.13: sieve of Eratosthenes; 2.8–10: polygonal numbers
2.9 Ptolemy of Alexandria 39
Syntaxis 1.10.1–10: Trigonometry
2.10 Diophantos of Alexandria 42
Arithmetika 1. Praeface: “Algebra”; 1.28: quadratic equations; 2.8:
2.11 Anatolios of Alexandria 43
On the Decade About the monad; About the heptad; About the decade
3 Astronomy 47
3.1 Autolukos of Pitanê 50
Moving Sphere 6
Risings and Settings 2.2–4
3.2 Klearchos of Cyprian Soloi 53
(title unknown): “Man in the moon”
3.3 Aristarchos of Samos 53
Sizes and Distances Hypotheses: sun and moon; 2
3.4 Chrusippos of Soloi 55
Providence Book 1: the kosmos periodically is consumed by flame and in a way reborn
3.5 Apollonios of Pergê 56
(title unknown): eccentric circular geocentric orbits are equivalent to epicyclic geocentric orbits
3.6 Hegesianax of Alexandria 57
Phainomena: the face in the moon
3.7 Hupsikles of Alexandria 57
Anaphorikos 4.1–4: rising times of zodiac signs
3.8 Hipparchos of Nikaia 59
(various works): length of the year
Displacement of the Solsticial and Equinoctial Points: star alignments; precession
3.9 Theodosios of Bithunia 62
Spherics 1. Definitions; 1.11; 1.17; 1.20; 2.1–2; 2.6–7
 Page ix

3.10 Poseidonios of Apamea 64

(title unknown) fr. 131b E­K: origin of comets
3.11 Alexander of Ephesos 65
(title unknown): harmony of the spheres
3.12 Anonymous (traditionally ascribed to Aristotle) 67
Kosmos 2 (392a6–31): aither, star material
3.13 Xenarchos of Kilikian Seleukeia 67
Against the Fifth Element 1–8
3.14 Geminus of Rhodes 69
Phainomena 1.13–17: solstices and equinoxes; 5.54–61, 68–69: horizon
3.15 Aristokles of Messênê 71
Philosophy, the Stoic doctrine of universal conflagration
3.16 Apollinarius (of Aizanoi?) 71
(title unknown): length of month
3.17 Plutarch of Chaironeia 72
The Face in the Moon 8 (924d–f): the moon could be “lunar” material in its proper place; 25 (940a–e): life on the moon?
3.18 Theon of Smurna 73
Mathematics 3.33: a quasi­heliocentric theory
3.19 Ptolemy of Alexandria 74
Syntaxis 7.4 On the method used to record the positions of the fixed stars; 7.5; 9.2: planetary theory is much more difficult
Planetary Hypotheses 1.1.8: model of the sun; 1.2.2: arrangement of heavenly bodies; 2.3: the stars are divine and self­willed bodies
3.20 Sosigenes the Peripatetic 80
On the Counteracting Spheres: varying distances from us of the planets
4 Astrology 82
4.1 Berôsos of Babylon 84
Babyloniaka Book 1 (fr. 4): the moon
4.2 Aratos of Soloi 85
Phainomena 19–44: stars and constellations: the Bears; 63–70: constellation of Herakles; 254–267: constellation of the Pleiades
4.3 Eratosthenes of Kurênê 87
Constellations 12: Leo; 43–44: Planets, and the ‘‘Milk”
4.4 Petosiris 88
fr. 7: signs from eclipses
fr. 10: signs from comets
4.5 Hipparchos of Nikaia 90
Commentary on Aratos’ “Phainomena” 3.5.1–6: rising times of the fixed stars
4.6 Imbrasios of Ephesos 92
Predictions about the Sick 2: lunar effects on illness; 13: moon in Water­Pourer
 Page x

4.7 Dorotheos of Sidon 93

Judgments from the Stars about Nativities 1.1; 1.1.9–1.2.2: “upliftings” or “exaltations” and “abasements’’ or “humiliations”; 1.6 The power
of the seven planets; 1.24: fortune and property, horoscopes 2, 3, and 4
4.8 Geminus of Rhodes 97
Phainomena 17.1–25: arguments against astrology: weather signs
4.9 Balbillos 98
Astrologoumena: concerning the length of life from starter and destroyer
4.10 Thessalos of Tralles 100
Remedies Praeface 27–28; Book 1, chapter: Twins: holy vervain; Book 2, chapter: Kronos: house­leek
4.11 Pitenius 101
[Hermon’s horoscope]: 31 March 81
4.12 Manethon 103
Apotelesmatika 1(2).399–445: sun and moon signs; 2(3).399–428: length of life; 3(6).1–34: children; 3(6).738–750: Manethon’s nativity
4.13 Ptolemy of Alexandria 106
Tetrabiblos 1.1–2: how astrology works; 2.2: “national” characteristics; 3.1: conception and birth as proper moments for a horoscope
4.14 Antigonos of Nikaia 109
[Hadrian’s horoscope: 24 January 76]
4.15 Vettius Valens of Antioch 111
Anthologies 7.6 127–160: common fate of six men in a boat; 7.4 11–15: infant death
5 Geography 113
5.1 Hanno of Carthage 116
Periplous: voyage down the west coast of Africa
5.2 Putheas of Massalia 118
On the Ocean (in Strabo 2.4.1): the island of Thoulê; (in Geminus 6.9): “the sun’s bedroom”
5.3 Straton of Lampsakos 118
On Heaven (fr. 91W): seas
5.4 Eratosthenes of Kurênê 119
Measurement of the Earth (fr. in Kleomedes 1.10): diameter of the Earth
Geography Book 1 (in Strabo 1.3.4): whether the division of land and sea is eternal; Book 3 (in Strabo 2.1.22): use of sphragidês in mapping
the Earth
 Page xi

5.5 Agatharchides of Knidos 122

On the Red Sea Book 5, fr. 30–34: fisheaters
5.6 Seleukos of Seleukeia 124
(title unknown) (fr. in Strabo 3.5.9): lunar theory of tides
5.7 Polubios of Megalopolis 125
History 2.14.4–12: Italy and the Po valley
5.8 Hipparchos of Nikaia 126
Geography Book 3 (fr. 46–52 D): determining latitude
5.9 Skumnos of Chios 127
Periplous 139–166: south coast of Spain; 167–195: south coast of Gaul
5.10 Poseidonios of Apamea 129
On the Ocean (fr. 49c E­K): circumnavigation of Africa; (fr. 217 E­K): theory of tides
5.11 Anonymous (traditionally ascribed to Aristotle) 131
Kosmos 3 (392b14–393b23): the Earth’s oceans
5.12 Strabo of Amaseia 132
Geography 4.5.4–5: Ireland and “Thoulê,” islands at the western edge of the world; 5.2.7: Corsica and Sardinia
5.13 Anonymous 134
Voyage on the Red Sea 29–30: East coast of Africa; 38: the Indus delta; 64, 66: China and the ends of the Earth
5.14 Heron of Alexandria 136
Dioptra 35: determining longitude intervals
5.15 Plutarch of Chaironeia 139
The Face in the Moon 26 (941a–c): “Atlantis”
5.16 Marinos of Tyre 139
Geography Book 3: navigation by the stars; Book?: the route to China
5.17 Theon of Smurna 141
Mathematics 3.2: sphericity of the Earth; 3.3: sphericity of ocean; 3.3: heights of mountains
5.18 Arrian of Nikomedia 143
Voyage on the Black Sea 8: Phasis River; 21: island of Achilles
5.19 Ptolemy of Alexandria 144
Geography 1.1: introduction; scope of geography; 3.2: Corsica
6 Mechanics 150
6.1 Eukleidês 152
Division of the Scale Praeface: mechanical production of sound
6.2 Epikouros of Samos 152
Letter to Herodotos 38–61 (in part): atomic theory
6.3 Straton of Lampsakos 154
Motion fr.: acceleration
 Page xii

6.4 Chrusippos of Soloi 154

(title unknown) (paraphrase in Ioannes of Stobi, Selections 1.161): “place’’ vs. “void”
(title unknown) (paraphrase in Ioannes of Stobi, Selections 1.166): structure of the kosmos
6.5 Archimedes of Syracuse 155
Plane Equilibrium Postulates; Proposition 6: how the balance works
6.6 Philon of Buzantion 157
War­machines Praeface: principles; spring catapult; repeating catapult
6.7 Biton of Pergamon 161
War­machines 5: scaling ladder
6.8 Hipparchos of Nikaia 163
Bodies Carried Down by Their Weight fr.: acceleration
6.9 Athenaios of Kuzikos 164
Mechanics 11: wall­borer; 18–23: “tortoise”
6.10 Apollonios of Kition 166
On Hippokrates’ “Joints” Book 2: spine
6.11 Heron of Alexandria 168
Mechanics 1.20–21: weights; 2.1.1: simple machines; 2.3: the pulley; 3.2.1–2: the crane
Automatic Theatre 1.1.1–8; 1.2.1–12; 1.4.1–13; 1.14.1–2
War­machines Praeface: why study artillery
Pneumatics 1.43: organ
6.12 Plutarch of Chaironeia 176
Platonic Puzzles 7.5 (1005): projectile motion
6.13 Ailian 176
Commentary on the “Timaios” Book 2: mechanical nature of sound
6.14 Ptolemy of Alexandria 177
Harmonics 1.3.3: pitch of sounds
6.15 Galen of Pergamon 178
Motion (from Alexander of Aphrodisias’ Refutation); (from the same)
7 Optics 180
7.1 Eukleidês 181
Optics Definitions; 1 Nothing that is seen is seen all at once; 2 Nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects of equal size; 12 Of
magnitudes extending forward, those on the right seem inclined toward the left, and those on the left toward the right; 16 As the eye approaches
objects of unequal size which rise one upon another above the eye, the shorter one appears to gain height, but as the eye recedes the taller one
appears to gain; 19 To know how great is a given height when the sun is not shining; 23 If a sphere is however seen by one eye, always less
than a
 Page xiii

hemisphere is seen, and the part of the sphere that is seen appears as a circumference; 51 If, when several objects move at unequal speed, the
eye also moves in the same direction, the objects moving with the same speed as the eye will seem to stand still, those moving slower will seem
to move in reverse, and those moving faster will seem to move ahead; 52 When some objects are moved, and one is obviously not moved, the
unmoved object will seem to move backward; 54 When objects move at equal speed, the more remote seem to move slower; 55 If the eye
remains at rest, while things seen are moved, the more remote of the things seen will seem to be left behind; 57 When things lie at the same
distance and the edges are not in line with the middle, it makes the whole figure sometimes concave, sometimes convex
7.2 Epikouros of Samos 186
Letter to Herodotos 46–48: objects give off emanations
Letter to Puthokles 91: “The sun is peculiar in always appearing the same size from any distance”
7.3 Archimedes of Syracuse 188
Sand­Reckoner 1.10–17: the apparent size of the sun
7.4 Diokles 189
Burning­Mirrors 1 Praeface: introduction; Prop. 1: construction of a parabolic mirror
7.5 Agatharchides of Knidos 192
On the Red Sea Book 5, fr. 107: appearance of the sun
7.6 Poseidonios of Apamea 193
On the Ocean (?) fr. 119 E­K: sunsets
7.7 Heron of Alexandria 193
Mirrors Praeface: nature of vision, and what Heron covers; 3–4: reflection at equal angles
7.8 Plutarch of Chaironeia 196
The Face in the Moon 17 (930a–d): apparent exceptions to the equal­angles reflection law
7.9 Ptolemy of Alexandria 197
Optics 2.13–14: color; 2.28–31: binocular vision; 2.107: after­images; 2.133: eyes of a painted face “following” viewer; 3.59: illusions in
depth­perception; 4.109–113: concave mirrors magnify; 5.3–6: experiments on angles of refraction
7.10 Galen of Pergamon 202
Opinions of Hippokrates and Plato 7.5: optical pneuma; 7.7
8 Hydrostatics and Pneumatics 204
8.1 Theophrastos of Eresos 205
Winds 1–12: nature and properties of wind; 16–17: the sun
 Page xiv

affects winds; 20: temperature dependent on compression and rarefaction of air; 22–24: air is not self­moving; 26–27: mechanical anti­
Aristotelian explanation of winds; 35–36: common features of winds; 44–46: features of individual winds
8.2 Straton of Lampsakos 211
Void (fr. in Heron, Pneumatics): micro­voids
8.3 Archimedes of Syracuse 212
Floating Bodies 1. Postulate 1: essential nature of liquids; Proposition 1: spherical surface; Proposition 2: liquid in equilibrium has spherical
surface; Proposition 5: buoyant force in equilibrium; Proposition 6: buoyant force out of equilibrium; Proposition 7: weight of immersed object
8.4 Philon of Buzantion 215
War­machines: air­spring catapult
Pneumatics 1–2: demonstration that air is corporeal; 4: demonstrations that water is “attached” to air; 6: demonstrating ‘‘attachment” of water
to air using a siphon; 7: the “thermoscope”
8.5 Aristokles 219
Choruses (fr. in Athenaios, Deipnosophists): water organ
8.6 Heron of Alexandria 220
Dioptra 31: flow of a source
Pneumatics 1 Preface: why study pneumatics; 1.4: constant­flux siphon; 1.20: the toilet­bowl or chicken­waterer feedback device; 2.11: a
cosmological model
8.7 Ptolemy of Alexandria 225
Weights (fr. reported by Simplicius): buoyant force of air?
9 Alchemy 226
9.1 Theophrastos of Eresos 228
Stones 1–2: properties; 16–17: coal; 23–24: “emerald”; 45–46: touchstone; 49: glass; 53–54: red ocher; 56: making white lead; 57: making
verdigris; 60: quicksilver; 65–66: gypsum used to make plaster
Odors 8: production of scents; 21–23: use of bain­marie in making scents
Fire 1: troubling properties of fire; 12: paradoxical burning power of fire; 17: paradoxical heating power of cold; 30–33: varieties of flame; 59:
extinguishers
9.2 Sotakos 233
Stones (fr. in Apollonios, Marvels 36): asbestos?
9.3 Epikouros of Samos 234
Letter to Herodotos 68–70: nature of “physical attributes”
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Remarks on
the management, or rather, the mis-
management of woods, plantations, and
hedge-row timber
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Remarks on the management, or rather, the mis-management

of woods, plantations, and hedge-row timber

Author: J. West

Release date: October 25, 2023 [eBook #71955]

Language: English

Original publication: Newark: Longman & Co, 1842

Credits: Bob Taylor, Donald Cummings and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REMARKS

ON THE MANAGEMENT, OR RATHER, THE MIS-MANAGEMENT
OF WOODS, PLANTATIONS, AND HEDGE-ROW TIMBER ***
 REMARKS
ON
THE MANAGEMENT,
OR RATHER, THE
MIS-MANAGEMENT,
OF
WOODS, PLANTATIONS,
AND
HEDGE-ROW TIMBER.

BY J. WEST,
Land Agent, &c. &c.
NORTH COLLINGHAM, NEWARK, NOTTS.

NEWARK.
PRINTED AND SOLD BY J. PERFECT, CARTERGATE.
LONGMAN & Co. LONDON.

1842.
 TO

JOHN EVELYN DENISON, ESQ.

M. P.
Sir,
Having had the honor to spend nineteen years in your service as
resident Land Agent—having during that period, as well as since,
received from you many marks of favour—having on your Estate laid
the foundation, and to some extent tested the accuracy, of the
opinions which are given in the following pages; I am, I assure you,
deeply grateful for the kind permission with which you have favoured
me, to dedicate them to you.
If I were to allow myself to indulge in the expression of feelings,
which a recollection of my long connection with your Estates might
prompt, I should risk your displeasure, for I well know, how
distasteful to you would be the language of adulation; I shall
therefore only add, that it gives me pleasure to dedicate my Book to
you, because, from long experience, I know you to be the zealous
patron of improvement in every department of rural economy, and
because you are practically and intimately acquainted with the
subject on which I have written.
Encouraging as it would be to me if it were so, I do not expect that
you will concur with me in all the views to which I have given
expression: nevertheless, I trust I may be allowed to hope that, in the
main, the principles which are developed will approve themselves to
your judgment, and command your approbation.

I have the honor to be,

Sir,

Your most obedient obliged Servant,

 J. WEST.

North Collingham, Notts.

13th June, 1842.
 PREFACE.

It has probably been with many others as it is with the writer of

this, who finds the little which he has to say by way of Preface, more
disagreeable, and more difficult, than he has found any other part of
his book. A Preface, however, of some sort or other, must be written.
The writer cannot say, as some have done, that he has pushed off
his bark, and is content to leave it to its fate—he does not pretend,
with Kent, the author of “Hints to Gentlemen of Landed Property,”
that “these hints are published from no motives of interest
whatever”—on the contrary he is ready to avow, that, while he would
feel it, under a certain modification of circumstances, a most
agreeable and congenial occupation of his time, to be employed in
establishing a better practice in the management of Woods,
Plantations, &c. he is not in a position to be so disinterested as
altogether to lose sight of his own interest in the matter. Further:
while he feels it to be an object of vast importance to the great body
of Landed Proprietors, and others, that a new system should be laid
down and acted upon, the Author wishes not to disguise the fact,
that he seeks the honourable distinction of being permitted to assist
in correcting the evils, which he thinks he may have been the first so
strongly to point out.
The Author cannot but hope that he has proved all that can be
fairly considered as implied in his Title; and if he have done so, it
may be productive of much advantage to those who possess
property in Woods, &c.: their attention being once strongly called to
the subject, they cannot fail to perceive that there is plenty for them
to do.
The Author needs not to be told, for of that he is quite conscious—
that his book is very defective in arrangement, and faulty in style, but
if he have succeeded in the attempt to be tolerably “plain and
perspicuous,” and “not very ungrammatical,” that is as much,
perhaps, as ought to be required of a practical man.
 One word is necessary here, with reference to Sir H. Steuart,
whose name, as a Planter, the Author has mentioned at page 58. He
wishes to correct an impression which he may have produced, that
the honourable Baronet is altogether opposed to the practice of
preparing the soil previous to planting. This is not the case; but Sir
Henry, with singular inconsistency, after speaking in the highest
terms in favour of trenching, manuring, &c. declares the practice to
be inapplicable to Plantations on a large scale. It is unnecessary to
remark here, that on this point the Author is of a different opinion.

P. S. The Author reviews neglected Woods, Plantations, &c. and

gives directions for their proper management, or he would contract
with any Noblemen or Gentlemen to overlook their Woods, &c. at so
much per acre per year.
 INTRODUCTION.

In writing the few “Plain Remarks” which follow, I shall, in a great

measure, confine myself to the consideration of two main points, viz.
—the present state, and the present mode of managing such Old
Woods, Plantations, and Hedge-Row Timber, as I deem to be under
a course of improper treatment, suggesting, as I go on, an improved
system of management of them all. Respecting both these points, I
shall have to make statements which, to me, appear very important
—statements, which I know cannot be controverted,—and which,
though they may apply, as they are intended to apply, more
particularly to some districts than to others, will, more or less, apply
to all where Woods, Plantations, and well-stocked Hedge-Rows
abound.
Upon the second point in particular,—I mean the present modes of
managing property of this description,—I shall endeavour to show in
what respects, and, as well as I am able, to what extent, it is
erroneous or defective.
But first, I would remark generally, that although the treatment of
Plantations is bad enough, it is not so grossly bad as is that of
Ancient Woods and Hedge-Row Timber. I have, for some time, had it
in my mind to write respecting the two latter, having been long
convinced that a most extensive waste of property, and loss of time,
was going on, but, until now, I have neither had leisure to prepare
for, nor confidence to submit to, a “discerning public,” those views
which have been matured during an eighteen years observation and
experience.
I have now, however, resolved to print, and whatever may be the
precise result to myself, if, by means of this publication, the attention
of Noblemen and Gentlemen is drawn only to one hundredth part of
their neglected Woods and Plantations, and of their abused Hedge-
Rows, so as to induce them immediately to determine to arrest the
progress of the mischief that is going on, and not only to commence
the work of improvement, but to proceed to the necessary extent in
carrying it on, two most important results, at least, will be produced;
viz.; to Proprietors themselves a very considerable present or
prospective advantage—in some cases both—and a large measure
of real benefit to the Labouring Classes, in the increased demand
which will be created for the labour of their hands. This last object is
so vastly important, that an enlightened and benevolent mind will
always be ready to listen to any suggestions that may be thrown out
to promote it; but at a period like the present, when one great
constitutional change in our domestic policy has been made, and
when there is too much cause to fear that another is about to be
tried,—each of which is as much an experiment in morals as any
thing else,—it is invested with a much higher claim on the attention
of those to whom the appeal may be made, than in ordinary
circumstances it would be.
It will readily be seen that I refer to the new Poor Law and to the
Corn Laws; the former of which throws the poor man almost
exclusively on his own resources. To provide him therefore with
healthful employment, at such a time, and under such
circumstances, will tend more than any thing else can do, to lessen
the difficulty and danger of the transition from the old to the new law,
and to mitigate the perhaps necessary severity of the provisions of
the latter.
Before I proceed any further I would state, that I shall not attempt
any thing like a systematic course, nor shall I confine myself to a
scientific arrangement of my subjects: nor again, shall I trouble
myself about the technical names of the several Trees which I may
have to mention: nor, lastly, is it my intention to aim at elegance of
composition. I do not write to establish a literary reputation, well
knowing that to such an object I am unequal, and that if it were
otherwise, there is a want of adaptation in my subject; but I wish to
be understood as addressing myself to those who, not being
themselves practically acquainted with the subjects here treated of,
are not unwilling to listen to the opinions which I have formed, and
profit by the experience which I have derived from close and
extensive observation, while myself actually employed in the details
of management, connected alike with the Timber and Coppice of
ancient Woods, with the planting and subsequent treatment of
Plantations and with Hedge-Row Timber.
Of course I am aware that much has been said, and much has
been written, by others who have preceded me, on these subjects,
but notwithstanding that this be true, I am not at all of opinion that
this branch of rural economy has received its fair share of attention,
or that the subject has been viewed in that particular aspect in which
it is here presented, highly important and interesting as that view
must be acknowledged to be, when considered as it affects the
growers of Timber, the labouring poor, and the community at large.
There will be many, doubtless, who will dissent from some of my
opinions. They will have a good and sufficient cause to do so, if they
adjudge them to be erroneous: they have just as much right to hold
their opinions as I have to hold mine, but I wish it to be always
remembered by those who may read the following pages, that every
conclusion to which I have been brought, and every inference that I
have drawn, has had its origin in actual experience.
To practical men, and more particularly still, to such practical men
as are like myself—to use a homely phrase—more at home in a
Wood or Plantation than any where else—I need not make more
than a general reference to what they daily see, in proof of the
“mismanagement” which I intend to show, but as to the Proprietors it
surely must be otherwise. They cannot, one would suppose, be at all
aware of the fact, that one part, and that a most interesting and
valuable part, of their property, is so mismanaged as to call loudly for
an immediate remedy! I affirm, however, without hesitation, that
while Agriculture has made rapid strides in the march of
improvement, and while that first of all improvements in Agriculture,
Draining—(although as yet but very imperfectly understood, and, in a
very serious number of cases, very ill done)—has been extensively
attended to—while the adaptation of Manures (although science has
yet much to do, and much to teach us, on this point) has been
carried to such an extent, as is unparalleled in any age, and almost
in any country but our own; and withal so successfully, as to turn
barren and hitherto sterile Wastes, Forests, and Moors, into
productive occupations—while such an extraordinary degree of
ingenuity has been applied to the invention and practical working of
different implements, as to render the operations of husbandry
comparatively simple and easy—and while yet once more, the
attention which has been paid to the breeding and rearing of the
various kinds of Stock, has raised them to a pitch of excellence
which our forefathers never contemplated, and which scarcely
leaves any room for further effort—while all this proves, I say, that
the large landed Proprietors of this country, stimulated and assisted
by the skill of the man of science, and by the enterprize and
persevering efforts of the Tenant Farmer, have paid almost adequate
attention to one part of their estates, it is equally undeniable that the
present condition of a large proportion of the Woods, Hedge-Rows,
and Plantations, furnishes proof of the grossest neglect, and a
perfectly unaccountable want of attention. To point out wherein this
neglect consists, and to prove this want of attention, will be the
object of the following “Remarks.”
It is really surprising that in an age like this, when there is an
onward movement in almost everything else, such instances of
“mismanagement” of Woods, &c. should every where meet the eye.
If any one well acquainted with the subject, were to take horse and
ride through every county of the kingdom, he would find in ninety
cases out of a hundred, the Old Woods especially, to be in as bad a
condition as if they were solely intended for fox or game covers, and
incapable of being turned to any other use. They are permitted to
continue precisely in the same uncultivated state in which their
present possessors found them, Gentlemen too often totally
overlooking the important fact, that while they might, by proper
attention to the draining and improvement of their Woods, and the
best mode of disposing of the produce, give employment to a very
considerable number of their poor dependents; increase the present
revenue, and lay the foundation of a greatly improved permanent
income from them, they would, to a very small extent, if at all, injure
the covers for sporting purposes.
As to Plantations, the treatment may be said to be somewhat
better, but, as I have before said, in most cases it is bad enough, as I
shall hereafter show.
Of the Hedge-Rows I affirm, that they are, very generally, either
left entirely to themselves, or to the tender mercies of the occupiers
of the soil, who, having no interest in their success, but rather the
contrary, cannot, of course, be expected to exercise any care in their
preservation.
Having thus briefly introduced the various subjects which it is my
intention to notice more fully under separate and distinct heads, I
shall commence my first chapter with “Ancient Woods.”
 CHAP. I.
ANCIENT WOODS.

While professionally employed, and while passing from one part of

the country to another, my surprise has often been great, when I
have witnessed, from its effects, the indifference which many
gentlemen manifest, as to the state and management of this
description of property: there appears, in comparatively few
instances, to be any thing worth the name of an effort to rescue them
from that state of wild unproductiveness in which they have been for
ages! One generation passes away after another, and like as was
the father, so is the son—and as was the agent of the former, so is
the agent of the latter! All they have done for ages gone by, they do
now, and little or nothing more. They calculate, with tolerable
accuracy, the return of the year, when, according to immemorial
custom, they ought to “cut, and hack, and hew,” and they go into the
wood for the purpose of setting out the piece which they intend to
fell: this they divide, in many districts, into a certain number of lots, or
ranges, of what they call “Gad Wood,” which vary considerably in
size, but which, as far as they go, include all the Underwood. At the
same time, the sapient woodman contrives to satisfy himself—and it
is seldom that his superiors make any inquiry into the matter—as to
the number of Oak Trees, &c. that it is proper to take down; and
then, after due notice given, the whole is sold, Underwood and all, by
Auction.
It is a common practice to describe a ring round a portion of the
Standard Trees which are to remain—such as the Oak, Ash, &c.—
and these, of course, are intended for future timber, the selection
being often as bad as it well can be, but the whole system, from the
beginning to the end, is most objectionable, and it is matter of
astonishment that it should have continued so long. It is
objectionable for many reasons, among which I mention the
following: viz.: because the Proprietor throws out of his own hands
that control which a gentleman ought to have over every person who
enters his woods, whether as a purchaser or as a workman. This
control is absolutely necessary in order to secure two things, for
which Conditions of Sale, however well they may be drawn up, offer
but a very feeble security—I mean the prevention of entry by teams,
&c. at an improper season, and the clearing of the Woods at a given
time. There are other reasons which apply more or less strongly,
according to the condition of the wood, as to its stock, and the staple
of its soil. Carting, or rather teaming, for carts are not often used, will
inevitably do much injury in woods that are well stocked, if the
utmost possible care is not taken, whatever the soil may be; but if it
be a tenacious, retentive, cold, clay, damage would be done in two
ways: viz.: in the poaching of the land, and in that which would be
done to the stock by the wheels. The injury to which woods are liable
from these two causes, and others, may be almost wholly prevented
by the active supervision of an intelligent woodman. Such a person
will take care to divide his cuttings as nearly as he can to suit the
local demand, and to begin as early as possible, so that every
opportunity may be seized, in suitable weather, for getting away the
produce, and it must be his own personal duty to see that no
avoidable injury is done to the stools by the carriages. These
reasons appear to me to be quite sufficient to establish a decided
preference for the mode which I recommend over the system to
which I have referred; but there is another, which I cannot but think
will be deemed of importance enough by itself to decide the
question, and it is this: viz.: the impossibility of deciding, before the
Underwood is cut, what Oak Trees ought, or ought not, to come
down. It is quite possible, I admit, to jump to a conclusion on the
subject: to deny this in the face of the evidence which every
succeeding Winter affords, would be absurd; but I affirm that no
woodman can do it correctly. He ought, at least, to have a clear
coast, to enable him to give due consideration to the various points
on which he should be fully satisfied, before he cuts down that,
which his whole life would not suffice to set up again. How little
consideration enters into these matters, it is easy for those who
really understand them to judge. For my own part, I am compelled to
say, that I never yet saw a single instance, where timber was
selected in the way to which I refer, without gross blunders being
committed. But more than this may be affirmed—and it is not an
over-weening fondness for my own plans, but a perfect conviction of
the utter want of adaptation in the present practice of many, which
induces me to say it—there is not one solitary argument that can be
advanced in favour of the practice which I have condemned. If this
be so, then let all gentlemen abandon it; if not, let the arguments be
brought forward.
I have said that the whole system is wrong, and I add, that no
good will be done by a patchwork attempt to amend it. So long, for
instance, as a proprietor retains the “Gad-Wood” plan, he will insure
the continuance of the old system of “mismanagement.” He might as
well think of bending, by his own personal strength, one of the sturdy
stems of his well-grown oaks, as attempt to turn his woodman gently
aside out of his usual track—especially if he be an old man—there
must be a total revolution effected—he must be put into an entirely
new course, if either the condition of the woods, or the revenue
arising from them, is to be improved.
Unfortunately it seldom happens that customers are not found for
all that may be offered, in almost any neighbourhood, and in any
way. I say unfortunately, inasmuch as it keeps the managers of many
woods exactly stationary, while everybody else is going on. If they
had a little difficulty to contend with, it might, perhaps, induce a little
reflection, and raise a doubt in their minds as to the propriety of the
course they were pursuing; which would be a great point gained, as
there has been very little thought applied to the management of this
species of property, either by its owners, or by the persons they have
employed.
There are, no doubt, many refreshing instances of good
management to be met with—I could myself mention a few, were it
not invidious to do so—but in a large majority of cases, from
mistaken management, woods are in a high degree, and for many
reasons, a discredit to those who belong to them. If the Woodman’s
account were fairly examined—if a Dr. and Cr. balance sheet were
exhibited, it would be found that the land was paying a very small
rent indeed from the underwood, even where there might be very
little oak, which most assuredly ought not to be the case; for I
contend that there is no Ancient Woodland which is not considerably
below the average quality of what I have seen, that is not quite
capable of growing a full crop—either of underwood or of oak; and
for this plain reason, viz.; because the period of pecuniary sacrifice,
the infancy of the wood, is gone by: and that woodman’s
management is essentially defective, who cannot show, upon every
acre under his care, a good crop either of the one or the other. I
would here remark, that a full crop of both cannot
contemporaneously grow up together; and this consideration is of far
more importance in the management of woods than is at first sight
imagined, or, than by a slight acquaintance with the subject would be
perceived.
If there is found in a wood a superabundance of oaks, and if they
are seen to be thrifty, nothing could possibly be so ill judged as to
thin them too freely, even though the crop of underwood were
entirely sacrificed; for, the very objects most to be desired, can only
be attained by bringing about that state of things which is here
supposed, and which necessarily involves the sacrifice of the
underwood, or, at the least, all idea of any considerable profit from it.
Under these circumstances, the exertions of the skilful Woodman will
be directed to the securing of great length of bole or stem; for these,
and these alone, are the trees which have any legitimate right to a
place in a wood: and, of course, the longer their boles are, the better.
Having attained this object, the woodman will then anxiously
employ the best means in his power, for encouraging the growth of
the underwood, so far as, at least, to keep it alive, and as healthy as
possible; and if he have well considered the subject, he will have
contrived to lay down a plan, a regularly systematic plan, that his
successors can neither mistake, nor, without some good reason,
depart from, by which, during the period that the crop of oaks is
being taken, the stock of underwood shall gradually be acquiring
strength and vigour, and getting well hold of the soil; as well as that,
they shall be so equally diffused over it, as fully and beneficially to
occupy the ground, when the oaks are all gone. All these
calculations, and many more, which it is impossible to enumerate,
will suggest themselves to the mind of a man well-skilled in the
management of woods; but there are very few indeed, who either
see the necessity of making, or will give themselves the trouble to
make, any calculations at all. In the oversight of woods, &c. much
more is included than is generally supposed. He who imagines, as
too many do, that when woods have been cut, they may be safely
left to themselves; and that when the period comes round again for
felling, they will do all that could be expected from them, has a very
imperfect knowledge of the subject, or, rather, no knowledge at all:
and further; he who does not know that woods will ultimately pay well
for the highest degree of care, attention, and culture, is not a fitting
person to have the oversight of them. But such is the ignorance on
the part of many, who call themselves woodmen, and the
carelessness of their employers, that there is a total negation of
forethought and calculation, instead of every step that is taken
having reference to a remote period.
A nobleman, or gentleman, or his agent, may calculate what will
be the effect upon a farm at the expiration of a lease of twenty-one
years, if it be not cultivated as it ought to be, and, by introducing
certain clauses into the lease, he may secure himself against the
certain and serious loss which would accrue to him from bad
management; and he who does not so calculate, has a very
inadequate idea of the nature of the contract which he is about to
make; but the man who takes upon himself the management of
woods, and whose views and plans are not extended over several of
those cycles of time which intervene between the seasons of cutting,
does not rightly comprehend the peculiar duties which he has
undertaken to perform, and ought, at once, to be relieved from them,
and provided for in some other way; for if woods are worth having at
all, they are worth looking after, and if they will pay for proper culture,
which no one who understands the subject will deny, they ought to
receive it, for various weighty reasons, which have been before
adverted to.
The foregoing remarks will apply, of course, most directly, to
woods where there is an apparent redundancy of oak. I will now
suppose the case of a wood where there is a deficiency, or little or
no oak. Here there ought, unquestionably, to be a full crop of
underwood. This underwood ought to be adapted, as to kind, first, to
the nature of the soil; and, secondly, to the local demand, if the local
demand be good: and as to its age, of course it must be that which
best suits the market, or when, comparatively, it will fetch the best
price; so that in some districts, as in Kent, for instance, it will sell
best, and therefore ought to be cut, at about twelve years of age: in
others it would not sell so well at less than from fifteen to twenty
years old. But it does not follow as a matter of course, that because
a wood has always, previously, stood from twenty to twenty-five
years, it should for ever continue to do so; on the contrary, I should
say, that there are very few woods indeed, if any, which ought to
stand more than twenty years, and a great proportion of them,
nothing like so long. The great reason why the produce of woods
does not earlier come to maturity, is the gross “mismanagement” to
which they are subjected: but when the time shall arrive that they
shall be deemed worthy of as much “care, attention, and culture,” as
any other part of an estate, then will they be found, probably, to yield
quite as good a return for it; and the present no system management
will be exploded.
In all cases where the cycle has run beyond twenty years, it will, at
least, be well for the proprietor, or his manager, to sit down and
calculate whether the stuff would not pay better if felled some years
earlier. The inquiry can do no harm; and much good may possibly
arise out of it. In the case last supposed, viz.: a wood with little or no
oak, and well stocked with underwood of a suitable kind, there
cannot be a doubt upon the subject; for if the stock—by which term I
mean the shoots which have sprung up from the stools—has been
properly treated, it will have arrived, in twenty years, at a size quite
large enough for agricultural uses, and it can very seldom be allowed
to stand longer without serious injury to the stools. A very little
consideration will convince any one, who does not resist conviction,
that such ought to be the state of a wood so circumstanced as to
oak; but nevertheless the actual condition of most woods is widely
different from this: instead of there being a full crop of underwood,
where there is a deficiency of timber, or a full crop of timber, where
there is little or no underwood, it too frequently happens that there is
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