INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Part 1
COMMUNICATION AND
COMMUNICATION SKILLS

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
Communication Skills ............................................................................................................ 3
1.1 Definition and Functions of Communication .................................................................... 3
Learning Objectives ..................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Purpose of Communication Skills .................................................................................... 5
Learning Objectives ........................................................................................................ 5
1.3 The Communication Process .......................................................................................... 7
Learning Objectives ........................................................................................................ 7
1.4 Elements of Communication .......................................................................................10
Learning Objectives ....................................................................................................10
1.5 Barriers in Communication .............................................................................................12
Learning Objectives .......................................................................................................12
1.6 Nonverbal Communication .............................................................................................15
Learning Objectives .......................................................................................................15
1.7 Types and forms of communication ................................................................................17
Learning Objectives .......................................................................................................17
1.8 Audience and Purpose in Communication ......................................................................18
Learning Objectives .......................................................................................................18
1.9 Listening and note-taking ...............................................................................................19
Learning Objectives .......................................................................................................19
1.10 Reading and note-making ............................................................................................22
Learning Objectives .......................................................................................................22

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 Communication Skills

1.1 Definition and Functions of Communication

Learning Objectives:

1. Define communication
2. State the functions of communication

Introduction
The word communication has its origin in the Latin word 'communis' that means 'to
make common'. Communication facilitates sharing of common experiences with
others. It involves sharing of an idea, thought, feeling or information with others,
which includes thinking, dreaming, speaking, arguing and so on. Thus the scope of
communication is very wide. All this makes communication a complex process. To
understand the concept of communication, let us examine the various definitions of
communication as given by different scholars.

Definitions of Communication
Different scholars have defined communication in various ways. Some of them
describe it as 'the transfer of meaning', 'transmission of stimuli', 'one mind affecting
other' or 'sharing of experiences on the basis of commonness'. Communication has
also been defined as a scientific study which involves the art of communication so
that skilled communication can be produced.

Communication is not a static act but a dynamic process, which is continuous in

nature and vital for teaching and learning. It involves the usage of a channel. This
channel could be signs, symbols or verbal/written language. For communication to
be complete and effective it has to achieve the desired objectives as intended by the
communicator. For example, in a classroom situation, the teacher has to make
special efforts to convey the message to the learners. S/he has to clearly define the
objectives of the lesson and the message has to be conveyed with the help of
appropriate oral and written signs, symbols and body language. Only when the
meaning has been understood by the learners and in the same way as intended by
the teacher, we can say that the communication has been successful. Thus,
communication can be defined as a process of sharing or exchange of ideas,
information, knowledge, attitudes or feelings among two or more persons through
certain signs and symbols leading to a desired response as intended by the
communicator. Even our behaviour can communicate messages. For instance
warmth towards someone or indifference can be conveyed even without speech or
written messages just through gestures, facial expressions and body language.

The following definition will be used for purposes of this course. Communication is a
systemic process in which people interact with and through symbols to create and
interpret meaning (Mood, 2004).

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Definition of communication skills
Communication skills are skills, abilities and tools that enable individuals to send and
receive messages effectively. Tools/skills refer to listening, reading, speaking and
writing. The word ‗effectively‘ in the definition means to interpret and get the desired
feedback as intended by the sender. For communication to be effective there must
be well defined objectives.

Functions of Communication
There are four major functions of communication. These are control, motivation,
emotional expression, and information sharing/education. Other functions are sub
types of the major ones and they include socialisation, entertainment, persuasion,
and preservation of culture.

Reflection
What is your definition of communication?

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 1.2 Purpose of Communication Skills
Learning Objectives:

1. State the place and purpose of communication skills in science and engineering.
2. Explain the reasons why scientists and engineers should study communication.

Introduction
Communication skills are particularly important to engineers and scientists because
of the need to share new findings, technologies and products, etc. For example,
without a common understanding of the specific skills, competences and standards
that engineers and scientists should have, collaboration would be impossible as
there would be chaos. .

The purpose and value of communication skills

1. Social and Ethical reasons
Human beings live in communities and larger societies and there are many
possibilities for miscommunication. Knowing the social expectations of any
communication act is a necessary requirement for harmonious living. This also
prevents careless disregard for social rules regarding communication. Societies have
defined what is wrong and what is right. It is within these bounds and constraints that
communication takes place be it at home, work, church, sports ground or even with
yourself. Further, our world is interactive so communication has become diverse due
to commerce which cuts across geographical, occupational, cultural and linguistic
boundaries. Ethical technical communication helps to mediate conflicts that may
arise.

2. Legal Considerations
Failure to appreciate the ethical dimensions of technical communication can have
serious human and legal consequences. For example, products usually come with
documentation in the form of manuals. These manuals provide instructions on how
to use the product, how to assemble or disassemble, trouble shoot, etc. There is
always the danger of accidents in the home or workplace through these products.
Technical documents help to alleviate possible flare ups between consumer and
producer. However, where this cannot happen, there are legal implications for both
manufacturer and consumer. The value of communication lies in its ability to provide
clear interpretation of messages contained in documentation.

3. The Frequency of technical communication. Communication varies from place to

place, and from job to job. The workplace is characterised by meetings with all
manner of conversing and writing. Communication is unavoidable and individuals
need to keep up with its frequency. Therefore, its value in getting things done is
important.

4. The Collaborative nature of technical communication: Collaboration takes place

across geographical areas and involves planning, writing, meeting, negotiating,
designing, and decision-making, and making proposals. There is a great level of
interaction among people of diverse backgrounds.

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5. The Computerisation of technical communication: Technical communication has
been made easier and at the same time complex because of the computer.
Production of complex documents with embedded and editable pictures, graphs,
spread sheets, mathematical expressions, charts etc. is now the most valuable way
to disseminate information.

6. The international nature of technical communication: As the world moves towards

a single global economy called ‗the information age‘, good writing skills are
necessary for the internationalised world. The job of communication is to facilitate
this process.

So, communication skills are important because, according to research, they rank
above any other type of skill. The critical skills of communication are technical
writing, public speaking, working with individuals, working with groups and talking
with people (Huckin & Olsen, 1991: 4). In professional settings, writing ability is
considered in promotion decisions.

Reflection
Consider your chosen field of study here at CBU, at what point will you need
technical writing skills? Be specific.

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1.3 The Communication Process
Learning Objectives:

1. Define communication and explain the different communication models

2. Apply communication models to understand real life communication
3. Apply any model of your choice to solve a communication problem

Introduction
A model is a graphic representation designed to explain the way a variable works. It
is a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show the structure or
workings of an object, system, or concept‖.

Models
The Greek philosopher Aristotle looked at communication from the rhetorical
perspective i.e. speaking to the masses to influence them and thus persuade them.
Aristotle constructed a model with the following elements: Speaker-Speech-
Audience-Effect in which the basic function of communication was to persuade the
other party. This is accepted by many as the first model of communication.

Twentieth century - many more models came up. In the latter part of the century, the
concept of communication changed due to the advent of various mass
communication media such as newspapers, radio, and television. During the First
and Second World Wars, communication was also used for propaganda and it was
perceived as a magic bullet that transferred ideas and knowledge automatically from
one mind to another. However, this was later found to be a very simplistic model
which showed communication as a linear one-way flow of communication.
Sociologists, political scientists and psychologists who joined the debate around this
time argued that communication was a complex process which was dynamic and
two-way in nature.

The Lasswell Model (1948). One of the early models of communication was
developed by the political scientist Harold D. Lasswell who looked at communication
in the form of a question: Who, Says What, In Which Channel, To Whom, With
What Effect

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 Source: https://www.elcomblus.com/linear-models-of-communication/

Shannon and Weaver Model (1949). This model of Claude Shannon and Warren
Weaver has been considered as one of the most important models of communication
and it has led to the development of many other models. It is referred to as the
transmission model of communication as it involves signal transmission for
communication.

Charles Osgood (1954). In his model, he showed communication, as a dynamic

process in which there is an interactive relationship between the source and the
receiver of the message (M). An individual engaged in the communication process
sends as well as receives messages and as such encodes, decodes and interprets
messages through a number of feedback mechanisms. Osgood stressed the social
nature of communication. This model was found to be more applicable in
interpersonal communication in which the source and receiver were physically
present. For example when a teacher teaches, the learners interact by raising
queries, answering questions, etc. The role of interpretation of the message has also
been highlighted in this model for decoding a message.

Source: https://studymasscommunication.wordpress.com/2019/09/08/the-osgood-schramm-model/

Schramm Model (1954). Wilbur Schramm, a well-known communication expert did

not make a sharp distinction between technical and non-technical communication.
But drawing upon the ideas of Shannon and Osgoods, Schramm proceeded from a
simple human communication model to a more complicated one. His first model has
a lot of similarity with Shannon and Weaver Model. In the second model, Schramm
visualized the process of communication as a process of sharing of experience and
commonality of experience of those communicating. It introduced the concept of
shared orientation between sender and receiver. The circles in this model indicate
the accumulated experience of two individuals engaged in communication. The
source can encode and the destination can decode in terms of the experience.

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In summary, models of communication are classified as linear, interactional, and
transactional. West and Turner (2007) state that models highlight the different parts of the
communication process.

Reflection
Choose one model above and apply it to the teaching/learning environment in the
classroom. Does the model effectively explain what happens in a classroom? Explain.

Further reading:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1

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 1.4 Elements of Communication
Learning Objectives:

1. Identify the elements of communication

2. Explain each element with reference to its position in the communication process
3. Identify types of ‗noise‘ associated with each element

Introduction
In the preceding discussion, you would have observed that the process of
communication is dynamic, ongoing and ever changing. We also used some terms
such as sender, message, channel, receiver, noise and feedback. These are known
as Elements of Communication that make communication a continuous process.

Source: https://newsmoor.com/communication-elements-9-components-of-basic-communication-process/

Now let us examine these elements in some detail and understand the type of
interrelationship that exists among them.

Elements of Communication

Source/Sender: The source of communication is the sender who has a message to

impart. The sender has to decide how to communicate a me ssage, which

channel is to be selected for the message and what type of strategies should be
planned so that the message makes the desired response. The sender provides
verbal or non- verbal cues that can be received, interpreted and responded to by the
receiver.

Message: Message is a set of signs and symbols which are given by the source to
create meanings for the receiver. Simply put, message is the content which is shared
between the participants in the communication process. To make the message
effective, the sender has to understand the nature and profile of the receiver of the
message, his/her needs and expectations and possible response to the message.
This is important in both face-to-face as well as mediated situations.

Channel/Medium: Channel is the medium used to communicate a message from

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the sender to receiver. The channel could be spoken word, printed word, electronic

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media, or even non-verbal cues such as signs, gestures, body language, facial
expressions, etc. In modern communication parlance, the word 'channel' mostly
refers to mass communication media such as newspapers, radio, television,
telephone, computers, internet etc. The selection of an appropriate channel is crucial
for the success of communication.

Receiver: Communication cannot take place without a receiver for whom the
message is meant. We receive a message, interpret it and derive meaning from it.
You have already studied that for successful communication, the receiver should
receive the message in the same way it was meant by the sender. In interpersonal
communication, the receiver shares a close relationship with the sender which
gradually gets diluted in group and mass communication.

Noise: Noise is distortion in a message which affects the flow of communication.

Noise could be due to internal as well as external sources. Noise creates barriers in
communication and it could be of many types. There are various types of noises
which have implication in the process of communication and how these can be
overcome for facilitating effective communication are discussed in the next section.

Feedback: The response given by the receiver to the message of the sender is
known as feedback. Communication being a two-way process, without the element
of feedback any discussion on the process of communication is incomplete.
Interpersonal communication allows greater scope for feedback as both sender and
receiver can decipher the facial expressions, body movements and cross question
each other to remove their doubts/queries. In fact, their roles are intertwined and
cannot be distinguished. The element of feedback gets gradually diluted when the
number of participants in communication activity increases.

Reflection
1. There are other elements of communication such as context and environment.
Explain.
2. Of all the years you have spent communicating to people and vice versa,
which model or models better explain(s) human communication? Why?

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 1.5 Barriers in Communication
Learning Objectives:

1. Define communication barriers and explain the different types of barriers

2. Identify and reduce barriers in a communication act

Introduction
We have referred to the term 'Noise' while discussing the models and elements of
communication in the previous sections. The concept of noise is used to express any
interference in communication between the source or sender and the receiver. This
noise is also called barriers. Successful communication is one in which the message
is conveyed undiminished with least distortion. However, it is not always possible as
a number of barriers make the process of communication complex. Some of these
barriers could be physical, psychological, cultural, linguistic (semantic), technical or
due to information overload.

Source: www.communicationtheory.org

Physical barriers

If the source is not visible to the receiver and s/he is not comfortable in the
environment, it may create barriers in communication. Geographical distance may
also create barriers, as people may like to communicate with one another but due to
physical distances may not be able to do so. For example, people may be interested
to communicate with an expert in a particular area who is not available in other
areas/regions as there is physical barrier.

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Psychological barriers
Due to individual differences, attitudes, interest and motivation levels, we perceive
things and situations differently. Apart from this, the varied levels of anxiety, inherent
prejudices and previous experiences also create barriers in communication. Studies
have revealed that due to the process of selective perception, selective recall and
selective retention, we perceive, retain as well as recall a message selectively thus
creating barriers in communication. See explanation of these on the next page.

Socio-cultural barriers
In communication process, socio-cultural barriers also operate. To illustrate, some
women may not like to discuss their health related problems with a male health
worker. Similarly, some issues may be perceived as personal and not fit for
discussion outside the realm of family, thus creating barriers. Some societies are
less vocal which may affect their level of communication with those from other
cultures who are more vocal or aggressive in behaviour.

Linguistic/Language barriers
During the process of communication, faulty expressions, poor translation, verbosity,
ambiguous words and inappropriate vocabulary create barriers. Moreover, words
and symbols used to communicate facts and information may mean different things
to different persons. This is due to the fact that meanings are in the minds of people
who perceive and interpret meanings in different ways according to their individual
frame of mind. Age, education, and cultural background are three of the more
obvious variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions
he/she gives to words.

In an organization employees usually come from diverse backgrounds. So, grouping

employees into departments creates specialists who develop their own jargon or
technical language. In large organizations members are also frequently widely
dispersed geographically. This can lead to miscommunication. The existence of
vertical levels can also cause language problems. Speaking a common language,
English, does not prevent differences in usage of that language.

Technical barriers
While using technology, technical barriers also make the process of communication
complex. When audio quality is poor or video signals are weak, the message may
not clearly reach the target group. Erratic power supply also creates barriers in
communication.

Information overload
Individuals have a finite capacity for processing data. When individuals have more
information than they can sort and use, they tend to weed out, ignore, pass over, or
forget information. At times too much information is imparted which we may not able
to comprehend and assimilate, thus creating a barrier in communication. To
illustrate, in a meeting when a speaker provides information at a fast pace for
considerable period of time many of the issues and concepts may get lost at the end.
While using media, this type of barrier can greatly affect the level of comprehension
and utilisation of the message. Hence, great care needs to be taken while deciding
the amount of information in a communication transaction.

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1. Filtering
a. Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so that the
receiver will see it more favourably.
b. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organisation's structure.
a) The more vertical levels, the more filtering.
b) Filtering occurs wherever there are status differences between communicators.

2. Selective Perception
a. Selective perception occurs when the receiver in the communication process sees and hears
things in a selective way based on his needs, motivations, experience/background, and other
personal characteristics.
b. The receiver also projects his interests and expectations into communications as he/she decodes
them.

4. Gender related barriers

a. Robin Lakoff, author of “Language and a Woman’s Place,” studied differences in how boys and
girls in the United States are taught to communicate throughout their early childhood
development. Essentially, Lakoff observed that girls are taught to use passive, empathetic voices
and are more encouraged toward active listening. Boys, however, are encouraged toward
competition, using forceful, active tones.
b. Men and women use oral communication in different ways for different reasons.
c. Men use talk to emphasize status; women use it to create connection.
a. For many men conversations are primarily a means to preserve independence and
maintain status in a hierarchical social order.
b. For many women conversations are negotiations for closeness in which people try to
seek and give confirmation and support.
c. When men hear a problem, they want to assert their desire for independence and control
by providing solutions.
d. The women present the problem to gain support and connection.

5. Emotions
a. How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of a communication message will influence how he
or she interprets it.
b. Extreme emotions are most likely to hinder effective communication.

Reflection
Identify the common barriers that crop up every time you are communicating with
someone or a group of people. What do you do to reduce and/or remove them?

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 1.6 Nonverbal Communication
Learning Objectives:

1. Distinguish verbal and nonverbal communication

2. Explain the six functions of nonverbal communication
3. Describe the different categories of nonverbal communication

Introduction
Gillespie and Leffler (1983) summarise the theories of nonverbal behaviour as follows:
―The ethological paradigm asserts that nonverbal behaviour is at least partly innate or
genetically determined, with certain general patterns inflexible within species. The
enculturation paradigm claims that nonverbal behaviour reflects contingent, somewhat
arbitrary, but individually stable norms inculcated in all members of a society through
socialization. The internal states paradigm contends that nonverbal behaviour, whether
innate or learned, fluctuates as a function of ego's individual attributes or internal
psychological states. Finally, the situational resource paradigm asserts that nonverbal
behaviour is learned but varies within cultures and across internal states, depending on
the statuses of all those concerned and on the constraints of the situation‖. There are
many other theories such as Burgeon‘s Expectancy violations theory, Andersen‘s
cognitive valence theory and Capella and Greene‘s discrepancy-arousal theory, among
others. Although nonverbal behaviour may vary from culture to culture, there are six
nonverbal behaviours that are considered universal: Sadness, Anger, Disgust, Fear,
Interest, Surprise, Happiness + Love.

Categories of nonverbal messages

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1. Physical appearance, dress, artefacts
2. Gestures and movements (kinesics)
3. Face and eye behaviour (occulesics)
4. Vocal behaviour (vocalics and paralanguage)
5. Space and distance (proxemics)
6. Touch (haptics/tactile)
7. Time (chronemics)

Functions of nonverbal messages

1. Complementing
2. Contradicting
3. Repeating
4. Regulating
5. Substituting
6. Accenting

Nonverbal Communication and public speaking

1. Using eye contact to engage the audience
2. Emphasising gestures, posture and movements
3. Using the voice: to vary rhythm, emphasize, mark transition
4. Using your appearance as a communicative point

Reflection
Which nonverbal form of behaviour from your culture do you think is under threat of
extinction? What purposes does it (did it) serve?

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 1.7 Types and forms of communication
Learning Objectives:

1. Explain with examples the different types of communication

2. Describe in context the different forms of communication

Introduction
Effective communication involves a sender, receiver and desired result. This can
happen at individual or group level.

Types of communication
There are five basic types or levels of communication. These are:

1. Intrapersonal communication
2. Interpersonal communication
3. Group communication
4. Public Communication
5. Mass communication

Forms of communication
Forms of communication have broadly been categorised into different types as
shown below:
1. Verbal communication
2. Nonverbal communication
3. Visual communication

The level of formality of each type can be affected by factors such as context and the
environment.

Reflection
Consider these different types and forms of communication. Provide details for each
one, with examples, to help you understand and see the connections, similarities
and/or differences. Watch the lecture video for additional information.

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 1.8 Audience and Purpose in Communication
Learning Objectives:

1. Determine the purpose for communicating

2. Identify different types of audiences
3. Produce an analysis of each type of audience
4. Prepare a short presentation or article for a particular audience

Introduction
For communication to be effective, you should consider the audience (receivers) and
purpose (reasons why you communicate).

Determining your purpose

Knowing the purpose or reason(s) for communicating will help you to decide the tone
and presentation strategy. A purpose can be to inform, persuade, entertain, and or
motivate. The purpose helps you to figure out what you want your speech or
document to accomplish. You state your purpose by using ‗TO‘. For example: to
evaluate, to illustrate, to assess, to recommend, etc.

Knowing your audience

Developing audience awareness will help to focus your message. Your audience
may be primary or secondary. The primary audience is the intended recipient of the
message – the ones who should respond and give you feedback. The secondary
audience are receivers who need to be aware of the message but do not need to
respond directly.

For every written or spoken document that you produce, you should begin by
completing an audience analysis. Once you have a clear description of the person(s)
who will be receiving your communication, you can prepare a document that
answers the specific needs of your audience.

Types of audiences
Your audience may be any of the following: laypersons / public or general readers,
superiors, executives, technical, peers, employees, an organization e.g. school,
business or company, etc.

How to analyse an audience

Among others, focus on the following characteristics of the audience: age range,
educational level, motives, decision-making power, educational background, cultural
background, professional experience, knowledge of topic, personal characteristics,
and preconceptions of the topic.

Also consider these practical features: size of audience, speaking time available,
room size, secondary audience, time audience has to devote to your document,
genre of document, document parameters (that is page length), and desired action.

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 1.9 Listening and note-taking
Learning Objectives:

1. Distinguish listening and hearing

2. Explain how to be an active, effective listener and the role of nonverbal
communication in the process
3. Take notes using different methods when listening

Introduction
People listen for different reasons such as to learn, show empathy, be entertained, build
relationships and persuade others. Listening is a form of receiving information. It places
certain demands on the part of the listener and requires particular skills. As long as there is
back and forth feedback between the sender and the receiver, listening occurs.

Listening and Hearing

Listening is paying attention to what is being said or interpreting a sound. This process is
deliberate or intentional, and deliberate. Listening to understand or comprehend is called
active listening. Hearing is the perception of physical sounds. This activity is involuntary and
ongoing. It does not involve interpretation or finding meaning to the sounds received.

Becoming an active listener requires engaging and applying the mind to find meaning.
Listening is a temporal activity and its duration may differ depending on the purpose,
occasion, subject matter and the environment, among other factors.

Verbal messages require interpretation. To be able to understand a verbal message, the

listener should activate comprehension skills. Comprehension is measured by the quality of
the feedback received. The meaning of a verbal message is found in the words that
interlocutors choose. A verbal message is carried through words and these form the content
of the exchange. To understand the content of a verbal message, the interlocutors should
know the parts of speech or word classes to which the words they use belong.

In English, there are open word classes and closed word classes. Open word classes
include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs and are also called content words. Closed
word classes consist of pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, prepositions and interjections
and they are sometimes referred to as grammatical words. The meaning of a verbal
message is contained in the content words, that is, the open word classes. The connections
between the open word classes are facilitated by grammatical words which determine
among other things, the structure of the sentence.

Therefore, listening requires that to understand a message, the receiver of information

should pay particular attention to the content or open word classes. This is critical because it
is the content words that determine understanding. Understanding can be measured by the
listener‘s ability to paraphrase – saying something in your own words. To paraphrase, a
listener can replace the content words with synonyms or change the structure of the
sentence without repeating the original word for word. For example, I am sorry can be
paraphrased as please forgive me.

Another aspect of active listening is the use of nonverbal communication. As a listener, self-
awareness or knowledge of your own nonverbal behaviour when listening is a key factor in

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your ability to negotiate meaning with others. Knowledge of what you do when you listen,
such as facial expressions, sitting posture, position or placement of your hands plays a
significant role in facilitating proper listening behaviour.

In addition to paraphrase, note taking is another important form of active listening. Note
taking is the writing down of key ideas, concepts and issues during a listening activity.
Contexts for listening activities could include the classroom, church meeting, business
meeting, seminar presentation, etc. Below are two ways of taking notes when listening.

Cornell Method/Cornell Notes

Source: https://www.quora.com/How-do-I-write-Cornell-Notes

Mind mapping

Source: https://www.mindmapping.com/mind-map

The central idea or topic of discussion is placed in the centre. Branches which indicate sub
concepts or explanations are drawn to create a ‗tree‘. The complete ‗tree‘ represents the
interrelations of the ideas associated with a topic.

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Cornell notes and mind maps work well when listening to a presentation such as a lecture.
Writing everything that a speaker says is not the definition of taking notes. That falls under
the category of transcription. Active note taking is selective and brief.

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1.10 Reading and note-making
Learning Objectives:

1. Explain the reading process

2. Understand the types of reading skills
3. Make notes from any written text (critical reading)

Introduction
Reading, like listening, is a cognitive process and is a form of receiving information. It
involves decoding written symbols to provide meaning. Smith (1995) defines reading as "an
interactive process in which the reader's prior knowledge of the world interacts with the
message conveyed directly or indirectly by the text" (p. 23). This definition means that when
a reader comes to a text, his or her world knowledge is activated and it is this knowledge
that will interact with the text to create meaning for the reader. The reader‘s knowledge is
applied in understanding the text. Since reading is a process, it means that there are
activities before reading, during reading and after reading that should take place. In the pre-
reading stage, the reader employs the skills of skimming (survey) and scanning to get a
rough idea of what the text is about. This stage helps to connect the reader‘s prior
knowledge to the new information before the actual reading takes place and make
deductions about the general content of the text (https://teamtomeducation.com/teaching-
reading/). During reading, the reader will engage strategies of questioning, underlining key or
unfamiliar words, and making comments to bring ‗life‘ to the text. In the post reading stage,
the reader will go over the work (another survey) by reciting and reviewing the text.

Types of reading skills

The first reading skill is skimming, which is quick reading. This type of reading is selective.
The goal is to find the main idea of the whole text. Skimming is done by reading the title,
headings and subheadings, italicised/bold letters, and images. It also involves recognition of
the organisational pattern or rhetorical mode of the text, e.g. cause and effect, problem-
solution, descriptive, etc. The second reading skill is scanning is the process of searching for
specific information in a text. This is true for scientific texts, technical documents such as
manuals, directories, etc. Searching for a particular step in a fridge assembly manual does
not require reading the entire document. To be able to do this, the reader should identify the
order in which the material in the text is organised. The next skill is light reading which is
reading for leisure. This mainly applies to reading novels and other creative and non-creative
works. This is a slow paced form of reading. In fourth place is close reading. Burke (n.d.)
defines close reading as a ‗thoughtful, critical analysis of a text that focuses on significant
details or patterns in order to develop a deep, precise understanding of the text‘s form, craft,
meanings, etc. (https://nieonline.com/tbtimes/downloads/CCSS_reading.pdf)‘. The types of
materials are usually short texts and excerpts (Ibid). Although close reading may be similar
to word by word reading, it is a far better method for a learning new material. Lastly, there is
SQ3R/SQ4R. SQ3R stand for survey, question, read, recite and review. The SQ3R was
revised and gave rise to an addition of a fourth R (Reflect or Record) between read and
recite. Surveying involves skimming; question means to ask questions that you predict need
answering by the text; read is to engage with the material by reading it; reflecting is to make
notes of main ideas/issues; recite involves committing to memory and repeating information
read; review is the act of rereading all or important sections or points and answering your
questions to strengthen understanding
(http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/sq4r.html) .

23
Making notes
Note-making is the process of writing down main points, arguments and or ideas from written
materials. To be able to make notes, the reader should identify the thesis statement and
topic sentences. The thesis statement is the main idea of the text or essay while the topic
sentence is the main idea of a paragraph within a text or essay.

Example:
Thesis statement: My house is the best (this is the main idea).
Topic sentence: It uses state of the art technology (this supports the main idea).

Notes from a text are written in form of an outline. They have a title, headings and
subheadings, and they are numbered and indented. Different numbering systems can be
used but consistency for each set of notes is required. Below are examples of the structure
of notes.

Example 1 Example 2

Title Title
I. Heading 1 1.1 Heading 1
A. Subheading 1 1.1.1 Subheading 1
B. Subheading 2 1.1.2 Subheading 2
1. Sub sub point 1 1.1.2.1 Sub sub point 1
2.Sub sub point 2 1.1.2.2 Sub sub point 2
a. Point 1.1.2.2.1 Point
b. point 1.1.2.2.2 Point
II. Heading 2 2.1 Heading 2
A. Subheading 2.1.1 Subheading
B. Repeat process 2.1.2 Repeat process
III. Heading 3 3.1 Heading 3
3.1.1 Repeat as above
Key words/Abbreviations Key Words/Abbreviations

To write notes, a reader should be able to identify transitional markers between sentences
and paragraphs. Transitional markers link sentences and paragraphs. They are also called
linking words. Transitional markers or linking words are found at the beginning of a sentence
or a paragraph. These markers show different types of relations such as:

 Comparison and contrast: Mupeta is the best student in Physics. However, her Biology
grades are terrible.
 Chronology: Firstly, the student deposits a registration fee in the school bank account.
Secondly, he or she should make a copy of the deposit slip and attach it to the registration
form. Thirdly, s/he should present this information at the academic office.
 Cause and effect: Failing mathematics has become a major problem at GCE O level.
Consequently, the Ministry of Education is in the process of revising the pass point.
 Conclusion: In conclusion, there should be equal opportunities between men and women.

Transitional markers also show coordination and subordination. Coordination and

subordination are techniques that distinguish main points and dependant points in a text.
Coordinating conjunctions or coordinators include and, but, or, yet, for etc. while
subordinating conjunctions include because, since, while, unless, whereas, in spite of, etc.

For example (coordinators):

24
I study every night at 8pm, so I don‘t really care what I time I sleep (result or effect).
The university should enrol male and female students every academic year.
I wanted to study medicine but I failed Biology (contrast).
Mwape does not come to class, nor does he write tests (showing negation).

For example (subordinators):

Although there are many first year students, I will be top of the class.
The students came late to class because it was raining.

Transitional markers or linking words provide effective movement from one thought to
another. Academic writing and other forms of writing use these markers in their simple and
complex forms depending on the nature of the text. As a reader, knowing transitional
markers will help you identify the main points of an argument in a written text.

Example of note making passage

I remember my childhood as being generally happy and can recall experiencing some of the most
carefree times of my life. But I can also remember, even more vividly, moments of being deeply
frightened. As a child, I was truly -terrified of the dark and getting lost. These fears were very real and
caused me some extremely uncomfortable moments.

Maybe it was the strange way things looked and sounded in my familiar room at night that scared me
so much. There was never total darkness, but a street light or passing car lights made clothes hung
over a chair take on the shape of an unknown beast. Out of the corner of my eye, I saw curtains move
when there was no breeze. A tiny creak in the floor would sound a hundred times louder than in the
daylight and my imagination would take over, creating burglars and monsters. Darkness always made
me feel helpless. My heart would pound and I would lie very still so that ‗the enemy‘ wouldn‘t discover
me.

Another childhood fear of mine was that I would get lost, especially on the way home from school.
Every morning, I got on the school bus right near my home—that was no problem. After school,
though, when all the buses were lined up along the curve, I was terrified that I would get on the wrong
one and be taken to some unfamiliar neighbourhood. I would scan the bus for the faces of my friends,
make sure that the bus driver was the same one that had been there in the morning, and even then
ask the others over and over again to be sure I was in the right bus. On school or family trips to an
amusement park or a museum, I wouldn‘t let the leaders out of my sight. And of course, I was never
very adventurous when it came to taking walks or hikes because I would go only where I was sure I
would never get lost.

Perhaps, one of the worst fears I had as a child was that of not being liked or accepted by others.
First of all, I was quite shy. Secondly, I worried constantly about my looks, thinking people wouldn‘t
like me because I was too fat or wore braces. I tried to wear ‗the right clothes‘ and had intense
arguments with my mother over the importance of wearing flats instead of saddled shoes to school.
Being popular was very important to me then and the fear of not being liked was a powerful one.

One of the processes of evolving from a child to an adult is being able to recognise and overcome our
fears. I have learnt that darkness does not have to take on a life of its own, that others can help me
when I am lost and that friendliness and sincerity will encourage people to like me. Understanding the
things that scared us as children helps to cope with our lives as adults.

Questions:

1. On the basis of your reading of the above passage, make notes using headings and subheadings.
2. Write a summary of the passage in not more than 80 words using the notes.
Source of passage: https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-making-
summarising/
Note:

25
Below is an example of notes written from the passage following the outline structure of format
presented. Take note that it is only possible to write a summary of the passage after the notes have
been written. The points in the notes are the ‗meat‘ of the summary.

NOTES

TITLE: Memories of Childhood

1. Remembering childhood moments

1.1 happy and carefree
1.2 terrified of the dark and getting lost
2. Childhood fears
2.1 Feeling helpless in dark
2.1.1 Moving curtains
2.1.2 Creaking sounds
2.1.3 Creating burglars and monsters
2.2 Fear of getting lost (on the way home from school)
2.2.1 Scanning of school buses—friendly faces, same bus driver
2.2.2 Not letting leaders out of sight
2.2.3 Taken to some unfamiliar neighbourhood
2.2.4 Surety of not being lost
2.3 Fear of disliking
2.3.1 Quite shy
2.3.2 worried about looks
2.3.4 wear the right clothes
2.3.4 Imp. of popularity
3. Overcoming childhood fears
3.1 Undg. evolution process
3.2 Recognising and overcoming fears
3.3 Accepting help from others
3.4 Unds. things that scared

SUMMARY
My childhood moment was the happiest and carefree moment. Darkness scared me with its
shadows, moving of curtains, and creaking sounds. It made me quite helpless and I used to
lie still with a pounding heart. I had the fear of getting lost while on way from home to school.
Before getting in school bus, I scanned it for friendly faces. I had the fear of being disliked by
others. During the course of evolution from a child to an adult, I realised those things that
scared me as a child. I was always expecting help from others.
Source:
https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-making-
summarising/https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-making-
summarising/

26
References
Purpose of communication skills, Technical English and common core English
 Huckin T.N., Olsen L.A., 1991. Technical Writing and Professional
Communicationfor Nonnative Speakers of English. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., pp
4-11

Communication models,
Types and Forms of
communicationBarriers in
communication
 http://www.answers.com/topic/communication Retrieved on 18.4.06
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model Retrieved on 18.4.06
 http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/introductory/schro1.ht
ml Retrieved on 18.4.06
 http://www.nvcc.edu/home/aeldridge/communication/nature/models.htm
Retrievedon 19.4.06
 depssa.ignou.ac.in/wiki/images/0/0a/Unit1kiron_ed.doc

Nonverbal communication
 Adapted from Monica Rothschild-Boros‘.
Text: Nonverbal Communication Behavior in Interpersonal Relations, by V.
Richmond& J. McCroskey, 5th edition

Listening and note-taking

https://www.quora.com/How-do-I-write-Cornell-Notes
https://www.mindmapping.com/mind-map

Reading and note-making

 Smith, B. D. (1995). Breaking through college reading (4th ed.). New
York:HarperCollins Publishers.
 https://teamtomeducation.com/teaching-
reading/).https://teamtomeducation.com/teaching-
reading/).
 (https://nieonline.com/tbtimes/downloads/CCSS_reading.pdf)
 http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/sq4r.html)
 https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-making-
summarising/ https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-
making-summarising/

1
i
Most statements in the text appear as verbatim from the original source listed above. Refer to original for
fullcontext. The writer of this document can be contacted at [email protected]

2
 Part 2
TECHNICAL WRITING

3
Contents
2.1 Audience and Purpose in Communication ........................................................................3
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................3
2.2 Stages of the Writing Process ...........................................................................................4
Learning Objective: Describe the stages of the writing process ..............................................4
2.3 Organisational Patterns in writing......................................................................................6
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................6
2.4 Types of Paragraphs ........................................................................................................8
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................8
2.5 The five paragraph essay structure.................................................................................10
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................10
2.6 Citations and Referencing ...............................................................................................11
Watch video: https://youtu.be/3ZafxKqx2lM .............................................................................11
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................11
3.1 Technical Definitions and Descriptions............................................................................16
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................16
3.2 Types of technical descriptions .......................................................................................19
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................19
3.3 Description of an object ..................................................................................................20
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................20
3.4 Description of a mechanism............................................................................................22
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................22
3.5 Description of processes ................................................................................................25
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................25
3.6 Writing instructions .........................................................................................................27
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................27
3.7 Graphics and visuals ......................................................................................................29
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................29

4
 2.1 Audience and Purpose in Communication
Learning Objectives:

1. Determine the purpose for communicating

2. Identify different types of audiences
3. Produce an analysis of each type of audience

Introduction
For communication to be effective, you should consider the audience (receivers) and
purpose (reasons why you communicate).

Determining your purpose

Knowing the purpose or reason(s) for communicating will help you to decide the tone
and presentation strategy. A purpose can be to inform, persuade, entertain, and or
motivate. The purpose helps you to figure out what you want your speech or document
to accomplish. You state your purpose by using ‗TO‘. For example: to evaluate, to
illustrate, to assess, to recommend, etc.

Knowing your audience

Developing audience awareness will help to focus your message. Your audience may
be primary or secondary. The primary audience is the intended recipient of the
message – the ones who should respond and give you feedback. The secondary
audience are receivers who need to be aware of the message but do not need to
respond directly.

For every written or spoken document that you produce, you should begin by
completing an audience analysis. Once you have a clear description of the person(s)
who will be receiving your communication, you can prepare a document that answers
the specific needs of your audience.

Types of audiences
Your audience may be any of the following: laypersons / public or general readers,
superiors, executives, technical, peers, employees, an organization e.g. school,
business or company, etc.

How to analyse an audience

Among others, focus on the following characteristics of the audience: age range,
educational level, motives, decision-making power, educational background, cultural
background, professional experience, knowledge of the topic, personal characteristics,
and preconceptions of the topic.

Also consider these practical features: size of audience, speaking time available, room
size, secondary audience, time audience has to devote to your document, genre of
document, document parameters (that is page length), and desired action.

5
 2.2 Stages of the Writing Process
Learning Objective: Describe the stages of the writing process

Introduction
Writing is a cardinal skill for success at school and in work-related environments. In
particular, writing fulfils an unparalleled place when it comes to university education. It
is the primary way through which student training and assessment is done. For
example, most assignments such as term papers, research papers, reports, essays,
reviews, presentations, etc. require different writing skills. As such, it is important to
understand the stages of the writing process.

Just like any academic and or professional document, the first consideration before
writing is to determine purpose for writing (see previous unit). This should be followed
by determining the audience and the most appropriate organisational pattern or
rhetorical mode. In addition, the selection of the topic should be carefully considered
before writing begins.

Stages of the Planning and Writing Process (Watch

video: https://youtu.be/6w8KzkM8JuA)

Prewriting:
Prewriting is everything you do before you begin to draft the paper. Look over the
assignment question or task. In this stage, you conduct research, brainstorm, question
and collaborate with others to generate ideas.

You can use certain prewriting strategies to help you to choose and develop a topic:
 Make lists of ideas on a topic
 Make a cluster, which is a visual map of ideas and concepts related to your
topic. From the clusters, you‘ll get your topic sentences.
 Make an outline of your paper (in note format)

Always consider your audience before you begin to write. To make sure that your
writing will fit the audience you are addressing, you need to consider who they are. To
do that you need to assess your audience (see previous chapter). When you have
assessed the audience including their expectations, you‘ll be in a position to come up
with a writing strategy or organisational pattern (see unit 2.3 below).

Drafting:
Drafting is the stage when you begin to put the paper in paragraph form. When you
begin to write your draft, you need to keep in mind the following:
1. Thesis statement: At the beginning of your introduction, write a one-sentence
statement that is the basis for your entire paper. For example: ―There are many
causes for student riots in Zambia, yet not all students are involved in these acts.‖
The paragraphs that follow should support this statement, and each paragraph
should focus on one of the possible causes.
2. Topic sentences: Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states
the main idea of that paragraph. The topic sentence lets you know what the

6
paragraph contains. For the first paragraph on the causes of student riots, you might
write a topic sentence that states, ‗The most compelling cause of student riots is lack
of learning/teaching materials.‘ From this, the reader will know what you will cover.
3. Sufficient support: You need to support your topic sentence ideas by developing
the paragraphs with evidence from credible sources. Use statistics, researched
information, observations, descriptions, case studies, interviews, personal
experience, hypothetical situations, definitions, etc. to support your topic
sentence.
4. Coherence: If an essay is coherent, all the paragraphs relate to the one before it
and all the sentences relate to the one before it. Transitional words/markers or
linking words and phrases help to create bridges between sentences, words
such as: however, for example, in other words, in contrast, nevertheless, etc. You
set up the key words to an essay and a paragraph within the thesis statement
and the topic sentences.
5. Unity: Stick to the subject. In a paragraph, all sentences should address the topic
sentence and all paragraphs relate to the thesis.

Revising:
1. Check to see if the essay fits the thesis.
2. Make sure each paragraph has a topic sentence.
3. Make sure there are smooth transitions between paragraphs.
4. Check for digressions from the main argument.
5. Do you have sufficient support in all paragraphs?
6. Do you have an introduction and a conclusion?

Editing and Proofreading:

Check your spelling, punctuation, grammar, general writing mechanics and layout.

Publishing
Submit your work to your instructor or publisher.

7
 2.3 Organisational Patterns in writing
Learning Objectives:

1. explain the different organisational patterns used in writing

2. explain the transitional markers/linking words associated with each pattern
3. write using any organisational and use transitional markers appropriately

Introduction
The purpose of academic writing is to present ideas that make logical sense.
Sometimes the amount of new concepts, new words, and facts can be very large and
complex. Professors, textbook authors, and researchers use a framework or plan that
helps to communicate their ideas clearly. There are several types of plans, called
organisational patterns that can be identified in academic writing. They help the author
to organise his or her ideas.

How to Identify Organisational Patterns

Organisational patterns can be identified by what transitions or ―signal words‖ the
author uses. Recognising the type of pattern helps the reader to put all the facts
together and understand what the text is all about.

Definition: This pattern explains the meaning of new words or phrases. For example,
refers to, is called, is defined as.

Classification: This pattern divides a topic into parts and uses signal words such as
classified, is composed of, different stages of, includes, etc.

Chronological Order (See process below): Describes the sequence in which events
occur in time. first, second, later, before, next, as soon as, after, then, finally,
meanwhile, following, last, during, in, on, until

Process: Describes the order in which things are done or how things work. fi rst,
second, next, then, following, after that, last, finally

Chronological (Time) order and Process: use overlapping signal words. Both patterns
organize points in time, but for different reasons. Process ends with a specific
predetermined outcome.

Order of Importance: In this pattern the information is given either from the least
important feature to the most important, or from the most important to the least
important. This pattern is also known as hierarchical or chain of command. It
describes ideas in order of priority or preference. For example, it uses signal words
such as less, more, primary, next, last, most important, primarily, secondarily, central,
chief, major, least, main, key, principal.

Spatial Order: It describes physical location or position in space and uses the following
words: above, below, beside, next to, in front of, behind, inside, outside, opposite,
within, nearby

8
Cause and Effect: Cause and effect describes how one or more things cause or are
related to another. Examples of signal words for causes: because, because of, for,
since, stems from, one cause is, one reason is, leads to, causes, creates, yields,
produces, due to, breeds, for this reason. Examples of signal words for effects:
consequently, results in, one result is, therefore, thus, as a result, hence

Comparison and Contrast: This pattern discusses similarities and/or differences

among ideas, theories, concepts, objects, or persons. Similarities: both, also,
similarly, like, likewise, too, as well as, resembles, correspondingly, in the same way,
to compare, in comparison, share. Differences: unlike, differs from, in contrast, on the
other hand, instead, despite, nevertheless, however, in spite of, whereas, as opposed
to

Listing/Enumeration: This pattern organises lists of information, characteristics,

features, parts, or categories. It uses signal words such as the following, several, for
example, for instance, one, another, also, too, in other words, first second, numerals
(1, 2, 3…), letters (a, b, c…), most important, the largest, the least, finally, furthermore,
moreover, plus, besides, in addition

Problem and Solution: The text presents a significant problem and explains it in detail.
Then, a possible solution is proposed. Sometimes, only the problem is presented
because there is no solution.

9
 2.4 Types of Paragraphs
Learning Objectives:

1. Understand and use different types of paragraphs

2. Write effective introductions and conclusions

Introduction
A paragraph is a group of sentences that work together in unity to explain an idea and
to develop a unit of thought. Paragraphing permits you to subdivide material into parts
and arrange those parts into a unified whole that effectively communicates its
message. A paragraph should have a main idea called the topic sentence. In addition,
the topic sentence should have details, examples, citations, reasons or facts that
support the topic sentence.

There are four main types of paragraphs namely: description paragraphs, narrative
paragraphs, persuasive paragraphs and illustration paragraphs. A descriptive
describes an object, a process, a person, or idea. Although it is very similar to
expository writing, this type of writing can be personal and subjective and provides
detail(s) of a place, person, thing, or situation. It is mainly used in poetry and novel
writing and contains figures of speech. A descriptive paragraph bases its information
from the use of the five senses of smell, touch, hear, taste and sight. A narrative
paragraph tells a story or event and the events are arranged in chronological order. A
persuasive paragraph (argumentative) attempts to persuade the reader to change
their view about an issue or to take a certain course of action. This type of paragraph
needs evidence to support the author‘s position. For example, a speech, a cover letter,
analysis, letter of complaint, etc. An expository paragraph focuses on how something
works (process) or how to do something (instructions). Examples include research
papers, scientific writing, reports, technical writing.

The types of paragraphs identified above (especially the descriptive, expository and
persuasive) can be presented in topical format. Each one of these types of paragraphs
need an introduction, a conclusion and transitions. The following section addresses
the topical, introductory, concluding and transitional paragraph as they may be used in
a descriptive, persuasive and expository text.

Topical Paragraph
A topical paragraph is basically a paragraph made up of a group of sentences
arranged around one main idea, or one topic. This is the most common type of
paragraph. It is also called a developmental paragraph or body paragraph and is found
after the introductory paragraph and before the concluding paragraph. Topical
paragraphs consist of a statement of a main idea and specific, logical support for that
main idea.

Introductory paragraph
Introductions or introductory paragraphs perform very important functions. First, they
must attract the reader, influencing him/her to read the remainder of the essay.
Second, they must not only introduce readers to the topic but they must also limit that
topic and identify the writer's attitude toward the topic. Finally, they must provide

10
readers with information regarding what is to be expected within the remainder of the
essay.

As a potential writer, every paper you write should have a main point, a main idea, or
central message which is called the thesis statement. The argument(s) you make in
your paper should reflect this main idea. The thesis statement comes in the
introductory paragraph and must be concise and well-written. This will enable your
reader to establish your position and give your reader a sense of direction. Your thesis
statement should be clear, specific, short, in line with your argument and must indicate
your position

Some types of introduction paragraphs are: Anecdotal, Regular triangular, Inverted

triangle, Summary, A wise saying/word, Provoking question, and Historical review.

Concluding Paragraph
This is the last paragraph in the essay. Its purpose is to bring the essay to a graceful
end. The concluding paragraph gives the writer one final chance to leave a lasting
impression on the reader. It reflects and reinforces the position or arguments raised in
the introduction. No new information should be presented in the conclusion.

You can write a concluding paragraph by providing a brief summary of the paper's
main points, using a provocative question, using a quotation, evoking a vivid image,
calling for some sort of action, ending with a warning, etc.

Transitional paragraph
The transitional paragraph marks a transition in the paper from one section to another,
or from one thought to another, one sub-topic to another. It indicates to the reader
either that there will be a change in idea or topic or that there will be a movement from
a broad topic to a specific one. These types of paragraphs usually are small and
consist of one and/or a few sentences which begins with a connector or a gerundive.
Example: Having explained the general importance of education, this research is now
going to discuss the importance of education in developing the economy.

11
 2.5 The five paragraph essay structure
Learning Objectives:

1. understand the five paragraph structure

2. write an essay using the five paragraph format

Introduction

The five paragraph essay format simply shows you how to organise your writing so
that it is clear and logical. There are a number of essays with more than five
paragraphs that one can write. You can use the five paragraph essay format to begin
and then increase the number of paragraphs as you master the writing process. Here
is the basic structure of a five paragraph essay:

The Five Paragraph writing format

Paragraph 1: Introduction
Interest statement (hook), background statement and thesis Statement (claim). The
thesis statement is the sentence which is the main idea that tells the reader what your
essay is about. You will prove or support this sentence.

Paragraph 2: Body
Topic Sentence 1: The main idea of the first paragraph
Details/Examples: To support the topic sentence or main idea

Paragraph 3: Body
Topic Sentence 2: The main idea of the second paragraph
Details/Examples: To support the topic sentence or main idea

Paragraph 4: Body
Topic Sentence 3: The main idea of the third paragraph
Details/Examples: To support the topic sentence or main idea

Paragraph 5: Conclusion
Restatement of the thesis/main idea

Example:
My house is the best (thesis). It is a modern house with state of the art technology
(topic sentence 1). It is near the town (topic sentence 2). The recreation park is not far
(topic sentence 3). I love my house (restate thesis).

Each sentence in the introductory paragraph represents a paragraph. In this case,

sentence 2 is the topic sentence for paragraph 2, sentence 3 the topic sentence for
paragraph 3 and sentence 4 is the topic sentence for paragraph 4. The last sentence
is a restatement of the thesis and it is up to the author to end the conclusion on a
strong and reinforced note.

12
 2.6 Citations and Referencing
Watch video: https://youtu.be/3ZafxKqx2lM

Learning Objectives:

1. Use the APA in in-text citations

2. To compile a references section in APA format
3. Quote and paraphrase information from different sources
4. Write and format a paper in APA format

Introduction
The APA style includes three kinds of information in in-text citations.
1. The author's last name
2. The work's date of publication
3. The page number, appears only in a citation to a direct quotation.

Parenthetical Citations
First and subsequent citations
• Within a paragraph, omit the year in citations after the first one if no confusion with
other studies will result
• Chewe (2016) administered a questionnaire . . . Chewe‘s results indicated…
• The questionnaire administered by Chewe (2016) was used by...

A source with 1 or 2 authors

Cite name(s) in first and all subsequent citations
• (Banda & Patel, 1964)
• Banda and Patel (1964)

Authors with the same surname

Use initials even if the years are different
• A. Mutale (2012) and C. F. Mutale (2014)

A source with three to five authors

In all citations after the first, use the first author's name followed by et al.
• First citation: (Banda, Haamoonga, & Mufaya, 2019)
• Subsequent citation: (Banda et al., 2019)

A source with six or more authors

Use the first author's name followed by et al. in all citations
• 6 authors: (Muleya et al., (2010)
• 7 authors: (Moonga et al., 2002)
[Note: In the reference list, use of et al. begins with 7author references.]

Sources with two or more six-author groups with same first surname
If two or more six groups shorten to the same surname, cite the surnames of as many
subsequent authors as needed to distinguish references.
• (Banda, Muleya et al., 2011)
• (Banda, Mukelebai et al., 2005)

A source with no author

Use the first few words of the title for self-contained item

13
 • ("Lower Zambezi," 2022)
• (Passing your Exams, 2017)

An editor's work with no author

• Use editor(s) names in the author position
• See guidelines for citing authored work

Two or more works in parentheses

Arrange by order of the reference list; use a semicolon between works
Example: Several researchers (Mulomba, Mwangala, & Milomo, 2021; Phiri, 1998; Zulu et al.,
2018)

Major work plus others

Use see also after major work
Example: (Zulu, 2020; see also Muleya, 2010; Moonga, 2002)

Entire Web site

Don't put on reference list. Include URL in-text instead

Direct quotation from electronic source without page numbers

Use paragraph numbers (preceded by para. or ¶); add section numbers for long documents
Example: ―There are many vulnerable and unemployed youths that need the attention of all
stakeholders from the government and the private sector" (Zulu et al., 2018, Section I, para.
20).

References List

Book: Basic form, single author

Musonda, K. (2000). Taming the Zambezi. Solwezi: Bush Books.

Book: Editors in place of authors

Nyati, P., & Simbeye, W. (eds.) (1999). Why Engineering matters: Exploring the hidden
mysteries of physics. Kapiri Mposhi: Nduwe Book Press.

Magazine article: Basic form

Kangwa, Z. (2022, February 20). Opposition joins ruling party: The death of checks and
balances. The Lusakan, 9-13.

Journal article (3): 7 or more authors

Nyambe, C. D., Mweemba, Y. Q., Sinkamba, V. G., Stevens, N., Pierre, D., Mainza, X., et al.
(2021). Measuring the effect of learning through zoom in a mathematics rural class. Journal of
Rural Studies of Zambia, 20(2), 15-28.

Conference paper: Basic form

Simfukwe, M. J. (2020, March). Reflections on covid19 vaccination in Africa. Paper presented at
the meeting of the Health Task Force Program, Monze, Zambia.

Government report (2): Obtained online; organization as author (group author)

Zambia Ministry of Education. (2021). Report of universities‘ preparedness to offer non-
traditional degree programmes: A national survey. Lusaka: Government Printers.
http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/chilreport.htm

Web Document: Organisational author

14
Long Learning Academy. (2020). Helping learners cope with stress.
https://www.llacademyzed.com/docs/questions/stress

Web Document: No Author

Archaeological discovery changes the history of chickens. (2019, June 6).
Archaeology Times. https://archaeologytimes.org.zm/news/history-of-chickens.html

A blog comment where the author uses a username or screen name would be referenced as
follows: smartpants2022. (2022, January 3). People need a life ―this is why I don‘t do sports‖
[Comment on the article "How sports is a silent killer‖]. Pemba Sports.
https://pembasports.com/2022/01/03/how- sport-is-a-silent-killer/#comments

NB: Note that the author's screen name does not have any capitals, so we retain it exactly as found, both
in-text and in the Reference list

Long Quotations
Place quotations of 40 or more words in block form: Indent the entire quotation five to seven
spaces, or 1/2 in. (the same distance you indent the first line of a paragraph).

Quotations
• Incorporate quotations of less than 40 words in the text with double quotation marks.
• Place quotations of 40 or more words in a double-spaced block, indented five spaces
from left margin. Do not use quotation marks with a blocked quotation.
• If quoting more than one paragraph, indent the first line of each paragraph five
additional spaces from the left margin (for a total of ten spaces).
• A page number always immediately follows a quotation, even when the author and
date precede it: Nyirenda (2017) found that "many studies disagreed with the
government‘s official position" (p.16).

Abbreviations
• Acronyms and abbreviations must be spelled out completely on initial appearance in
text.
• Use only if abbreviation is conventional, is apt to be familiar, will save considerable
space, and will prevent cumbersome repetition.
• Avoid beginning a sentence with an acronym or an abbreviation.

Capitalisation
• Capitalise all words of four letters or more in titles of books and articles in text.
• Do not capitalise names of laws, theories, and hypotheses except for proper nouns.

Hyphenation
 For compound words not in the dictionary, use hyphens for clarity rather than omit
them.
 Hyphenate compound adjectives that precede the noun they modify:
 role-playing technique
 two-way analysis
 middle-class families
Do not hyphenate a compound adjective if its meaning is established or it cannot be misread:
 grade point average
 gender role difference

15
Numbers
• Use figures for numbers 10 and above (12 of the subjects); for numbers above and
below 10 grouped for comparison (2 of 16 responses); for numbers representing
time, dates, and age (3 years ago, 2 hr 15 min); for numbers denoting a specific
place in a series, book, or table (Table 3, Group 3, page 32).
• Use words for numbers below 10 that do not represent precise measurements (eight
items, nine pages); for numbers beginning a sentence, title, or heading (Forty-eight
percent responded; Ten subjects improved, and 4 subjects did not.).

Content adapted from www.apa.org and https://libguides.com.edu/

16
 Part 3
TECHNICAL WRITING

17
 3.1 Technical Definitions and Descriptions
Learning Objectives:

1. Identify parts of a technical definition

2. Explain the different types of definitions
3. Use technical definitions in your written scientific work
4. Evaluate definitions for technicality

Introduction
Technical writing is a form of expository writing. Definitions are important in expository
writing (technical writing) because they focus a reader‘s attention on specific details.
They help the reader to know the focus of the description and the nature of the object,
mechanism, or process being described. As a potential technical writer, you will have
to define terms in your work and describe parts and procedures, and make
comparisons. Technical writing often contains words that are used in specific ways in
different disciplines. For example, the word tongue can be a structure in a mouth, a
strip of land, part of a shoe, a language, part of a belt buckle, part of a bell, or anything
that is shaped like a tongue. This is an example of a commonly used word that is used
in uncommon ways. Such words should be defined to avoid misunderstandings
between the writer and reader.

What to Define
The words you use will fall into one of the following categories:
1. Familiar words for familiar things (Example: amelioration for improvement,
implement for carry out of fulfil)
2. Familiar words for unfamiliar things. These are everyday simple words that
have special meaning in science and technology. (Example: Puddle. This word
is known in the familiar sense but not everyone knows that in the metallurgical
sense, it means a mass of molten metal. Other examples: apron, chase,
cheater, dirty, lake).
3. Unfamiliar words for familiar things (Example: analgesic for painkiller)
4. Unfamiliar words for unfamiliar things. These are specialized terms of
professional groups. Examples: hydrosol, impedance, pyrometer siderite etc.).

You need to define terms familiar to the reader/listener in a different sense from that in
which you are using them; 2) terms unknown to your readers, but which name things
that actually are familiar to them, 3) terms unfamiliar to the readers, and which name
scientific and technical things and processes with which they are also unfamiliar.

Types/Methods of Definition
1. Informal or parenthetical definition: This is used when defining a word that
the reader will easily understand if shown a synonym or alternative phrase in
parentheses immediately after the word. These kinds of definitions are partial
– not complete.

Example
The etymology (historical roots) of this word is a contentious (controversial) issue.

18
 2. Formal or sentence definition: The formal definition is a complete sentence
that comprises three elements: the species, the genus and the differentia. A
formula is given for writing a definition in a sentence. Start with the word or
phrase (species), state the class or the category the word belongs to (genus),
and the distinguishing characteristics (differentia) that make it different from
other members of its class.

Example
Species = Genus Differentia
Carbohydrates are a food group including sugars, starches, and cellulose.

Source of definition: (https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/textbook/def.html#formal)

Formal definitions involve two steps: (1) identifying the species as a member of a
family or class, (2) differentiating the species from other members of the same class.

3. Extended definition: Extended definitions are much longer than informal and
formal definitions. There are different ways of writing an extended definition and
the most common ones are discussed below.
a. denotation - The most basic meaning of a term, usually the first
meaning in a dictionary entry
b. connotation - The most familiar meaning of a term to a user.
c. synonym - Another word or phrase that has the same or almost the
same meaning.
d. antonym - Another word or phrase that has the opposite meaning.
e. description - As used here, a longer, more detailed description than is
provided by a single formal sentence. This may include a description of
each part of a device.
f. contrast - A discussion of the term as it compares to a term that has a
different meaning.
g. comparison - A discussion of the term as it relates to a term similar in
meaning.
h. analogy - This method uses similes or metaphors to explain a thing as
being like something else.
i. origin - An explanation of where a term comes from, who first used it, or
the circumstances in which it was first used.
j. etymology - A more formal statement about the historical/language
roots of a word.

Where to put definitions in a report

1. In the text
2. In footnotes
3. In a glossary (at the end of a report), or in a special section in the introduction

It is also convenient to place explanatory notes or words as appositives. Appositives

can sometimes act as a form of a definition.

19
Sometimes writers commit definition fallacies, which are errors a technical writer might
make when writing definitions. For example a definition may be too technical in which
case the writer has not explained plainly enough or the definition may be too broad,
where the writer has not focused on what the word means in context. At times, the
definition may be too narrow where the writer has not given a definition that is general
enough that the reader might recognize other cases of the thing being defined. Other
fallacious definitions may be circular. This is when the writer has defined a phrase
using one of the words in the phrase, or defined a word using another form of the same
word. As technical writers, be aware and avoid such errors.

How to evaluate a technical definition

Every technical definition can be evaluated using the criteria listed below.

1. What is the type of definition (parenthetical, sentence, expanded)?

2. Is the type of definition suited to its purpose and user‘s needs?
3. Does the definition adequately classify the term?
4. Does the definition clarify, rather than obscure the meaning?
5. Is the definition adequately developed?
6. Is the definition unified and coherent?
7. Are visuals, if used, employed adequately and appropriately?

Below are two examples of definitions of technical terms. Read the examples and
then evaluate each example using the questions given above. Use complete
sentences to complete your task.

Example A: Definition of pigment.

A pigment is any substance that absorbs light. The color of the pigment comes from
the wavelengths of light reflected (in other words, those not absorbed). Chlorophyll,
the green pigment common to all photosynthetic cells, absorbs all wavelengths of
visible light except green, which it reflects to be detected by our eyes. Black pigments
absorb all of the wavelengths that strike them. White pigments/lighter colors reflect all
or almost all of the energy striking them. Pigments have their own characteristic
absorption spectra, the absorption pattern of a given pigment.

Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (w w w .sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(w w w .w hfreeman.com).

Absorption and transmission of different wavelengths of light by a hypothetical

pigment.

20
 3.2 Types of technical descriptions
Learning Objectives:

1. Locate the value of descriptions in scientific and engineering writing

2. Define object, mechanism, process and instruction
3. Use the different types of description patterns for technical descriptions

Introduction
Technical descriptions broadly include definitions, object/mechanism descriptions and
process descriptions. Definitions spell out and isolate the specific terms being defined.
Mechanism descriptions provide details or physical features of product or tool
designed to perform a certain function. Process descriptions focus on steps as they
happen in a particular order, such as instructions.

In technical writing, an object or mechanism can be a physical device, used in a

procedure, or a procedure itself. Descriptions of objects/mechanisms may be found in
user and maintenance manuals, in sales and reference material, and in technical
journals. Before carrying out a technical description, it is important to determine the
technical knowledge of the audience to determine the level of detail required. In broad
terms, a technical description is a part-by-part description of a mechanism, tool, or
piece of equipment

General and specific descriptions

A technical description usually includes a physical description of the device, a list of
its parts, the purpose or function, appearance and users of the device, and its
general use. A specific description of a mechanism adds more detail about each
part, including how the parts fit together. A technical description should include detail
that will help the reader identify and/or use the object in question. Details such as
colour, shape, size, dimensions, materials, component parts, properties, principles at
work, texture/smell/taste, finish, patterns/designs and interactions should be clearly
described (https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/technicalwriting/chapter/technicaldescriptions/ ). A
description may be general of specific

Common methods of descriptions

The description of the parts of a device may follow any of several orders or
organisational patterns. Three common methods are:
 spatial order - the order in which the parts would be seen if considered from
top to bottom, bottom to top, outside to inside, or other arrangement logical to the
device
 functional order - the order in which the parts would be used or encountered
by an operator
 chronological order - the order in which the parts would be assembled or
disassembled, often accompanied by an exploded diagram of the parts

21
 3.3 Description of an object
Learning Objectives:

1. describe an object using correct grammatical structures

2. show connection and relationships between the component parts of an object
3. describe the material, shape, colour and dimensions using appropriate adjectives
4. describe the position of parts using correct prepositional phrases

Introduction
A technical object is a physical product designed to perform a particular function. It
may have one part or many parts. Mechanical constraints on objects are effected by
external forces on the materials used on an object. Compression is the force that
crushes materials; tension is a force which stretches materials; torsion is a force which
twists materials; deflection is a force which bends materials; and shearing is a force
which cuts and/or tears materials. With objects and their parts, a deformation occurs
where the material cannot prevent the mechanical constraints from altering their
shape. Some deformations could be elastic (temporary), plastic (permanent) and
fracture (fracture and object breaks). Materials that make up objects have certain
properties including elasticity, ductility, resilience, malleability, stiffness and hardness.
Other properties of materials for technical objects are resistance to corrosion, electrical
and thermal conductivity. The other five categories of materials and their properties
are wood, ceramics, metals or alloys, plastics and composites (The Technological
World, Chapter 12, pages 385 – 401)
https://mistertam.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/1/4/23148826/manufacturing_technical_objects -
ch_12.pdfhttps://mistertam.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/1/4/23148826/manufacturing_technical_objects -ch_12.pdf

How to describe technical objects

When you are describing a technical object, careful attention should be given to the
part or parts that make up the object. Therefore, a paragraph that describes a technical
object should consist of the following divisions or areas: function or use, components
or parts, characteristics (material, shape/figure, dimensions, property, colour), position
and relation between parts.

The writer should use appropriate adjectives to describe the characteristics of the
object. For example, circular, rectangular, long, smooth, yellow, etc.

Examples:
The table in the office is circular and the top is very
smooth. The thickness of the handle is 25mm.
The nail used is thick.

For objects that consist of many parts, the positions of each part of the object should
be described. This is achieved through the use of prepositions such as inside, outside,
at the top, on the left/right, in the middle, to the right/left, at the bottom, over, between,
below, beside, at the end of, behind, in front of, near, by, etc.

Example:
At the top of the bottle is a lid which is turned anticlockwise to open it.

22
The connections between the parts of the objects should also be described. A
description of objects with more than one part should aim to describe the
characteristics of each part before explaining how the parts are connected. To show
the connection between (or among) parts, verbs are used to signal the connection.
Some commonly used verbs are attach, detach, support, fix fit, link.

Example:
The glass tube is fitted into the rubber tube.

Example of a paragraph describing an object.

A kettle is a container which is used for boiling water. It consists of four main parts: a
vessel, a lid, a spout and a handle. The vessel is 7 inches high. It is hollow and
spherical in shape. The base is flat and circular. It has a diameter of 6 inches. On the
top of the vessel, there is a convex lid with a plastic knob in the middle. The lid is 5
inches in diameter. Above the lid is a curved handle which is covered with plastic at
the middle part. At the side of the vessel is a conical spout for pouring out of the
vessel.

Writing technical descriptions is good practice for scientific and technical writing in
general. Technical writers use technical descriptions in a variety of documents such
as manuals, procedures, reports, and white papers. Technical descriptions provide
users information about the product‘s features and capabilities.

In summary, a description of an object and/or mechanism should have:

1. Definition: What is it, and what is its main purpose?

2. Overview: Overall appearance (description of its overall size, shape, general
appearance).
3. Components: Create a logical connection between each component described.
4. Explanation: how do the parts work together to fulfill its function? What key
principles govern its functioning?
5. Visuals: include graphics that clearly illustrate the mechanism and/or its parts. Show
the device as a whole; consider showing specific details in expanded views, cut -aways,
or labelled diagrams. You may even embed or link to videos showing the device in
action.
6. Conclusion: depending on the purpose, you might review product‘s history,
availability, manufacturing, costs, warnings, etc.)
7. References: Sources you have used in your description, or additional sources of
information available (if relevant).

(Verbatim Source: https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/technicalwriting/chapter/technicaldescriptions/)

23
 3.4 Description of a mechanism
Learning Objectives:

1. explain the fundamental divisions of a description

2. write an actual description of a mechanism

Introduction
In unit 3.3, it was stated that an object/mechanism description should have a definition,
overview, components, explanation, visuals, conclusion and references. The
description must also take into account the audience, the purpose and pattern of
organisation. The purpose of descriptions is to define a new product, new skills and
tools, operations, etc. A mechanism may be either simple or complex, small or large
and should have parts that work together to complete or perform a function.

How to write a mechanism description

There are three fundamental divisions of a description: the introduction, the part-by-
part description and the conclusion.

The Introduction
The definition, overview, function and components form the introduction of a
mechanism description. Therefore, in the introduction, the reader needs to know these
four kinds of information:
1. What the mechanism (definition). Identifying a mechanism entails giving a
suitable formal definition. If the reader knows the mechanism or is familiar with
it, then all that is needed is to write the differentia.
2. What its purpose is (function). This is a ‗natural‘ part of the statement of what
the mechanism is. For example, a radio is a device used for listening – you
must be exact by mentioning who uses it, when and where it is used.
3. What it looks like (overview/appearance). The reader needs a visual image of
the mechanism. The writer should provide a picture or drawing of the
mechanism by giving the general appearance or compare it with something
similar.
4. What the principal parts are (components). Give or state the principal parts of
the mechanism in the order in which you will discuss them. This gives the
organisation of the discussion.

The part-by-part description

In the introduction, the mechanism is divided into principal parts. In this section, each
part must be introduced to the reader and treated as an object on its own. Therefore
all the four pieces of information described in the main introduction (definition, function,
overview/appearance and components) should apply to the description of each
individual part seen on the mechanism. Tell the reader what the part is and then
subdivide it into subparts. The general procedure will be as follows: define the part,
state its purpose/function, indicate general appearance and finally subdivide it into
subparts.

Depending on the audience and purpose, you‘ll also have to describe each subpart by
stating the purpose, indicating general appearance, etc. The mechanism as a whole

24
is progressively broken down into smaller and smaller units until common sense says it
is time to stop. To describe in detail means to pay attention to the following aspects of
the mechanism: shape, size, relationship to other parts, method of attachment,
material and finish. This kind of attention depends on the reader and the subject.

The conclusion
Let the reader know how the object or mechanism works or how it is used. This is also
called the operation.

General organisation of the mechanism

Title

Introduction
A. Definition (What the mechanism is)
B. Purpose/Function
C. General Appearance/overview
D. Division into principal parts
Part-by-part description
A. Part number one
a. Name and definition of part (What the part is)
b. Purpose/Function
c. Appearance/overview
d. Division into subparts
i. Name/Definition (What the part is)
ii. Purpose/Function
iii. Appearance (incl. comparison)
iv. Detailed description
1. Shape
2. Size
3. Relationship to other parts
4. Method of attachment
5. Material
6. finish
B. Part number one
C. Etc.
Conclusion (Operation)
A. How it works
B. How it is used

Example of simple description below

25
 Description of an electric fan

An electric fan is an electronic appliances that is run by an electronic motor. Its purpose is to
convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
(https://www.slideshare.net/RichardAllenSantos/electric-fan- 66979713). It produces air which cools the
surroundings. An electric fan consists of the base, motor housing, blade/impeller assembly,
the blade guard and a power cord with a plug.

The base supports the entire mechanism. It contains the on-off switch (regulator), which
may have 2 or 3 optional speeds - low, medium, and high. The motor housing contains
the electric motor. This is the rotor to which the blade assembly is attached. The
blade/impeller assembly cuts the air and pushes it forward. The blade guard prevents
curious fingers or kitty cats from suffering injury. The power cord with a plug connects
to your home‘s electric service power supply. While some are grounded (3 pins) and/or
polarized (one blade wider than the other) , others are not.

Source of image: https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-function-of-each-of-the-parts-of-an-electric-fan

The fan produces a current of air which circulates in rooms and buildings for cooling motors
and transmissions, for cooling and drying people, materials, or products, for exhausting dust
and noxious fumes, for conveying light materials, for forced draft in steam boilers, and in
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems.
(https://www.britannica.com/technology/fan-ventilating-device).

26
 3.5 Description of processes
Learning Objectives:
1. Define a process
2. State the types of processes
3. Describe a process using given guidelines

Introduction
A process description is a detail of a series of actions or events whose occurrence is in
a particular order. A process explains how something happens or works. There are
different types of processes. There are linear, cyclical, and dependent/interdependent
processes. Processes are also categorised as natural (e.g. seasons), biological (e.g.
digestion), mechanical (e.g. how a car engine works), industrial (e.g. how paper is
manufactured), and social (e.g. how to get your national registration card). There are
processes in which an operator takes a conspicuous part or is visible during the
process and there are also processes in which an operator does not take a
conspicuous part (inconspicuous - not visible or actively involved).

How to structure a process description

There are three parts of a process description and this applies to both situations where
an actor is visible and/or not. These parts are the introduction to the description, the
chief steps (step-by-step) of the process and a conclusion.

Paragraph 1 introduces the topic. It should say what you are going to do.
• This essay explains how a digital camera works.
• Building a road is a long process, but it can be divided into four main stages.
Paragraph 2 will explain the process or procedure. This is the longest paragraph (s).
• The first stage is … In this stage… …In the next stage….After that….In the final
stage…
Paragraph 3 is the conclusion. It will summarise your ideas. You can advantages and
disadvantages of the process, how it is related to other processes and/or you can end by
recalling the key equipment or materials needed.
• Paper manufacturing is a difficult process. However, if you follow the steps
described then you will be successful.

When writing steps or describing a process, you can use either the Active or Passive
Active: e.g. The baker kneads the dough.
Passive: e.g. The dough is kneaded by the baker.

For a process to be fully described, the following six questions should be answered in
the description. The first five questions usually form the introductory paragraph (this
varies according to purpose and audience). The last question is the body of the
description. It is not always the case that all the questions are addressed.
1. What is the process? Define it.
2. What is the function of the process/why is it performed?
3. Where and when does the process take place? ―
4. Who or what performs the process?
5. How does the process work?
6. What are the principal steps of the process?

27
When the operator takes a conspicuous or visible part, the style of description is
different from when an agent is not visible. For example:
1. The soldier holds the gun (active voice, indicative mood)
2. The gun is held by the soldier (Passive).
3. Hold the iron (active voice, imperative mood)

When the agent or actor is not visible or actively involved, emphasis does not directly
fall upon the performance of a human being(s). For example, in a description of how a
transformer works or how an electric fan works, the human agent is less conspicuous.
The difference between the two is that emphasis is on the action – on what happens
and not the performer or operator. The style of presentation is not always in the
indicative. The imperative mood is never used when the operator is not actively
involved.

Example

The braking system of a car is a good example of how a hydraulic system works.
When the brake pedal is pressed a piston operates which forces brake fluid out of the
master cylinder and along four narrow pipes to the slave cylinders attached to the
brake drums or discs so that the same pressure is applied to the brakes in each
wheel. This brings the car to a smooth halt. Provided the system is kept filled with
brake fluid, hydraulic brakes work instantly because liquids cannot be compressed to
any great extent.

If air leaks into the system, the brakes become much less efficient. This is because,
unlike liquids, gases are compressible and some of the movement of the brake pedal
is taken up in squeezing the air bubble.
(From: The Penguin book of the physical world. Penguin, 1976)

(From: http://www.uefap.com/writing/function/process.htm)

28
 3.6 Writing instructions
Learning Objectives:
1. Define instructions
2. Prepare a set of instructions using standard formatting procedures
3. Use appropriate language, especially voice, when writing instructions
4. Understand the legal issues surrounding the writing of instructions

Introduction
Instructions are step by step guidelines/actions of how to do something. This is in
contrast to a process which describes how something happens or works. As with other
forms of technical writing, it is important to determine the purpose and the type of
audience that will need to use your instructions – who will perform these instructions?

What your instructions should contain

A. Definition of instructions
1. Legal issues
2. Organisation of the material
3. Notes, precautions, cautions, warnings, and danger
4. List of tools and materials
5. Use of the chronological order
6. Use of the command voice
B. Contents of a set of instructions: Guidelines
1. Does the instruction include a Title - the topic to be discussed?
2. Does the Title Page include a Graphic representing the topic?
3. Has an Introduction been included, explaining why the instruction will
be performed?
4. Have required Tools and/or Equipment been listed?
5. Has the writer provided Numbered Steps of the instructions?
6. Do the numbered steps begin with Action Verbs?
7. Is each step clearly developed with Specific Details?
8. Are Hazards (warnings, dangers, cautions, notes) provided?
9. Are Graphics used to help the readers understand the steps?
10. Is a Conclusion provided to sum up the instruction?

Formatting instructions
Instructions can be formatted in a variety of ways but they all contain the features addressed
above. Below are a few types of numbering systems or patterns that instructions can take:

• Arabic numbers/Letters - Arabic numbers are used for each section, and letters are
used for subsections.
• Digit-dot-digit Decimal System - Sections are numbered with successive Arabic
numbers, a dot and a zero (e.g. 1.0). Subsections will have the same number as their parent
section, and change the zero to successive numbers (e.g. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3). If subsections need
further division, more dots and numbers are added (e.g. 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3). This system is
clear, but can be hard to follow if the numbers are too long. Also, some users are confused if a
section has ten subsections. They may wonder if 1.1 is the same subsection as 1.10.

Format of your instructions should follow this format:

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 1. Title + graphic representing the instructions
2. Introduction – identify the procedure; what‘s the purpose indicate audience
requirements and what is needed. What is the expected output?
3. List the tools and equipment/tools required
4. Write the instructions and format for easy reading (e.g. numbered and beginning with
action verbs. Use simple tenses in the active voice.
5. Indicate cautions and warnings where required.
6. Conclude and add references for further reading and learning.

Example of a set of instructions

How to Record Official Minutes

Official minutes for any public body are vital to the overall success of the organization. If minutes are
not taken properly, vital records will be skewed, which can lead to serious legal problems if contested.
Following a series of simple but important steps can ensure the most accurate minutes are recorded.

Prior to the meeting, make sure you have the following items:
1. One notepad (the size you choose is up to you- whatever you feel comfortable with will
work best for you).
2. Two to three sharpened pencils with functioning erasers.
3. Minutes from the previous meeting.
4. An up-to-date agenda (make sure you check with the chair prior to the meeting to ensure
it‘s the most recent agenda- chairs are notorious for updating at the last minute).
5. Any necessary handouts for the body.
6. One bottle of water (it has been proven that a well-hydrated secretary functions more
accurately).
CAUTION: Make sure you keep the water bottle cap tightly sealed when not taking a drink. Spilling water on
any recorded minutes could prove disastrous.

Complete these steps in order; do not stray from the chronological list provided:

1. Choose a seat that is both close to the chairperson and is facing the audience. You need
to hear clearly from both directions.
2. Open the notepad to the first page and place a heading at the top of the page that identifies
the organization‘s name and the meeting date. You may want to circle the date to ensure
proper filing when you finalize the minutes.
3. Note the official time when the chair calls the meeting to order. Take a quick tally of the
number of members present. Do not worry if members arrive after the meeting has been
opened.
4. Create headings (following the agenda) for each topic to be discussed and then
summarize any main points introduced by the chair and the body. Identify each speaker
by name.
5. CAUTION: Do not try to record comments verbatim. This will only lead to disaster when
you find you cannot keep up with the spoken word.
6. Ask speakers to repeat comments if you feel they are worth recording. They will not mind
that you interrupt them to verify accurate minutes.
7. Capitalize the names of any members who make motions and the members who second
motions. If asked by the chair, count the number of yes and no votes for each motion. If not asked, then
simply identify whether the motion passes or fails. If a motion is passed unanimously, say so.
8. Note the official time when a member moves to adjourn. Note the person‘s name.
9. Transfer written notes to the word processor as quickly as possible following the meeting.
10. Submit the typed minutes to the body for consideration prior to the next meeting.

It is difficult to take minutes without error, but practice makes the process easier with time. Don‘t be
afraid to ask for help, but go into each meeting with confidence that you can do the job successfully.

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 3.7 Graphics and visuals
(Interpreting information form visual sources) Learning

Objectives:

1. interpret graphic data/information in prose

2. produce visual representations of data written in prose
3. use a variety of visual sources

Introduction
In technical writing, graphics or visuals are used for several reasons:
a. To increase reader comprehension
b. To provide reference material
c. To provide an easy comparison of numeric data
d. To provide numeric data summarised in the text
e. To add variety to a message

Types of graphics/visual Sources

1. Bar Graphs – used to show numeric differences visually, such as differences in
scores, performance or events
2. Line graphs – to show changes in values across time, or as influenced by another
value
3. Pie Charts – used only when showing values that add up to 100% of something
4. Flow charts – to show steps in a process or show logical progression.
5. Organisation charts – to show relationships
6. Tables – to show link between/among two sets of data. Data sets which may be
subdivided.
7. Diagram/Photographs – to show the various parts of a device; to indicate the
features of devices; to show what an object actually looks like
8. Maps, Photographs, Blueprints, Architectural Designs, etc.

What to consider
1. Don't put too much or too little information in a graphic. It must hold enough
information to be worth using, but not so much that it becomes confusing.
2. Graphics should have titles for two reasons: to explain what they are about, and
to act as a label so you can refer to them in the text.
3. Acknowledge the source of graphics you do not make yourself, as you should with
all elements from others.

Interpreting/describing data

Verbs Verbs Nouns Adjectives

Increased Decreased An increase Slight – for small changes
Rose Raised Fell Declined A rise A Gradual/steady – for regular movements
Dropped raise Sharp/dramatic/sudden – for big, sudden and
Reduced unexpected changes
A decrease
A fall
A decline A
drop
A reduction

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Using prepositions
Prepositions perform important grammatical functions when interpreting and describing
data/trends. The types of prepositions are time, duration, direction, and place. Some examples
of prepositions include from, to, during, between, at, of, and by.

Examples
1. From 2019 to 2021, imports rose
2. Between January and March, inflation decreased sharply
3. By 4:00pm, 90% of the stations are crowded
4. During the peak hours, the connection falls

Interpreting graphics/visuals requires one to understand two types of informational texts:

functional text and technical texts. Functional texts are identified through essays and scientific
articles (academic). They show how to use graphs or charts with legends or diagrams
depicting components of a larger whole. Functional graphics do not tell how to do something
but only what something means, that is, interpretation. Technical texts use schematics,
diagrams, flow charts, and images to show how pieces fit together. Technical graphics are
typically linear, have arrows and/or number steps in chronological order.

Interpretation requires the following steps:

1. Read the title of the graphic

2. Look at the legend which explains symbols and colours used
3. Read the labels of the graph or chart. These are the variables or param eters e.g. x-
axis = minutes, y-axis = temperature. In pie charts, percentages are displayed.
4. Draw conclusions
5. Read important numbers
a. Peak points, lows, turning points and intersection points
6. Actual interpretation
a. Define the trends
b. Compare the trends
c. Analyse the trends – look at the differences and relations. Is there a pattern
emerging?
d. Establish a hypothesis and show how data is related.
e. Predict a future development
Source: www.sciencing.com and www.explainwell.org

Academic writing will usually use graphs/charts to show quantitative data/information in visual
format.

Below is a framework that is useful in analysing a graph/chart.

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Source:https://www.education.v ic.gov .au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy /Pages/interpreting-graphs.aspx

Example of application of framework to analyse the graph/chart.

Source: Surveillance of notifiable infectious diseases in Victoria, 2011–2014

https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/Pages/interpreting-graphs.aspx

Example of analysis using the framework

This graph shows the number of notified cases of laboratory-confirmed cases of influenza in Victoria
from 2011 to 2014. Each year, there is a spike in confirmed cases, which begins in June and lasts until
October. This coincides with winter when people are more likely to be spending time indoors. The
number of infected cases during the winter spike has also increased each year. In 2011, the peak
number of infected cases was around 800 while in 2014, the peak number is just over 3000.

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 References
1. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/technicalwriting/chapter/technicaldescriptions/
2. Mills, G.H., & Walter, J.A. (1986). Technical Writing. New York: Holt Rinehart and
Winston. pp81 - 91.
3. Examples of Technical Writing Assignments. (n.d.). Retrieved May 3rd, 2013, from
http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples/examples-of-technical-writing-
assigments.html
4. Mills, G.H., & Walter, J.A. (1986). Technical Writing. New York: Holt Rinehart and
Winston. pp81 - 91.
5. Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com)
6. Other writing exercises: pp90-91, Technical Writing (1962)
7. (The Technological World, Chapter 12, pages 385 – 401)
https://mistertam.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/1/4/23148826/manufacturing_technical
_objects- ch_12.pdfhttps://mistertam.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/1/4/23148826/manufacturing
_technical_objects-ch_12.pdf(The Technological World, Chapter 12, pages 385 – 401)
https://mistertam.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/1/4/23148826/manufacturing_technical
_objects- ch_12.pdfhttps://mistertam.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/1/4/23148826/manufacturing
_technical_objects-ch_12.pdf
8. (https://www.slideshare.net/RichardAllenSantos/electric-fan-66979713)
9. https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-function-of-each-of-the-parts-of-an-electric- fan
10. http://www.admc.hct.ac.ae/hd1/english/process/index.htm
11. www.sciencing.com and www.explainwell.org
12. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/en
glish/literacy/Pages/interpreting-graphs.aspx
13. http://www.uefap.com/writing/function/process.htm)
14. https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-function-of-each-of-the-parts-of-an-electric- fan
https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/technicalwriting/chapter/technicaldescriptions/

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