RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOORS

In all there are five oceans on the earth. They are:

1. The Pacific Ocean

2. The Atlantic Ocean
3. The Indian Ocean
4. The Arctic Ocean
5. The Antarctic or Southern Ocean.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 1. THE PACIFIC OCEAN
1. Size and shape

This is the largest ocean of the world. It has an area of 155,557,000 (165,723,740 including
marginal seas) sq km which is about one third of the earth’s surface area. Thus, this vast
ocean has an area which exceeds the total land area of the world. It occupies as much as
46.4% of the total ocean area of the world. It stretches to over 16,000 km along the
equator. It is 14,880 km from Bering Strait in the north to Cape Adare of Antarctic continent
in the south Its shape is roughly triangular with its apex in the north at the Bering Strait
and its base at Antarctic continent. It is bounded on the west by the continents of Asia and
Australia along with a chain of intermediate islands, on the east by North and South
America and on the south by Antarctic. All along the coast for about 17,800 km, there are
folded mountains which run nearly parallel to the coast. In the north it is completely block
excepting a narrow Bering Sea passage into the Arctic Ocean. This is the deepest ocean
of the world and its average depth is 4,500-5,000 m. the 11,022 m deep Mariana Trench
is also located in this ocean. Only 3.9% of its area lies below 5,000 m excluding adjacent
seas. The maximum area of 37.7% lies between the depths of 4,000 to 5,000m.

2. Continental Shelf

Continental shelf of the Pacific Ocean is not large considering the vast size of the ocean.
The limited expanse of the continental shelf in this ocean may be due to the fact that the
coasts of this ocean are along the margins of the Pacific plate and location of mountain
ranges running almost parallel to the coast.

Continent shelf along the eastern coast differs widely from that along the western coast
with respect to extent, depth and characteristics. It is quite broad along the eastern coast
of Australia, East India and the Asian continent where its width varies from 160 km to
1,600 km and its depth varies from 100 m to 2,00 m.

There are several islands situated on this part of the continental shelf. The main islands
are the islands of the Asian Archipelago, such as Kuriles, Japanese islands, Philippine

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

islands, Indonesia islands and islands of New Zealand. Several inland seas such as the
Bering sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, the China sea, the
Java Sea and the Coral Sea are also located here. The continental self along the western
coast of the Americas is very narrow where its average width is 80 km only. This is
primarily due to the presence of folded mountains all along these coasts.

3. Islands

This vast ocean has about 20,000 big and small islands which is larger number than the
number of islands in any other ocean. However, their aggregate area is relatively small.
The larger islands are continental islands and are made up of rocks similar to those
of the continents. Structurally they belong to the continental mainlands. They have been
formed by submergence of the outer edges of the continents and represent relatively
higher portions which could not completely submerge in the sea. They are separated from
the mainland by the submerged landmasses. In the east are the Aleutians, the islands of
British Columbia and the Chilean islands, in the west are more extensive island arcs of
eastern Asia the Kuriles, the Japanese Archipelago, the Philippines, the Indonesian
islands and New Zealand.

Majority of the smaller islands are scattered in the south western part of the ocean.
They are grouped under the following names according to their groupings:

(i) Melanesia including Solomons, New Hebrides and Fiji.

(ii) Micronesia which includes Carolines, Marshalls, Gibert and Ellice.
(iii) Polynesia has Line Island, Cook, Society and Tuamolu islands.

About 500 islands make up the Fiji group of island just to the west of the international date
line. Viti Lever (1130 m) and Vaniura Levu (738 m) was derived from the melt of the
plunging plate.

The islands of Tonga (20ºs, 175ºw) are on the Indo Australian Plate. About 160 islands
with a total area of 700 sq km make up the group.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 In the northern Pacific, are located the Hawaiian Islands. These are volcanic
islands made up of five volcanoes belonging to different ages. Here Mauna Kea and
Mauna Loa conical peaks rise to 4213 m and 4168 m respectively.

Most of the north eastern and eastern parts of the Pacific consists of empty stretches with
a few isolated island groups Chipperton, 2,400 km of the Central American coast,
Galalpagos Archipelago about 1,000 km west of Ecuador, Easter Island formed by three
extinct volcanoes rising from the Albatross Plateau and Juan Fernandez, 580 km off the
Chilean coast.

4. Ridge

The Pacific Ocean is different from the two other major oceans, i.e. the Atlantic Ocean and
the Indian ocean in the sense that it has no central ridge. There are only a few scattered
ridges having local importance. They are mostly on the eastern margin of the ocean. In
the middle of this ocean there are a few submarine swells. The most important is 1600 km
wide East Pacific ridge or Albatross plateau (3000-4000 deep) which extends from north
of New Zealand to the coast of California. Its north eastern part is known as Cocoa ridge.
It is the bifurcated at 2ºS latitude. The eastern part is a narrow ridge which is known as
San Felix Juan Fernandez ridge. This is less than 2,000 m deep and runs parallel to the
Chilean coast. The western ridge stretches southward and forms a wide plateau between
20ºS and 40ºS latitudes. Here it is 2,000 to 4,000 m deep and is known as South Eastern
Plateau. South of 40ºS latitude, it narrows down and forms a curved ridge. Here it is 3,000
m deep and is known as Pacific Antarctic ridge.

In the Central Pacific, there is Hawaiian Swell which is 1,000 km wide and 3,100 km long.
This 2,000 m deep swell extends in north west to south east direction between 37ºN 17ºN
latitudes. This ridge is famous for Hawaii and Honolulu islands. The Marcus Necker rise
is another ridge in this region. It is 3,000 m deep extends on 20ºN from 150ºW longitude
upto the Hawaiian rise.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

5. Basins

Several basins of different shapes and sizes are found in the Pacific Ocean. These basins
are separated form one another by numerous swells, rises and ridges. Following are the
important basins of this ocean.

(i) Aleutian basin, Situated in the north of the Aleutian Islands, this basins is 4,000 m
deep.
(ii) Philippine basin. Situated in the east of Philippines, this basin extends from south
of Japan upto 5ºN latitude. Kyushu Plain Ridge runs through the middle of the
basin. Its depth varies from 5,000 to 6,000 m. the western part of the basin is
comparatively deeper where the depth exceeds 6,000 m.
(iii) West Caroline basin. It is a circular basin located in the east of the Philippine
basin. It is 4,000-5,000 m deep.
(iv) East Carolina basin. This basin is also about 5,000 m deep. It is separated from
the West Carolina basin by the Earripik New Guinea rise.
(v) Fiji basin. Located in the south of Fiji island, this basin extends from 10ºS to 32ºS
latitude. This 4,000 m deep basin is divided into two parts. The Northern Fiji basin
is in the north of 20ºS latitude, whereas, South Fiji basin is between 20ºS and 32ºS
latitudes. They are separated from each other by a rise.
(vi) East Australian basin. This 4,000m deep compact and circular basin extends from
the east coast of Australia and the Lord Howe Rise between Australia and New
Zealand. Its northern part is deeper and often reaches 5,000 m depth.
(vii) South Australian basin. Also known as jeffery’s basin, it is located to the south
east of Australia. It is a longitudinal basin which is about 5,000 m deep.
(viii) South Western Pacific basin. It is 6,000 m deep elongated basin which stretches
between 20ºS and 60ºS latitudes and 180ºW and 120ºW longitudes. The 10,047 m
deep Karmadec Trends lies in the west of this basin.
(ix) South Eastern Pacific Basin. Also known as Peru basin, this 5,000 m deep and
broad basin is located to the west of Peru and Chile coast between 5ºS and 24ºs
latitudes and extends upto 110ºN longitude.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 (x) Pacific Antarctic basin. It is located to the south west of the Chilean coast
between 40ºS and 60ºS latitudes and extends upto 130ºW longitude.

6. Ocean Deeps and Trenches

The most characteristic feature of the margins of the Pacific Ocean are the elongated
‘deep’ lying close and parallel to the island arcs. Some of the deeps are long and narrow,
hence the usage of the description ‘trenches’. These depression represent the deepest
parts of the pacific, indeed of any ocean. This ocean has the distinction of possessing
largest number of 32 (56%) deep and trenches out of a total of 57 deeps discovered al
over the world till now. Most of the deeps are located in the western part of the ocean.
Following are some of the important deeps and trenches found in the Pacific Ocean.

(i) Aleutian trench. Bordering the Aleutian islands from the south, it is an arc like
depression whose average depth is 6,000 m. The maximum depth recorded so far in
this trench is 7,782 m.
(ii) Kuril trench and Japan trench. This 8,000 m deep trench runs parallel to the
Japanese islands for a distance of 2,725 km between 28ºN and 50ºN latitudes. It is
very near to the east coast of Japan and rarely more than 150 km away from the land.
It has two important deeps namely Vityez deep and Ramopo deep.
(iii) Philippine trench. It runs in a north south direction along the cast coast of
Philippines. The Cape Johnson deep off the island of Mindanao in this trench is
10,497 m deep which is the greatest depth here.
(iv) Mariana trench. In the east of the Mariana island is the Mariana trench which is also
known as Nero deep. Its average depth is more than 9,000m. the greates depth of
11,022 m yet discovered was recorded by the Russian ship Vityaz in 1959 in the
Mariana trench off the island of Guam.
(v) Tonga Kermadec trench. It is a trough like depression which runs in a north east to
south west direction in the east of Tonga and Karmadec islands. Here the average
depth is more than 8,000 m. The Aldrich deep in this trench is about 9,427 m deep.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

(vi) Peru Chile trench. It runs in a series of broken trenches along the coast of Peru and
Chile in South America. Also known as Atacama trench is has Bartholomew deep
which is over 7,974 n deep.
(vii) Ryuku deep. It runs parallel to the Ryuku Archipelago and is about 6,395m deep.
(viii) Brook deep. It lies in the east of Nero deep and is about 6,000m deep.

In addition to the above mentioned important deeps some other deeps are Bailey deep
Planet deep, Middle American Yap Palau, Solomon, New Hebbrides, etc.

7. Marginal Seas

Marginal seas in the Pacific Ocean are almost entirely confined to the western side, On
the eastern side, there are longitudinal coasts of North America and South America which
do not favour the formation of marginal seas. Thus, there is general absence of marginal
seas on the eastern side of this ocean and only partially enclosed water areas are present
there. Shallow Gulf of California and coastal seas near British Columbia and Chile are
examples of such seas.

In the western part of the ocean, semi enclosed seas lie between the Asiatic
mainland and the island festoons. These comprise the Bering Sea, enclosed by the
Aleutian Island; the Sea of Okhotsk within the Kamchatka Peninsula; the Sea of Japan
between the Japanese Archipelago and Korea; the Yellow Sea between the Chinese
mainland and Korea; the East China Sea between China and the line of the Ryuku Islands;
and the South China Sea enclosed by the Philippines. Borneo, Malaya, Indo China and
Southern China. Among the Indonesian islands lie the Celebes, Banda and other seas.
None of these seas, except the Yellow Sea, which is mostly under 180m , is a shallow
sea, and most of the seas have deep basins with depths exceeding 2,700 m. Sea of Japan
has a maximum depth of 3,576 m while 5,112 m depth has been recorded in the Celebes
Sea. At the continental shelf of Australia, there are Gulf of Carpentaria, the Arafura Sea
and the Bass Strait.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 2. THE ATLANTIC OCEAN

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

1. Introduction

Of all the oceans of the world, the Atlantic Ocean is the most extensively explored and
studied ocean because its northern part is surrounded by two most advanced continents
of the world, I.e., Europe in the east and North America in the west. America in the west.
As such, we have more accurate and detailed information regarding the morphology,
ecology and resources of this great ocean basin. The total area of this ocean without its
marginal seas, is 76,762,000 sq km which accounts for about one sixth of the total area
of the world or 22.9 per cent of all oceans thus, this ocean is about half the size of the
Pacific Ocean. The southern part of this ocean has the continent of Africa on the east and
South America on the west.

This ocean has a unique outline in the form of the English alphabet ‘S’ which
indicates that the continents on either side of the ocean were once a part of a single land
mass. According to the latest plate tectonic theory, this ocean has come into being due to
westward drift of North and South America. That the continents were parts of a single
super continent, is amply proved by the fact that the coast of Saharan Africa bulges
westward and the north coast of South America recedes into the Caribbean embayment
conversely, while Cape Sao Roque projects eastward, so does the Gulf of Guinea recede
in the same direction. This ocean has widened considerably since its birth about 700
million years ago and the process of its widening is still continuing at the rate of about 4
cm per year which is evidenced through seafloor spreading.

The Atlantic ocean extends from Greenland in the north to the Antarctic ocean in
the south. Its width is different at different latitudes. Its maximum width of 5,920 km is at
35ºS latitude. It narrows towards the equator and is only 2,600 km wide between the
Liberian coast of Africa and Cape Sao Roque. It again widens in the north and becomes
4,800km wide at 40ºN latitude. Finally it closes down in the form of narrow days and straits
due to the present of Greenland and Iceland, However, it is able to maintain its contact
with the Arctic Ocean through Norwegian Sea, Denmark Strait and Davis Bay. In the south,
it opens broadly into the Southern Ocean.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 The average depth of the Atlantic Ocean is 4,000m which is much less as
compared to that of the Pacific Ocean. This is due the presence of extensive continental
shelf and marginal as well as enclosed seas. About one fourth of the Atlantic ocean is less
than one thousand metres deep.

2. Continental Shelf

The Atlantic ocean has more extensive continental shelf than any other ocean of the world.
As much as 13.3% of the floor area of this ocean is covered by continental shelf in
comparison to 5.7% of the Pacific Ocean and only 4.2% of the Indian Ocean. It can be
found almost all along the coasts of this ocean. But its width varies from place to place. At
some places, it is more than 80 km wide whereas at some other places it is as little as 2-
4 km. the width of continental shelf depends upon the relief of the coastal lands. It is narrow
where mountains approach the shores. For example continental shelf is narrow off the
coasts of Africa from the Bay of Biscay to the Cape of Good Hope, and off the Brazilian
coast between 5º and 10º S latitudes. The shelves become wider along the north eastern
coast of North America and the northwestern coast of Europe where at certain places it is
200-400 km wide. Along the northern shore of Europe, it is wider than the average width.
North of Cape Hatteras the shelf is 400 km wide. Some of the world’s widest continental
shelves are found around Newfoundland and British Islands. Wide continental shelves are
found around Greenland and Iceland also. In the South Atlantic, the shelf widens itself
south of Bahia Blanca. Further south, it extends eastward and then southward towards
the Antarctic continent where Graham peninsula continental shelf extends northward and
meets it. This broad shelf is known as Pategonian shelf in which Falkland and South
Shetland islands are located.

3. Mid Atlantic Ridge

This is by far the most striking bottom relief feature of the Atlantic Ocean. It was first
discovered by Challenger in 1873. The German oceanographic vessel ‘Meteor’ crossed
and recrossed the Atlantic Ocean in 1925-27 and prepared a detailed map using
echosounding. Atlantis vessel of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution studied it in
greater details and made a special study near the Azores island. In 1953, the Vema ship

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

of the U.S.A. made a detailed study of the Mid Atlantic Ridge along with other aspects of
this ocean.

From Iceland in the north to Bouvet Island in the south, this oceanic ridge is about
14,500 km long. This long ridge wings east and west of the central position, and maintains
its central position with respect to the eastern and western coasts of the ocean as whole.
It divides the Atlantic ocean into two major basins, one toward in the east and the other
toward the west of this ridge. The ridge system is about 1,600 km wide and occupies about
30 per cent of the entire Atlantic Ocean Area. This ridge never goes down more than
4,000m below sea level.

Starting from the south of Iceland, this ridge turns south and south west and is
known as Rayukjavik Ridge. Between Iceland and Scotland, it is known as Wyville
Thompson ridge. Here it forms the boundary between the Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean.
The depth of the ridge is only 1,100m. South of Greenland and Iceland, it widens near
55ºN latitude. Here it is known as Telegraphic Plateau because it is in this area that
world’s first cables were laid. The depth of water in this area varies from 2,000 m to 3,000
m. An important branch takes off from the central ridge near 50ºN latitude and extends
north eastward as Newfoundland Rise and continues upto the coast of Newfoundland. It
is nearly 3,000 m deep Another important branch bifurcates from the central Atlantic Ridge
to the south of 40º N latitude. This branch extends uptp Azores Islands and is known as
Azpores Rise. Further south, the central ridge becomes narrow. Near the equator, it sends
off two branches, one moves in the north east direction in the name of Sierra Leone Rise
and the other goes in the north west direction where it is known as Para Rise. The two not
so important branches are about 4,000 m deep. South of 12ºN latitudes, this ridge turns
sharply eastward following the bulge of Africa. Near the equator, 4,152 fathom deep
Romanche deep divides the main ridge into two parts. Its northern part is called Dolphin
Rise while its southern part is known as Challenger Rise.

After crossing the equator, it turns southward and at about 10ºS latitude, Guinea
rise is thorn off in the north east direction which reaches upto the Guinea coast. This is
about 3,000 m deep. At about 40ºS latitude, the central ridge attains its maximum breadth.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

Here, Walvis Ridge is thrown off towards the north east and it ultimately merges with the
African continental shelf. The depth of this ridge varies from 2,000 to 3,000 m. Another
ridge named as Rio Grande rise takes off in the north west direction towards the coast of
South America and extends upto 30ºS latitude. South of the 40ºS latitude, this ridge moves
in a south east direction and near 45ºS latitude it forms Meteor and Cape Swell. After 51ºS
latitude it turns in a south east direction towards the Cape of Good Hope and is know as
Atlantic Antarctic ridge.

Although most part of the Mid Atlantic Ridge remains submerged under oceanic
water yet at several places individual peaks of this system rise above the sea level to form
islands. This is because there is a continuous injection of magma from below along the
spreading plates and the ridge rises high above the sea floor. On an average, the ridges
are elevated about 2.4 km above the normal level of the floor. The peaks which rise above
the sea level and form islands are, from north to south, Iceland, the Azores, Ascension,
Saint Helena, Tristan da Cunha, and the Bouvet islands. The nine islands that make up
the Azores group rise about 5 km from the ocean floor. Pico, the highest peak of the Azores
islands rises about 8,230 m above the sea floor and 213 to 244 m above the sea level.

In addition to the above mentioned islands, this ridge is also well known for its
several well marked fracture zones. The major fracture zones are Gibbs Fracture Zone
(near 40ºN), Atlantic Fracture Zone (near 30ºN), Kane Fracture Zone (25ºN). Vema
Fracture Zone (10ºN) and Romanche Fracture Zone (near the equator).

The portion of the Mid Atlantic Ocean that has received the greatest attention in
the recent past is the deep rift valley known as Cleft or graben. The rift valley is about
25to 50 km wide and lies about 2,000 m below the adjacent peaks. The rift valley is the
result of plate tectonics and almost bisects the ridge. There is good system, which means
that there is a double mountain chain with a rift valley between the ridges.

Origin of the Mid Atlantic Ridge

Several authors have studied the Mid Atlantic Ridge and have tried to explain its origin.
Haug, Washington, Praje, et al., believe that this ridge has come into being due to

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

compression whereas Wegener and Windhausen feel that it is a part of the super
continent and was formed when Americas drifted westward. Gregory thought that it is the
portion of the Atlantic continent which suffered fracture and then sank. Several ideas
concerning compression and tension were proposed at a later stage. These ideas were
opposed to each other and added to the already existing confusion. Ideas propagated
before 1960s were discarded with the advent of plate tectonic theory. According to this
theory, the Mid Atlantic Ridge like other oceanic ridges, has been formed due to
divergence of the tectonic plates. In this case the American plate in the west moves
westward and the Eurasian African plate moves eastward. The ridge represents the zone
of divergent or constructive plate margins. As the plates undergo divergence, the basaltic
lava rises up in the zone of divergence and gets solidified. It slides equally on both sides
of the ridge before its solidification. This process is evidenced by the presence of transform
faults or fracture zones mentioned above.

As mentioned earlier, a large crack called rift, runs the length of the ridge in its
centre. Measurements made during the 1950s indicate that hot lava or molten rock is rising
from the mantle and forcing its way to the surfacr of the sea floor through the rift in the Mid
Atlantic Ridge. To accommodate the new material, the older lithosphere on either side
moves away from the rift. The fact that the plates are growing and spreading as new rock
material is added to them at the rift was confirmed by assessing the ages of the rocks on
the sea floor.

The rocks which make the floor of the Atlantic Ocean are very young in the
neighbourhood of the Mid Atlantic Ridge. They become progressively older as the distance
from the ridge increases. The oldest rocks are found close the continental boundaries.
The youngest crust at the crest of the Mid Atlantic Ridge is 0-5 million years old while the
oldest near the continental boundaries are 157-178 million years old.

4. Basins

The Mid Atlantic Ridge divides the Atlantic Ocean into two major basins, one on the
eastern side and other on the western side of the ridge. These are known as East and
West Atlantic Basins respectively and are further divide into several sub basins. According

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

to Wust, 4,000 m isobaths is used as boundary of the basins. Some of the important basins
are described as under:

(i) Labrador Basin. It extends from the continental shelf of Greenland in the north and
Newfoundland Rise in the south between 40ºN and 50ºN latitudes. The depth of
this basin varies from 4,000 to 4,500m.
(ii) North East Atlantic Basin. Also known as West European Basin or Spanish basin,
it is an elongated basin which stretches in a north east to south west direction
between the Mid Atlantic Ridge and the Iberian Peninsula. It is known as the Iberian
basin near the Iberian Peninsula which is bordered by Azore Rise in the south and
extends from 38º to 50ºN latitudes. This basin is deeper in its southern portion
where it is more than 5,000 m deep.
(iii) North Western Atlantic Basin or North American Basin. It is perhaps the most
extensive basin of the North Atlantic Ocean. It extends between 12ºN and 40ºN
latitudes and from the continental shelf of North America to 50ºW longitude. The
depth of this basin on the whole is more than 5,000 m. However, at certain places
it is more than 6,000 m deep. For example Nares deep is about 7,000 m deep.
(iv) Cape Verde Basin. It is located between the Mid Atlantic Ridge and West African
coast and extends from 10ºN to 30ºN latitudes. The depth of this basin is 5,000m
to 7,000 m but some parts near 12ºN and 18ºN latitudes reach grater depths.
(v) Brazilian Basin. This extends from equator to 30ºS latitude and its east west
extension is from the Mid Atlantic Ridge and the Brazilian coast. The depth of this
basin varies from 4,000 m to 6,000 m.
(vi) Guinea Basin. It runs in a north west to south east direction along the Guinea
coast of Africa and lies between Sierra Leone and Guinea ridge. It is in the form of
separated basins along the coast between 5,000 and 7,000 m depth. The northern
basin is called Sierra Leone Basin and the southern basin is known as Guinea
Basin.
(vii) South Eastern Atlantic Basin. As its name suggests, it lies in the south eastern
part of the Atlantic ocean. Running in the north east to south west direction, this to

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 basin extends from Guinea Rise to Walvis ridge. At certain places it is more than
6,700 m deep.
(viii) Argentina Basin. This is a circular basin which lies along the coast of Argentina
and is bounded by Scotia ridge in the south. Its latitudinal extent is from 35ºS to
50ºS. the average depth is more than 5,000 m. its southern part is deeper than its
northern part where depth over 7,000 m are common.
(ix) Agulhas Basin. Lying is the south of Cape of Good Hope, this basin is broader
between 60º and 50ºS latitudes.
(x) Atlantic Indian Antarctic Basin. As its name indicates, this basin is associated
with three different oceans i.e., Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean and Antarctic Ocean.
This basin of irregular slope continuously stretches for a long distance along 60ºS
latitude.

5. Deeps and Trenches

Deeps and trenches are uncommon in the Atlantic Ocean because lines of recent folding
near the Atlantic coast are rare. Moreover, slope of the ocean floor is not much steep on
both sides of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which is not suitable for forming deeps. J. Murray
discovered 57 deep out of which 32 deeps are in the Pacific Ocean and only 19 deeps are
found in the Atlantic Ocean. Significantly, the chief deeps lie off the island arcs of the West
Indies. A depth of 9,219 m has been sounded immediately north of Puerto Rico Island,
which happens to be the greatest depth sounded in this ocean so far. Romanche deep
(7,594 m) at the equator divides the Mid Atlantic Ridge in two parts. The other important
deeps are Nares Deep (8,995 m) in the middle of the American basin, South Sandwich
Trench (8,312 m) parallel and close to South Sandwich Islands, Hatteras Deep (5,445 m),
Columbia Deep (5,125 m), south of Haiti, Valadivia Deep (5,641 m), Buchanan Deep
(5,464 m), Vema Deep (4,900 m).

6. Islands
Islands of different varieties are found in the Atlantic Ocean. Majority of islands exist either
on the continental shelves or on the Mid Atlantic Ridge. In the North Atlantic Ocean, two

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

world renowned islands are the British Isles near the west European Coast and
Newfoundland are located on the continental shelves of east and west Atlantic Ocean
respectively. The West Indies consists of a series of islands arcs not far from the
mainland, Iceland and Faeroes islands represent the elevated parts of the submarine
ridge between Greenland and Scotland. Similarly, the island groups in the extreme south
(the Falklands, South Orkneys, South Sheltlands, Georgia and Sandwich islands) are
higher parts of complicated ridges and plateaus which extend between the tip of South
America and the Grahamland Peninsula of Antarctica. Some Islands of the Mid Atlantic
Ridge have already been discuss. The tiny island of Trinidad is to the west of the ridge at
20ºS latitude. The coral islands of the Bermudas are built on submerged volcanic cones
in the north western Atlantic Basin. Madeira, off the Moroccan coast, consists almost
entirely of volcanic material, the peak being Pico Ruivo (1,846 m). Majority of the other
islands risefrom plateau like extension from the mainland, notably the Canaries, the Cape
Verda Islands and several small islands in the Gulf of Guinea.
7. Marginal Seas

In the South Atlantic ocean, marginal seas are almost absent due to absence of the
continental shelf. On the other hand, there are vast submerged continental margins of
Europe, giving this continent the distinction of ‘peninsula of peninsulas. This has resulted
in a number of extensive marginal seas, the Baltic Sea, the North Sea and the
Mediterranean Sea, with their several subsidiaries. The first two i.e,. the Baltic Sea and
North Sea are located on the continental shelf and the passages between the Danish
islands into the Baltic are only 20 m deep. The maximum depth sounded here does not
exceed 350 m.

The Mediterranean Sea, with the serval basins, interrupted by peninsulas and islands
extends in an east west direction from the coasts Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey in the east
to the Strait of Gibraltar in the west. It represents the foundering of the complicated
structural area which is a part of the Alpine folded system. The Strait of Gibraltar which
connects this sea to main Atlantic Ocean is only 360 m deep. This submarine sill slopes
steeply on either side. The sea is divided into western and eastern parts by a ridge

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

(1,800m deep) running from South Italy to African coast. The western Mediterranean is
subdivided by another ridge (less than 1,800 m deep) which runs in north south direction
from the Italian coast to Tunisia. Corsica a dnSardinia islands rise above the sea level on
this ridge. In the west of this ridge is the Algiers Provencal basin while in the east is
Tyrrhenian basin. The eastern Mediterranean is divided into two major depressions by
2,700m isobath. The western basin is known as the Ionian basin while the eastern basin
is called Levantine basin. The Mediterranean basin has some areas exceeding 3,600 m
and the deepest sounding is between Crete and Greece. The continental shelf of the
Mediterranean sea is 80-250 km broad along eastern Spain, West Italy, West Greece,
north east of Tunisia and Libya.

Adriatic Sea laying between Italy and Greece is a good example of formation of deep
marginal seas. It consists of a narrow and somewhat elongated depression lying roughly
between parallel folds of Italian Apennines in the west and Dinaric Alps in theeast.

The Black Sea in which deepest sounding of 2,244 m as been recorded, is separated
from the Mediterranean Sea by narrow straits of Bospoorus 40 m), Cardanelles (70 m)
and Sea of Marmora. This sea has broad shelf along the coast of Ukraine which narrows
down in south and east.

Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. In the western part of North Atlantic Ocean, there
is a vast ocean area encircled by the coasts of North America and South America which
comprises of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. This encircled portion is separated
by a ridge 1,600 m deep between Yucatan Peninsula and Cuba. Caribbean Sea is deeper
than Gulf of Mexico. Within the Gulf of Mexico 3,804 m is the maximum sounding, while
the Caribbean Sea consists of a complicated series of basins and ridges, including Barlett
Deep, where 7,200 m depth has been measured. Slocks (1938) chartered the depth of the
region showing 200-1000 m deep shelf in south of Florida, north of Yucatan around
Bahamas and Honduras and along the east coast of Mexico. Mexico basin and Caribbean
basin are two important basins found in this region. Mexico basin has a total area of about
1.6 million sq km and is 2000-4000m deep Caribbean basin has a total area of about two
million sq km and is divided into four sub-basins. These sub divisions are: (i) Yucatan

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

basin (4000m deep), (ii) Cayman trough (2000m deep), (iii) Columbia basin in Eastern
Caribbean Sea (2000m deep) and (iv) Venezuela basin in north of Venezuela (4000m
deep).

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 3. THE INDIAN OCEAN

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

1. Size and Shape
Although the Indian Ocean is much smaller in size than the Pacific and the Atlantic
Oceans, yet it is of immense importance for us because it is located in the south of
India. This is the only ocean in the world to be named after the name of a country,
i.e., Indian Ocean after India. Its total area excluding marginal seas is 68,556,000
which increases to 73,425,500 sq km when marginal seas are also included. In a
way, it is just half an ocean because it does not open out northwards in the Arctic
Ocean. It is bounded by South Asia in the north, Indonesian islands and Australia
in the East and by Africa in the west. In the south, it extends to the Antarctic
continent from where it merges with the Atlantic and Pacific, Tropic of Cancer forms
its northern most limit.
The average depth of ocean is 4000m which is much less than that of the other two
major oceans, i.e., the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. Also the regional
variations in depth are less than that of the other oceans. Major parts of the coast
are made up of hard block mountains of Gondawanaland and are compact and
solid. But coasts of the East Indies are bordered by fold mountain chains.
Based on the regional characteristics, Johnson divided the Indian Ocean into three
distinct zones. (i) the Western zone between the African coast and the Mid Indian
Oceanic Ridge with average depth of 3,650 m having a few islands e.g. Seychelles
and Madagascar, (ii) The Eastern Zone is the deepest of all zones where average
depth is 5,500 m and some areas are over 6,000m deep. Here the continental shelf
is narrow but has steep slopes and areas deeper than 7000m are found along East
Indies. (iii) The Central Zone represents the mid-oceanic ridge where depth is less
than 4,000m. several tiny islands are located in this zone.

2. Continental Shelf
Width of the continental shelf of the Indian Ocean varies widely from one area to
another. The shelf is quite wide and extensive along the margins of Arabian Sea

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 and Bay of Bengal where its width is about 650 km. It is moderately wide along the
eastern coast of Africa but widens considerably around the Madagascar island
which itself stands on deep shelf projected from the African continent. It is very
narrow along the coasts of Java and Sumatra (Indonesia) and west coast of
Australia. It narrows down to about 160km in these areas. It becomes further narrow
along the northern coast of Australia.

3. Mid Ocean Ridge and Other Ridges

There are a number of broad submarine ridges on the floor of Indian Ocean. The
most important is the Mid Ocean Ridge which runs from Kanniyakumari
continuously southward to Antarctica. It is situated in the middle and divides the
ocean into two basin on either side. It is called the Lakshdweep – Chagos Ridge in
the north, the St. Paul Ridge in the middle and the Amsterdam St. Paul Plateau in
the south, where it widens out considerably.
The central ridge is bifurcated into many small ridges which reach the coasts of
Africa and India. Two minor and parallel ridges run north-westward. These are
known as the Socotra-Chagos Ridge and the Seychelles Ridge.
Another ridge, known as the south Madagascar Ridge, runs southward from the
Madagascar Island. It widens in the south, where it is called the Prince Edward
Crozet Ridge. In the Bay of Bengal, another ridge called the Andaman Nicobar
extends from the mouth of the Ayeyarwadi (Irrawaddy) to the Nicobar Islands.
Beyond this towards the south, a very important ridge runs along the 90 degree E
longitude and is known as Ninety East Ridge. The Carlsberg Ridge has been
discovered by recent surveys and it divides the Arabian Sea into two parts.

4. Ocean Basins
The above mentioned ridges have divided this ocean into several ocean basins
which are 4000-6000m deep. Some of the important basins are:
(i) Oman Basin. It is found near the Gulf of Oman. This 4,000m deep basin
spreads over extensive continental shelf of Asia.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

(ii) Arabian Basin. This circular shaped depression is situated between
Laccadive-Chagos ridge in the east and Socotra-Chago ridge in the west. It
extends up to 5 degree S latitude in the form of a southward narrow
extension of the basin along Socotra Chago ridge where the depth is 2000-
4000m.
(iii) Somali Basin. Surrounded by Socotra-Chago Ridge in the north-east
Central ridge in the east and by Scychelles-Mauritius Ridge in the south-
west, this basin lies off the coast of Somali Republic in East Africa. It is more
than 4000m deep and is connected with Mauritius basin in the south. It is
much deeper along the African coast where its depth varies from 5000m to
6000m.
(iv) Mauritius Basin. It is also known as South-Eastern Madagascar Basin as it
lies in the south-east of Madagascar Island. This longitudinal basin lies
between Madagascar ridge in the west and Mid Indian Rise in the east and
extends from 20 degree S to 45 degree S latitudes. This basin has uniform
depth of about 6000m. the deepest part measures 6391m depth.
(v) Natal Basin. It lies in the south-west of Madagascar Island and is bounded
by South Madagascar Ridge in north-east. To its west is the coast off South
Africa. This basin is more than 4000m deep.
(vi) Agulhas Basin. It is an extension of Agulhas Basin in the Atlantic Ocean
and is separated from the Natal Basin by Cape Rise in the Indian Ocean. Its
eastern boundary is demarcated by Prince Edward Crozet Ridge. Most parts
of this basin are about 6000m deep.
(vii) Atlantic-Indian-Antarctic Basin. Like Agulhas basin, this basin is also an
extension of the Atlantic Ocean and lies in the north of Antarctic continent. It
stretches up to 70 degree E longitude and is bordered by Prince Edward
Crozet Ridge in the north. Its average depth is 3600m along some areas are
more than 5000m deep.
(viii) Andaman Basin. It lies in the east of the Andaman Rise in Bay of Bengal.
It is small in size and is a shallow basin of 2000m depth only.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 (ix) Cocos Keeling Basin. Also known as the Indo-Australian Basin or West
Australian Basin, this is the largest and most extensive basin of Indian
Ocean. This more or less rectangular basin is surrounded by S.E. Indian
Ridge in the South-West, Ninety Degree East Ridge in the west, Sunda
Trench in the north-east and continental shelf of West Australia in the east.
This vast basin extends from 10 degree N to 5 degree S latitudes. Its
average depth 3600m to 6100m but its central part is 6459m deep. It is
comparatively deeper in areas near Sunda Trench and west of Australia
between 26 degree and 40 degree S.
(x) Eastern Indian-Antarctic Basin. This basin is bounded by Amsterdam –
St. Paul Plateau and Indian Antarctic Ridge in the north and north-east and
Antarctic continental shelf in the south. Keruguelen-Gaussberg Ridge in the
west separates this basin from the Atlantic-Indian-Antarctic Basin. The major
part of this basin lies between 50 degree and 60 degree S latitudes. The
depth of this basin varies from 3600m to 4800m.

5. Deeps and Trenches

About 58.8 % of the total area of this ocean is covered by deep sea plains with
depth ranging from 4000m to 6000m and very few trenches are found in this ocean.
The major deep sea plains are Somali Abyssal Plain, Sri Lanka Abyssal Plain, and
Indian Abyssal Plain, etc. The only trenches worth mentioning are Java or Sunda
Trench (7450m deep), Ob Trench (6875m deep), Mauritius Trench, Amivante
Trench, etc.

6. Islands
Islands of the Indian Ocean are of varied types and they owe their origin to different
geological and geographical reasons. Malagasy (Madagascar) and Sri Lanka are
big islands whereas Socotra, Zanzibar and Comaro, Reunion, Seychelles, Prince
Edwards, Crozet, Kerguelen, St. Paul, Rodridges, Maldives, Laccadive, Andaman-
Nicobar, Christmas, etc. are small and tiny islands. Andaman-Nicobar islands have

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat

 been formed by submergence of folded mountains; Laccadives and Maldives are
located on submarine ridge, and other small islands are rising from plateau such
as Kerguelen and the volcanic cones such as Mauritius and Reunion islands

7. Marginal Seas
This ocean does not have as many marginal seas as are possessed by other two
big oceans viz. the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. The lack of marginal seas
is due to the nature of its coasts which have been formed by old plateaus which
were once parts of a huge continent called Gondwanaland. Some of the important
seas are Mozambique Channel, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Andaman Sea, Arabian
Sea and Bay of Bengal.

Geography by Rushikesh Dudhat