sustainability

Article
Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Traffic Flow in Rural and
Urban Areas Using a Traffic Flow Simulator
Makoto Fujiu 1, * , Yuma Morisaki 1 and Jyunich Takayama 2

1 Faculty of Transdisciplinary Sciences for Innovation, Institute of Transdisciplinary Sciences for Innovation,
Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; [email protected]
2 Graduate School of Sustainable Systems Science, Komatsu University, Komatsu 923-8511, Japan;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +81-76-234-4914

Abstract: Autonomous vehicles have the potential to significantly improve modes of transportation,
and many businesses and research facilities are developing such systems. Although there are studies
on the social implementation of autonomous vehicles, these studies are based on limited conditions
such as predetermined driving environments. Therefore, in this study, we target urban areas and
rural areas, and we simulate a behavioral algorithm for autonomous vehicles being developed
and owned by Kanazawa University. In this study, a traffic flow simulation system (Aimsun) was
constructed to reproduce the current situation of traffic flow in the city during normal times, using
data from a person-trip survey conducted by the local government. In addition, we varied the mixing
rate of automated vehicles and evaluated its effect on the delay time between ODs. We assume
the gradual replacement of existing vehicles by autonomous vehicles on actual road networks and
for realistic traffic volumes, and we investigate their impact on traffic flow. We vary the mixing
rate of autonomous vehicles into actual traffic environments, and we measure the delay in the
origin-destination (OD) interval to evaluate the impact of autonomous vehicles on traffic flow. The
results obtained show that as the mixing rate of autonomous vehicles increases, the delay between
OD intervals increases. Then, once the mixing rate exceeds a certain value, the delay between OD
intervals gradually decreased. The delay time for all vehicles slightly increases as the mixing rate of
autonomous vehicles increased from 10 to 45%. When the mixing rate increased from 45 to 50%, the
delay time for all vehicles decreased notably, and when the mixing rate was 50 to 100%, it remained
Citation: Fujiu, M.; Morisaki, Y.; constant. Analytical results showed that when socially implementing autonomous vehicles, their
Takayama, J. Impact of Autonomous
mixing rate impacts the traffic flow; thus, there is a need to determine appropriate distribution
Vehicles on Traffic Flow in Rural and
scenarios and areas for implementation.
Urban Areas Using a Traffic Flow
Simulator. Sustainability 2024, 16, 658.
Keywords: autonomous vehicle; traffic flow; simulation; impact analysis
https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020658

Academic Editor: Elżbieta Macioszek

Received: 17 June 2023

Revised: 9 January 2024
1. Introduction
Accepted: 10 January 2024 In recent years, autonomous vehicles have attracted attention as a transportation
Published: 11 January 2024 mode that will significantly affect vehicular traffic [1]. From a mechanical engineering
perspective, autonomous vehicles are being actively developed [1–5]. However, the
social implementation of autonomous vehicles is significant as it is a transportation
system that has the potential to have a major impact on existing traffic systems [6,7].
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. The research into and the development of autonomous vehicles is summarized based
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
on details [8,9]. While the social implementation of autonomous vehicles has many
This article is an open access article
advantages, for many people, the following two factors are important. The first is its
distributed under the terms and
impact on road safety. For example, autonomous driving is achieved using sensors and
conditions of the Creative Commons
cameras, which may reduce the number of accidents caused by human errors [10]. As
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
such, the driving techniques required by drivers will be less demanding and may result in
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driving by children with little experience as well as the elderly individuals with decreased
4.0/).

Sustainability 2024, 16, 658. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020658 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 2 of 14

dynamic vision, although additional restrictions may be enforced compared to general

drivers. With respect to increased speed and efficiency of driving, autonomous vehicles
depend on the accuracy of their sensors. As they detect obstacles in 360 degrees and
have a detection range beyond what is possible for humans, sufficient safety can be
realized at higher speed. In addition, compared to human driving, the gaps between
vehicles can be reduced, increasing efficiency, which in turn reduces congestion and
environmental loads [11–15]. As such, the introduction of autonomous vehicles in a society
may solve traffic problems and could potentially change the concept of transportation.
There have been many studies on autonomous driving. Case studies on the applicability
of autonomous vehicles in traffic environments have focused mainly on system structures
aimed at understanding driver behavior when actually driving autonomous vehicles.
Examples of such studies include the study of an autonomous vehicle driving environment
designed indoors, a study that recreated the behavior of autonomous vehicles in real time,
and one that recreates autonomous driving scenes [16–19]. On the other hand, few studies
have recreated autonomous vehicle motion using traffic flow simulations to evaluate their
impact on traffic flow, and these studies are limited to cases that modeled autonomous
vehicles [20–25]. Mixed human vehicle (HV) and automated vehicle (AV) operation is
an inevitable phase in future transportation development, and because HV drivers have
different levels of trust in AVs, the interaction between these two vehicle types leads to
differences in the characteristics of HV driving behavior, which can affect highway traffic
flow conditions The authors point out that the interaction between these two vehicle
types has an impact on highway traffic flow conditions. To address these issues, the
characteristics of changes in confidence levels and their effects on driving behavior are
analyzed based on questionnaire data. The results show that the confidence level is not
affected by changes in the AV penetration rate. It also reveals that the interaction between
these two vehicle types becomes stronger as AV penetration approaches 50% [26,27]. In
terms of simulation, we propose a model and an algorithm for estimating the traffic
flow generated by the centralized management of automated vehicles under exclusive
and mixed traffic conditions. The proposed model and algorithm have been tested on a
small network with a single origin-destination pair and a network with various levels of
congestion and different proportions of automated vehicles. Results show the effectiveness
of the proposed method and the impact of automated vehicles on network performance.
The proposed static/equilibrium approach shows that transportation planning, design,
or policy interventions that include the presence of automated vehicles in the traffic
flow can be used for evaluation. This suggests that analyses based on simulations of
automated vehicles are beginning to be used in transportation policy [27]. It also examines
the impact of changes in automatic vehicle (AV) sharing ratios at various speeds. The
simulation-based analysis is performed using TRANSYT and PTV Vissim simulations. The
simulations reveal changes in the AV share due to optimized signal timing. The results
indicate that the use of automated vehicles is effective when traveling at speeds between
30 and 50 km/h in urban transit networks [28]. The study also uses sensors such as
radar, cameras, lidar, and ultrasonic sensors in traffic flow simulations to measure relative
speeds to other vehicles, and simulations are used to evaluate the impact of the mixing
of automated vehicles in dense metropolitan traffic environments [29]. Furthermore, the
introduction of automated vehicles will require driving control through inter-vehicle
communication. With respect to these studies, several automakers offer driver assistance
systems that use sensors to automatically brake vehicles to avoid collisions. Before these
systems can be implemented on a large scale, it is necessary to determine how they will
affect highway capacity. The goal of this paper is to compare highway capacity when
sensors alone are used versus when sensors and inter-vehicle communications are used.
To achieve this goal, rules for preventing crashes using both technologies are proposed
and highway capacity is estimated based on these rules. We show that both technologies
can increase highway capacity. The increase in capacity depends on the percentage of
vehicles using the technology. If all vehicles use only sensors, highway capacity would
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 3 of 14

increase by about 43%. On the other hand, if all vehicles use both sensors and vehicle-to-
vehicle communications, the increase is about 273%. The above results clearly indicate
that inter-vehicle communication is essential for the introduction of automated vehicles.
However, since inter-vehicle communication cannot be considered in this study, the
importance of inter-vehicle communication is discussed here [30]. The goal of this study
is to analyze the impact of connected automated vehicles (CAVs) on traffic safety under
different penetration rates. The mixed traffic flows of both conventional vehicles and
CAVs were simulated and the values of frequency of dangerous situations and time to
collision in mixed traffic flows under different CAV penetration rates were calculated. The
results were used as an indicator of the impact of CAVs on road safety. The distributions
of acceleration and velocity differences for mixed traffic flows were presented to show
the evolution of mixed traffic flow dynamics with increasing CAV penetration in the
mixed flow. Results show that the road safety situation improved significantly with
increasing CAV penetration rates. it was found that the more cautious vehicles following
systems of CAVs provide significant road safety benefits, albeit with little increase in
carrying capacity. The percentage of smooth running increases with increasing CAV
penetration rates. The CAVs are more likely to be used in mixed traffic flows. The
percentage of smooth running will increase. Speed differentials between vehicles are
reduced and traffic flows are significantly smoother. It also reveals that stop-and-go traffic
is greatly mitigated [31,32]. Upon reviewing existing studies on autonomous vehicles,
this study developed an algorithm that enables autonomous vehicles to drive in traffic
flow simulations (Aimun 8.0) and aimed to evaluate the impact on traffic flow when
introduced to an actual traffic environment. Because autonomous vehicles are driven
under predetermined constraints, their driving behaviors differ from those of general
vehicles. Therefore, their coexistence with general vehicles will have both positive and
negative impacts. However, as it is currently complex to introduce autonomous driving in
actual traffic flows, we evaluated the impact of introducing autonomous vehicles in actual
traffic flows using traffic flow simulation software. The implementation of the behavior
algorithm for automated vehicles developed at Kanazawa University into a traffic flow
simulation system, the reproduction of traffic flow on the traffic flow simulation system
based on a person-trip survey, and the evaluation of the effect of mixing automated
vehicles into the traffic flow on road traffic during normal times are innovative points,
and the measurement of the delay time between ODs enables the formulation of road
traffic policies. In this study, a behavior algorithm for automated vehicles was defined
in order to reflect the behavior of automated vehicles in a traffic flow simulation system.
Actual road traffic flows in urban and rural areas were reproduced on the simulation
system. Automated vehicles were mixed into the simulation system that reproduced actual
road traffic flow. By varying the mixing rate, we attempted to clarify the positive and
negative effects of the diffusion of automated vehicles. By utilizing the analysis results
of this study, it is possible to formulate transportation policies for the introduction and
diffusion of automated vehicles in urban and rural areas with different transportation
environments. Section 2 provides an overview of the self-driving vehicles covered in this
study. Section 3 describes a simulation experiment of the social acceptability of self-driving
cars. Algorithms and simulation areas for self-driving cars are also described. In Section 4,
the results of the simulation experiments are discussed. Section 5 presents a summary of
this research and future issues. The research and development of autonomous vehicles
are being conducted all over the world. When autonomous vehicles are implemented
in society, our lifestyles will undergo a major transformation. The time required for
driving itself will be reduced, and we will be able to spend more time on other activities.
The widespread use of autonomous vehicles in society will have various positive effects,
such as increasing leisure time in human life and reducing carbon dioxide emissions
by optimizing driving behavior, and will greatly contribute to the development of a
sustainable society for human life. For this reason, it is extremely important to evaluate the
diffusion of autonomous vehicles in society in advance. In particular, this study provides
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 4 of 14

a detailed analysis of the mixing rate of autonomous vehicles and the delay time between
ODs. This enables us to quantitatively understand the impact of the development of new
machines such as autonomous vehicle on human life and contributes to the solution of
global problems and the formulation of sustainable transportation, environmental, and
other policies. Furthermore, from the viewpoint of sustainable policy making, this research
contributes to the evaluation from various perspectives from the viewpoint of the SDGs,
as autonomous vehicle are expected to be introduced not only in developed countries but
also in developing countries. In particular, this research is the first attempt in the world to
analyze the behavior of automated vehicles, and no analysis has been conducted on the
delay time between ODs. In addition, as cutting-edge technologies supporting automated
vehicles, research is being conducted on the development of computational algorithms
for the cooperative operation of intelligent vehicles [31] and on faster communication for
connected vehicles using 6G networks and UAVs [32]. Furthermore, the development
of information and communication technology will enable the realization of smart cities,
the construction of sensor networks and the acquisition of accurate location information,
and the operation of UAVs, which will contribute to a reduction in resources and the
improvement of safety [33]. Research and development on the development and social
implementation of self-driving vehicles is being conducted around the world. Under these
circumstances, there are contributions to be made to traffic congestion, the time required
between ODs, the impact on public transportation, and the mobility of the elderly that can
be assessed in advance when self-driving vehicles begin to be implemented in society.

2. Autonomous Vehicles
2.1. Outline of Autonomous Vehicles
In this study, we used the behavioral algorithm of an autonomous vehicle being
developed at the mechanics laboratories at the authors’ university (Figure 1), and we
introduced the algorithm into a traffic flow simulation software. In this section, we discuss
details of the autonomous vehicle that was employed. With autonomous vehicles, a series
of driving activities normally performed by drivers must be substituted by sensors and
computers onboard the vehicles. These include cognition, judgement, and operation.
Therefore, advanced information processing and reliability are necessary. The test vehicle
in Figure 1 is equipped with many sensors, including an omnidirectional high-resolution
range sensor (Velodyne HDL-64E S2, San Hose, CA, USA), six laser range sensors (IBEO
LUX fusion system, Seongnam-si, Republic of Korea), nine millimeter-wave radars (Fujitsu
Ten, Kobe, Japan), a monocular color camera, and a GNSS/INS compound navigation
system (Applanix POS-LV220, Richmond Hill, ON, Canada). With these sensors, the
environment around the vehicle and estimates of the position of the autonomous vehicle
can be obtained with high accuracy, allowing for actual operation. The autonomous
vehicle targeted in this study uses a laser range sensor (IBEO LUX) to recognize drivable
space and visualize moving objects, with which it accurately estimates its own position.
Multiple signals are simultaneously recognized while driving autonomously, enabling it
to drive through intersections. By combining these technologies, it has been confirmed
that autonomous vehicles can be driven on roads with lengths exceeding 10 km, including
urban areas [34].
Sustainability 2024,16,
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Figure1.1.Autonomous
Figure Autonomousvehicle
vehicleowned
ownedby
byKanazawa
KanazawaUniversity.
University.

2.2.
2.2.Demonstration
DemonstrationExperiment
Experimentin inSuzu
SuzuCity,
City,Japan
Japan
Here,
Here,we wediscuss
discussaadriving
drivingexperiment
experimentinvolving
involvingan anautonomous
autonomousvehicle vehicleon onpublic
public
roads
roadsininSuzu
SuzuCity,
City,Ishikawa
Ishikawa Prefecture,
Prefecture, which
which is the firstfirst
is the reported attempt
reported attemptby any Japanese
by any Japa-
university (Figure
nese university 2). Suzu City
(Figure.2). SuzuisCityan aging
is an municipality
aging municipality locatedlocated
at the tip of Noto
at the tip ofPenin-
Noto
sula in Ishikawa Prefecture, with 45% of its population (15,000)
Peninsula in Ishikawa Prefecture, with 45% of its population (15,000) being elderly. Pres- being elderly. Presently,
public transportation
ently, public in Suzu
transportation in City
SuzuisCity
limited to buses
is limited and taxis,
to buses and depending
and taxis, and depending on theon
specific area, there may be only one bus service per day. Therefore,
the specific area, there may be only one bus service per day. Therefore, the use of autono- the use of autonomous
vehicles to service
mous vehicles areas without
to service publicpublic
areas without transportation
transportationis urgently required.
is urgently Driving
required. tests
Driving
in Suzu
tests in City
Suzubegan in February
City began 2015, and
in February 2015, it and
is currently in the initial
it is currently in the stage
initialofstage
the exper-
of the
iment. The experiment aims to improve elemental technology
experiment. The experiment aims to improve elemental technology of autonomous driv- of autonomous driving
such as recognizing
ing such as recognizing driving
drivingenvironments
environments andand passpassplanning,
planning, and
andthisthisisisbeing
beingcarried
carried
out
out primarily by accumulating driving data from urban areas. In the future, we
primarily by accumulating driving data from urban areas. In the future, we plan
planto to
continue
continueour ourtests
teststowards
towardsthe theutilization
utilizationof ofautonomous
autonomousvehicles vehiclesin inSuzu
SuzuCity Cityas aspart
partof of
its
itspublic
publictransportation
transportationnetwork.network.The Thevehicle
vehicleused usedfor for the
the experiment
experimentis is the
the Toyota
ToyotaPrius
Prius
shown in Figure 1, and it has been remodeled so that the steering angle, braking, driving,
shown in Figure 1, and it has been remodeled so that the steering angle, braking, driving,
and turning signals can be controlled using commands received from a computer. Upon
and turning signals can be controlled using commands received from a computer. Upon
installing various sensors, experiments were performed on public roads after confirming
installing various sensors, experiments were performed on public roads after confirming
that no traffic regulations would be breached. At the present time, the section used for
that no traffic regulations would be breached. At the present time, the section used for the
the driving experiment is about 6.6 km in various environments such as urban areas and
driving experiment is about 6.6 km in various environments such as urban areas and
mountainous areas. In April 2015, two months after the beginning of the experiment, a
mountainous areas. In April 2015, two months after the beginning of the experiment, a
completely autonomous return journey was successfully achieved, with a total distance
completely autonomous return journey was successfully achieved, with a total distance of
of 13.2 km. Figure 2 shows some pictures taken during the driving experiment. From the
13.2 km. Figure 2 shows some pictures taken during the driving experiment. From the
driving experiment, we also discovered various issues related to urban areas. For example,
driving experiment, we also discovered various issues related to urban areas. For exam-
there is a problem with the sensor layout. In the test vehicle that we are currently using for
ple, there is a problem with the sensor layout. In the test vehicle that we are currently
the driving experiment, we installed a laser-range sensor that is able to sense all directions.
using for the
However, sincedriving experiment,
the sensor we installed
was installed in the acenter
laser-range sensor that
of the vehicle, is able to sense
in intersections withall
directions. However, since the sensor was installed in the center
poor visibility, the condition of such an intersection cannot be safely assessed unless the of the vehicle, in intersec-
tions with
vehicle poor visibility,
has already entered thethe condition
intersection. of Normally,
such an intersection
drivers cancannot
confirm bethe
safely assessed
condition of
unless the vehicle has already entered the intersection. Normally,
an intersection with limited view by moving their heads; however, this is not possible with drivers can confirm the
condition
the of anwas
sensor that intersection
fixed to the with limited
vehicle. view by an
Therefore, moving their heads;sensor
omnidirectional however, this is not
is insufficient,
and it is important to place the sensor in a position that allows for the appropriate sensor
possible with the sensor that was fixed to the vehicle. Therefore, an omnidirectional moni-
is insufficient,
toring of criticaland it is important
regions. By drivingtoon place
publictheroads,
sensorother
in a position
problems, that
both allows for theand
significant ap-
propriate monitoring of critical regions. By driving on public
minor, were highlighted. To fully understand these findings, a public road driving test isroads, other problems, both
significant
essential. Asand minor,
such, were highlighted.
the autonomous vehicle Tothat
fullyis understand
presently being thesestudied
findings, a publictoroad
continues go
driving driving
through test is essential.
experiments As such, the autonomous
on public roads, whilevehicle that isto
we continue presently
develop being studied
fundamental
continues to go through driving experiments on public roads, while we continue to de-
technologies.
velop fundamental technologies.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 6 of 15
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658 66 of 14
15

Figure 2. Driving experiment on a public road.

Figure2.2.Driving
Figure Drivingexperiment
experimenton
onaapublic
publicroad.
road.
3. Evaluation of Social Acceptability of Autonomous Vehicles
3.3. Evaluation
3.1. of
of Social
Social Acceptability
Execution Environment
Evaluation of
of Autonomous
of the Simulation
Acceptability Autonomous Vehicles
Vehicles
3.1. Execution
3.1. In Environment
this study,
Execution of the
we used Aimsun
Environment Simulation
8.0 to evaluate the impact of autonomous vehicles on
of the Simulation
trafficIn In
this To
flow. study, we used
express
this study,
Aimsun of
the behavior
we used Aimsun 8.0
8.0autonomous
to evaluate the
to evaluate vehicles,
impactwe
the impact
ofused
autonomous
C++ on the
of autonomous
vehicles
Aimsun
vehicles
on
on
trafficplatform.
SDK flow. To Aimsun
express the is abehavior
high-functionof autonomous
traffic vehicles,that
simulator we isused C++ on the
considered oneAimsun
of the
traffic flow. To express the behavior of autonomous vehicles, we used C++ on the Aimsun
SDKworldwide,
best platform. Aimsun and it was is adeveloped
high-function by atraffic
Spanish simulator
company, thatTSSis considered one of the
SDK platform. Aimsun is a high-function traffic simulator that is (Barcelona,
considered Spain).one of theIt
best
isbest worldwide,
a comprehensive and it was developed
traffic-simulation by
platforma Spanish
that company,
is able to TSS
handle (Barcelona, Spain). It
microsimulations,
worldwide, and it was developed by a Spanish company, TSS (Barcelona, Spain). It
is a comprehensive
mesosimulations, traffic-simulation
hybrid simulations, and platform that is able
traffic-demand to handle
models microsimulations,
together in one appli-
is a comprehensive traffic-simulation platform that is able to handle microsimulations,
mesosimulations,
cation. hybrid simulations, and traffic-demand models together in one applica-
mesosimulations, hybrid simulations, and traffic-demand models together in oneorappli-
Aimsun allows for the selection of the origin–destination (OD) model the
tion. Aimsun
branching rate allows
model for the selection
depending on of
the the origin–destination
situation. With the OD(OD) model
model, or the branching
without assumed
cation. Aimsun allows for the selection of the origin–destination (OD) model or the
rate modelsuch
conditions depending on the situation. weWithcan the OD model, without assumed conditions
branching rate as modelthe branching
dependingrate, on the perform
situation. With a simulation
the OD model, using path selection.
without assumed
such as the branching rate, we can perform a simulation using path selection.
conditions such as the branching rate, we can perform a simulation using path selection.
3.2. Simulation Area
3.2. Simulation Area
3.2. Kanazawa
Simulation Area City is a major city in Ishikawa Prefecture, with an area of 467.8 km2 and
Kanazawa City is a major city in Ishikawa Prefecture, with an area of 467.8 km2 and a
a population
Kanazawa of 454,607.
City is TheaThe use city
major of cars accounts Prefecture,
in Ishikawa for 67.2% ofwith the modes
an areaof transportation
population of 454,607. use of cars accounts for 67.2% of the modes ofoftransportation
467.8 km2 and
employed,
a population and this is 22.5% higher than the national average of 44.7%. The main mode of
employed, andofthis
454,607.
is 22.5% Thehigher
use of than
cars accounts
the national for average
67.2% ofof the modes
44.7%. Theof main
transportation
mode of
public transportation
employed, and this is is is the
22.5% bus (4.6%),
higher with
thanwith higher
the national usage
averageby the elderly in the center
modeof
public transportation the bus (4.6%), higher usage by ofthe44.7%.
elderly The inmain
the center of
of
the city. transportation
public Based on theseisfacts, the it is a(4.6%),
bus city with with a relatively
higher advanced
usage by the degree
elderly ofinmotorization
the center of
the city. Based on these facts, it is a city with a relatively advanced degree of motorization
of urban
theurban
of areas.
city. Based With
areas. on With respect
these to
facts,to
respect aging,
it is in 2013,
a cityinwith
aging, 2013,23.3% of
a relatively
23.3% of thethe total
advanced population was at least
degree of motorization
total population was at least65
years
65 of age,
of years
urban of andWith
areas.
age, this this
and figure
respect istoexpected
figure aging, into2013,
is expected risetoto 28.6%
23.3%
rise by
the2025.
toof28.6% total On theOn
population
by 2025. other
thewashand, Suzu
at least
other hand,65
City
Suzu is
yearsCitya rural
of age, city
is aand in
ruralthis Ishikawa
cityfigure Prefecture
is expected
in Ishikawa with an
to risewith
Prefecture area
to 28.6% of
an area 247.2
by of
2025. km
247.2Onkm
2 and a population of
2
the and
other hand, Suzu
a population
14,631.
City
of isWithin
14,631. a rural
Within the
city city,
theincity,there
Ishikawa
there arearenonoforms
Prefecture forms ofofpublic
with an area
public transportation,
of 247.2 km2 and
transportation, such
such aasastrains
trains and
population andof
buses,
14,631. and residents
Within the mainly
city, there travel
are by
no car.
forms In 2015,
of public46.6% of the total
transportation,
buses, and residents mainly travel by car. In 2015, 46.6% of the total population was at least population
such as was
trains at
and
least
65 65 years
buses,
years and
of age,of age,
residents and
and this this figure
mainly
figure travel isbyexpected
is expected car.toInrise toto
2015, rise to 51.7%
46.6%
51.7% in 2025
inof2025
the total (Figure
(Figure 3). 3). was at
population
least 65 years of age, and this figure is expected to rise to 51.7% in 2025 (Figure 3).

Simulationnetwork
Figure3.3.Simulation
Figure network(left:
((left): Suzu
Suzu City;
City; (right):
right: Kanazawa
Kanazawa City).
City).
Figure 3. Simulation network (left: Suzu City; right: Kanazawa City).
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 7 of 14

3.3. Simulation Data

In this section, we present various data used for the simulation. First, we assumed the
traffic flow based on the 2005 person-trip (PT) survey. PT surveys examine “when”, “from
where”, “to where”, “who”, “for what reason”, and “what transportation method”, and
capture the movements of persons throughout a given day. The target city is divided into
zones, and the OD traffic volumes in these zones are surveyed. In the present simulation,
the authors superimposed zones used for the PT survey on the road data prepared using a
digital road map (DRM) using GIS data. We placed a centroid (the point where vehicles
gather and begin) and prepared the OD model for each zone. In this study, the current con-
ditions were reproduced according to the traffic flow of the Parson trip survey conducted
by the government. The centroid was set so that the centroid would have the highest result
from the as-built simulation. The OD settings during the simulation were set using the
Parson trip survey. The route selection model used was the model provided by the traffic
flow simulation system (Aimsun). Using Aimsun, by preparing an OD table, the vehicle
distribution on the OD base can be performed; therefore, we set each centroid to match
the zone number of the PT survey and prepared the OD table. Next, we used the 2010
traffic census for Suzu City. A traffic census is a national statistical survey that is conducted
to understand the roads and traffic in a region, and it aims to obtain basic information
on road plans, construction, and management. The main data survey the cross-sectional
traffic volume over a certain section of the road. Because the simulation area of Suzu City is
relatively small, and the traffic volume distribution in the PT survey zone was complex, we
used the traffic census in this study. For the transportation network, we prepared the roads
at the prefectural level (highways and main thoroughfares that connect important areas
within the prefecture). It is currently difficult to traverse narrow streets with the present
autonomous vehicle technology, but because the simulation is in the OD base and the target
vehicle may pass through narrow streets, we omitted such narrow streets for convenience.
The simulation was performed for the one-hour period from 8 to 9 a.m., which is when
congestion is likely to occur. The time of the simulations in this study was aligned with the
time of the Parson trip survey. In this study, the results of the Parson trip survey were used
to reproduce the current state of traffic volumes on the simulation and the survey results.
As a result, the simulation results were 95% accurate in matching the current traffic volume
with the simulated traffic volume. These conditions were evaluated by mixing autonomous
vehicles. This is to minimize the impact of passing traffic that cannot be accommodated by
the PT survey OD traffic volume, while observing the change in congestion. The number of
vehicles was 10,274 in Kanazawa City and 1025 in Suzu City.

3.4. Driving Behavior Algorithm of Autonomous Vehicle

In Aimsun, we used the following Gipps formula for the vehicle behavioral algorithm,
which is shown below [35–42]:

3.4.1. Car-Following Theory

s
V (n, t) V (n, t)
Va (n, t + T ) = V (n, t) + 2.5a(n) T (1 − 0.025 + ) (1)
Ve(n) Ve(n)
Va: Speed of vehicle a;
V(n, t): Speed of vehicle n at time t;
Ve(n): Expected velocity of vehicle n;
a(n): Maximum acceleration of vehicle n;
T: Reaction speed of the driver.

v " #
u 2
u 2 V ( n, t )
Vb (n, t + T ) = d(n) + td(n) T 2 − d(n) 2{ x (n − 1, t) − s(s − 1) − x (n, t)} − V (n, t) T − ′ (2)
d ( n − 1)
 V ( n ,t )
Vb ( n ,t + T ) = d ( n ) + d ( n )2 T 2 − d ( n ) 2{x( n − 1,t ) − s( s − 1 ) − x( n ,t )} − V ( n ,t )T −
' ( n − 1 ) 
(2)
 d

Vb: Speed of vehicle b;

d(n): Maximum deceleration of vehicle n;
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 8 of 14
x(n,t): Position of vehicle n at time t;
s(n − 1): Length of vehicle n − 1;
d’(n − 1): Expected deceleration of vehicle n − 1.
Vb: Speed of vehicle b;
We compared
d(n): Maximumthe values obtained
deceleration using
of vehicle n; the above two equations, and we used the
smaller
x(n, t): Position of vehicle n at time t; vehicle depends on the distance to the vehicle
one. The velocity of the autonomous
driving in 1):
s(n − front.
Length of vehicle n − 1;
′
d (n − 1): Expected deceleration of vehicle n − 1.
3.4.2.We
Vehicle Interval
compared the values obtained using the above two equations, and we used the
The formula used
smaller one. The velocity toof
determine the vehicle
the autonomous spacing
vehicle in Aimsun
depends on the is shown to
distance below. Equa-
the vehicle
tion (3) shows
driving in front. the interval between vehicles. Thus, V1 represents the speed of the car in
front; V2 represents the speed of the car behind.
3.4.2. Vehicle Interval
𝑉 𝑉
The formula used to 𝑉𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
determine the vehicle spacing 1.5𝑉in𝑅𝑇𝐿
Aimsun is shown below. (3)
2𝑏 2𝑏
Equation (3) shows the interval between vehicles. Thus, V1 represents the speed of the car
b: deceleration;
in front; V2 represents the speed of the car behind.
RT: reaction speed;
L: vehicle length + minimum distance V 2
from V2
vehicle in front when the car is at rest.
VehicleInterval = 2 − 1 + 1.5V2 RTL (3)
We determined the vehicle interval for2b 2b
autonomous vehicle (Figure 4) in this study is
determined with the following equation:
b: deceleration;
RT: reaction speed; 𝑉𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 5 𝑉 𝑇𝑇𝐶 (4)
L: vehicle length + minimum distance from vehicle in front when the car is at rest.
Va:determined
We velocity of vehicle driving
the vehicle in front;
interval for autonomous vehicle (Figure 4) in this study is
TTC (time
determined withto the
collision): distance
following from the vehicle in front divided by the relative velocity.
equation:
For the autonomous vehicle in this study, TTC is assumed to be 2 s.
VehicleInterval = 5 + Va × TTC (4)

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Vehicle
Vehicle spacing
spacing when
when going
going straight.
straight.

3.4.3.Va: velocity of Starting

Deceleration vehicle driving in front;
Distance
TTC (time to collision): distance from the vehicle in front divided by the relative
If the distance from the deceleration starting point to the stopping point is 𝑙 (Figure 5),
velocity.
this is calculated using the following equation, and the vehicle will begin to decelerate so
For the autonomous vehicle in this study, TTC is assumed to be 2 s.
that it can come to a stop within the predetermined deceleration.
3.4.3. Deceleration Starting Distance 1 2
l= V (5)
2 a point to the stopping point is l (Figure 5),
If the distance from the deceleration starting
this is calculated using the following equation, and the vehicle will begin to decelerate so
that it can come to a stop within the predetermined deceleration.

Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 1 2 9 of(5)

15
l= V
2a

Figure 5. Stop
Figure 5. Stop condition
condition when
when going
going straight.
straight.

3.4.4. Determining When to Turn Right or Left

The vehicle begins to turn right or left when the following conditions are met. In this
study, the setting for determination of left turns and right turns was based on observations
of traffic flow (Figure 6).
① At least 1.5 s has elapsed since coming to a stop as shown in Figure 6i.
② If there is no oncoming vehicle on the driving route within 5 s, the vehicle will start
 Figure 5. Stop condition when going straight.

Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 3.4.4. Determining When to Turn Right or Left 9 of 14
The vehicle begins to turn right or left when the following conditions are met. In this
study, the setting for determination of left turns and right turns was based on observations
3.4.4. Determining
of traffic flow (FigureWhen6). to Turn Right or Left
① At Theleast
vehicle
1.5 sbegins to turnsince
has elapsed rightcoming
or left when the as
to a stop following conditions
shown in Figure 6i.are met. In this
② Ifthe
study, setting
there is nofor determination
oncoming ofon
vehicle leftthe
turns and right
driving routeturns was
within based
5 s, on observations
the vehicle will start
of traffic flow (Figure
as shown 6). 6ii.
in Figure

Figure6.6.Condition
Figure Conditionfor
forturning
turningright/left.
right/left.

3.4.5.
⃝
1 AtReaction
least 1.5Time
s has elapsed since coming to a stop as shown in Figure 6i.
⃝
2 If there is no
In this study, oncoming vehicle
we set the on the
reaction driving
time basedroute within
on the 5 s, the vehicle
environment will start the
surrounding as
shown
driver in theinsimulation
Figure 6ii.system. General vehicles have a reaction time of 0.8 s during nor-
mal operation, 1.2 s when stopping, and 1.6 s to the vehicle in front. However, vehicles
3.4.5. Reaction Time
driven by the elderly have reaction times of 1.6 s during normal operation, 2.4 s when
In thisand
stopping, study,
3.2 swe set vehicle
to the the reaction time
in front based onreaction
(modeling the environment
time withinsurrounding
a traffic simula-the
driver in
tion model).the simulation system. General vehicles have a reaction time of 0.8 s during
normal operation, 1.2 s when stopping, and 1.6 s to the vehicle in front. However, vehicles
driven
4. Resultsby the
andelderly have reaction times of 1.6 s during normal operation, 2.4 s when
Discussion
stopping, and 3.2 s to the vehicle in front (modeling reaction time within a traffic simulation
In this study, Suzu City and Kanazawa City were selected for the following reasons.
model).
Presently, the driving experiments of the autonomous vehicle owned by Kanazawa Uni-
4.versity
Resultsareand
being conducted in Suzu City, and social implementation is therefore expected
Discussion
to be relatively fast. We aim to determine whether there is a difference in the impact on
In this study, Suzu City and Kanazawa City were selected for the following reasons.
traffic flow between a rural area such as Suzu City and an urban area such as Kanazawa
Presently, the driving experiments of the autonomous vehicle owned by Kanazawa Uni-
City. The
versity arepresent simulationingradually
being conducted Suzu City,increases
and socialtheimplementation
mixing rate of autonomous vehicles.
is therefore expected
It is assumed that autonomous vehicles have become commercially
to be relatively fast. We aim to determine whether there is a difference in the impact available to the gen-
on
eral public,
traffic and an increase
flow between in the
a rural area such number
as SuzuofCity
suchand
vehicles is captured
an urban area such over time. As it
as Kanazawa
increases,
City. the changes
The present in thegradually
simulation traffic congestion
increases are
the observed,
mixing rate and we observe whether
of autonomous vehicles.theIt
is assumed that autonomous vehicles have become commercially available to theageneral
impact of the autonomous vehicle is positive or negative, using the delay time as param-
eter. This
public, anddelay time isinthe
an increase thedifference
number ofbetween the expected
such vehicles timeover
is captured of arrival
time. for the
As it autono-
increases,
mous vehicle and the actual arrival time for each 1 km of roadway.
the changes in the traffic congestion are observed, and we observe whether the impact By comparing these
value,
of we determine
the autonomous the degree
vehicle of congestion.
is positive On the
or negative, usinggraph, the vertical
the delay time asaxis shows the
a parameter.
delay time, while the horizontal axis shows the mixing rate. We also
This delay time is the difference between the expected time of arrival for the autonomous compared the delay
time for the operations of general vehicles and autonomous vehicles
vehicle and the actual arrival time for each 1 km of roadway. By comparing these value, to observe the poten-
we
tial trends in changes in delay time owing to vehicle characteristics.
determine the degree of congestion. On the graph, the vertical axis shows the delay time,
while the horizontal axis shows the mixing rate. We also compared the delay time for the
operations of general vehicles and autonomous vehicles to observe the potential trends in
changes in delay time owing to vehicle characteristics.

4.1. Simulation Results for Rural Areas

First, we considered the lack of public transportation and high ratio of the elderly
population in Suzu City. We prepared a vehicle with a reaction time that is slower than that
of a general vehicle and used a mixing rate of 45% based on the actual ratio of seniors in
Suzu City. The mixing rates of the autonomous vehicle in the simulation were 10%, 20%,
30%, 45%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%. Each mixing rate was verified three times.
In this study, we used the mean delay time obtained from each of the three verifications
(three patterns of delay for each mixing rate) as the delay time for each mixing rate. Figure 7
shows simulation results obtained for Suzu City. The blue bars in Figure 7 represent the
 population in Suzu City. We prepared a vehicle with a reaction time that is slower than
that of a general vehicle and used a mixing rate of 45% based on the actual ratio of seniors
in Suzu City. The mixing rates of the autonomous vehicle in the simulation were 10%,
20%, 30%, 45%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%. Each mixing rate was verified three
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 times. In this study, we used the mean delay time obtained from each of the three10verifi- of 14
cations (three patterns of delay for each mixing rate) as the delay time for each mixing
rate. Figure 7 shows simulation results obtained for Suzu City. The blue bars in Figure 7
delay timethe
represent fordelay
all vehicles
time forincluding both
all vehicles autonomous
including and generaland
both autonomous vehicles.
generalRed bars
vehicles.
represent the delaythe
Red bars represent time for time
delay only for
autonomous vehiclesvehicles
only autonomous for eachformixing rate. Grey
each mixing bars
rate. Grey
represent the delay
bars represent timetime
the delay for only general
for only vehicles
general vehiclesforfor
each
eachmixing
mixing rate.
rate.The
Thestandard
standard
deviation for each delay time obtained from three delay patterns
deviation for each delay time obtained from three delay patterns is also shown in is also shown in Figure
Figure7.
The reason for which there is no 0% mixing rate is because the delay time
7. The reason for which there is no 0% mixing rate is because the delay time is calculated is calculated with
awith
standard value,value,
a standard and inandthe inpresent study,study,
the present the standard is when
the standard is there
whenare no are
there autonomous
no auton-
vehicles, i.e., a 0%i.e.,
omous vehicles, mixing
a 0% rate.
mixing This study
rate. Thisused
studyrepresentative values from
used representative valuesa person-trip
from a per-
survey
son-trip conducted by the local
survey conducted bygovernment, and although
the local government, andthe results the
although are results
of a general
are ofnature,
a gen-
they show the traffic situation in a rural area (Suzu City), especially in a
eral nature, they show the traffic situation in a rural area (Suzu City), especially in a situ- situation where
the traffic
ation wheredensity is extremely
the traffic density low.
is extremely low.

55
50 all auto car
45
40
35
Delay time（sec/km）

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10 20 30 45 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mixing rate（％）

Figure7.7.Simulation
Figure Simulationresults
resultsfor
forSuzu
SuzuCity
City(rural
(ruralarea
areain
inIshikawa
Ishikawaprefecture).
prefecture).

Furthermore, with
Furthermore, with aa mixing
mixing rate
rate of
of 100%,
100%, there
there is
is no
no delay
delay time
time for
for general
general vehicles.
vehicles.
Thisisisbecause
This becausewhenwhenthe themixing
mixingrate
rateof
ofautonomous
autonomousvehicles
vehiclesisis100%,
100%,there
thereare
arenonogeneral
general
vehicles, and thus there would
vehicles, and thus there would be no delay. be no delay.
Figure77shows
Figure showsthatthatthethedelay
delaytime
timefor
forall
all vehicles
vehicles slightly
slightlyincreases
increasesas asthe
themixing
mixingrate rate
of
ofautonomous
autonomousvehiclesvehiclesincreased
increasedfromfrom1010toto
45%.
45%.When
When thethe
mixing
mixingraterate
increased
increasedfrom 45
from
to
4550%,
to 50%,the the
delay time
delay for for
time all vehicles decreased
all vehicles decreasednotably, andand
notably, when the the
when mixing raterate
mixing waswas50
to
50100%,
to 100%,it remained
it remainedconstant. Next,Next,
constant. we compare
we compare the 10%
the and
10%45% and mixing rates, rates,
45% mixing between be-
which
tween the delay
which thetime
delay increased. The delay
time increased. Thetime
delay attime
the mixing rate of rate
at the mixing 45%of was45% 1.10
wastimes
1.10
that at that
times the mixing rate of rate
at the mixing 10%.ofThe10%.delay
Thetime
delaydropped by 0.89 by
time dropped from
0.89the mixing
from rate of 45%
the mixing rate
to 50%. The delay time of the autonomous vehicle for each mixing rate
of 45% to 50%. The delay time of the autonomous vehicle for each mixing rate was differ- was different from
the
entdelay
from time of alltime
the delay vehicles
of allwhen the mixing
vehicles when the rate increased
mixing rate from 10 to from
increased 45% and
10 toremained
45% and
mostly
remained the mostly
same. When
the same.the mixing
When the ratemixing
increased
ratefrom 45 to from
increased 50%, 45
thetodelay
50%,time suddenly
the delay time
dropped and plateaued.
suddenly dropped and plateaued.
The delay time of general vehicles for each mixing rate increased at a mixing rate of
10 to 45% and then suddenly dropped at 45–50%, then remained constant, which was the
same trend observed for the delay time of all vehicles.

4.2. Simulation Results for Urban Areas

Next, we performed the simulation for Kanazawa City, and verifications were carried
out in the same manner as in Suzu City. Figure 8 shows the simulation results for Kanazawa
City. The trend details for Figure 8 are the same as those of Figure 7. Figure 8 shows that
the delay time for all vehicles fluctuated between mixing rates of 10 to 60%. The standard
 same trend observed for the delay time of all vehicles.

4.2. Simulation Results for Urban Areas

Next, we performed the simulation for Kanazawa City, and verifications were carried
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 out in the same manner as in Suzu City. Figure 8 shows the simulation results for Kana- 11 of 14
zawa City. The trend details for Figure 8 are the same as those of Figure 7. Figure 8 shows
that the delay time for all vehicles fluctuated between mixing rates of 10 to 60%. The stand-
ard deviation
deviation alsoalso
showedshowed variations.
variations. When
When the
the mixingrate
mixing rateincreased
increasedfromfrom60 60 to
to 70%, thethe
delay time
delay time for
for all
all vehicles
vehicles decreased, then remained constant without large variation. variation. We We
focused on
focused on the
the mixing
mixing rate rate of
of 60
60 and
and 70%
70% when the delay time decreased and and stabilized
stabilized
and found
and found thatthat the
the delay
delay time changed by a factor of 0.90 from the mixing mixing rate
rate of
of 60%
60% to to
70%. The
70%. The delay
delay time
time for the autonomous vehicle for each mixing mixing rate rate had
had the
the same
same trend
trend
asthat
as that ofof all
all vehicles.
vehicles. Similar to the delay time for all all vehicles,
vehicles, asas the
the mixing
mixingraterateincreased
increased
from 60% to 70%, the delay time decreased, and
from 60% to 70%, the delay time decreased, and then remained then remained constant. By comparing
comparing
the mixing
the mixing rates
rates ofof 60%
60% andand 70%,
70%, the delay time decreased by a factor of 0.89. The The delay
delay
time for
time for general
general vehicles
vehicles also fluctuated between the mixing rates of 10% 10% and
and 60%,
60%, and
and itit
showed aa minor
showed minor decrease
decrease from
from 60%
60% to 70%, after which it stabilized. Between
Between the the mixing
mixing
rates of
rates of 60%
60% andand 70%
70% where
where the
the delay
delay time decreased and stabilized, comparedcompared with with the
the
other
other two
two patterns,
patterns, thethe delay
delay time decreased the least by 0.92. When When the the mixing
mixing rate
rate ofof
automated
automated vehicles
vehicles is is low,
low, the
the delay
delay time
time tends to be large because of the the negative
negative impact
impact
on
on traffic
traffic flow.
flow. OnOn the
the other
other hand,
hand, when the mixing rate of automated vehicles is is high,
high, the
the
delay
delay time
time tends
tends toto be
be smaller
smaller than when the mixing
mixing rate
rate is
is low.
low. Based
Based onon these
these results,
results,
there
there isis concern
concern thatthat the
the delay
delay time
time will
will be significantly larger than the current
current situation
situation
unless
unlessthe the mixing
mixing raterate is controlled
controlled to be 70% or higher
higher when
when taking
taking measures
measures to tointroduce
introduce
automated
automated vehicles.
vehicles.

55
50
all auto car
45
40
Delay time（sec/km）

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mixing rate（％）
Figure8.
Figure 8. Simulation
Simulation results
results for
for Kanazawa
Kanazawa City.
City.

5. Conclusions
In this study, we used a traffic flow simulation system, and we evaluated the impact
on the traffic flow using the delay time between the OD when an autonomous vehicle is
socially implemented. We evaluated the effects on the traffic flow in an urban area that has
been motorized and in an aging rural area. For both areas, with the implementation of the
autonomous vehicle, decreased congestion, decreased traffic accidents, and the improved
reliability of travel time are expected. However, as the population of rural areas is aging
and these regions becoming more sparsely populated, its implementation may be able to
solve many issues such as mobility for seniors.
We examined an autonomous vehicle that is being developed by our university. The
autonomous vehicle that was employed is equipped with various sensors and is able to
drive on public roads with complete autonomy. In order to evaluate the impact on the
traffic flow, we developed an algorithm to incorporate its driving behavior into a traffic flow
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 12 of 14

simulation system. This algorithm consists of car-following, vehicle intervals, principle

start position, right/left turn decision, and reaction time to environmental changes.
We implemented into the traffic flow simulation system the autonomous vehicle
algorithm that we developed in this study, and we modeled an environment that allows for
simulations with autonomous vehicles. In a traffic flow simulation system, based on the
results of PT surveys and transportation census, the OD traffic volume was determined,
and a normal traffic environment was modeled. Next, the autonomous vehicle was driven
and its impact on traffic flow was evaluated. In this study, to evaluate the impact of the
autonomous vehicle on traffic flow, we used the delay time between OD as an indicator. We
increased the mixing rate of autonomous vehicles in the traffic environment in increments
of 10%, and we obtained the delay time between the OD.
When we compared the results for Kanazawa City and Suzu City, the delay time for
all vehicles was found to be smaller in Kanazawa City. The variations in the delay time
due to the increasing mixing rate were more notable in Kanazawa City, while it was more
stable in Suzu City. This was likely because of differences in the road characteristics of
both cities, such as the number of intersections and traffic volume. During the initial stages
of the vehicles’ implementation in the society, traffic congestion may increase. However,
when the ratio exceeds a certain value, congestion is expected to decrease and the traffic
environment will improve.
As such, when autonomous vehicles are mixed with general vehicular traffic, there
is some impact on traffic flow. It has been shown that the impact of autonomous vehicles
on traffic flow depends greatly on the mixing rate and traffic environment, such as urban
or rural areas. Because the mixing rate of autonomous vehicles impacts the traffic flow
when socially implementing autonomous vehicles, appropriate distribution scenarios and
distribution areas are necessary.
In this study, we recreated the implementation of a specific autonomous vehicle in a
traffic flow simulation system, and we evaluated the impact on traffic flow using the delay
time between OD, which is an evaluation indicator. To evaluate in more detail the impact
of the social implementation of autonomous vehicles on traffic flow, the driving behaviors
of all autonomous vehicles being developed worldwide need to be recreated in the traffic
flow simulation system to consider the variety of autonomous vehicles. Furthermore, in
this study, we recreated the traffic environments of an urban area and a rural area in the
traffic flow simulation, but the system only considers vehicles. Therefore, the right- or
left-turning behaviors of autonomous vehicles in the traffic flow simulation system were
not complex. However, considering non-vehicular traffic, such as pedestrians and cyclists,
the autonomous vehicle will need to make many decisions before turning right or left,
making such decisions more complex. As a result, the delay time between the OD may
increase. In this study, we evaluated the impact of the social implementation of autonomous
vehicles on traffic flow using the delay time between OD. However, various other eval-
uation indicators need to be applied to evaluate the impact of social implementation of
autonomous vehicles on traffic flow. Therefore, we have added a note in the future issues
section of the manuscript that although this study uses only delay time as an evaluation
index, it is necessary to evaluate the impact on traffic flow using evaluation indexes other
than delay time in the future. In this study, the analysis was conducted during weekday
morning hours. However, it is necessary to target the traffic environment on weekends
and holidays, as well as the evening peak hours. In this study, based on the results of
a person-trip study conducted by the government, we evaluated the basic impact of the
mixing of automated vehicles into the normal traffic flow by using the mixing rate and
the delay time of automated vehicles. However, the results of this study were based on
limited parameter settings, so future sensitivity analyses should be conducted by varying
the various parameters used in this study to evaluate the impact of automated vehicles
when they are mixed into various traffic environments from a multifaceted perspective.
In the future, it will be necessary to study the method of dispatching automated vehicles,
the areas where they will be used, traffic flow management and planning, etc., in order to
Sustainability 2024, 16, 658 13 of 14

make them practical. Due to the limitation of the simulation system, the evaluation in this
study was based on the delay time. Simulation experiments under various conditions are
necessary to generalize the results of this study.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.F. and J.T.; methodology, M.F.; software, M.F. and Y.M.;
validation, M.F., Y.M. and J.T.; formal analysis, M.F. and Y.M.; investigation, Y.M.; resources, M.F., Y.M.
and J.T.; data curation, M.F., Y.M. and J.T.; writing—original draft preparation, M.F.; writing—review
and editing, M.F.; visualization, M.F. and Y.M.; supervision, J.T.; project administration, J.T.; funding
acquisition, M.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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