BLK 1- ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN MOVEMENT REVIEWER
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system provides support and protection for the body’s internal organs and gives the
muscles a point of attachment.
Endoskeleton, for humans where our bones lie underneath our skin and muscles.
Exoskeleton, in other animals, such as insects, on the outside of the body.
Figure 1 Human Skeletal System
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The axial skeleton is formed around the central
axis of the body and thus includes the skull, spine,
and ribcage.
It protects the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs,
esophagus and major sense organs like the eyes,
ears, nose, and tongue.
The appendicular skeleton is related to the and
consists of the bones of the arms and legs, as well
as the shoulder and hip girdles.
Types of Bones (classified according to their shapes)
✓ Long Bones
- Cylindrical in shape
- Acts as a lever and helps support the weight of the body
✓ Short Bones
- Small and compact
- Designed for strength
✓ Flat Bone
- Has a flat surface
- Serves as a protector and a point of muscle attachment
✓ Irregular Bone
- Has a complex shape
- Has a variety of functions, such as protection and providing support
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Sternum (flat), protection of heart and lungs
Pelvis (irregular), attachment of muscles
Tibia (long), weight-bearning
Anatomy of Long Bone
▪ DIAPHYSIS
- Long Tubular diaphysis is the shaft of the
bone
- Collar of compact bone surrounds a central
medullary or marrow cavity
- in adults, cavity contains fat.
▪ EPIPHYSIS
- The Epiphysis are the ends of the bone
- The Joint surface of the epiphysis is covered
with articular cartilage
- Epiphyseal line separate diaphysis and
epiphysis
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
▪ LACUNAE
- Cavities containing bone cells
(osteocytes)
- Arranged in concentric rings
▪ LAMELLAE
- Rings around the central canal
- Sites of lacunae
Paranasal Sinuses
o Frontal Sinus
o Ethmold Sinus
o Maxillary Sinus
o Sphenoid Sinus
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Bones of the Skull
o Frontal Bone
o Sphenoid Bone
o Lacrimal Bone
o Nasal Bone
o Zygomatic Bone
o Maxilla
o Teeth
o Mandible
o Parietal Bone
o Temporal Bone (Squamous)
External Acoustic
o Meatus
o Temporal Bone (Mastoid)
o Temporal Bone (Styloid Process)
The Hyoid Bone
- The only bone that does not articulate another bone.
- Serves as a movable base for the tongue, and other muscle attachments
The Vertebral Column
- Vertebrae separated by intervertebral
discs made of cartilage.
- The Spine has normal S curvature
- Each vertebrae is given a name
according to its location.
- The Clavicle, or collarbone, holds the
shoulder joint away from the rest of the
upper body and is only as thick as your little
finger.
- The scapula is located on the back side of the
ribcage and helps provide part of the shoulder
joint and movement for the arms.
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Functions of the Skeleton
Integration with the Muscular System
The skeletal system also provides an important form of attachments to the muscular system.
Bones and exoskeletons are hard and do not bend or move when muscles are flexed. This means
that the contraction of muscle cells will lead to the shortening of muscles, while the bone retains
its shape. This basic structure allows muscles to move different parts of the body, using forces
generated while pulling on the skeletal system.
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MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system is an organ system in the body. It consists of skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscle. Its role is to help the body to move, maintain posture and circulate blood through the
body.
Types of Muscles
INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES are muscles
1. Smooth Muscle – an involuntary muscle found in which are not under our conscious
the internal organs and blood vessels control.
2. Cardiac Muscle – an involuntary muscle found in VOLUNTARY MUSCLES are muscles which
the heart are under our conscious control, so we
3. Skeletal Muscle – a voluntary muscle attached to can move these muscles when we are
choose to.
the skeleton
Types of Skeletal Muscle
1. TYPE I – red muscle which produces a small amount of force, contracts slowly and resists
fatigue well.
2. TYPE IIa – pink muscle which produces a medium amount of force, contracts quickly and
has a medium resistance to fatigue.
3. TYPE IIx – white muscle which produces a large amount of force, contracts very quickly
but fatigues quickly.
Main Muscles in the Body (note: this part is subject to matchmaking test)
a. The deltoid is responsible for the abduction of the shoulder (moving the arm out and
away from the body).
b. The pectoralis major is responsible for the abduction of the shoulder (moving the arm
towards the body) and the shoulder horizontal flexion (moving the arm forwards in front
of the body).
c. Biceps are responsible for flexing the elbow (bending the arm).
d. The external obliques are responsible for trunk rotation (twisting the body).
e. The hip flexors are responsible for hip flexion (moving the knee up to the chest).
f. The quadriceps are responsible for extending the knee (straightening it).
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g. The tibialis anterior is responsible for dorsiflexion of the ankle (bringing the toes up in
the direction of the shin).
h. Triceps are responsible for extending the elbow (straightening it).
i. The Latissimus dorsi are responsible for shoulder abduction (moving the arm towards
the body) .
j. The gluteus maximus is responsible for hip extension (moving the leg backwards).
k. The hamstrings are responsible for flexing the knee (bending the leg).
l. The gastrocnemius is responsible for plantar flexion of the ankle (pointing the toes
downwards).
Types of Muscle Contraction
o Isotonic contractions - this includes concentric contraction, where the muscle shortens
and fattens, as well as eccentric contraction where the muscle lengthens and flattens.
o Isometric contraction – this involves a muscle staying the same length despite building
tension. This occurs when the body remains in one position.
Antagonistic Pairs- are pairs of muscles which work together by one contracting (shortening)
and one relaxing (lengthening). The contracting muscle is an agonist and the relaxing muscle
is an antagonist.
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
o Your nervous system is your body’s command center.
o It’s made up of your brain, spinal cord and nerves.
o Your nervous system works by sending messages, or electrical signals, between your
brain and all the other parts of your body. These signals tell you to breathe, move, speak
and see.
Functions of Nervous System
1. Main Function: to send messages from various parts of your body to your brain, and
from your brain back out to your body to tell your body what to do.
These messages regulate your:
✓ Thoughts, memory, learning and feelings.
✓ Movements (balance and coordination).
✓ Senses (how your brain interprets what you see, hear, taste, touch
and feel).
✓ Wound healing.
✓ Sleep.
✓ Heartbeat and breathing patterns.
✓ Response to stressful situations, including sweat production.
✓ Digestion.
✓ Body processes, such as puberty and aging.
Parts of Nervous System and their Function
Main Organs
▪ Brain is an organ of nervous tissue responsible for responses, sensation, movement,
emotions, communication, thought processing, and memory.
▪ Spinal Cord sends motor commands from the brain to the body, send sensory
information from the body to the brain, and coordinate reflexes.
▪ Peripheral Nerves plays key role in both sending information from different areas of
your body back to your brain, as well as carrying out commands from your brain to
various parts of your body.
▪ Sense Organs is the portion of the nervous system responsible for processing input
from the environment.
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How our Nervous System Works?
❖ Neurons and Nervous System: Neurons are specialized nerve cells that form the
foundation of the nervous system, transmitting electrical signals throughout the body.
❖ Signal Transmission: Electrical signals travel through neurons, facilitating communication
between the brain, skin, organs, glands, and muscles.
❖ Function of Messages: Messages sent by neurons enable movement of limbs and
sensations like pain, allowing the body to respond to stimuli.
❖ Sensory Input: Your sensory organs, such as eyes, ears, tongue, and nose, collect
information from the environment.
❖ Data Processing: Nerves carry sensory data to the brain for processing and
interpretation.
❖ Bidirectional Communication: Nerves facilitate the two-way flow of information
between the brain and different parts of the body.
How the Brain works during Physical Activities?
As your heart rate increases during exercise, blood flow to the brain increases. As blood flow
increases, your brain is exposed to more oxygen and nutrients. Exercise also induces the
release of beneficial proteins in the brain.
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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM consists of the pump and vessels that distribute blood to all
areas of the body. This system allows for the delivery of needed substances to the cells of the
body as well as for the removal of wastes.
The primary structures that comprise the cardiovascular system:
• HEART
• BLOOD VESSELS
- Arteries
- Capillaries
- Veins
The cardiovascular system, also called the circulatory system, maintains the distribution of
blood throughout the body.
• The circulatory system is composed of two parts:
– Pulmonary circulation
– Systemic circulation
• The pulmonary circulation, between the heart and lungs, transports deoxygenated blood to
the lungs to get oxygen, and then back to the heart.
• The systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues and cells,
and then back to the heart.
• The human heart pumps blood through the arteries,
which connect to smaller arterioles and
then even smaller capillaries. It is here that nutrients,
electrolytes, dissolved gases, and waste
products are exchanged between the blood and
surrounding tissues.
• Approximately 7,000 liters of blood is pumped by the
heart every day. In an average person’s life, the heart will
contract about 2.5 billion times.
• Blood flow throughout the body begins its return to the
heart when the capillaries return the blood to the venules
and then to the larger veins.
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HEART
• The heart is situated in the mediastinum in the
center of the chest cavity.
• It is about the size of a man’s closed fist and is
shaped like an upside-down pear, the heart lies
directly behind the sternum.
• The tip of the heart at the lower edge is called
the apex.
HEART LAYERS
• The endocardium is the inner layer of the
heart lining the heart chambers. It is a very
smooth, thin layer that serves to reduce friction as the
blood passes through the heart chambers.
• The myocardium is the thick, muscular middle layer of the
heart. Contraction of this muscle layer develops the
pressure required to pump blood through the blood
vessels.
• The epicardium is the outer layer of the heart. The heart is enclosed within a double-
layered pleural sac, called the pericardium.
o The epicardium is the visceral pericardium, or inner layer of the sac.
o The outer layer of the sac is the parietal pericardium. Fluid between the two layers
of the sac reduces friction as the heart beats.
HEART CHAMBERS [ 4 CHAMBERS; 2 ATRIA (upper chambers), 2 VENTRICLES (lower chambers)]
▪ These chambers are divided into right and left sides by
walls called the interatrial septum and the interventricular
septum.
▪ The atria are the receiving chambers of the heart. Blood
returning to the heart via veins first collects in the atria.
▪ The ventricles are the pumping chambers. They have a
much thicker myocardium and their contraction ejects blood out
of the heart and into the great arteries
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HEART VALVES
• Four valves act as restraining gates to control the direction of blood flow. Properly functioning
valves allow blood to flow only in a forward direction by blocking it from returning to the
previous chamber.
BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART
Orderly Blood Flow: Blood flow through the heart is a systematic process, moving from the heart
to the lungs for oxygenation, back to the heart, and then out to body tissues.
Deoxygenated Blood Path: Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the superior
and inferior vena cava, then flows into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve.
Pulmonary Circulation: The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary valve into the
pulmonary artery, leading to the lungs for oxygenation.
Oxygenated Blood Return: Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the
pulmonary veins, then flows into the left ventricle through the mitral valve.
Systematic Pumping: The left ventricle contracts to pump blood through the aortic valve into
the aorta, distributing oxygenated blood to the body.
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Relaxation and Contraction: Heart chambers alternate between relaxation (diastole) to fill with
blood and contraction (systole) to propel blood forward, ensuring efficient circulation
throughout the body.
BLOOD VESSELS
Three types of Blood Vessels:
1. Arteries are thick-walled vessels that carry blood away from the heart, with the aorta
being the largest artery responsible for distributing oxygenated blood to the body
systems. Arteries progressively branch into smaller arterioles, which further deliver blood
to the capillaries.
2. Capillaries form a network of tiny blood vessels, allowing for the exchange of oxygen,
nutrients, carbon dioxide, and waste products between the blood and body tissues. The
slow flow of blood in capillaries facilitates this exchange before the blood is carried back
to the heart through veins.
3. Veins return blood to the heart, with venules merging into larger veins. Veins have thinner
walls than arteries and contain valves that prevent backflow, ensuring blood flows
towards the heart.
- The superior vena cava carries blood from the upper body, while the inferior vena
cava carries blood from the lower body. Muscular action and skeletal muscle
contractions assist in moving blood through the veins, which have lower blood
pressure compared to arteries.
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PULSE AND BLOOD PRESSURE
Blood pressure (BP) measures the force of blood against vessel walls.
- Systolic pressure is the highest reading during ventricular contraction.
- Diastolic pressure is the lowest reading during ventricular relaxation.
- Pulse (P) is the surge of blood caused by heart contraction, typically matching heart rate.
- Factors influencing BP: Artery elasticity, vessel diameter, blood viscosity, blood volume, and
resistance to blood flow.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM IN SPORTS
Cardiovascular fitness is the efficiency of heart, lungs, and circulation to deliver oxygen to
working muscles during exercise.
Key adaptations during exercise:
- Increased heart rate: Pumps more blood.
- Increased stroke volume: More blood ejected per beat.
- Increased cardiac output: More blood pumped per minute.
- Blood redistribution: More blood to working muscles, less to digestive system.
BENEFITS OF CARDIAC FITNESS IN SPORTS
- Enhanced endurance: Efficient oxygen delivery delays fatigue.
- Faster recovery: Rapid removal of waste products like lactic acid.
- Improved stamina: Sustaining high performance levels for longer durations.
- Mental toughness: Focus and resilience during challenging moments.
- Injury prevention: Adequate oxygen supply reduces muscle strain and fatigue-related injuries.
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