Light : Reflection and Refraction 247

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 161) Conclusion
1. If the image formed by the mirror is diminished for all
Objective positions of the object, then the mirror is convex.
To know how would be the images, when the reflecting 2. If the image formed behind the mirror is larger than the
surfaces are curved. object, then the mirror is concave.

Materials Required
Large shining spoon and an object (i.e. our face)
Check Yourself
Procedure 1. What will be the type of mirror, when image formed is
diminished for all positions?
Case 1st
Ans The type of mirror is convex, if image formed is diminished
1. Take a large shining spoon. Try to view your face in its for all positions.
curved surface.
2. Inner curved surface of large shining spoon acts as what
2. Do you get the image? Is it smaller or larger?
type of mirror?
3. Move the spoon slowly away from your face. Observe Ans It acts as concave mirror.
the image. How does it change?
3. In first case, if we move our face slowly away, the face
Case 2nd becomes, what?
1. Reverse the spoon and repeat the activity. How does the Ans The face becomes inverted when we slowly move away our
face.
image look like now?
2. Compare the characteristics of the image on the two 4. Give the nature of image in 2nd case.
surfaces. Ans Image is virtual, erect and diminished.
5. When our face is too far, image will be formed at?
Observations Ans Image will be formed at focus when our face is too far.
Observation 1st
l The inner curved surface of a large shining spoon acts as
a concave mirror. The object is our face. When the
spoon is at a small distance from the object, it lies ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 162)
between pole and focus of concave mirror. We observe
enlarged and erect image of our face. Objective
l When we move the spoon slowly away from our face we To understand the convergence of light.
observe that the image, i.e. our face becomes inverted. Materials Required
Observation 2nd Concave mirror and sheet of paper.
l When we reverse the spoon, its curved surface/position Caution
is bulged out. It behaves as a convex mirror. Do not look at the Sun directly or even into a mirror,
l The image of our face is virtual, erect and diminished. As reflecting sunlight. It may damage your eyes.
we move the spoon away from our face, the image
moves away till it is at the focus of the mirror. Thus, the Procedure
image continues to be virtual, erect and diminished. 1. Hold a concave mirror in your hand and direct its
reflecting surface towards the Sun.
Outer 2. Direct the light reflected by the mirror on to a sheet of
Inner curved curved
surface
paper held close to the mirror.
surface
Object Face
3. Move the sheet of paper back and forth gradually until
(our face) you find a bright, sharp spot of light on the paper sheet.
4. Hold the mirror and the paper in the same position for a
few minutes. Then, observe.
Enlarged image Diminished image
248

Observations 1. Take a concave mirror. Find out its approximate focal

l The Sun is the main source of light which is at infinite length in the way described above. Note down the value
distance from the concave mirror. On reflection from of focal length. (You can also find it by obtaining image
the concave mirror, the sunlight collects at focus of the of a distant object on a sheet of paper).
mirror. By moving the sheet of paper back and forth 2. Mark a line on a table with a chalk. Place the concave
gradually, we get a bright sharp spot of light on the mirror on a stand. Place the stand over the line such that
paper. This spot is the real, point sized image of the Sun its pole lies over the line.
at the focus of the concave mirror. 3. With a chalk, draw two more lines perpendicular to the
l When we hold the mirror and the paper in the same previous line such that the distance between any two
position for a few minutes, the paper starts burning, successive lines is equal to the focal length of the mirror.
because the Sun rays are concentrated on the bright These lines will now correspond to the positions of the
sharp spot of light on paper. points P, F and C, respectively. Remember for a
Paper
spherical mirror of small aperture, the principal focus F
lies mid-way between the pole P and the centre of
Rays of Sun
curvature C.
Concave 4. Keep a bright object, say a burning candle, at a position
F mirror far beyond C. Place a paper screen and move it in front
C of the mirror till you obtain a sharp bright image of the
candle flame on it.
5. Observe the image carefully. Note down its nature,
position and relative size with respect to the object size.
6. Repeat the activity by placing the candle (i) just beyond
Check Yourself C, (ii) at C, (iii) between F and C, (iv) at F and (v) between
P and F.
1. On reflection from the concave mirror, the sunlight 7. In one of the cases, you may not get the image on the
collects at what position of the mirror? screen. Identify the position of the object in such a case.
Ans Sunlight collects at the focus of the mirror. Then, look for its virtual image in the mirror itself.
8. Note down and tabulate your observations.
2. A point image is formed at?
Ans A point image is formed at the focus. Observation
3. The sharp bright spot represents the image of what? l When we keep a bright object such as a burning candle
Ans The sharp, bright spot represents the image of the Sun. at a position beyond C and move back and forth a paper
screen in front of the mirror, we get a sharp bright image
4. Light rays are which type of wave? of the candle flame on the screen between F and C. This
Ans Light rays are an electromagnetic wave. image is inverted and real. When the candle is at C, we
5. Is there any medium required for the light ray to travel? get image at C. The image is real, inverted and of same
Ans Light rays do not require any medium to travel. size as that of object. When the candle is between C and
F, we get image beyond C. The image is inverted and
bigger in size.
ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 163)
l When the candle is between P and F, we get the image
by looking into mirror. The image is enlarged and erect.
Objective Conclusion
To study the formation of image by concave mirror. When the activity is repeated by placing the candle at different
positions, we conclude the following:
Materials Required
1. Beyond C, the image is real, inverted, slightly smaller in
A concave mirror, a stand, a chalk, a burning candle and a
card board size and is situated near C as shown in Fig. (ii).
2. At C, the image is real, inverted and of same size as the
Procedure object. The image is situated at C itself as shown in
You have already learnt a way of determining the focal Fig. (iii).
length of a concave mirror. In activity 2, you have seen that 3. Between F and C, the image is real, inverted, bigger in
the sharp bright spot of light you got on the paper is, in fact, size as compared to the object and is situated beyond C
the image of the Sun. It was a tiny, real, inverted image. You as shown in Fig. (iv).
got the approximate focal length of the concave mirror by 4. At F, the image is real, inverted, much bigger in size than
measuring the distance of the image from the mirror. the object and is situated much beyond C as shown in
Fig. (v) .
Light : Reflection and Refraction 249

5. Between P and F , the image is virtual and erect. The image is seen at the back of the mirror as shown in Fig. (vi).
M
A M A M A D
D
D B
P B P
C C BN C F
F B F P
At A E
infinity B N D AN
N N
(i) (ii) (iii)
M AN
M M E
E
A
A A D D
BN C D C B C
P P B r
F F P BN
B F
AN At
N
N infinity N (vi)
(iv) (v)

The observations in tabular form are

Observation Table
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
(i) At infinity At F Highly diminished, point sized Real and inverted
(ii) Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
(iii) At C At C Same size Real and inverted
(iv) Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
(v) At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
(vi) Between P and F Behind mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

Check Yourself ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 166)

1. Give the nature of image of burning candle, when candle is Objective

at infinity. To study the formation of image by drawing ray diagrams.
Ans Nature of image is real and diminished.
Materials Required
2. When object is at focus where will be the image formed?
Pen, scale and paper.
Ans Image will be formed at infinity.
3. When the object is very far what is the measured distance Procedure
between the image and concave mirror called? 1. Draw neat ray diagrams for each position of the object
Ans Focal length of the mirror. shown in table below.
4. Minimum distance between object and image for real image 2. You may take any two of the rays mentioned in the
will be. previous section for locating the image.
Ans Minimum distance between object and image for real image is 3. Compare your diagram.
zero.
4. Describe the nature, position and relative size of the
5. How many rays are required to form an image? image formed in each case.
Ans Two rays are required for the formation of image. 5. Tabulate the results in a convenient format.
250

Observation
The rays for each position of the object is shown below
M
A D A M
r
BN
P B
C F C F P
Object at infinity
(distant tree) AN
B N
(i) D (ii) N
M E
M
A D A
BN C B
P
B P F
C F
BN
AN N
N (iv)
(iii) AN

M E AN
M E
A D A
BN
P i P
C B F C F B r BN

Image N
at N
infinity
(v) (vi)

Observation Table
Position of Object Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image

(i) At infinity At F Highly diminished, point sized Real and inverted

(ii) Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted

(iii) At C At C Same size Real and inverted

(iv) Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted

(v) At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

(vi) Between P and F Behind mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

Check Yourself
1. Under which condition a concave mirror can form an image larger than the actual size?
Ans When object is placed between F and P, it will form larger image.
2. What is the position of an object, when the real image formed by a concave mirror is larger than the object?
Ans Real image by concave mirror will be larger, when object is in between F and C.
3. If position of object is at infinity, then position of image will be
Ans Position of image will be at focus.
4. What is the nature of image when object is at centre of curvature?
Ans Nature of image will be real, inverted, same in size and at centre of curvature.
5. Where does a ray passing from centre of curvature to the mirror goes?
Ans The ray retraces its path when it passes through centre of curvature.
Light : Reflection and Refraction 251

ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 167) ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 167)

Objective Objective
To study the formation of image by a convex mirror. To find out which mirror will give the full image of a large
object, i.e. concave, convex or plane mirror.
Materials Required
A convex mirror and pencil. Materials Required
A concave mirror, a convex mirror, a plane mirror and
Procedure
a distant object.
1. Take a convex mirror. Hold it in one hand.
2. Hold a pencil in the upright position in the other hand. Procedure
3. Observe the image of the pencil in the mirror. Is the 1. Observe the image of a distant object, say a distant tree,
image erect or inverted? Is it diminished or enlarged? in a plane mirror.
4. Move the pencil away from the mirror, slowly. Does the 2. Could you see a full length image?
image become smaller or larger? 3. Try with plane mirrors of different sizes. Did you see the
5. Repeat this activity carefully. State whether the image entire object in the image?
will move closer to or farther away from the focus as the 4. Repeat this activity with a concave mirror. Did the
object is moved away from the mirror. mirror show full length image of the object?
5. Now try using a convex mirror. Did you succeed?
Observation Explain your observations with reason.
l When we hold a pencil in the upright position in front of
a convex mirror, we view that the image of the pencil in Observation
the mirror is at the back of the mirror. The image is erect, l When we observe the image of a distant object, i.e. tree
virtual and smaller in size than the object. in a plane mirror, the full length of image is not seen. If
l When the pencil is moved away from the mirror, the we try with plane mirrors of different sizes. We find that
image becomes smaller and smaller. the entire object in the image is seen when size of plane
mirror is at least half the size of the object.
l While repeating the
activity, we find that as an l If we repeat this activity with a concave mirror, we
object is moved away from observe full length image of an object for certain
the mirror, the image locations.
would move closer to focus l When we use a convex mirror, the full length of an
of the mirror. object is seen wherever the object may be located.
The main reasons behind this activity are
Check Yourself (i ) In a plane mirror, size of image is always equal to the size
of an object.
1. If the image formed is always virtual, what type of the
mirror it can be? Plane mirror
Ans In convex or plane mirror, image formed is always virtual.
2. If an object moved away, then in which type of mirror, the
image would move closer to the focus?
Ans If an object is moved away from convex mirror, the image
Concave mirror
would move closer to focus of the convex mirror.
3. What is the nature of the image of the pencil, formed?
Ans The image of pencil formed is virtual, erect and highly
diminished.
Convex mirror
4. Spherical mirror is a part of, what?
Ans Spherical mirror is a part of sphere whose one face is
polished.
(ii ) In a concave mirror, the image is smaller or equal in size
5. Where does a ray of light go, coming from focus to the to the size of an object only for certain locations of the
mirror? object.
Ans If a ray of light comes from focus to mirror, it goes parallel to (iii ) In a convex mirror, the image is always virtual, erect and
principal axis. shorter than an object, wherever an object may be
located.
252

Check Yourself Activity 7B

1. In which type of mirror we view the complete image? Procedure
Ans In convex mirror, we view complete image. 1. Place a large shallow bowl of water on a table and put a coin
in it.
2. Which type of image is viewed in plane mirror?
2. Move away slowly from the bowl. Stop when the coin just
Ans In plane mirror, virtual image is formed.
disappears from your sight.
3. A full length image of a distant tall building can 3. Ask a friend to pour water gently into the bowl without
definitely be seen by using what type of mirror? disturbing the coin.
Ans In convex mirror, a full length image of a distant building
is formed. 4. Keep looking for the coin from your position. Does the coin
become visible again from your position? How could this
4. What is the size of image formed in plane mirror? happen?
Ans Image formed in plane mirror is of same size.
Observation
5. What is the focal length of plane mirror?
Ans Focal length of plane mirror is infinity ( ∞).
Ä Consider a large shallow bowl filled with water, the coin is
at the bottom A. Due to refraction of light, the image B of
the coin appears to be raised. When we move our eye
slowly away from the bowl, the coin disappears from our
ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 172) sight. This happens when rays starting from coin A fail to
enter our eye, after refraction at the water surface.
Objective Ä If a friend pours more water gently into the bowl without
disturbing the coin, the coin becomes visible again from the
To understand the phenomenon of refraction of light. same position of our eye.
Materials Required Ä It happens because on adding water, real depth of the coin
A coin and a bucket of water. increases. The apparent depth of the coin is equal to real
depth divided by refractive index of water. Therefore,
Activity 7A apparent depth of the coin also increases. The apparent
position of the coin rises slightly above B and it becomes
Procedure visible from the same position of our eye.
1. Place a coin at the bottom of a bucket filled with
water.
2. With your eye to a side above water, try to pick up
the coin in one go. Did you succeed in picking up the
coin? B
A
3. Repeat the activity. Why did you not succeed in where, A = real position of coin
doing it in one go? B = apparent position of coin
4. Ask your friends to do this. Compare your
experience with their.
Check Yourself
Observation
Ä Consider a coin A at the bottom of a 1. Why we cannot pick up the coin in one go?
bucket filled with water. When we Ans Since the coin appears little above its real position, therefore we
view this coin with our eye to a side cannot pick up the coin in one go.
above water, we observe the image 2. In going from medium water to air, rays of light bend ...........the
at a position B of the coin which is normal.
above A. Ans Rays of light bend away from the normal.
Ä When we try to pick up this coin in B 3. The basic cause of refraction is
one go, we do not succeed because A
Ans Basic cause of refraction is that, “the velocity of light is different
we move our hand at B, where the in different media.”
coin is being observed, but actually the coin lies at
position A, the bottom of the bucket. When our 4. What do you mean by refraction?
friends try the same way, they also fail to pick up the Ans The process of bending of a ray of light on going from one
medium to another is known as refraction.
coin. However, if someone knows that coin is at the
bottom of the bucket, then he/she can pick up 5. Give the path of light when it goes from air to water.
the coin. Ans Light will move towards the normal.
Light : Reflection and Refraction 253

Ä The angle of emergence r2 is equal to the angle of

ACTIVITY 8 (NCERT Pg 173) incidence i 1 , because angles of bending of the ray of
light atO andO ′ at opposite parallel faces AB andCD of
the rectangular glass slab are equal and opposite.
Objective
Ä The light ray O ′ L is shifted sideways slightly, which is
To understand the phenomenon of refraction of light
known as lateral displacement.
through a glass slab.
Materials Required
A sheet of paper, drawing board, pins and glass slab. Check Yourself
Procedure 1. How many refractions occur on passing through a glass
1. Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using slab?
drawing pins. Ans There are two refractions that are taking place.
2. Place a rectangular glass slab over the sheet in the middle. 2. In the 2nd refraction O′ on the glass-air interface CD, what
3. Draw the outline of the slab with a pencil. Let us name the is angle of emergence r2?
outline as ABCD. Ans Angle of emergence r2 is always greater than i 2 and equal
4. Take four identical pins. to i1.
5. Fix two pins, say E and F, vertically such that the line 3. Do the points E and F lie on the same straight line as the
joining the pins is inclined to the edge AB. points G and H?
6. Look for the images of the pins E and F through the Ans No, the points E and F do not lie on the same straight line as
opposite edge. Fix two other pins, say G and H, such that the points G and H.
these pins and the images of E and F all lie on a 4. Velocity of light is maximum in which medium?
straight line. Ans Velocity of light is maximum in air.
7. Remove the pins and the slab. 5. Give the path of light when it goes from air to glass.
8. Join the positions of tip of the pins E and F and produce Ans Light will bend towards the normal.
the line upto AB. Let EF meet AB at O. Similarly, join the
positions of the pins G and H and produce it up to the
edge CD. Let HG meet CD at O ′.
E
N
ACTIVITY 9 (NCERT Pg 177)
F i1
Air
A B Objective
O Glass
Glass
r1 To understand, what happens when parallel rays of light
slab
N' are incident on a lens.
i2
M' L Materials Required
D C
O' G Air A convex lens and a sheet of paper.
M' r2 H
P Caution
9. Join O and O ′. Also, produce EF up to P, as shown by a Do not look at the Sun directly or through a lens while
dotted line in figure. doing this activity or otherwise you may damage your
Observation eyes, if you do so.
At point O, draw NN ′ perpendicular to AB. At pointO ′, draw Procedure
MM ′ perpendicular to CD. Also, draw O ′L perpendicular to 1. Hold a convex lens in your hand. Direct it towards
OP. the Sun.
The following observations are made by us 2. Focus the light from the Sun on a sheet of paper. Obtain
Ä At point O, the ray of light enters from air to glass and a sharp bright image of the Sun.
bend towards the normal NN ′ which is known as first 3. Hold the paper and the lens in the same position for a
refraction. while. Keep observing the paper. What happens? Why?
Ä At point O ′, the ray of light enters from glass to air and Recall your experience in activity 2 with the concave
bend away from the normal MM ′ which is known as mirror.
second refraction.
254

Observation 4. The two lines on either side of the lens correspond to F

Ä When we direct a convex lens in our hand towards the and 2F of the lens, respectively. Mark them with
Sun, the light from the Sun is focussed on a sheet of appropriate letters such as 2F1 , F1 , F 2 and 2F 2 ,
paper. By moving the sheet of paper back and forth, we respectively.
obtain a sharp, bright image of the Sun on the paper. 5. Place a burning candle, far beyond 2F1 to the left.
Ä When the paper and the lens are held in the same Obtain a clear sharp image on a screen on the opposite
position for some time, the paper may burn out, because side of the lens.
of heat produced by the Sun rays as they concentrate on 6. Note down the nature, position and relative size of the
the spot where image of Sun is being formed. This is the image.
same as we observed in activity 2 of topic 1. 7. Repeat this activity by placing object just behind 2 F1 , at
2 F1 , between F1 and 2F1 , at F1 , between F1 and O.
8. Note down and tabulate your observations.
Sun
Observation
Lens Paper Ä From activity 1, measure the distance between the
convex lens and sheet of paper on which a sharp,
bright image of the Sun is formed. Thus, this
Check Yourself distance is approximate focal length of the convex
lens.
1. If we place a convex lens towards the Sun, then where the Ä Now, place a burning candle which acts as an object on
light from the sun is focussed? the left side of the lens. Its image can be obtained on a
Ans Light of the Sun is focussed at focus of lens. screen on the right side of the lens.
2. What happens when the paper and the lens are kept in the Ä When the burning candle is beyond 2F1, we move the
same position for a long time? screen back and forth to obtain a sharp image of the
Ans The paper will start burning. candle flame on the screen. It is observed that the
image is real, inverted, highly diminished, point-sized
3. What does the spot on the paper represents during this
and the screen is located near F 2.
experiment?
Ans Spot on the paper represents image of the Sun. Ä Now, we proceed in this way and note the nature,
position and relative size of the image for different
4. Sun can be considered as an object present at what positions of object.
position?
Ans It is considered to be at infinity.
5. Image of the Sun will be formed at what position?
Ans Image of the Sun will be formed at focus.

2F1 F1 O F2 2F2
ACTIVITY 10 (NCERT Pg 178)
Observation Table
Objective Position of Position of Relative size Nature of
object image of image image
To understand how convex lens forms images and what is
At infinity At focus F2 Highly Real and
its nature. diminished inverted
Materials Required point sized
A convex lens, chalk, table, burning candle and lens stand. Beyond 2 F1 Between F2 Diminished Real and
and 2 F2 inverted
Procedure At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and
1. Take a convex lens. Find its approximate focal length in a inverted
way described in activity 1. Between F1 and Beyond 2 F2 Enlarged Real and
2. Draw five parallel straight lines, using chalk, on a long 2 F1 inverted
table such that the distance between the successive At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large Real and
lines is equal to the focal length of the lens. or highly inverted
3. Place the lens on a lens stand. Place it on the central line enlarged
such that the optical centre of the lens lies just over the Between focus On the same Enlarged Virtual and
line. F1 and optical side of the lens erect
centre O as the object
Light : Reflection and Refraction 255

Check Yourself Observation

Ä A burning candle placed on one side of a concave lens
1. How can we define the focal length? acts as an object. When we see through the lens from the
Ans Focal length is the distance between the convex lens and the other side, we observe an erect, virtual and smaller image
image formed, when the object is at infinity. formed on the same side of the lens as the candle. It is not
2. What is the nature of image when object is present possible to get the image on the screen as the image is not
between F1 and 2F1? real. The position of the image is between focus F and
Ans Nature of image is real, inverted and enlarged. optical centre O of the lens.
3. What is the position of the object, if the nature of the Ä As the candle is moved away from the lens, the size of the
image is virtual and erect? image goes on decreasing. When the candle is too far
Ans The position of object will be between F1 and O (optical away from the lens, the image becomes highly
centre). diminished or point sized at the focus F.
4. Same sized, real image is formed when object is at … .
Ans Same sized, real image is formed when object is at 2F1.

5. When object is at focus where will the image be formed?

Ans When object is at focus, image will be formed at ( ∞) infinity. F
Object Image O

ACTIVITY 11 (NCERT Pg 179)

Objective Check Yourself
To study the nature, position and relative size of the
1. Which lens forms a virtual image which is always smaller
image formed by a concave lens. than the object?
Ans Concave lens always forms smaller virtual image for any
Materials Required
position of object.
A concave lens, a burning candle, lens stand, screen
2. Give the position of image in the activity.
Procedure Ans Position of image in activity is in between F and O.
1. Take a concave lens. Place it on a lens stand. 3. When the candle is too far away from the lens, then the
2. Place a burning candle on one side of the lens. nature of image will be
3. Look through the lens from the other side and observe Ans The nature of image will be diminished, virtual and erect.
the image. Try to get the image on a screen, if possible. 4. The position of image when object is at infinity or too far will
If not, observe the image directly through the lens. be
4. Note down the nature, relative size and approximate Ans Position of image is at focus of the lens.
position of the image.
5. Which type of ray becomes parallel to principal axis after
5. Move the candle away from the lens. Note the change refraction through a concave lens?
in the size of the image. What happens to the size of the Ans A ray directed towards first focus of lens becomes parallel to
image when the candle is placed too far away from principal axis after refraction from the lens.
the lens?
Human Eye and The Colourful World 297

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 192) where, PE = incident ray
EF = refracted ray
Objective FS = emergent ray
∠A = angle of prism
To study the refraction of light through a triangular glass
∠i = angle of incidence
prism.
∠r = angle of refraction
Materials Required ∠e = angle of emergence
Sheet of white paper, drawing board, drawing pins and glass ∠D = angle of deviation.
prism.
Observation
Procedure Ä The given figure shows refraction of light through a
1. Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using triangular glass prism. On surface AB, the first refraction
drawing pins. occurs at point E . The incident ray PE enters from air
into glass at E . It is then refracted along EF bending
2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its
towards normal NN ′ on face AB.
triangular base. Trace the outline of the prism using a
pencil. Ä On the surface AC , the second refraction occurs at point
F and the initial refracted ray EF travelling in glass
3. Draw a straight line PE inclined to one of the refracting
emerges in air at F . It emerges along FS bending away
surfaces, say AB, of the prism.
from normal MM ′ on face AC .
4. Fix two pins, say at points P and Q , on the line PE as Ä The angle of refraction (r) is smaller than the angle of
shown in figure. incidence (i ) at the first refracting surface AB. Similarly,
5. Look for the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q , the angle of emergence (e ) is larger than the angle of
refraction ( ∠EFM ′ ) at the second refracting surface AC .
through the other face AC .
It is similar to the kind of bending that occurs in a glass
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S, such that the pins at slab. Net deviation in a rectangular glass slab is zero,
R and S and the images of the pins at P andQ lie on the except for lateral shift.
same straight line.
Ä However, due to a peculiar shape of the prism, net
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism. deviation in passing through a prism is never zero. The
8. The line PE meets the boundary of the prism at point E deviation suffered by the ray is equal to ∠HGS which is
(see figure). Similarly, join and produce the points R and called the angle of deviation. Its value depends on an
S . Let these lines meet the boundary of the prism at E angle of incidence, angle of prism and nature of material
and F , respectively. Join E and F . of prism.
9. Draw perpendiculars to the refracting surfaces AB and
AC of the prism at points E and F , respectively. Conclusion
10. Mark the angle of incidence ( ∠i ), the angle of refraction The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray
bend at an angle to the direction of the incident ray.
( ∠r ) and the angle of emergence ( ∠e ) as shown in figure.
A
H Check Yourself
N G M
D 1. In the activity, ray FRS is of what type?
i e Ans In the activity, FRS is an emergent ray.
r
E F
M′
2. What is angle D called?
Q N′ R
Ans Angle D is called angle of deviation produced by the prism.
P S
B C 3. In the diagram, which angle is called angle of prism?
Ans In the diagram, ∠ A is called angle of prism.
298 SCIENCE

4. What is the angle of deviation in case of triangular prism?

Ans Angle of deviation in case of triangular prism is given by Conclusion
∠D = ∠i + ∠e − ∠A. Different wavelengths of light have different speeds
5. How many times refraction takes place, when light ray passes in the same medium.
through a prism?
Ans Refraction takes place two times when the light ray passes through a
Check Yourself
prism.
1. Which colour of light bends least?
Ans Red colour of light bends least.
ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 193) 2. Which colour of light bends most?
Ans Violet colour of light bends most.
Objective 3. Why dispersion takes place?
To understand how white light of the Sun gives us various colours Ans It is because different colours have different
of the rainbow. wavelengths.
4. Which colour is in middle of spectrum?
Materials Required
Ans Green appears in the middle of spectrum.
Sheet of paper, cardboard and glass prism.
5. What does dispersion prove?
Procedure Ans Dispersion proves that white light is made up of
1. Take a thick sheet of cardboard and make a small hole or seven different colours.
narrow slit in its middle.
2. Allow sunlight to fall on the narrow slit. This gives a narrow
beam of white light. ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 196)
3. Now, take a glass prism and allow the light from the slit to fall on
one of its faces as shown in figure. Objective
4. Turn the prism slowly until the light that comes out of it appears To understand why the sky appears blue and the
on a nearby screen. Sun red.
5. What do you observe? You will find a beautiful band of colours.
Materials Required
Why does this happen?
Transparent glass tank, screen, water, sodium
Slit A thiosulphate, concentrated sulphuric acid, two
converging lenses and source of white light.
Procedure
1. Place a strong source (S ) of white light at the
R focus of a converging lens ( L1 ). This lens
Sunlight provides a parallel beam of light.
White light
White light spectrum 2. Allow the light beam to pass through a
beam B C V
Glass prism transparent glass tank (T ) containing clear water.
3. Allow the beam of light to pass through a
Observation
circular hole (C ) made in a cardboard. Obtain a
Ä In the figure, the sunlight falls on a narrow slit in a thick sheet of sharp image of the circular hole on the screen
cardboard. From the slit, a narrow beam of white light is obtained ( MN ) using a second converging lens ( L2 ).
which falls on the surface AB of a glass prism ABC .
4. Dissolve about 200 g of sodium thiosulphate
Ä If we turn the prism slowly, we see a beautiful band of seven
(hypo) in about 2 L of clean water taken in the
colours on a screen called visible spectrum. The sequence of
tank. Add about
colours seen from the lower part of the screen is violet (V ), indigo
1 to 2 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid to the
( I ), blue ( B ), green (G ), yellow (Y ), orange (O ) and red (R ). The
water. What do you observe?
acronym is VIBGYOR.
Human Eye and The Colourful World 299

L1
M Check Yourself
L2
1. On which factor does the scattering of colour depend?
C Ans Scattering depends on the size of scatterers and wavelength
S
of light.
2. In the experimental activities, the wavelength of
T transmitted light has ……...... wavelength?
N
Ans In the experiment, the transmitted light has longer
Observation wavelength.

Light gets scattered from sulphur particles and we observe 3. Which type of wavelength get scattered by fine
blue colour from the three sides of tank. From the fourth side particles?
of the tank facing the hole in a cardboard, we observe Ans Fine particles scatter mainly light of shorter wavelengths.
transmitted light. As blue colour has been scattered, we (e.g. Blue in visible spectrum).
observe first the orange red colour and then bright crimson 4. Give the dependence of scattering over wavelength.
red colour on the screen. Ans The dependence of scattering over wavelength is given by
1
Conclusion scattering ∝ 4 .
λ
Smaller particles or very fine particles, scatter shorter
5. In which colour of light, there is least scattering?
wavelengths of light and large particles scatter longer
wavelengths of light. Ans Red colour of light is least scattered.
 Electricity 261

ACTIVITY ZONE

ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 204)

Check Yourself
1. Name the physical quantity whose unit is volt/ampere.
Objective Ans Resistance is the physical quantity whose unit is
To verify Ohm’s law. volt/ampere.
2. Identify the resistor used in the activity.
Materials Required
Ans Nichrome wire is used as resistor in the activity.
Nichrome wire XY of length 0.5 m, ammeter, voltmeter and
four cells each of 1.5 V. 3. What kind of graph is obtained by plotting the values of
V and I?
Procedure Ans Graph obtained is a straight line.
1. First use only one cell as the +V V V V–
source in the circuit. Note the
reading in the ammeter I for the
current and reading of voltmeter
V for the potential difference X R Y
I
+ – K
ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 205)
A
across the nichrome wire XY in V
the circuit. Tabulate them in the
+ – Objective
given table. To observe the flow of current for different components.
2. Next, connect two cells in the circuit and note the readings Materials Required
of the ammeter and voltmeter for the values of current and Nichrome wire, torch bulb, 10 W bulb, ammeter, plug
potential difference across the nichrome wire. key, connecting wire and four dry cells.
3. Repeat the above steps using three cells and then four cells
in the circuit separately. Procedure
4. Calculate the ratio ofV to I for each pair. 1. Set up the circuit by connecting four dry cells of 1.5 V
5. Plot a graph betweenV and I and observe the nature of the each in series with ammeter leaving a gap XY as
graph. shown in the circuit.
Potential + –
Number of Current through A
difference across X Y
cells used in the nichrome V/I
nichrome wire,
the circuit wire, I (ampere) Nichrome wire 10 W Bulb
V (volt)
+ – K –
1 0.1 0.4 4 +
1.5 V Torch bulb
2 0.2 0.8 4
3 0.3 1.2 4 2. Complete the circuit by connecting the nichrome wire
4 0.4 1.6 4 in the gap XY .
3. Plug the key. Note the ammeter reading. Take out the
Sample graph is given as below: key from the plug.
4. Replace the nichrome wire with the torch bulb in the
difference (V)

1.6
circuit and find the current through it by measuring
1.2 the reading of the ammeter.
Potential

0.8 5. Now, repeat the above steps with the 10 W bulb in the
0.4 gap XY .
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Discussion/Conclusion
Current (A )
Ammeter reading is different for different components
Discussion/Conclusion because components may offer easy flow of electric
The graph V – I is a straight line. Thus, it verifies Ohm’s law. current or may offer resistance to the flow.
262

Check Yourself Discussion/Conclusion

It is concluded that the resistance of a wire depends on the
1. The current is different for different components. Why? following factors:
Ans It is so because certain components offer an easy path for (i ) Length of the wire (l ) (ii ) Area of cross-section (A)
the flow of electric current, while others resist the flow.
(iii ) Nature of material of wire
2. Name a component used to regulate current without
changing the voltage source.
Ans Variable resistance (rheostat) is used to regulate current Check Yourself
without changing the voltage source.
3. Which instrument is used for measuring current? 1. Does the current depend on the length of the conductor?
Ans Ammeter is used for measuring current. Ans Yes, the current depends on the length of the conductor.
2. If current/ammeter reading decreases to half, what happens
to the length of the wire?
ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 206) Ans The length of the wire is doubled.
3. Is there any change in current when a wire of different
Objective materials of same length and area of cross-section is used?
To study the factors on which the resistance of conductor Ans Yes, there will be a change in current.
depends.
Materials Required ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 210)
Cell, ammeter, nichrome wire and plug key.
Objective
Procedure
To understand resistors in series combination.
1. Complete the electric circuit consisting of a cell, an
ammeter, a nichrome wire of length l at point 1, a plug Materials Required
key as shown in circuit diagram. Three resistors of different values, battery, ammeter, plug key,
(1) K voltmeter and connecting wire.
(2)
(3) Procedure
(4)
1. Join three resistors of different values in series. Connect
them with a battery, an ammeter and a plug key.
– + + – 2. Plug the key and record the ammeter reading.
A
Electric circuit of X R1 R2 R3 Y

conducting wires –
A +V –
2. Now, plug the key and note the current in the +
ammeter.
+ – K
3. Replace the nichrome wire by another nichrome ( )
wire of same thickness but twice the length that is 2l at
point 2. 3. Change the position of ammeter to anywhere in between
the resistors and record the ammeter reading each time.
4. Note the ammeter reading.
5. Now, use thicker wire of nichrome but of same length Discussion/Conclusion
l marked at point 3. The value of current in the ammeter is same, if it is placed
6. A thicker wire has a larger cross-sectional area. Note anywhere in the circuit.
the ammeter reading.
7. Replace nichrome wire with copper wire of same Check Yourself
length and same area of cross-section at point 4. Note
the value of the current. 1. What is the resistance of an ideal ammeter?
8. Record the differences in current in all cases. Ans The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
Observations 2. What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter?
1. The current I flows in case 1. Ans The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite.
2. The current I flows in case 2. 3. In series combination, which physical quantity current or
voltage remains constant?
3. The current I increases in case 3.
Ans Current is constant because in series combination current
4. The current I decreases in case 4. remains same throughout all the resistor.
 Electricity 263

On adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 211) V 1 + V 2 + V 3 = IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3
⇒ V = I (R1 + R 2 + R 3 )
Objective  V
⇒ R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 QR = 
To study the relationship between current and potential  I
difference when resistors are connected in series.
Materials Required Check Yourself
Three resistors of different values, battery, ammeter, three
1. In a circuit, three resistors of 5 Ω ,10 Ω and15 Ω are
voltmeters, plug key and connecting wires.
connected in series, compare the current passing through
three resistors.
Procedure
Ans The current in series combination is same. So, the ratio of
1. Join three resistors of different values in series. Connect current will be 1:1:1.
them with a battery, an ammeter, plug key and voltmeter
across the ends X and Y of the series combination of 2. In a circuit, two resistors of 20 Ω and 4 Ω are connected in
three resistors. series, find the total resistance.
Ans R = R1 + R2 = 20 + 4 = 24 Ω
+ – + – + –
V1 V2 V3
3. What do you conclude from this activity?
X R1 P Q R2 S T R3 Y Ans We conclude that the resistance of the combination is equal
to the sum of their individual resistances.
I I

+ –
K
A
ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 213)
– +
Relationship between current Objective
and potential difference in
series combination To study the relationship between current I and resistance
R in a parallel circuit.
2. Plug the key in the circuit and note the voltmeter Materials Required
reading. It gives the potential difference across the series Three resistors of different values, battery, ammeter,
combination of resistors. Let it beV . voltmeter, connecting wire and plug key.
3. Now, measure the potential difference across
the two terminals of the battery. Compare the two Procedure
values. 1. Make a parallel combination XY of three resistors
4. Take out the plug key and disconnect the voltmeter. having resistances R1 , R 2 and R 3 . Connect it with a
5. Now, insert the voltmeter across the ends X and P of the battery, a plug key and an ammeter. Also, connect a
first resistor. voltmeter in parallel with the combination of resistors.
6. Plug the key and measure the potential difference across 2. Plug the key and record the ammeter reading I and also
the first resistor. Let it beV 1 . take the voltmeter readingV across the combination.
L R1 M
7. Similarly, measure the potential difference across the
R2
other two resistors. X Y
P R3 Q
Discussion/Conclusion S T
V
1. The potential difference V is equal to the sum of I + – I
potential differencesV 1 , V 2 andV 3 . K
+ –
∴ V = V1 + V 2 + V 3 ( )
– A +
Relationship between current and
resistance in parallel combination
2. Ammeter reading I remains constant throughout the
circuit. 3. Take out the plug from the key.
∴ R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 4. Remove the ammeter and voltmeter from the circuit.
V = IR and V 1 = IR1 …(i) 5. Insert the ammeter in series with the resistor R1 and
V 2 = IR 2 …(ii) record the ammeter reading I 1 .
V 3 = IR 3 …(iii) 6. Similarly, measure the current through R 2 and R 3 and let
their current be I 2 and I 3 .
264

Discussion/Conclusion
1. Ammeter reading when connected in series to the circuit
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
2. Voltmeter reading remains constantV = IR
To get equivalent resistance in the circuit,
V
I1 = …(i)
R1
V
I2 = …(ii)
R2
V
I3 = …(iii)
R3
On adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
V V V 1 1 1
I1 + I 2 + I 3 = + + , I =V  + + 
R1 R 2 R 3  R1 R 2 R 3 

1 1 1 1
⇒ = + +
R R1 R 2 R 3

Check Yourself
1. What is the relationship between the currents?
Ans The total current I is equal to the sum of the separate currents through each branch of the combination.
2. Two resistors of 30 Ω and 60 Ω are connected in parallel in an electric circuit. How does the current passing through the two
resistors, compare?
Ans 2:1, as current in 30 Ω resistor is two times in comparison to that in 60 Ω resistor.
3. What do you conclude from this activity?
Ans We conclude that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistance.
 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 311

ACTIVITY ZONE

ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 223) ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 224)

Objective Objective
To show that a current-carrying wire behaves like a magnet. To obtain magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
Materials Required Materials Required
Copper wire, battery, plug key, variable resistance, paper and A strong bar magnet, iron filings, drawing board, sheet
compass needle of paper and adhesive material

Procedure Procedure
1. Take a straight thick copper wire and place it between the 1. Fix a white sheet of paper on drawing board.
points X andY in an electric circuit as shown in figure. The wire 2. Place the bar magnet on a plane sheet of paper.
XY is kept perpendicular to the plane of paper. 3. Sprinkle iron filings uniformly on the paper.
2. Horizontally, place a small compass near to this copper wire. 4. Tap the board gently and observe the pattern of field
See the position of its needle. lines.
3. Pass the current through the circuit by inserting the key into
the plug.
4. Observe the change in the position of the compass needle.
K R
X

I
Iron filings near the bar magnet align
themselves along the field lines
+ – Y
Compass needle is deflected on passing an Observation
electric current through a metallic conductor A bar magnet possesses a magnetic field which can be
detected by sprinkling iron filings around it.
Observation
As we pass current through the copper wire XY, the compass Discussion/Conclusion
needle gets deflected. The arrangement of these iron filings around the
magnet represents the pattern of this magnetic field in
Discussion/Conclusion
the form of magnetic field lines.
Since, a magnetic needle can be deflected only by a
magnetic field, so a current-carrying wire behaves like a magnet.
Check Yourself
Check Yourself 1. In which region is the density of iron filings
maximum?
1. Name the device which is used to draw magnetic field lines. Ans At both poles, the densities of iron filings are maximum.
Ans Compass needle is used to draw magnetic field lines.
2. What happens to the field lines pattern, if the magnet
2. In the given activity, which two physical quantities are is broken into two halves?
interrelated? Ans If the magnet is broken into two halves, then the field
Ans In the given activity, electricity and magnetism are the two physical lines pattern remains the same.
quantities that are interrelated. 3. Why two North poles are placed facing each
3. How is the direction of magnetic field at a point determined? other?
Ans The direction of magnetic field at a point is determined by placing a Ans North poles repel each other, so magnetic field lines
small compass needle. bend away from each other.
312

ACTIVITY 3 Check Yourself

(NCERT Pg 224, 225)
1. Is the magnetic field a vector quantity or scalar quantity?
Objective Ans The magnetic field is a vector quantity.
To show that magnetic field lines of a bar magnet can be 2. Where does the magnetic field lines merge?
drawn using compass needle. Ans Magnetic field lines merge at the South pole.
Materials Required 3. Point out the direction of magnetic field lines inside the
magnet.
A bar magnet, compass needle, sheet of white paper, drawing
board and adhesive material Ans The direction of magnetic field lines inside the magnet is
from South pole to North pole.
Procedure
1. Take a small compass and a bar magnet.
2. Place the magnet on a sheet of white paper fixed on a ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 226)
drawing board using some adhesive material.
Objective
3. Mark the boundary of the magnet.
To show that the direction of the magnetic field due to a
4. Place the compass near the North pole of the magnet.
current is dependent on the direction of the current.
5. Mark the position of two ends of the needle.
6. Now, move the needle to a new position such that its South Materials Required
pole occupies the position previously occupied by its Copper wire, two or three cells, plug key and compass
North pole. needle
7. In this way, proceed step by step till you reach the South
Procedure
pole of the magnet as shown in Fig. (a).
1. Take a long straight copper wire, two or three cells of
1.5 V each and a plug key. Connect all of them in
series as shown in Fig. (a).
2. Place the straight wire parallel to and over a compass
needle.
3. Plug the key in the circuit.
S N N
E
N S North W North
S N
East S
(a) Drawing a magnetic field line with K K
the help of a compass needle N West N
S S
8. Join the points marked on the paper by a smooth curve.
Fig. (b) represents the field lines.
(a) (b)
An electric circuit in which a straight copper wire is placed
parallel to and over a compass needle showing deflection

S N 4. Observe the direction of deflection of the North pole

of the needle. If the current flows from North to South
as shown in Fig. (a), the North pole of the compass
needle would move towards the East.
(b) Field lines around a bar magnet 5. Replace the cell connections in the circuit as shown in
Fig. (b). This would result in the change of the
9. Repeat the above procedure and draw as many lines as direction of current through the copper wire, i.e. from
you can. You will get a pattern shown in Fig. (b). South to North.
These lines represent the magnetic field around the 6. Observe the change in the direction of deflection of
magnet. These are known as magnetic field lines. the needle.
Discussion/Conclusion Observation
Magnetic field is represented by field lines which tells The needle moves in opposite direction, i.e. towards the
us the direction and strength of the field at a point inside West. The direction of magnetic field produced by the
the field. electric current is reversed.
 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 313

Check Yourself 6. Gently tap the cardboard a few times. Observe the pattern of
the iron filings.
1. On what factor does the direction of magnetic field You would find that the iron filings align themselves showing
depends? a pattern of concentric circles around the copper wire.
Ans The direction of magnetic field depends upon the
direction of current flowing through it. Observation
2. What is the combination of plug key, wire and cells? We observe a pattern of concentric circles around the copper
wire which represents magnetic field lines. Place a compass at a
Ans The combination of plug key, wire and cells is series point over a circle. Observe the direction of the needle. The
combination. direction of the North pole of the compass needle would give
3. What would be the direction of compass needle, if the the direction of the field lines produced by the electric current at
current flows from North to South pole? P.
Ans If the current flows from North to South pole, then the
direction of the compass needle is towards East. Check Yourself
1. What does the concentric circles represent?
ACTIVITY 5 Ans The concentric circles represent magnetic field lines.
(NCERT Pg 226, 227) 2. How can you find the direction of magnetic field?
Objective Ans We can find the direction of magnetic field by placing
To sketch the pattern of magnetic field lines due to compass needle.
current flowing through a straight conductor. 3. Which rule is applicable?
Ans The applicable rule is right hand thumb rule.
Materials Required
Battery (12 V), rheostat, an ammeter (0—5 A), plug key,
long thick straight copper wire and cardboard
ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 229)
Procedure
1. Insert the thick wire through the centre, normal to Objective
the plane of a rectangular cardboard. Take care that To study the pattern of magnetic field due to a current-carrying
the cardboard is fixed and does not slide up or circular coil.
down.
Materials Required
2. Connect the copper wire vertically between the
points X and Y as shown in Fig. (a) in series with the Rectangular cardboard, circular coils having number of turns,
battery and a plug key. iron filings, plug key and battery

Variable resistance
Procedure
– +
A
1. Take a rectangular cardboard having two holes. Insert a
X
circular coil having large number of turns through them,
+ normal to the plane of the cardboard.
P – 2. Connect the ends of the coil in series with a battery, a key and
a rheostat as shown in figure below:

Y
K B
(a) (b)
(a) A pattern of concentric circles indicating
A
the field lines of a magnetic field around a
straight conducting wire. The arrows in the
circles show the direction of the field lines.
– +
K
3. Sprinkle some iron filings uniformly on the Magnetic field produced by a
cardboard. current-carrying circular coil.
4. Keep the variable of the rheostat at a fixed position 3. Sprinkle iron filings uniformly on the cardboard.
and note the current through the ammeter.
4. Plug the key.
5. Close the key so that current flows through the wire.
5. Tap the cardboard gently a few times. Note the pattern of the
Ensure that the copper wire placed between the
iron filings that emerges on the cardboard.
points X and Y remains vertically straight.
314

Observation Check Yourself

The magnetic field lines near the coil are circular and
concentric. The direction of the magnetic field at the centre
1. In which direction does the rod get displaced?
is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. Magnetic field is Ans The rod gets displaced towards right.
maximum at centre. 2. Which rule is used to find the direction of force?
Ans Fleming’s left hand rule is used to find the direction of force.
Check Yourself 3. How is the magnitude of force acting on a conductor in
magnetic field is increased?
1. What happens to the strength of magnetic field if we move Ans The magnitude of force acting on a conductor in magnetic
towards the centre of the coil? field is increased by increasing current through conductor.
Ans If we move towards the centre of the coil, the strength of
magnetic field increases.
2. Where is the magnetic field maximum?
Ans The magnetic field is maximum at the centre.
ACTIVITY 8 (NCERT Pg 234)

3. Identify the pattern of magnetic field lines. Objective

Ans The pattern of magnetic field lines is circular and concentric. To explain how a moving magnet can be used to generate
electric currents.

ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 230)

Materials Required
Bar magnet, galvanometer and coil of wire
Objective Procedure
To show that force is exerted on a current-carrying 1. Take a coil of wire AB having a large number of turns.
conductor placed in a strong magnetic field. 2. Connect the ends of the coil to a galvanometer
(as shown in figure below).
Materials Required
Coil
A conducting rod AB, connecting wires, horse-shoe
A B
magnet, battery, switch and clamp stand
N S
Procedure
1. Connect the conducting rod AB to the battery and key.
2. Place a strong horse-shoe magnet in such a way that the
rod AB lies between the poles with magnetic field G Galvanometer
directed upwards, i.e. N -pole is vertically below and Moving a magnet towards a coil sets up
S -pole is vertically above the rod. a current in the coil circuit as indicated
3. Plug in the key. by deflection in the galvanometer needle

3. Take a strong bar magnet and move its North pole

towards the end B of the coil. Note the change in the
galvanometer needle.
4. There is a momentary deflection in the needle of the
S galvanometer, say to the right. This indicates the presence
B of a current in the coil AB. The deflection becomes zero as
A
motion of the magnet stops.
– +
N 5. Now, withdraw the North pole of the magnet away from
the coil. Now, the galvanometer is deflected towards the
K left showing that the current is now set up in the
direction opposite to the first.
6. Place the magnet stationary at a point near the coil,
Current-carrying conductor
AB placed in a strong
keeping its North pole towards the end B of the coil. We
magnetic field. see that the galvanometer needle deflects towards the
right when the coil is moved towards the North pole of
the magnet. Similarly, the needle moves towards left
Observation when the coil is moved away.
A current-carrying rod AB experiences a force
7. When the coil is kept stationary with respect to the
perpendicular to its length and the magnetic field.
magnet, the deflection of the galvanometer drops to zero.
 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 315

Coil 1 Coil 2
Observation
Motion of magnet with respect to the coil produces an
induced potential difference, which sets up an induced
electric current in the circuit.
Moving a magnet towards a coil sets up current in the coil
circuit as indicated by deflection in the galvanometer.
K G

Check Yourself Current is induced in coil 2 when

current in coil 1 is changed
1. Name the instrument which shows deflection.
Ans Galvanometer shows deflection. 3. Plug the key. Observe the galvanometer. Is there any
2. When does the deflection of the galvanometer drops to deflection in its needle?
zero? You will observe that the needle of the galvanometer
Ans When the magnet is kept stationary with respect to the coil, instantly jumps to one side and just as quickly returns to
the deflection of the galvanometer becomes zero. zero indicating a momentary current in coil 2.
3. What is finally induced in the circuit? 4. Disconnect coil 1 from the battery. You will observe that
Ans Electric current is finally induced in the circuit. the needle momentarily moves, but to the opposite side.
It means that now the current flows in the opposite
direction in coil 2.
ACTIVITY 9 (NCERT Pg 235) Observation
Whenever electric current through coil 1 is changed, a
Objective potential difference is induced in coil 2. The coil 1 is called
primary coil and coil 2 is called secondary coil. The
To study whenever current is changed in a circuit induced potential difference in coil 2 is due to change in
(primary), an induced potential difference is set up in a magnetic field lines.
neighbouring circuit (secondary).
Materials Required Check Yourself
Two different coils of copper wire of different number of
turns, galvanometer, cylindrical roll, battery and plug key 1. Is there any deflection in galvanometer when the key is
plugged?
Procedure Ans Yes, the needle of galvanometer instantly jumps to one side
1. Take two different coils of copper wire having large and quickly returns to zero.
number of turns (say 50 and 100 turns respectively). 2. In which coil potential difference is induced?
Insert them over a non-conducting cylindrical roll as Ans Potential difference is induced in coil 2, i.e. secondary coil.
shown in circuit diagram. 3. What is the coil containing battery called?
2. Connect the coil 1 having larger number of turns in Ans The coil containing battery is called primary coil.
series with a battery and a plug key. Also, connect the
other coil 2 with a galvanometer as shown in figure.
Our Environment

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 256)
How Long
Items Classification Harmful Effects
do these Last
Objective Wooden table Biodegradable 1-3 yrs As it is biodegradable
To study decomposition of waste materials and hence, no harmful
effects
identify the substances as biodegradable and
non-biodegradable. TV
Books
Procedure
1. Collect waste material from your homes. The waste Tubelight/CFL
material could consist of vegetable peels, milk Plastic bags
packets, old socks, paper bags, medicine wrappers,
Clothes
empty cartons, etc.
Cold-drink
2. Bury these materials in a pit in your backyard
cans
garden or in an old bucket and cover it with at least
15 cm of soil. Silver foil
3. Keep this material moist and observe at 15 day Ans.
intervals.
How Long do
Items Classification Harmful Effects
these Last
Check Yourself Wooden Biodegradable 1-3 yrs As it is biodegradable
table hence, no harmful
1. Which material remains unchanged over a long period effects.
of time? The metals and glass
TV Non-biodegradable 500-2000 yrs
Ans Non-biodegradable materials from TV cause various
diseases.
2. Which among the following is non-biodegradable?
(paper, wood, sewage) Books Biodegradable 6 weeks Do not cause any kind
of harm.
Ans None
Tubelight/ Non-biodegradable 1-2 million yrs The glass and other
3. Which materials change their form and structure over components cause
CFL
time? pollution.
Ans Biodegradable materials Cause unstoppable
Plastic bags Non-biodegradable 20-1000 yrs
4. Name the organisms that can degrade waste material. harm to life and
property.
Ans Saprobes
Clothes Biodegradable 1-5 yrs Cause harm if by
5. From the list, choose a biodegradable waste mistake eaten by
(vegetable peel, plastic bag, fungicide, frying pan). animals.
Ans Vegetable peel Cold-drink Non-biodegradable 200-500 yrs Do not degrade and
cans cause pollution.

ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 257)

Silver foil Non-biodegradable 50-80 yrs It is not decomposed
by microbes and
causes pollution.
Objective
To study the harmful effects of non-biodegradable Check Yourself
substances and the reasons to use biodegradable
substances. 1. Some materials are biodegradable whereas some are
non-biodegradable. Give reason.
Time 20 Minutes Ans This is due to the property of microbes due to which they can
Instructions decompose only products made from natural material like paper,
jute, etc., as biodegradable wastes. These organisms are specific in
Fill the left out blanks according to headings. One has their action but are unable to degrade materials like plastic, etc.,
been done for you. which are therefore classified as non-biodegradable wastes.
334

2. Name two biodegradable and non-biodegradable 4. Why is an aquarium called as artificial ecosystem?
substances. Ans Because they are modified and managed by human beings.
Ans Non-biodegradable Metals, plastics, certain dyes, etc.
5. From where do the fishes get oxygen to breathe?
Biodegradable Paper, wood, cotton, etc.
Ans The oxygen is available in the form of dissolved oxygen in
3. Do biodegradable wastes also pollute the environment? water to fishes.
Ans Biodegradable wastes usually do not pollute the 6. If large aquatic animals are added what will you observe ?
environment. These pollute the environment only when their
Ans The larger fishes will feed on smaller ones thus making their
amount is large which cannot be degraded (or decomposed)
into harmless substances in nature at the right time. number low.

4. Name some non-biodegradable materials that can be

recycled.
Ans Materials like glass, metals and certain plastics can be
recycled.
ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 261)

5. Name two non-biodegradable pesticides banned in our Objective

country due to their harmful effects.
Ans The pesticides like DDT and aldrin are banned in our
To enhance the understanding of students on the effect of
country because these cannot be decomposed into simple, pesticides.
harmless substances and pass along the food chain to crops
and further to man through other animals, birds, etc., and
Time 2-3 hour
harm them.
Procedure
Answers 1. Compile the various reports from newspapers, radio and
TV about the presence of high levels of pesticide in
beverages and readymade food items.
ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 258) 2. Find out why it has been banned in some states.
3. Find out the causes of pesticide contamination.
Objective
Theory
To prepare an aquarium and study the relationship of the The pesticides are the chemicals that are used to kill insects
organisms interacting with each other. Also to check the and pests present in the fields.
effect of wastes or pollutants on the organisms present in
The power in regulations in the US, that
the aquarium. put a check on pesticides in cold-drinks
0.025
Time 5-8 hour
45 times*
Total pesticides (mg/L)

Procedure
0.0223

0.02 37 times*
1. To design an aquarium, the jar should be large for free
0.0187

swimming of the fishes and other water creatures. 0.015

2. Plant some water ferns and attach some oxygen pumps
to provide oxygen to the water animals. 0.01
3. Add some pebbles and stones and some artificial plants
and accessories to immitate a natural waterbody. 0.005
4. Keep filters and cleaners or clean it once a week or so.
0.0000 0.0000
0.0000
(Coca-cola, India) (Coca-cola, US) (Pepsi, India) (Pepsi, US)
Check Yourself Brands
* Number of lines in excess of EEC limit for total pesticides.
1. What is an ecosystem?
Ans All the interacting organisms in an area together with the These are harmful chemicals whose intake causes various
non-living constituents of environment form an ecosystem. kinds of diseases and abnormalities in the body. These might
2. Is the aquarium, a natural ecosystem or a man-made also get in the food web and cause biological magnification.
ecosystem? Looking at the harmful effects of the use of pesticides, these
Ans Aquarium is an artificial or man-made ecosystem. have been banned. Pesticides have recently been
3. Name the ecosystem of which aquarium is an artificial encountered in soft drinks and readymade beverages. These
mimic. drinks also have been banned as these may directly affect the
Ans Pond ecosystem. health of the consumer.
Our Environment 335

Check Yourself Check Yourself

1. What are pesticides? 1. Define a food chain.
Ans Pesticides are non-biodegradable chemicals used for the Ans The food chain is a linear network of organisms related
protection of crop plants from pests/insects. through food, in which each organism feeds on the one
below it in the series.
2. What is the accumulation of non-biodegradable pesticides
in the food chain in increasing amount at each higher 2. What are trophic levels?
trophic level known as? Ans These are various steps or levels in the food chain where
Ans Biomagnification. transfer of food or energy takes place.

3. How do these chemicals enter the food chain? 3. Give the significance of food web.
Ans The significance of food web is as follows:
Ans These chemicals wash down into soil, reach water table, pass
into waterbodies and also enter into the plant parts such as (i) Food chain provides pathways for availability of food.
vegetables. In this manner, they make their way into food (ii) It allows endangered populations to grow in size.
chain. (iii) Food webs provide stability to ecosystem and help in its
4. Why are human beings harmed maximum by these development.
chemicals? 4. Name the ultimate source of energy for the earth.
Ans Human beings are maximally harmed because they occupy Ans Sun or solar energy is the ultimate source of energy for the
the top level in most of the food chains. Earth.
5. What are the ways to overcome the problem of pollution 5. When does an organism become extinct?
through pesticides? Ans When the organism is killed deliberately for food or other
Ans (i) Organic farming commercial purposes, its population keeps on decreasing in
(ii) Filtering the water before its use. number. This results in extinction of the species with time.
6. What leads an organism to increase in number?
Ans When predator for a particular organism decreases in
ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 259)
number, the organisms start increasing in number. As the
animals which used to feed on them decrease in number,
therefore, the population of those organisms increases.
Objective
To understand the interrelationship between organisms
within the food web and to know how one species ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 262)
population affects the other.
Objective
Time 1 hour
To study the ozone layer depletion.
Instructions
Study the figure and understand the concept of the food Time 20 minutes
web. Analyse the populations and their effects on each Instructions
other. 1. Fill in the bubbles with the correct statements
corresponding the heading of the bubbles.
2. Information can be collected from literary sources like
library, newspaper, etc.
Ozone depleting
substances
1

Formation of ozone Effects of ozone

depletion
2
Ozone Layer 5

Where is it found? What is ozone?

3 4
Food web
336

Answers 2. Doesn’t sound very good,

1. CFCs, halogens, nitrous oxide, CCl4 and CH4 . does it? Actually, raw sewage
2. Atomic oxygen is highly reactive. It combines with oxygen to can make you sick. It can also
form ozone. make your neighbours and
UV your pets sick. These things
O2 → [O] + [O] can happen when
2O2 + 2 [O] → 2O3 l You use straight pipes and have no septic system.
Ozone
l The drainfield isn’t working right.
3. Mainly stratosphere
4. Ozone is a triatomic molecule made up of three atoms of
l The septic tank is too full and needs to be pumped.
oxygen (O3 ). It is present in atmosphere as an ozone shield that 3. How can sickness be spread? By
protects us from high energy UV radiations. l walking in polluted streams.
5. Cancers, mutations, effect on eyesight, global warming, l walking in sewage water.
weakening of immune system, etc. l not washing your hands after handling your pets.
l by flies that land in sewage water and then food.
Check Yourself l eating vegetables grown by watering with polluted
water.
1. Name the rays against which ozone layer provides 4. Small children and older adults are most likely to get
protection? sick from polluted water.
Ans UV rays.
Some of the symptoms are:
2. Which type of disease is caused by ozone layer depletion? l Diarrhoea Dermatophytoses
l

Ans Skin cancer and cataract (damage of eyesight) l Fever Tiredness

l

3. Name one effect of depletion of ozone on the environment. l Hepatitis Stomach cramps
l

Ans Global warming. l The presence of unexplained viruses, parasites and

4. What is the height of ozone layer from the equator? worms
Ans 23-25 km. l Sudden weight loss
5. Where was the first hole in the ozone layer of the Earth seen?
Ans Antarctica. Check Yourself

ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 263)

1. Different types of diseases can be spread by sewage.
Name a few such diseases.
Ans Diarrhoea, dermatophytoses, worm infections, stomach
Objective cramps, etc., spread through sewage.

To check the sewage decorum of the society and mechanism to 2. What kind of waste does sewage contain?
Ans Sewage basically contains faeces and urine, household dirt,
analyse the treatment of sewage for reduction of its ill effects. cleaners and soap, bacteria and viruses.
Time 10 minutes 3. Give ways for treatment of sewage.
Ans Sewage treatment generally involves three stages called
Instructions primary, secondary and tertiary treatement.
Health Effects of Sewage Water Pollution (i) Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the
Raw sewage doesn’t smell good. But, there are even more sewage in a quiescent basis where heavy solids can
important reasons that every home needs adequate sewage settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids
treatment. float to the surface. The settled and floating materials are
removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or
1. What’s in the sewage water that’s running out of a pipe in
subjected to secondary treatment.
someone’s backyard or into a stream?
(ii) Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended
l Toilet paper biological matter. It is typically performed by indigenous
l Faeces and urine waterborne microorganisms in a managed habitat.
l Bacteria and viruses (iii) Tertiary treatment is disinfection chemically or
physically prior to discharge into a stream, river, bay
l Worms lagoon or wettand. If it is very clear, it can also be used
l Cleaners and soap for groundwater recharge or agricultural purposes.
l Dirt
Our Environment 337

4. How are waterbodies affected by sewage disposal? Check Yourself

Ans The factories and industries release polluted water into the streams, the
waterbodies in turn release all the harmful chemicals and heavy metals
along with, the sewage into the rivers and ponds. This makes the water 1. Identify the hazardous materials which have to be
unsafe for drinking or other purposes. dealt with while disposing of electronic items.
Ans Lead, barium and phosphorus along with other
5. Give one useful product that can be produced from sewage.
heavy metals are the hazardous materials which
Ans Sewage can be used to produce biogas, which is used for cooking and have to be dealt with while disposing off electronic
in electricity generation. items.
2. How is plastic recycled?

ACTIVITY 8 (NCERT Pg 263)

Ans Plastic is recycled with shredding, in which it is
landfilled or sent to smelters.
3. Name the processes used for disposing of plastic
Objective and electronic items.
Ans The processes used for disposing of plastic and
To find out which hazardous materials have to be dealt with
electronic items are:
while disposing of electronic items. (i) Shredding
Time 15 minutes (ii) Municipal incineration
(iii) Pyrometallurgical recovery
E-wastes Hazards to Environment (iv) Thermal depolymerisation
and Process to Dispose them (v) Plasma arc gasification
E-waste Potential Environmental (vi) Bioleaching
Process Used
Components Hazard 4. What impact does recycling of plastic have on
Cathode ray tubes Breaking and Lead, barium and other heavy environment?
(used in TVs, removal of yoke, then metals leaching into the Ans The recycling of plastic leads to emission of
computers monitors, dumping. groundwater and release of toxic brominated dioxins, heavy metals and hydrocarbons,
ATM, video cameras phosphorus. which do not degrade and enter into food web. This
and more). causes biomagnification and many other potential
Printed circuit board De-soldering and Air emissions as well as discharge hazards fatal to life and property.
(a thin plate on removal of computer into rivers of glass dust, tin, lead, 5. What are the potential environmental hazards of
which chips and chips; open burning brominated dioxin, beryllium, the process so used?
other electronic and acid baths to cadmium and mercury.
Ans The potential environmental hazards of the
components are remove final metals
placed). after chips are removed.
process used are:
(i) Air emissions as well as discharge into rivers of
Chips and other Chemical stripping Hydrocarbons, heavy metals, glass dust, tin, lead and mercury lead to air and
gold plated using nitric and brominated substances
water pollution.
components. hydrochloric acid and discharged directly into rivers
burning of chips. acidifying fauna and flora. Tins (ii) Tin and lead contamination of surface and
and lead contamination of surface groundwater.
and groundwater. Air emissions of (iii) Hydrocarbon ashes released into air, water and
brominated dioxins, heavy metals soil cause pollution.
and hydrocarbons. (iv) Heavy metals leach into groundwater and release
Plastics from Shredding and low Emissions and brominated lead, barium, etc., into water.
printers, keyboards, temperature melting dioxins, heavy metals and (v) Hydrocarbons get discharged directly into rivers
monitors, etc. to be used. hydrocarbons. acidifying fish and flora.
Computer wires. Open burning and Hydrocarbon ashes released into (vi) All these toxins are either released through smoke
stripping to remove air, water and soil. or slag causing pollution.
copper.