KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT, POLICY AND CURRICULUM STUDIES

EDU 211: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. JOSEPH G. MUNGAI

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 TOPICS/ LESSONS
1. COMMON CONCEPTS IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES IN EDUCATION

3. THEORIES AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

4 LITERATURE REVIEW

5 POPULATION AND SAMPLING

6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND PROCESSES

7 ANALYSIS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH DATA

8 DEVELOPMENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1. COMMON CONCEPTS IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

1.1 Introduction to Common Concepts in Educational Research

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 a) Definitions of Concepts
i) Meaning of Research
 Systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control observed phenomenon.
 A process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data, documentation of critical
information, and analysis and interpretation of data in accordance with suitable
methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.
 Careful or diligent search, studious inquiry or examination especially investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws.

ii) Meaning of Educational Research

 Educational research refers to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding of the
educational process, generally with a view in improving its efficiency.
 It is an application of scientific methods to the study of educational problems.
 Educational research is the study and investigation in the field of education.
 The final purpose of educational research is to ascertain principles and develop
procedures for use in the field of education.

b) Significance of Educational research

Educational research is significant in the following ways.
i) It helps one to find solutions to particular problems arising in his/her classroom, school
or any other educational entity;
ii) It underpins professional learning of knowledge, skills, understanding and practice;
iii) It connects the educational researcher with sources of information and networks of
professional support;
iv) It clarifies purposes, processes and priorities when introducing change, for instance, to
curriculum, pedagogy, assessment or all;
v) It improves the researcher’s understanding of the professional and policy context
organizationally, locally and nationally, enabling one to teach and lead more strategically and
effectively; and
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 vi) Educational research develops one’s influence, competencies, self-efficacy and voice
within one’s own school and more widely within the profession.
vii) Verifies previous findings, promotes change of the concept of education, and
facilitates the teaching and learning process.

c) Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research
 It deals with numbers and statistics and allows systematic measurement of variables
and testing of hypothesis.
 It is the process of collecting, analyzing and reporting numerical data.
 It emphasizes objective measurements and statistical/mathematical analysis of data.
 It is generally used to find patterns, averages, predictions, as well as cause-effect
relationships between the variables being studied.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 Data is gathered using structured research instruments
 Results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative
 Data is in form of numbers and statistics
 Tools used for data collection include questionnaires and other mechanical devices.

Qualitative Research
 Qualitative research allows one to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
 It relies on data obtained by the researcher from first-hand observation, interviews,
questionnaires, focus group discussions, participant observation, recordings made in natural
settings, documents, and artifacts.
 The kinds of data generated are non-numerical.
 This kind of research is commonly used in humanities social sciences, education etc.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

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  Researchers collect data themselves.
 Researchers build their patterns, categories and themes from bottom up.
 Researchers commonly use methods of observations, interviews, surveys,
secondary data.

d) Independent versus Dependent Variables

Meaning of Research Variable: A research variable (study variable) is an informal term that
means any variable used in research that has some kind of cause and effect relationship. It may
refer to a person, place, thing or phenomenon to be measured.

Independent Variable

 An independent variable is exactly what it sounds. It is a variable that stands alone and is not
changed by the other variables one is trying to measure.

 It is usually a factor/s or condition/s that you manipulate in an experiment to find out how
changing (manipulating) it will result in change/s in the dependent variable.

 In a school situation, it would be assumed that increasing and improving the

teaching/learning resources would lead to improved examination performance.

 Therefore, the teaching/learning resources are the independent variable while

examination performance is the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable
 A dependent variable is the variable whose value depends on another.
 It is the variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment.
 Its value will usually change relying on the changes in the value of another variable called
the independent variable.
 If the demand for goods and services changes as a result of changes in supply of these goods
and services, then demand is the dependent variable while supply is the independent variable.

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 1.1 Characteristics of Education Research

The following are the characteristics of educational research.

i. It sets out to solve a specific problem.

ii. Educational research adopts primary and secondary research methods in its data collection
process. This means that in educational research, the investigator relies on first-hand sources of
information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable conclusion.

iii. Educational research relies on empirical evidence. This results from its largely scientific
approach.

iv. Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures verifiable

information.

v. In educational research, the researcher adopts specific methodologies, detailed procedures,

and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses

vi. Educational research findings are useful in the development of principles and theories that
provide better insights into pressing issues.

vii. This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured

questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.

viii. Many educational research findings are documented for peer review before their
presentation.

ix. Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different fields
and studies complex factual relations.

1.3 Purpose of Research

Educational research involves systematic investigation of phenomena the purpose of

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 which could be for the following.
i) Information gathering; and/or
a) Exploring, for instance, discovering, uncovering, exposing, revealing etc.
b) Describing, for instance, gathering information, describing and summarizing;
ii) Theory testing
a) Explanatory, for instance, testing and understanding causal relations.
b) Predictive, for instance, predicting what might happen in several scenarios.
In particular, the purposes of educational research include exploration, description (focuses on
expanding knowledge), explaining (with aim of understanding impact of specific changes). The
primary purpose of descriptive studies, for instance, is describing, explaining and validating
findings while still running experiments is a popular form of research.

1.4 Sequential Stages in the Research Process

The research process consists of actions or steps and each step is interlinked with other steps.
The following are the phases in the research process.
i) Identification of a research problem;
ii) Formulation of research objectives/questions and/or hypotheses;
iii) Review of related literature;
iv) Preparation of research design;
v) Actual experimentation;
vi) Results and discussion; and
vii) Formulation of conclusions and recommendations.

Specifically, the following are the particular components of a research project/thesis report.
Step 1: Identifying and defining research problem
 Find scope of problem and type of information needed.
 Sources of problems: personal experience, theories, published literature.
 Research problems has a number of related steps which include:
a) Background to the study

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 b) Statement of the problem
c) Purpose of the study
d) Objectives of the study
e) Research questions or hypotheses
f) Significance of the study
g) Assumptions of the study
h) Limitations of the study
i) Delimitations of the study
j) Theoretical framework
k) Conceptual framework
l) Operational definitions of terms

Step 2: Reviewing Literature

Review can help in doing the following.
 Bringing clarity
 Improving research methodology
 Broadening knowledge base
 Enabling contextualization of findings

Step involved in review

a) Searching for relevant literature
b) Evaluate sources
c) Identifying themes, debates and gaps
d) Outline/summarize the literature

Step 3: Research Design and Methodology Discusses

research methods
Researcher outlines strategy research design and methodology This
step includes the following.
a) Research design
b) Research methodology
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 c) Population and sample size
d) Data collection methods
e) Methods of data analysis
f) Reliability and validity
g) Ethical, human relations, legal and logistical considerations Step
4: Data Analysis and Interpretation
a) Data process begins with editing and coding of data
b) Involves reducing accumulated data to manageable size
c) Data analysis techniques range from simple graphical technique to complex analysis

Step 5: Summary, conclusions and Recommendation

a) Final chapter of study
b) Contain summary of first four chapter
c) Conclusion enables researcher to reinforce what has been found and the impact of those
findings
d) Recommendations call for action or solution to the problems investigated
e) Highlights specific solutions and measures to be implemented on finds

1.5 Research Issues/Subtopics in Educational Research

a) Research Problem
A research problem is a definite or clear expression (statement) about an area of concern, a
condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in
scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that point to the need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do
something, or present a value question.
The purpose of a problem statement is to do the following.
i) Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented
to the significance of the study;
ii) Anchor the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow. It offers a concise
statement about the purpose of your research;
iii) Place the topic into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be

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 investigated; and
iv) Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicate what is probably necessary
to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.

b) Research Objectives
Research objectives are the outcomes that one aims to achieve by conducting research. The
purpose of research objectives is to drive the research project including data collection, analysis
and conclusions. They also help in narrowing in on the focus of one’s research and key variables
guiding one through the research process.

c) Research Questions/Hypotheses
 Research Questions
A research question is a question that the research project sets to answer. It is the question
around which one center his/her research. Research questions should be clear thereby providing
adequate specifics that one’s respondents (audience) can easily understand its purpose without
needing additional explanation.
 Research Hypotheses
A research hypothesis is a specific, clear, and testable proposition or predictive statement
about the possible outcome of a scientific research study based on a particular property of a
population, such as presumed differences between groups on a particular variable or
relationships between variables.

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 2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES IN EDUCATION
2.1 Introduction to Research Methodologies in Education
The state of education world over has elicited need to solve education problems. The
emergent of COVID-19, for example, has changed ways of doing things thus calling for
research.
In pursuit of truth and answers to problems, researchers have developed various ways of
providing solutions.
These are the methods used by the researcher to get answers.

Activity
What is the interest of an educationist?
Highlight some problems in education that require research to get answers

Possible Research Areas Effectiveness of

education policies Motivation of
workers/students Implementation of
curriculum

Research Methods
The method to be used to get answers in education depends on the following.
i) The purpose of the study - Why are doing the study
ii) The objectives: What the study aims ti achieve.
iii) Theoretical underpinning (foundation/basis/support)
iv) Sample size

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 v) Time and budget

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 Meaning of Methodology
It is a specific way of performing a process
An organized, documented set of procedure and guidelines A step
by step approach for carrying out a procedure

Meaning of Research Methodology

Scientific and systematic way of solving a research problem by following some steps.
Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select,
process, and analyze information about a topic.
Depending on the purpose of the study, research methodology helps to consider the logic
behind the method.
It answers questions: How was the data collected or generated? How was it
analyzed?
Research methods helps to consider the logic behind the methods we use and explain
why we are using a particular approach or technique
Research methods in education are divided into two broad categories
i) Experimental research
ii) Non experimental/Descriptive research
Each of these has several designs associated with it

2.2 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research determines relationships between collected data and
observations based on mathematical calculations.
Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using
statistical methods.
Researchers rely on quantitative research methods that conclude “why” a particular theory
exists along with “what” respondents have to say about it.

Characteristics of Quantitative Approach

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 Uses standardized research instruments for collection of quantitative data; Contains
measurable variables;
Emphasize on measurements and analysis of causal relationship between variables and not
the process;
Assume a normal population distribution; Present
data in tables, graphs or figures;
Use repeatable method: Researchers can repeat the quantitative method to verify or confirm
the findings in another setting;
Can predict outcomes: Quantitative models or formula derived from data analysis can
predict outcomes;
Use measuring devices: Advanced digital or electronic instruments are used to
measure or gather quantitative data from the field.

Examples of Quantitative Research Methodologies

The following are examples of quantitative research methodologies.
i) Descriptive
ii) Correlational
iii) Experimental/quasi-experimental
iv) Causal comparative
v) Ex-post facto
Whatever the approaches, a researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types
of research designs to select or which model to implement for a quantitative study.

Types of Research Designs in Quantitative Methodologies

A research design is the overall strategy that a researcher chooses to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way to effectively address research problem at
hand.

Quantitative Research Designs

In quantitative research methodology, some common examples of research designs

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 include the following.

i) Descriptive Research Design

The core of descriptive research lies in defining the state of affairs and characteristics of
the research subjects (population) being studied as they currently exist;
Because of its emphasis on the "what" of the situation, descriptive research can be termed an
observational research method.
It describes the nature of population without focusing on why it occurs that way.
The researcher merely seeks to collect data with regards to the status quo or present
situation of things;
It deals with everything that can be counted and studied which has impact on the lives of
people involved;
Descriptive research design uses surveys and questionnaires to gather the required data from
the subjects; and
Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in solving a specific
problem;

Activity
Give examples of instances that will elicit descriptive data.

ii) Correlational Research

Correlational design-This is a non-experimental design where the researcher examines the
statistical relationship between two or more variables in a natural setting without
manipulation or control.
It shows both direction and magnitude of the relationship. This implies that correlational
research can be positive, negative, or non-existent.
a) Positive correlation occurs when an increase in variable A leads to an increase in variable
B;
b) Negative correlation occurs when an increase in variable A results in a decrease in
variable B;

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 c) When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a succeeding change in the other,
then the correlation is non-existent.
Thus correlation can explain cause and effect relationship between variables.

Activity
Plot a scatter diagram and explain the direction of correlation.

Methods of Estimating Relationships

Test-retest – Pearson Moments Correlation Coefficient Split
half – Spearman Rank correlation Coefficient ANOVA-
Analysis of Variance
Kuder-Richardson - When difficulty level varies
The unit will concentrate on Pearson Moments Correlation Coefficient Pearson’s

Product Moment Correlation Coefficient Formulae

iii) Experimental Research Design

A method of identifying cause and effect.
It involves carrying out an experiment to find out what caused what and why it
happened that way.
Experimental design involves manipulating the independent variable to observe the effect on
the dependent variable to determine a cause and effect relationship.

Types of Experiment
Experiments aim to establish cause-and-effect relationship between an independent and
dependent variable.
Quasi experiment-Involves manipulation of independent variable to observe effect

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 on dependent variable. Subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.
One studies the nature of subjects and treats them accordingly.
Experimental research design is a true experiment. Subjects are assigned to groups randomly
without any special considerations.
True experimental designs contain three key features:
i) Independent and dependent variables;
ii) Pretesting and posttesting; and
iii) Experimental and control groups. It
has three facets:
i) Before and after without control;
ii) After only with control; and
iii) Before and after with control.

2.3 Qualitative Research

Developed by social scientist to enable researchers to study social and cultural phenomenon.
Qualitative research is defined as a research method that focuses on obtaining data through
open-ended and conversational communication.
It allows for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their
responses, where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and
feelings.
Understanding how your audience takes decisions can help derive conclusions.
It attempts to understand behavior of a population by getting to know subjects involved
in terms of values, rituals, symbols, beliefs and emotions.

Characteristics of Qualitative Approach

Helps to understand meanings and complex reasoning (rationale) is required to get the right
results rather than direct statistical answers;
Researchers look at, describe and understand experience, ideas, beliefs and values in a real
world setting;
Seeks answers to questions that stress how social experience is created and giving

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 meaning;
Deals with subjects that are difficult to quantify;
It answers the question why and uses different research processes/methods such as focus
group discussions, face-to-face interviews, observation, content analysis etc.;
Purposeful selection of participants from a carefully chosen segment of potential
population;
Data analysis is an on-going process;
Holistic account: Focuses on different perspectives and determines various factors involved
the research;
Flexibility: It can change at any stage of research and based on the change, the course of
the research might also get changed;
Reflexivity: Researchers share everything about themselves like their background and
their purpose of research with the participants;

Common Designs in Qualitative Approach

Phenomenology
Narrative

Phenomenological Design
Focuses on individual interpretation of their experience and the ways in which they
express them.
Researchers task is to describe phenomena as experienced and expressed by individuals.
Main aim is to describe an experience as it is actually lived by the person.

Example
A phenomenological study of teachers’ experiences and perspectives on inclusion education
in Kenya

Narrative Design

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 This is about collecting and telling a story or stories. Narratives
about experiences of individuals.
Focuses on studying an individual person.
Information is gathered through interviews, family stories, journals, field notes,
conversations etc.

Example
Narrative research into the classroom generated stories about experiences during COVID-19.

Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative research Qualitative research

Focuses on testing theories and hypotheses Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a
hypothesis

Is analyzed through math and statistical analysis Is analyzed by summarizing, categorizing, and

Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs, and tables Mainly expressed in words

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 Requires many respondents Requires few respondents

Closed (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions

Key terms: testing, measurement, objectivity, replicability

Key terms: understanding, context, complexity

2.4 Mixed Methods Research

The term “mixed methods” refers to an emergent methodology of research that advances the
systematic integration or mixing of quantitative and qualitative data using a single investigation
or sustained program of enquiry involving collecting and analyzing both quantitative (closed-
ended) and qualitative (open-ended) data. Basically, the mixed methods design:
Combines both quantitative and qualitative designs;
Backs up findings from quantitative data collection, analysis, presentation,
discussion and interpretation with qualitative research process and vice versa; and Can be
used to triangulate

Reasons for Using Mixed Methods Research

• The insufficient argument-either quantitative or qualitative may be insufficient by itself.
• Multiple angles argument-quantitative and qualitative approaches provide different
“pictures”.
• The more-evidence-the-better argument-combined quantitative and qualitative
provides more evidence.
• Community of practice argument-mixed methods may be the preferred approach within a
scholarly community.
• Eager-to-learn argument-it is the latest methodology.

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 • “It’s intuitive” argument-it mirrors “real life”.

Types of Mixed Methods Research Designs

The following are the types of mixed methods research designs.
a) Convergent Parallel Design
A convergent parallel design entails that the researcher concurrently conducts the quantitative
and qualitative elements in the same phase of the research process, weighs the methods
equally, analyzes the two components independently, and interprets the results together
(Creswell & Pablo-Clark, 2011).
Allows simultaneous collection of both qualitative and quantitative data, merging of the
data and using the results to get answers to the research problem.

Diagrammatic Representation

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 b. Concurrent Triangulation
 Characterized by two or more methods used to confirm, cross-validate, or
corroborate findings within a study. Data collection is concurrent.
 Purpose: Generally, both methods are used to overcome a weakness in using one method
with the strengths of another.

c. Concurrent Nested
 Characterized by a nested approach that gives priority to one of the methods and guides
the project, while another is embedded or “nested.”
 Purpose: The purpose of the nested method is to address a different question than the
dominant or to seek information from different levels.

d. Concurrent Transformative
 Characterized by the use of a theoretical perspective reflected in the purpose or research
questions of the study to guide all methodological choices.
 Purpose: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.

e. Sequential Explanatory
 Characterized by collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by a collection and
analysis of qualitative data.
 Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the
findings of a quantitative study.

f. Sequential Exploratory
 Characterized by an initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis followed by a
phase of quantitative data collection and analysis.
 Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This strategy may also be useful when
developing and testing a new instrument.

g. Sequential Transformative

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  Characterized by collection and analysis of either quantitative or qualitative data first. The
results are integrated in the interpretation phase.
 Purpose: To employ the methods that best serve a theoretical perspective.

2.5 Action Research

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle, where an
understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for some form of
interventional strategy.
Then the intervention is carried out [the "action" in action research] during which time,
pertinent observations are collected in various forms.
The new interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats or continues
until a sufficient understanding of [or a valid implementation solution for] the problem is
achieved.
The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper
understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the
problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

Types of Action Research

There are two main types of action research.
i) Individual action research, for instance, involves working independently on a project such as
an elementary school teacher conducting own, in-class research project with his/her learners.
ii) Collaborative action research, for instance, which can be conducted by a volunteer group
working with a university professor and staff development officer.

What Do Action Research Tell You

This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or
community situations.
Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing
theories.
When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase the amount

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 they learn consciously from their experience; the action research cycle can be regarded
as a learning cycle.
Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to improving
practice and advocating for change.
There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

Conclusion
The choice of research method to be used is dependent on the following.
i) Purpose of the study: knowledge generation or problem solution
ii) Practicality (time, money, skill and logistics)
iii) Theoretical and conceptual framework
iv) Ethical issues such as confidentiality and informed consent
v) Target population: Availability of target subjects in order to collect the required data.

3. THEORIES AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

3.1 Introduction to Theories and Conceptual Frameworks
 Definition of Theory
i) A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that
present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with
the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.
ii) A theory is a set of propositions consisting of defined and interrelated constructs. A theory
sets out the interrelations among a set of variables (constructs), and in so doing, presents
a systematic view of the phenomena described by the variables
iii) A theory explains phenomena; it does so by specifying which variables are related to which

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 variables and how they are related, thus enabling the researcher to predict

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 from certain variables to certain other variables
Educational research is used to create the theories upon which we design educational policies
and practices. Theories help to organize relevant empirical facts (empirical means they can be
observed or measured) in order to create a context for understanding phenomena.

 Characteristics of a Theory
i. It has to be logical and coherent
ii. It has clear definitions of terms or variables, and has boundary conditions
iii. It has a domain where it applies
iv. It has clearly described relationships among variables
v. It describes, explains, and makes specific predictions
vi. It comprises concepts, themes, principles and constructs
vii. It must have been based on empirical data
viii. It must have made claims that are subject to testing, been tested and verified
ix. It must be clear and parsimonious
x. Its assertions or predictions must be different and better than those in existing theories
xi. Its predictions must be general enough to be applicable to and in several contexts
xii. Its assertions or predictions are applicable, and if applied as predicted, will result in the
predicted outcome

3.2 Purpose of a Theory in Educational Research

Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships between
concepts. It enables us to identify a problem and to plan a means for altering the situation.
Specifically:
 To explain what is being done and demonstrate that it works - theory and research
 To enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of knowledge with theories
from both within and without the area of study.
 The theory also helps us understand what we don’t know and, therefore, is the only

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 guide to research.
3.3 Linking Theory to Educational Research
Selecting an appropriate theoretical framework for your dissertation research is an important and
necessary process with which all postgraduate students should engage. The selection of a
theoretical framework requires a deep and thoughtful understanding of the following.
• Problem, purpose, significance, and research questions.
• It is imperative that all four constructs comprising the problem, purpose, significance, and
research questions are tightly aligned and intricately interwoven so that your theoretical
framework can serve as the foundation for your work and guide your choice of research
design and data analysis.
• Similarly, all aspects of the dissertation research should connect to the theoretical
framework.
• Theories can often be used to justify a practice or procedure for which there may not be
direct research-based evidence.

3.4 Example of Theoretical Framework

Sample Definitions of a Theoretical Framework?
• A theoretical framework is a single formal theory - when a study is designed around a
theoretical framework, the theory is the primary means in which the research problem is
understood and investigated.
• Although theoretical frameworks tend to be used in quantitative studies, you will also see
this approach in qualitative research.
• Theoretical framework is a structure that summarizes concepts and theories, which you
develop from previously tested and published knowledge which you synthesize to help you
have a theoretical background, or basis for your data analysis and interpretation of the
meaning contained in your research data.
• Before you start your research, you have to explore what theories and models other
researchers have already developed. By “framing” your research within a clearly defined
field, you make the reader aware of the assumptions that inform your approach, showing
the rationale behind your choices.

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 Goal/s of Theoretical Frameworks
• The goal of a theoretical framing is to identify different theories about your topic by
evaluating, comparing, and selecting the most relevant ones.
• The main reason you should develop a theoretical framework for your research is:
a) So as to have a scholarly foundation for all your sense making of the meaning contained in
your data
b) The theoretical framework provides a structure for what to look for in the data, for how
you think of how what you see in the data fits together, and helps you to discuss your
findings more clearly, in light of what existing theories say.
c) It helps you to make connections between the abstract and concrete elements you observe
in your data
d) It helps you to raise questions such as, what do leaders in this field theorize about my
research question? What existing theoretical ideas can I use to investigate and to understand
my research problem?

Importance of a Theoretical Framework

• It increases the credibility of qualitative data or the internal validity of your
quantitative data.
• It may enhance the transferability of the findings from your qualitative data or
external validity and generalizability of quantitative data analysis.
• It increases the confirmability of your findings in qualitative data or objectivity of your
findings in quantitative data.
• It improves the dependability of your findings in qualitative data or reliability of
findings in quantitative data.

How to Select a Theoretical Framework for Your Study

1. Identify your key concepts
• The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem statement and research
questions.
2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories

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 • By conducting a thorough literature review, you can determine how other researchers
have defined and drawn connections between your key concepts - to compare and
critically evaluate the approaches that different authors have proposed.
• After discussing different models and theories, you establish the definitions that best fit
your research and justify why this is the case.
• In more complex research projects, you might combine theories from different fields to
build your own unique framework.
• Make sure to mention the most important theories related to your key concepts. If there
is a well-established theory or model that you don’t want to apply to your own research,
explain why it isn’t suitable for your purposes.
3. Show how your research fits in the theoretical framework
• Apart from discussing other people’s theories, the theoretical framework should show
how your own project will make use of these ideas.
• You might aim to do one or more of the following:
a) Test whether a theory holds in a specific context
b) Use theory as a basis for interpreting your results
c) Critique or challenge a theory
d) Combine different theories in a new or unique way
e) If relevant, you can also use the theoretical framework to develop hypotheses for your
research.

The Structure of a Theoretical Framework

• In a thesis or dissertation, the theoretical framework is sometimes integrated into a
literature review chapter
• But it can also be included as its own chapter or section. If your research involves dealing
with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical
framework chapter.
• There are no fixed rules for structuring a theoretical framework. The important thing is to
create a clear, logical structure. One option is to draw on your research questions,
structuring each section around a question or key concept.

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 3.5 Purpose of a Conceptual Framework in Research
Definition of a conceptual framework
A conceptual framework is the total, logical orientation and associations of anything and
everything that forms the underlying thinking, structures, plans and practices and
implementation of your entire research project.
• So, the conceptual framework comprises your thoughts on the following.
i) identification of the research topic, the problem to be investigated;
ii) the questions to be asked, the literature to be reviewed; and
iii) the theories to be applied, the methodology you will use, the methods, procedures and
instruments, the data analysis and interpretation of findings, recommendations and
conclusions you will make.
• Thus, the conceptual framework is the logical conceptualization of your entire research
project-a logical conceptualization means that a conceptual framework is a metacognitive,
reflective and operational element of the entire research process.

Possible Questions to Ask in Developing a Conceptual Framework

• What do you want to do in your research? - As articulated in your research topic.
• Why do you want to do it? - Why is it important to conduct that research? Why it is
significant? What aims will it seek to achieve? Which specific objectives will it pursue?
How much scope will it cover?
• How do you plan to do it? - Which methodology will you apply? Which methods will you
use? Who will be your participants? How will you gather data? How will you analyze the
data?
• How will you make meaning of the data? - Which theoretical framework will you use to
analyze the data? Which software will you use? Which skills will you need?
• Which worldview will you locate your research in? - Will it be in the positivist or
interpretivist paradigm; critical or pragmatic paradigm?
• How will you report your findings? - In a research paper, or a seminar paper, or a conference
paper, a book chapter, or a book or a thesis?

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 3.6 Components of a Conceptual Framework
Definition of Variable
• A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are
trying to measure in some way. The variables in a study of a cause-and- effect relationship
are called the independent and dependent variables.
• The independent variable is the cause.
• Its value is independent of other variables in your study.
• An independent variable is a variable believed to affect the dependent variable.
• This is the variable that you, the researcher, will manipulate to see if it makes the
dependent variable change.
• The dependent variable is the effect.
• Its value depends on changes in the independent variable.
• The dependent variable is the variable a researcher is interested in.
• The changes to the dependent variable are what the researcher is trying to measure
with all their fancy techniques.

Continuous and Discrete Variables

Continuous Variable
• A continuous variable can assume an infinite number of values between two points''. If we
consider the continuous variable weight: between 1 and 2 Kg, the number of values is
limitless: 1.005, 1.7, 1.33333, and so on.
• Continuous measures in actual use are contained in a range each individual obtains a score
within the 1 range.

Discrete Variables
• A discrete variable is a variable that has a finite number of values between any two points,
representing discrete quantities.

Categorical Variable/s
• A categorical variable belongs to a kind of measurement called nominal.
• In nominal measurements there are two or more subsets of the set objects being

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 measured. “They have a simple requirement that all the members of the subset are considered
the same and all are assigned “the same name (nominal) and the same numeral”.
• That is, they can be measured only in terms of whether the individual items belong to certain
distinct categories, but we cannot quantify or even rank order the categories.
• The variable gender, for example, has only two values (male and female). Variables that take
on only a handful of discrete non quantitative values are categorical variables.

Extraneous Variable/s
• An extraneous variable is any variable that you're not investigating that can potentially
affect the dependent variable of your research study.
• Extraneous variables are variables that you are not intentionally studying in your experiment
or test.
• When you run an experiment, you’re looking to see if one variable (the independent variable)
has an effect on another variable- (the dependent variable).
• In an ideal world you’d run the experiment, check the results, and perhaps the ones that never
crossed your mind, might influence the outcome of an experiment. These undesirable
variables are called extraneous variables.

3.7 Example of a Conceptual Framework

• This example of a conceptual framework zeroes in on teachers’ professional
development activities by espousing the idea.
• The main argument or thesis is that teachers’ classroom performance is a critical factor
for student academic performance.
• The researcher based her assumption from Weiner’s Attribution Theory that external and
internal factors can improve performance.
• Students may, for example, attribute their academic performance to their teachers (external
factor).
• In contrast, the teachers may attribute their teaching performance to in-service training
(external factor) and perhaps their teaching efficacy, job satisfaction, and

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 attitude towards the teaching profession (internal factors). These relationships are
illustrated in Figure 1.

FIGURE: Example of a Conceptual Framework on Training for Professional Development of Teachers

The Statement of the Problem Regarding the Conceptual Framework

The purpose of this study is to provide baseline data on in-service training for English,
Mathematics, and Science Fourth Year High School teachers from School Year 2006 up to 2010.
Also, a professional development model for teachers is proposed. Specifically, this study sought
answers to the following questions:
i) What are the most familiar in-service training activities among teachers? And what are their
insights about these activities as to: (a) applicability in the classroom, (b) importance in the
teaching profession, and (c) impact on student performance?
ii) What feedback do teachers have of the in-service training programs attended in terms of
(a) perception, and (b) satisfaction?
iii) What are the teachers’ level of teaching efficacy, job satisfaction, and attitude

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 towards the teaching profession?
iv) What is the performance of the fourth year high school students in their Subject Achievement
Tests in three subject areas: English, Mathematics, and Science during the first semester of
2010-2011?
v) Are the teachers’ perception and satisfaction regarding the in-service training programs
predictors of their levels of teaching efficacy, job satisfaction, and attitude towards the
teaching profession?
vi) Are the teachers’ levels of teaching efficacy, job satisfaction, and attitude towards the
teaching profession predictors of their student performance in the Subject Achievement
Tests?
vii) What enhanced professional development model for teachers can be developed on the basis
of the results of this study?

Guidelines on How to Create a Conceptual Framework

1. Choose the topic for research
• Before you start working on collecting any research material, you should have decided
on your topic for research. It is important that the topic is selected beforehand and should
be within your field of specialization.
2. Collect relevant literature
• Once you have narrowed down a topic, it is time to collect relevant information around
it.
• This is an important step and much of your research is dependent on this particular step as
conceptual research is mostly based on information obtained from previous researches.
• The material that you should preferably use is scientific journals, research papers published
by well-known scientist and similar material. There is a lot of information available on the
internet and public libraries as well.
• All the information that you find on the internet may not be relevant or true. So before
you use the information make sure you verify it.
3. Identify specific variables
• Identify the specific variables that are related to the research study you want to

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 conduct.
• These variables can give your research a new scope and can also help you identify how these
can be related to your research.
• Consider hypothetically, for example, you want to conduct a research about an
occurrence of cancer in married women.
• While collecting relevant literature, you understand that the spread of cancer is more
aggressive in married women who are beyond 40 years of age.
4. Generate the framework
• In this step, you start building the required framework using the mix of variables from
the scientific articles and other relevant materials.
• The problem statement in your research becomes the research framework. Your attempt
to start answering the question becomes the basis of your research study.
• The study is carried out to reduce the knowledge gap/s and make available more relevant
and correct information.

4. LITERATURE REVIEW
4.1 Definition of Concept Literature review
 This is the analysis of work already done.
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  Means work of other researchers consulted in order to understand and investigate a research
problem.

 An account of what has been published on the topic of study by accredited

researchers.

 Critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work being investigated.

 Investigating books, journals and magazines that are relevant to the work being done.

4.2 Sources of Literature (Primary and Secondary)

 Internet;

 Reference material and other books;

 Empirical or evidence-based articles in scholarly;

 Peer-reviewed journals,

 Conference proceedings;

 Papers; and

 Dissertations, projects and theses;

 Theses.

4.3 Steps in Undertaking Review of Literature

 Narrow your topic of search

 Search for the literature

 Read the selected articles and evaluate them

 Organize selected papers by looking for patterns and developing sub-topics

 Develop a purpose statement

 Write the paper

 Review the work

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 4.4 Qualities of an Effective Literature Review
 It is critically reviewed and organized.

 Justifies the need for the study.

 Highlights the relationship between past and current issues.

 Must put the research problem into focus and perspective through gap identification.

4.5 Significance of Literature Review

 Sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of research.

 Assists in gaining clarity and better understanding of the theoretical foundation related
to the current research.

 Gives insight into what has already been done in the selected field.

 To establish the kind of additional data needed.

 Exposes the researcher to wider variety of approaches when dealing with a research issue.

 Deepening analytical nature of research.

4.6 Challenges to Effective Review of literature

 Failure to connect the reviewed literature with the current literature
 Poor presentation

 Large quantities of studies to review

 Lack of references

 Lack of critique

 Failure to review the current studies

4.7 Citation and Referencing

Read about the literature citation format either using the American Psychological
Association (APA) style or the Turrabian style. Most academic works follow APA style.

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 5. POPULATION AND SAMPLING
5.1 Introduction to Population and Sampling

Definitions of Key Terms

 Census

 A Census in sampling is a survey conducted on the full set of observation objects belonging
to a given population or universe.

 It implies complete enumeration of a population or groups at a point in time with respect to

well-defined characteristics, e.g. education level, gender, marital status etc.

 Target Population
 The population for a survey is the entire set of units for which the survey data are to be used
to make inferences or draw conclusions.
 A measurable characteristic of the population such as mean and standard deviation is known
as a parameter.

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  Sample
 It is a subset of the target population which should be representative of it in all respects to
ensure that findings from the research sample can be generalized to the whole population.
 It includes one or more observations that are drawn from the population and the
measurable characteristic of a sample is a statistic.

5.2 Sample Design

 A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.
 It refers to the technique or procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample.
 Steps in Developing the Sampling Design
The sampling design development is a five step process which includes the following
procedures.

 Step 1: Identifying/Defining the target population

 Target population refers to the group of individuals or objects to which researchers are
interested in generalizing their findings.
 It is the group of individuals or objects from which the sample might be taken.
 A well-defined population reduces the probability of including the participants who are
not suitable for the research objectives.
 Step 2: Selecting/Determining the sample frame
 During selection of sample units from the population, it is sometimes desirable to choose
a list of the population from which the researcher selects units.
 Sampling frame is the group of individuals or objects from which researcher will draw
his/her sample.
 It is the list of all units in a study population from which the sample is taken.
 Step 3: Specifying/Selecting a sampling technique
 Sampling can be done through probability (random selection) or non-probability (non

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 -random) technique.
 If the sampling frame is approximately the same as the target population, random
selection may be used to select sample.
 But if the sampling frame does not really represent the target population, the
researcher may choose non-random selection.
 Step 4: Determining the sample size
 The sample size is simply the number of units in the sample.
 Sample size determination depends on many factors such as time and cost.
 In general, larger samples are better, but they also require more resources.
 Step 5: Executing the sampling process.
 Once population, sampling frame, sampling technique and sample size are identified,
researcher can use all that information to choose his/her sample.

Steps in Developing a Sampling Design

The following is a diagrammatic presentation of the steps in developing a sampling design.
These steps include the following: a) Identifying the population of interest; b) Selecting the
sampling frame; c) Specifying the sampling technique/s (probability or non-probability); d)
Determining the sample size, and e) Executing the sampling plan.

Figure 5.2: Steps in Developing a Sampling Design

Identify the population of interest Execute the sampling plan

Select a sampling frame Determine the sample size

38
Specify a sampling technique
(Probability/Non-probability)
  Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
The following are the characteristics of a good sample design.
 The sample design should yield a truly representative sample;
 The sample design should be such that it results in small sampling error; and
 The sample design should be viable in the context of budgetary constraints of the research
study.

Types of Sampling
 Probability Sampling
 In probability (random) sampling, you start with a complete sampling frame of all
eligible individuals from which you select your sample.
 In this way, all eligible individuals have a chance of being chosen for the sample, and
you will be more able to generalize the results from your study.
 Probability sampling methods tend to be more time-consuming and expensive than
non-probability sampling.

Types of Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Simple random sampling
 In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the
population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected.
 One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a
number, and then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include.
 If, for instance, you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals, labeled 0 to 999, use
groups of three digits from the random number table to pick your sample.
 So, if the first three numbers from the random number table were 094, select the
individual labeled “94”, and so on.

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  As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the
sampling error to be calculated and reduces selection bias.
 Advantage: It is the most straightforward method of probability sampling.
 Disadvantages of simple random sampling include the following.
i) Simple random sampling is that you may not select enough individuals with your
characteristic of interest, especially if that characteristic is uncommon.
ii) Difficulty in defining a complete sampling frame;
iii) Inconvenience in contacting respondents, especially if different forms of contact are
required (email, phone, post) and your sample units are scattered over a wide
geographical area.

2. Systematic sampling
 Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame and the
intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size.
 If you need a sample size n from a population of size x, you should select every
x/nth individual for the sample.
 If you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, for example, select
every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.
 Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is
easy to administer.
 However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying patterns in the
order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique
coincides with the periodicity of the underlying pattern.
 As a hypothetical example, if a group of students were being sampled to gain their
opinions on college facilities, but the Student Record Department’s central list of all
students was arranged such that the sex of students alternated between male and
female, choosing an even interval (e.g. every 20th student) would result in a sample of
all males or all females.
 Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be easily corrected, this may
however not always be the case in all instances of systematic sampling.

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 3. Stratified sampling
 In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share
a similar characteristic.
 It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary between
the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the subgroups.
 The study sample is obtained by taking equal sample sizes from each stratum (Equal
Allocation).
 It may also be appropriate to choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum by
applying proportionate sampling
 In a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, for example, if there
are three hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500
nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be appropriate to
choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from hospital
A, 20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C).
 This ensures a more realistic and accurate estimation of the health outcomes of nurses
across the county, whereas simple random sampling would over- represent nurses
from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample was stratified should be taken into
account at the analysis stage.
 Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results by
reducing sampling bias.
 However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate characteristics of the sampling
frame & it can be difficult to decide the characteristic(s) against which to stratify.

4. Clustered sampling
 In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather
than individuals.
 The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly
selected to be included in the study.
 Clusters are usually already defined, for example individual towns could be

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 identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen
clusters are then included in the study.
 In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each cluster is then
randomly selected for inclusion.
 Cluster sampling can be more efficient than simple random sampling, especially where a
study takes place over a wide geographical region, for instance, it is easier to contact lots
of individuals in a township than a few individuals in many townships.
 Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters are not
representative of the population. This increases the sampling error.

 Non-probability Sampling
 In non-probability (non-random) sampling, you do not start with a complete sampling
frame, so some individuals have no chance of being selected.
 Consequently, you cannot estimate the effect of sampling error and there is a significant
risk of ending up with a non-representative sample which produces non-generalizable
results.
 However, non-probability sampling methods tend to be cheaper and more
convenient, and they are useful for exploratory research and hypothesis
generation.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Convenience sampling
 Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because
participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part.
 Useful results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias,
because:
a) Those who volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to
(volunteer bias); and
b) The sample may not be representative of other characteristics, such as age or

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 sex.
 Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling methods.

2. Purposive (Judgment) Sampling

 Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the
judgment of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate.
 Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample to suit their needs, or
specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics.
 This approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public opinion and in
qualitative research.
 Judgment sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to perform
whilst resulting in a range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative research).

 However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgment by the

researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not necessarily be
representative.

6. DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND PROCESSES

6.1 Introduction to Data Collection Methods and Processes

• Data is information. In education, data includes attendance records, test scores, staff
performance and type of school.
• Data literacy is a 21st Century life skill.

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 • We are living in an information age where there is so much information, but not all
information is credible.
• We must learn to think critically to navigate all that data.

6.2 Definitions of Key Terms

• Primary source
This is data generated by the researcher through surveys, interviews and experiments which
would lead to solving the research problem
• Secondary data
This is information that is second hand or generated by another entity. An example would be data
generated by the government or educational institutions. The data can be extracted for research.

6.3 Data Collection Methods and Appropriate Tools

Data collection is a process of gathering and measuring accurate data from a variety of sources
to find answers to research problems.

Data Collection Methods

Some methods/sources of data collection include the following.
i) Questionnaire method
ii) Mechanical devices method
iii) Observation method
iv) Interview method
The questionnaire method of data collection, for instance, can be open ended or close ended. It
contains a series of questions to generate information to solve a problem.
Data Collection Instruments/Tools
The following are some data collection instruments:
i) Questionnaire
ii) Mechanical devices
iii) Observation Schedule
iv) Interview Schedule

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 i) Questionnaire
Questionnaire is an instrument defined as a document that asks the same questions to all
individuals in the sample. Questionnaires can both be given in open ended questions or close
ended questions.
i) Mechanical Devices Method
Mechanical devices method involves using devices such as Thermometers, cameras, and
microscopes etc. to collect data.
iii)Observation Schedule
Observation method occurs in a natural environment that is not manipulated. The researcher
observes people’s behaviors as they occur in natural settings.
v) Interview Schedule
Interview method is where the interviewer asks questions either face-to-face or through
telephone to the respondents. This works best when the respondents are few.

6.4 Construction of Data Collection Instruments/Tools

i) Questionnaire
• According to Gall, Borg and Gall, (1996) “Many questionnaires appear to have been thrown
together in an hour or two” (p. 293). They recommend the following simple guidelines on
designing questionnaires.
 The questionnaire has an introduction which has purpose of the study and purpose for the
questionnaire.
 The questionnaire also encompasses personal information of the respondent and the body of
the questionnaire with specific instruction.
 Specifically, while constructing the questionnaire:
a) keep it as short as possible;
b) Do not use jargon or complex terms;
c) Organize the items to make it easy to read and complete;
d) Include brief, and clear instructions written in bold;
e) Organize the questionnaire in a logical sequence; and
f) Begin with a few interesting and non-threatening items.

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 ii) Interview schedule
• The interview schedule uses the same strategies as those of designing the questionnaires.
That of stating the purpose of the study and the purpose of the interview schedule.
• The steps are:
a) Designing the interview format;
b) Developing questions that expose all respondents to identical circumstances as possible;
c) Put difficult items near the end of the questionnaire;
d) Avoid “double-barreled” items that require the respondent to answer with a single
answer;
e) General questions should be asked first and more specific questions asked last; and
f) Avoid leading questions.

iii) Observation
• Observation is when a researcher observes events or behaviors associated with a particular
topic in a natural setting.
• The observer records what they observe or experience.
• The results can yield qualitative or quantitative data.

6.5 Factors to Consider in Selection of Data Collection Method

• The following are among considerations of selecting a data collection method.
i) The purpose of the study;
ii) Target population;
iii) Timeframe for collecting data; and
iv) Budget.
6.6 Estimating Validity and Testing Reliability
Validity of Instruments
• Validity is a term used to describe if a measurement actually measures what it is

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 supposed to measure. Are the questions you are asking giving you information about
the issues you want to measure?
• Content validity determines the extent to which test content meets what is required for
validity.

Reliability of Instruments
• Reliability is the extent to which researchers would arrive at the similar results if they studied
the same case using exactly the same procedure.
• Test-retest reliability method involves administering an instrument twice after a period
of time and then correlating the scores for the two tests. The stronger correlation
coefficient, the more reliable the test is. A correlation coefficient of 0.7 to 1 would be
considered adequate. However, it is impossible to have an absolutely reliable test.
• Rater inter-rater/observer inter-observer, split-half and parallel tests/forms are other methods
of establishing reliability of a test.

6.7 Piloting
• Piloting in a research study is a small scale study conducted to test procedures that will be
used in the main study.
• It is a feasibility study

6.8 Logistical, Ethical, Human Relations and Legal Issues in Research

• Logistical, ethical, human relations and legal issues regarding research are requirements by
the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation before one embarks in
conducting research in the country.
• At Kenyatta University, the Centre for Research, Ethics and Safety is domiciled at the
Research Innovation and Outreach Division.

7. ANALYZING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH DATA

7.1 Introduction to Education Research

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 Meaning of Data
 Data is a collection of measurements or observations, divided into two different types:
qualitative and quantitative.

7.2 Qualitative Data versus Quantitative Data

Qualitative Data
 Refers to information about qualities, or information that cannot be measured. It’s usually
descriptive and textual.
 Examples include someone’s eye colour or the type of car they drive.
 In surveys, it’s often used to categorize ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers.

Quantitative data
• Is numerical. It’s used to define the information that can be counted.
• Some examples of quantitative data include distance, speed, height, length, and weight.

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 It’s easy to remember the differences between qualitative and quantitative data, as one refers to
qualities, and the other refers to quantities

What is quantitative (numerical) data?

Quantitative, or numerical, data can be broken down into two types:
i) Discrete

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 ii) Continuous.

Discrete Data
• Discrete data is a whole number that can’t be divided or broken into individual parts,
fractions or decimals.
Examples of discrete data include the
• Number of pets someone has – one can have two dogs but not two-and-a-half dogs.
• The number of wins someone’s favourite team gets is also a form of discrete data because
a team can’t have a half win – it’s a win, a loss, or a draw.

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 Continuous Data
• Continuous data describes values that can be broken down into different parts, units, fractions
and decimals.
• Continuous data points, such as height and weight, can be measured. Time can also be broken
down-by half a second or half an hour. Temperature is another example of continuous data.

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 Discrete versus continuous
• There’s an easy way to remember the difference between the two types of
quantitative data:
i) Data is considered discrete if it can be counted and is continuous if it can be
measured.
ii) Someone can count students, tickets purchased and books, while one measures height,
distance and temperature.

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 7.1 Properties and Scales of Measurement Scales
• Scales of measurement is how variables are defined and categorized.
• There are four common scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
• Each scale of measurement has properties that determine how to properly analyze the data.

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 • The properties evaluated are identity, magnitude, equal intervals and a minimum value of
zero.
Properties of Measurement
• Identity: Identity refers to each value having a unique meaning.
• Magnitude: Magnitude means that the values have an ordered relationship to one another,
so there is a specific order to the variables.
• Equal intervals: Equal intervals mean that data points along the scale are equal, so the
difference between data points one and two will be the same as the difference between data
points five and six.
• A minimum value of zero: A minimum value of zero means the scale has a true zero point.
Degrees, for example, can fall below zero and still have meaning. But if you weigh nothing,
you don’t exist.

The Four Scales of Measurement

• By understanding the scale of the measurement of their data, data scientists can
determine the kind of statistical test to perform.
i) Nominal Scale of Measurement;
ii) Ordinal Scale of Measurement;
iii) Interval Scale of Measurement
iv) Ratio Scale of Measurement;

i) Nominal Scale of Measurement

 The nominal scale of measurement defines the identity property of data. This scale has
certain characteristics, but doesn’t have any form of numerical meaning.

 The data can be placed into categories but can’t be multiplied, divided, added or subtracted
from one another. It’s also not possible to measure the difference between data points.

 Examples of nominal data include eye colour and country of birth. Nominal data can be
grouped categories but it cannot be ordered or summed up.

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  Dichotomous: Dichotomous data is defined by having only two categories or levels, such as
“yes’ and ‘no’.

ii) Ordinal Scale of Measurement

• The ordinal scale defines data that is placed in a specific order.
• While each value is ranked, there’s no information that specifies what differentiates the
categories from each other.
• These values can’t be added to or subtracted from.
• Where someone finished in a race also describes ordinal data. While first place, second place
or third place shows what order the runners finished in, it doesn’t specify how far the first-
place finisher was in front of the second-place finisher.

iii) Interval scale of measurement

• The interval scale contains properties of nominal and ordered data, but the difference
between data points can be quantified.

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 • This type of data shows both the order of the variables and the exact differences between
the variables.
• They can be added to or subtracted from each other, but not multiplied or divided. For
example, 40 degrees is not 20 degrees multiplied by two.
• This scale is also characterized by the fact that the number zero is an existing variable.
• In the ordinal scale, zero means that the data does not exist. In the interval scale, zero has
meaning-for example, if you measure degrees, zero has a temperature.
• Data points on the interval scale have the same difference between them.
• The difference on the scale between 10 and 20 degrees is the same between 20 and 30
degrees.
• This scale is used to quantify the difference between variables, whereas the other two
scales are used to describe qualitative values only. Other examples of interval scales
include the year a car was made or the months of the year.

iv) Ratio scales of measurement

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 • Ratio scales of measurement include properties from all four scales of measurement. The
data is nominal and defined by an identity, can be classified in order, contains intervals and
can be broken down into exact value. Weight, height and distance are all examples of ratio
variables. Data in the ratio scale can be added, subtracted, divided and multiplied.
• Ratio scales also differ from interval scales in that the scale has a ‘true zero’.
• The number zero means that the data has no value point. An example of this is height or
weight, as someone cannot be zero centimeters tall or weigh zero kilos-or be negative
centimeters or negative kilos.

The four data measurement scales – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio are quite often discussed
in academic teaching. Below easy-to-remember chart might help you in your statistics test

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 7.4 Quantitative Data Analysis
Measures of Central Tendency
• What are the measures of central tendency?
• A measure of central tendency (also referred to as measures of center or central location)
is a summary measure that attempts to describe a whole set of data with a single value that
represents the middle or center of its distribution.
• There are three main measures of central tendency: the mode, the median and the mean

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 The Mode
• The mode is the most commonly occurring value in a distribution.
Consider this dataset showing the retirement age of 11 people, in whole years: 54, 54, 54,
55, 56, 57, 57, 58, 58, 60, 60

Age Frequency

54 3

55 1

56 1

57 2

58 2

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 60 2

The most commonly occurring value is 54, therefore the mode of this distribution is 54 years.

Advantage and Limitation of the Mode Advantage of the

Mode
The mode has an advantage over the median and the mean as it can be found for both numerical
and categorical (non-numerical) data.

Limitations of the Mode

The following are some limitations to using the mode in analyzing quantitative data.
i) In some distributions, the mode may not reflect the center of the distribution very well. When
the distribution of retirement age is ordered from lowest to highest value, it is easy to see that the
center of the distribution is 57 years, but the mode is lower, at 54 years. 54, 54, 54, 55, 56, 57, 57,
58, 58, 60, 60
ii) It is also possible for there to be more than one mode for the same distribution of data, (bi-
modal, or multi-modal). The presence of more than one mode can limit the ability of the mode
in describing the center or typical value of the distribution because a single value to describe
the center cannot be identified.
iii) In some cases, particularly where the data are continuous, the distribution may have no mode
at all (i.e. if all values are different).
iv) In cases such as these, it may be better to consider using the median or mean, or group the
data in to appropriate intervals, and find the modal class.

The Median
• The median is the middle value in distribution when the values are arranged in
ascending or descending order.
• The median divides the distribution in half (there are 50% of observations on either side of
the median value). In a distribution with an odd number of observations, the median value
is the middle value.

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 • Looking at the retirement age distribution (which has 11 observations), the median is the
middle value, which is 57 years: 54, 54, 54, 55, 56, 57, 57, 58, 58, 60, 60
• When the distribution has an even number of observations, the median value is the mean of
the two middle values. In the following distribution, the two middle values are 56 and 57,
therefore the median equals 56.5 years: 52, 54, 54, 54, 55, 56, 57, 57,
58, 58, 60, 60

Advantage and Limitation of the Median

• Advantage of the Median
The median is less affected by outliers and skewed data than the mean, and is usually the
preferred measure of central tendency when the distribution is not symmetrical.

• Limitation of the Median

The median cannot be identified for categorical nominal data, as it cannot be
logically ordered.

The Mean
• The mean is the sum of the value of each observation in a dataset divided by the number
of observations. This is also known as the arithmetic average.
• Looking at the retirement age distribution again: 54, 54, 54, 55, 56, 57, 57, 58, 58, 60,
60
• The mean is calculated by adding together all the values
(54+54+54+55+56+57+57+58+58+60+60 = 623) and dividing by the number of
observations (11) which equals 56.6 years.

Advantage and Limitations of the Mean

• Advantage of the Mean
The mean can be used for both continuous and discrete numeric data.
• Limitations of the Mean
i) The mean cannot be calculated for categorical data, as the values cannot be summed.

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 ii) Since the mean includes every value in the distribution, it is influenced by outliers and
skewed distributions.

• What Else Do I Need To Know About The Mean?

The population mean is indicated by the Greek symbol µ (pronounced ‘mu’). When the
mean is calculated on a distribution from a sample it is indicated by the symbol x̅
(pronounced X-bar).
Mean or Average
The (arithmetic) mean, or average, of n observations (pronounced “x bar”) is simply the sum of
the observations divided by the number of observations; thus:

In this equation, xi represents the individual sample values and Σxi their sum. The Greek letter 'Σ'
(sigma) is the Greek capital 'S' and stands for 'sum'. Their calculation is described in example 1
below.

How does the Shape of a Distribution Influence the Measures of Central Tendency? a)Symmetrical
Distributions
When a distribution is symmetrical, the mode, median and mean are all in the middle of the
distribution. The following graph shows a larger retirement age dataset with a distribution which
is symmetrical. The mode, median and mean all equal 58 years.

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 b) Skewed distributions:
 When a distribution is skewed the mode remains the most commonly occurring value,
the median remains the middle value in the distribution, but the mean is generally
‘pulled’ in the direction of the tails.
 In a skewed distribution, the median is often a preferred measure of central
tendency, as the mean is not usually in the middle of the distribution.
 A distribution is said to be positively or right skewed when the tail on the right side of the
distribution is longer than the left side.
 In a positively skewed distribution it is common for the mean to be ‘pulled’ toward the
right tail of the distribution.

 Although there are exceptions to this rule, generally, most of the values, including the
median value, tend to be less than the mean value.

 The following graph shows a larger retirement age data set with a distribution which

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 is right skewed.

 The data has been grouped into classes, as the variable being measured (retirement age) is
continuous.

 The mode is 54 years, the modal class is 54-56 years, the median is 56 years and the mean is
57.2 years.

How Do Outliers Influence the Measures of Central Tendency?

• Outliers are extreme or atypical data value(s) that are notably different from the rest of the
data.
• It is important to detect outliers within a distribution, because they can alter the results
of the data analysis.
• The mean is more sensitive to the existence of outliers than the median or mode.
• Consider the initial retirement age dataset again, with one difference; the last
observation of 60 years has been replaced with a retirement age of 81 years.

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 • This value is much higher than the other values, and could be considered an outlier.
• However, it has not changed the middle of the distribution, and therefore the median value is
still 57 years. 54, 54, 54, 55, 56, 57, 57, 58, 58, 60, 81.

• As the all values are included in the calculation of the mean, the outlier will influence the
mean value. (54+54+54+55+56+57+57+58+58+60+81 = 644), divided by 11 =
58.5 years.

• In this distribution the outlier value has increased the mean value.

• Despite the existence of outliers in a distribution, the mean can still be an appropriate
measure of central tendency, especially if the rest of the data is normally distributed.

• If the outlier is confirmed as a valid extreme value, it should not be removed from the
dataset.
• Several common regression techniques can help reduce the influence of outliers on the mean
value.

Measures of Dispersion or Variability

Measures of dispersion describe the spread of the data. They include the range, interquartile
range, standard deviation and variance.
Click https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research- methods/1b-
statistical-methods/mldap for more information on analysis of educational data.

7.5 Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research yields mainly unstructured text-based data. These textual data could be
interview transcripts, observation notes, diary entries, or medical and nursing records. In some
cases, qualitative data can also include pictorial display, audio or video clips (e.g. audio and
visual recordings of patients, radiology film, and surgery videos), or other multimedia materials.
Data analysis is the part of qualitative research that most distinctively differentiates from
quantitative research methods. It is not a technical

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 exercise as in quantitative methods, but more of a dynamic, intuitive and creative process of
inductive reasoning, thinking and theorizing. In contrast to quantitative research, which uses
statistical methods, qualitative research focuses on the exploration of values, meanings,
beliefs, thoughts, experiences, and feelings characteristic of the phenomenon under
investigation.

Data analysis in qualitative research is defined as the process of systematically searching and
arranging the interview transcripts, observation notes, or other non- textual materials that the
researcher accumulates to increase the understanding of the phenomenon. The process of
analyzing qualitative data predominantly involves coding or categorizing the data. Basically it
involves making sense of huge amounts of data by reducing the volume of raw information,
followed by identifying significant patterns, and finally drawing meaning from data and
subsequently building a logical chain of evidence.

Coding or categorizing the data is the most important stage in the qualitative data analysis
process. Coding and data analysis are not synonymous, though coding is a crucial aspect of the
qualitative data analysis process. Coding merely involves subdividing the huge amount of raw
information or data, and subsequently assigning them into categories. In simple terms, codes are
tags or labels for allocating identified themes or topics from the data compiled in the study.
Traditionally, coding was done manually, with the use of coloured pens to categorize data, and
subsequently cutting and sorting the data. Given the advancement of software technology,
electronic methods of coding data are increasingly used by qualitative researchers.

Nevertheless, the computer does not do the analysis for the researchers. Users still have to
create the categories, code, decide what to collate, identify the patterns and draw meaning
from the data. The use of computer software in qualitative data analysis is limited due to the
nature of qualitative research itself in terms of the complexity of its unstructured data, the
richness of the data and the way in which findings and theories emerge from the data. The
programme merely takes over the marking, cutting, and sorting tasks that qualitative
researchers used to do with a pair of scissors, paper and note cards. It helps to maximize
efficiency and speed up the process of grouping data

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 according to categories and retrieving coded themes. Ultimately, the researcher still has to
synthesize the data and interpret the meanings that were extracted from the data. Therefore, the
use of computers in qualitative analysis merely made organization, reduction and storage of data
more efficient and manageable.

7.6 Data Presentation Techniques

a. Tabular Presentation
Tabular presentation is a table that represent large amount of data in an engaging, easy to read,
and coordinated manner. The data is arranged into rows and columns. This is one of the most
popular forms of presentation of data as data tables are simple to prepare and read. Each
Table should bear a title. The following is an example of a simple Table.
Table 7.6 Distribution of School by Category
School Category Frequency Percent

Boarding X x%

Boarding and Day Y y%

Day Z x%

Total X+Y+Z 100

 Graphical Presentation
A graph is a kind of figure where data are plotted as variables across the coordinates, x and y.
Graphical representation of data is an attractive method of showcasing quantitative data
(numerical data) visually. Generally, four methods are used to represent a frequency distribution
graphically. These are histogram, smoothed frequency graph, and Ogive or cumulative frequency
graph and pie diagram. Below is an example of a bar graph.

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 8. DEVELOPMENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 Introduction
The process of conducting research into a certain issue or problem starts with the
development of a research proposal.

8.1 Writing a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a structured, formal document that explains the following.
i) What you plan to research (i.e. your research topic);
ii) Why it’s worth researching (i.e. your justification); and
iii) How you plan to investigate it (i.e. your practical approach).

Activity
 Click on the link below and watch the video.
 Write the keys aspects of writing a research proposal that you have captured from the video.
 Draft a one page write-up of your research proposal
 Remember to include the following.
i) What you intend to investigate
ii) Why it is important to investigate
iii) How will you go about it
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/calgs/cal-research-proposals/what.aspx

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 Reminder

Components of a Research Proposal

The following are the components of a research proposal.
i) Preliminary pages
ii) Chapter one-Introduction and background to the study
iii) Chapter two-Review of related literature
iv) Chapter three-Research design and methodology
v) References
vi) Appendices

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 Preliminary Pages
This section includes the following subsections.
 Title
 Declaration
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of figures
 List of tables
 Abbreviations and acronyms
 Abstract
NB: Use Roman numerals to paginate this section

Chapter 0ne:
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background to the study
1.2 Statement of the problem
1.3 Purpose of the study
1.4 Objectives of the study
1.5 Research Questions/hypotheses

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 1.6 Significance of the study
1.7 Limitations of the study
1.8 Delimitations of the study
1.9 Assumptions of the study
1.10Theoretical framework
1.11 Conceptual framework
1.12 Operational definitions of the key terms and concepts

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature

 The chapter is divided into introduction and thematic subtopics based on the
objectives.
2.0 Introduction
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4 Summary
 Based on study objectives
 Global, continental, regional, national, local perspectives

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

 The research methodology is organized into an introduction followed by various
subtopics.
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research design
3.2 Variables
3.3 Locale of the study
3.4 Target population
3.5 Sampling and sample size
3.6 Research instruments-validity, reliability, piloting
3.7 Data collection procedures
3.8 Data analysis

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 3.9 Ethical, human relations, legal and logistical considerations

References
 A reference list:
i) Lists only the sources you refer to in your writing.
ii) Allows your sources to be found by your reader.
iii) It gives credit to authors you have consulted for their ideas.
 APA style of referencing is the most common referencing style.
 Hanging indent (space bar in 5-7 spaces for the second and subsequent lines of each
reference)
Example APA Referencing: Kabunda, K.N. (2021). Theory of Change. Nairobi: McMillan
Publishers.

Appendices
 Appendix I: Introductory letter
 Appendix II: Instruments
 Appendix III: Budget
 Appendix IV: Work plan
 Appendix V: Research permit

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 Recapitulation
Click on the link below and listen to the recap on the main points on research proposal development.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/5817490/

Activity
Submit your research proposal

8.2 Communicating Research

Some of the methods of communicating research include the following.
i) Oral presentations in conferences, seminars and workshops;
ii) Poster presentations;
iii) Publishing abstracts;
iv) Social media through the internet; and
v) Peer-reviewed research papers.

8.3 Methods of Disseminating Research Findings

Once the dissemination objective and the audience are identified, there are a variety of ways to
share the developed content. The Common methods of disseminating research findings include
the following.

a. Publishing research findings in international referred journals and statewide

publications;
b. Presenting the findings at national conferences and meetings of professional
associations;
c. Presenting research findings to local community groups and other local
stakeholders;
d. Creating and distributing the findings using flyers, guides, pamphlets and DVDs;
e. Sharing research findings through social media or on an organization's website;

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 f. Summarizing the findings in progress reports;
g. Disseminating research findings information on an organization's website;
h. Discussing the findings on the local radio;
i. Publishing research findings in the local newspaper

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