LECTURE TWO

CIRCULAR MOTION

Objectives

At the end of this lecture you should be able to

Define centripetal acceleration and centripetal force

Derive the formula for centripetal acceleration (force) from first principles
Use the formula for centripetal acceleration (force) to solve physical
problems.

2.1: Centripetal Acceleration

A body that executes circular motion cannot be said to be in uniform motion for the
direction of the motion is continuously changing. The velocity being a vector also
changes despite being constant in magnitude. Therefore, the particle is actually
accelerated since the velocity changes.

Let us now derive a formula for the acceleration.

A V1

B
V2

Fig. 2.1: Change of velocity during a finite time

interval.

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If the linear velocity of a particle at a certain instant is v1; after a short time interval Δt the
particle has moved from A to B and the velocity is v2 (numerically equally to v1 but
directed differently).
Now acceleration is the rate of change of velocity i.e the change of velocity divided by
the time required for the change. The acceleration during an interval Δt is

P
V2
V2-V1
Q
R
-V1

Fig. 2.2: Vector addition of velocities

The resultant of is directed toward the center of the circle; it is called a

centripetal acceleration.
To find the instantaneous acceleration, we must use a very short time interval; the
direction of the instantaneous acceleration being perpendicular to the instantaneous
velocity v.

For very small angles, the triangles AOB and PQR may be replaced by sectors (fig. 2.3)

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 B
P

A V
r
r Q
t t

V
O
R
Fig. 2.3: triangles with t
sides mutually
perpendicular.

The vector angle ∠ AOB equals the angular speed times the time interval i.e ωt. Then
PQR also equals ωΔt (similar triangles, with sides mutually perpendicular).
The velocities v1 and v2 each have magnitude v, so we label PQ and RQ equal to v and
the magnitude of the change in v is PR, which we now call Δt. Finally from the triangle
PQR we have the approximate equation

This is a most interesting equation for the centripetal acceleration, involving both angular
velocity and linear velocity.
We can interprete this as follows: the factor v tells us how much velocity magnitude there
is to change, and the factor ω tells us how rapidly the direction of v is changing. For
computational purposes it is convenient to use either ω or v or both. Thus since

35
Also

and
since ν is the reciprocal of T, we have

……………………………………………………………………….(1.24b)
where ac is the centripetal acceleration.

Let us now take an example to illustrate how to use these concepts we have learnt to
solve physical problems.

Example 2.1

Calculate the centripetal acceleration of a speck of dust on the rim of a phonograph

record 70 cm in diameter turning at 45 revolutions per minute. The radius is 30 cm and
the circumference is 2π(30х10-2m).

First method

The angular velocity is

Second method

The linear velocity of the dust particle

2.2 Centripetal force

Having studied the kinematics (description) of uniform circular motion, we are now able
to examine the causes of such motion. Circular motion is no exception to the general rule

36
that forces are need to cause acceleration of bodies having mass. The centripetal force,
which causes centripetal acceleration, acts on the body that is in motion and directed
toward the center of the circle. Any type of force can serve as a centripetal force.
Elastic, frictional, gravitational and magnetic forces can cause uniform circular motion of
a body having mass m. The centripetal force is generally given by the formula

……………………………………………………………………….(2.4c)

2.3: Applications of Centripetal Acceleration and Force

Formula (2.4)) can be applied in a variety of physical situations. Here we give a few
examples.

(a)Elastic forces.

Consider a stone of mass m whirled in a horizontal circle of radius r. If the tension in the
rope is T, find the tension in the string if its angular speed is ω rads-1.
F = ma = centripetal force. The tension provides the centripetal force.

T
EMBED
Equation.3

T= m2r

Fig. 2.4: Stone whirled in horizontal circle

Example 2.2

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Suppose that the mass of the stone above is 20 kg and the radius r is 2 m, with the stone
doing an angular speed of 80 revs/min. Find the tension in the string.

Solution

M = 20 kg, r = 2m,

Centripetal acceleration a =ω2r =140.37 ms-2

and the tension T= ma = mω2r =2807N.

Suppose now that the same stone of mass m is whirled in a vertical circle of radius r at
the same angular speed ω. Let us find the tension at various points along the circle.

Non -uniform Circular Motion

If the velocity of an object changes both in its magnitude (speed) and direction as the object
moves along a circular path, the total acceleration and hence the centripetal force also
changes.

 For example, for motion in a vertical circle, the contribution due to gravitational
attraction alters the tension in the string at various points (Fig. 1-19). By applying
Newton's 2nd law of motion (F = Ma, where F is the net force) we have:

A Mv 2
At point A: F = T1 + Mg =
r
Mg
Mv 2
At point B: F = T2 =
T1 r
T2
B Mv 2
At point C: F = T3 - Mg =
r
T3
Mg Thus, the string is most likely to
break at the bottom (point C) since
Fig. 1-19 C the tension T3 is greatest.
Mg

Practical Examples of Circular Motion

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(i) Car on a flat track
Consider a car of mass M travelling round a circular track (corner) of radius r with a
velocity v (Fig. 1-20a). Whereas the centrifugal force tries to make the car fly away from
the track (overturn), the frictional forces often provide the necessary centripetal force to
overcome the centrifugal force.

R1 R2

G
Friction
h
Mg
Centrifu
gal force
F1 F2
2b
Fig.1-20
Fig. 1-20a

 If the height of the car's center of gravity is h, the distance between the wheels is 2b,
the normal reactions at wheels A and B are R1 and R2 respectively, while F1 and F2 are
the corresponding frictional forces (Fig. 1-20), then:

Mv 2
R1 + R2 = Mg and F1 + F2 =
r

Taking moments about G, we have (F1+ F2)h = R2b - R1b

 v 2 h 
 R 2  12 M  g  ………….……………….…...(a)
 rb 


 v 2 h 
R 1  12 M  g  …………………….….…..….(b)
 rb 


brg
From (b), if v 2  , then R1 becomes zero and a car turning left will overturn outwards
h
brg
(maximum safe speed is v 2  ). To reduce the centrifugal force further, roads are
h
usually banked at corners at some angle.

(ii) The Solar System

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 The moon and satellites are held in orbit around the earth by the invisible but real force-
the centripetal force provided by the gravitational attraction.

(iii) Looping Loops

 This is another typical case of vertical circular motion (see Tut 1.4, Qn 13)

(iv) Centrifugal Machines

 The cream from milk, honey from honey combs, drying cloths in a spin dryer-all work
on the principle that due to centrifugal forces, lighter particles acquire more velocity
and hence separate out from the heavier ones.

Lighter matter Drum of dryer

Denser matter
Path of water

Fig. 1-23. The centrifuge Fig. 1-24

 In a dryer (Fig. 1-24), as the cloths go round, the fibres of the clothing cannot provide
sufficient force on most of the water to make it go round. As a result, the water flies off
at a tangent to the orbit and escapes through the holes in the drum wall.

Worked Examples
1. A pendulum bob of mass 1.0 kg is attached to a string 1.0m long and made to revolve
in a horizontal cycle of radius 0.6m. Find the period of the motion and the tension of
the string (assume g = 10 ms-2).

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 Solution

From the Figure,

1m 
Mv 2
Tcos T T sin  = ………….…..(a)
r

T cos  = Mg ……..…….…(b)
0.6m
Tsin
But cos = 0.6;  = cos -1 0.6 = 53.1o

Mg Mg
 T  16.67 N
cos
From (b)
rTsin
 v  ...ms 1
M

2 2r
Thus Period  =   ......... s
 v

2. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r = cos  t i +sin  t j where 
is a constant. Show that
(a) the velocity, v, of the particle is perpendicular to r,
(b) the acceleration, a, is directed toward the origin and has magnitude proportional to
the distance from the origin
(c) r  v = a constant vector.

Solution
dr
(a) v  =-  sin  t i + cos  t j.
dt
Thus r.v = [cos  t i +sin  t j].[-  sin  t i + cos  t j]
= (cos  t)(-  sin t) + (sin t)( cos t) = 0

d 2r dv
(b)  = - 2 cos  t i - 2 sin  t j = - 2 [cos  t i + sin  t j] = -2 r
dt 2 dt
Thus acceleration is opposite the direction of r i.e., it is directed towards the
origin. Its magnitude is proportional to r .

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 (c) r  v = k, a constant vector
Physically, the motion is that of a particle moving on the circumference of a
circle with constant angular speed . The acceleration, directed towards the
centre of the circle is the centripetal acceleration.

a) Frictional force

Frictional forces often supply the necessary centripetal force, as for an automobile going
a round level curve (fig. 16)

Centre of gravity of
an
Automobile.

Centre of
circle
Wheels
fs
Fig. 2.6: Automobile
supported by frictional Mg
Fn Fn
centripetal force

Let us now find the maximum speed with which a car of mass m can go round an
unbanked curve of radius r, if the coefficient of static friction between the tyres and the
road is μs.
The weight of the car mg is balanced by the upward force (normal reaction) Fn of the
road i.e Fn = mg
The net force is that due to friction f = μsFn since the car is presumably about to skid and
the maximum force of friction is being obtained.

Net force

Example 2.4

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Compute the maximum speed of a car going round an unbanked curve of radius 40m if
the coefficient of static friction is 0.8

Solution

We are given that the radius r = 60m , the coefficient of static friction μs = 0.8 and we
take g = 9.8 ms-1.

We then use equation (2.7) to obtain

b) Gravitational force

To illustrate the centripetal acceleration caused by gravitational force, consider a car of

mass m going over the top of a hill of radius of curvature r m (fig. 2.7).

Mg
Fn

Fig. 2.7: Car going over the

top of a hill.

Let us apply Newton's law to the motion of the car.

Net force on the car F = ma = , where v is the speed of the car.

F = mg - Fn = weight of car - reaction on the car

………………………………………………………………….(2.7)

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Example 2.5

What is the force of a 1400 kg car on the road surface, as it goes at 20 ms-1 over the crest
of a hill having a radius of curvature of 45m measured in a vertical plane.

Solution

Let us apply the above equation

This is the upward push of the road on the car. Newton's law tells us that the force of the
car on the road is equal and opposite i.e 8680N downward.
As the car goes over the hill, it tends to take off and press less against the road than when
on a level stretch.

c) Magnetic force

Magnetic force on a moving charge is responsible for circular motion of charged

particles such as is the case in a cyclotron. If m is the mass of each charge moving in a
cyclotron of radius r subjected to a force F directed toward the centre of revolution,then
the velocity of the particle can be calculated as follows.

Net F = ma =

Example 2.6

In a cyclotron, a beam of protons of net mass 1.67 × 10-27 kg is moving in a circle of

radius 90 cm. If an electromagnet supplies a force of 13 × 10-13 N directed toward the
centre of revolution, what is the velocity of the protons? What is the KE?

Solution

Net force F = ma =

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∴ v= √(13 × 10-13N)(0.90m)
1.67 × 10-27 kg
= 2.65 × 107 ms-1

Kinetic energy KE =

= (1.67 × 10-27 kg)(2.65 × 107 ms-1) 2

= (1.67 × 10-27 kg)(7.00 × 1014 m2 s-2)

=5.85 × 10-13 J

(e) The conical pendulum

Consider a small body of mass m revolving around in a horizontal circle with constant
speed v at the end of a string of length L. As the body swings around, the string sweeps
over the surface of an imaginary cone. This device is called a conical pendulum.

R
Mg

Fig. 2.8: Conical pendulum.

If the string makes an angle θ with the vertical, the radius of the circular path R = Lsinθ

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The forces acting on the body of mass m are it's weight mg of tension and T of the string.
Applying Newtons 2nd law of motion

∑F = T +mg = ma

Let us resolve tension in the string into radial and horizontal components:

Tradial = −T sinθ and T vertical = T cosθ

The radial component is negative if we define the radial direction to be positive outward
from the axis.
Since the body has no vertical acceleration,
∑Fvertical = Tvertical - mg = 0

⇒ Tcosθ = mg ………………………………………………………………(2.9)

The radial acceleration ar = , which negative because it's acts radialy inward
(opposite with the direction, which we take to be the positive radial direction).
This acceleration is supplied by Tr

∑Fr = Tr = mar

⇒-Tsinθ = - ……………………………………………………………(2.10)
Dividing (2.8) by (2.9), we obtain

tanθ = ………………………………………………………………..(2.11)
⇒v = ……………………………………………………………..(2.12)
which gives the constant speed of the body.

If t is the time for one complete revolution of the body, then

But R = Lsinθ

which is the period of the motion.

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Example 2.7

If L=1.5m, θ = 30o, find the period of the motion.

Solution

Here we directly apply equation (2.2):

Example 2.8

A conical pendulum is formed by attaching a 50g pebble to a 1.8m string. The pebble
swings in a circle of radius 24 cm.
Find
a) the speed of the pebble
b) the acceleration
c) the tension in the string

Solution

We are given that:

L = 1.8m, R = 24 × 10-2 m, m = 50 × 10-3 kg

Let us find the angle θ subtended by the string.

R = L sin θ ⇒ 24 × 10-2 m = 1.8m sinθ

⇒ sin θ = =

θ = sin-1 = 7.7°
∴ v = √Rg tanθ

= √1.8 × 9.8 ms-2 tan 7.7°

= 1.5ms-1

a) the acceleration a = v2/R = 4.2 ms-2

b) T cos θ = mg ⇒ T = mg/cosθ = 50 × 10-3 kg × 9.8 ms-2
cos 7.7°

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 = 0.05 × 9.8
0.99
T = 0.49 N

(f) The Rotor

In many amusement parks we find a device called a rotor. It is a hollow cylindrical room
that can be set rotating about the central vertical axis of the cylinder. A person enters the
rotor, closes the door and stands up against the wall. The rotor gradually increases its
rotational speed from rest until, at a predetermined speed, the floor below the person is
opened downward, revealing a deep pit. The person does not fall but remains "pinned up"
against the wall of the rotor.
We can find the rotational speed necessary to prevent falling.

fs
y

FN

x
Mg

Fig. 2.9: The

Rotor

The forces acting on the rotor is as shown i.e the weight mg, the static friction between the
person and the rotor wall is fs, and fN is the normal force exerted by the wall on the person.
Resolving theses forces into horizontal and vertical components we have

∑Fy = fs - mg = may = 0

Let the person's targeted speed be v. Then he/she experiences a radial acceleration .
∴ Apply Newton's 2nd law

∑Fr = -FN = mar =

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∴ The normal reaction of the rotor wall provides the centripetal force in this case. If μ s is
the coefficient of static friction between the person and the wall necessary to prevent
slipping, then

…………………………………………………………..(2.14)

Example 2.9

The coefficient of static friction between a textile material of clothing and a canvas rotor
wall is 0.60. If the radius of the rotor is 2m, find the rate at which the rotor must rotate to
prevent the clothing falling.

Solution

Let us apply equation (2.13) to solve this problem;

The circumference of the path = 2πR ⇒ Period of rotor =

Therefore, the frequency (f) of the rotor is the inverse of the period (T) = 0.44 revolutions
per second.

(g) Banking of curves

Let us consider a bicyclist going round a level (unbanked) curve. If he remains vertical, the
force acting on him are: his weight mg, the normal force on the road FN and a frictional
force f acting toward the center of the circle. These forces are not in equilibrium and the
resultant force is centripetal force which causes centripetal acceleration. Without sufficient
friction, the cyclist is unable to go a round the curve of greater radius and will skid in a
curve of greater radius.
Even when the coefficient of friction is adequate, the cyclist is in danger of toppling over
and the common practice of cyclists is to lean inwards as they go round a curve, in order
to avoid this.

49
 c.g c.g

R
FN
Fig. 2.10: (a) Wheel in upright (b) wheel in leaning
position
position
REPLACE WITH FIG IN MECHANICS I

The vector sum of f and FN represents the force R of the ground on the cycle. If the cyclist
does not lean over, R does not pass through the center of gravity and the result is a
counterclockwise torque tending to push the wheels out from under the rider. Leaning at
just the proper angle causes R to act along the frame of the bicycle and no instability results.
Curves on highways are banked, computed to be safe at some particular speed.
The normal force exerted by the roadbed has a horizontal component which serves as the
centripetal force, and the vertical component of the normal force serves to support the
weight. Since the road itself furnishes the centripetal force as one component of the
compressional force (the normal force), no frictional force (parallel to the surface) is
needed. A car can negotiate a properly banked curve even on ice for which μs = 0.

50
 f

FN

Fig. 2.11: Road banked at an angle

REPLACE WITH FIG IN NELKON

Centripetal force F =
Maximum force of friction = μsFN = μsmg
But FN = mg

Now, tan θ =

⇒θ = tan-1μs …………………………………………………………………………(2.15)

which is the angle of banking.

Let us consider the motion of a car on a banked road (fig. 2.12). The forces acting on the
car are not balanced and the resultant force is horizontal, directed toward the center of the
circle. This net force serves as the centripetal force.

FN

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 Net force F

W=mg
Fig.2.12: Car on banked road

From Newton's second law,

………………………………………………………………………..(2.16)

Thus the angle of banking depends on the speed of the car and the radius of the curve i.e

The absence of m or W from the formula shows that all cars and trucks (and bicycles)
require the same banking on the same curve at any given speed, regardless of their weight.
If a car goes round a banked curve too fast, some frictional force will be needed to
supplement the horizontal component of the normal force. If it goes round too slowly,
frictional force is again needed to oppose some of the horizontal component of the normal
force, to keep from sliding downhill into the ditch. On a very slippery road, it is as bad to
go too slowly as too fast round a banked curve.
At the speed for which the road is designed, friction is not needed, and road conditions are
immaterial.

Example 2.10

The combined mass of a motorcycle and its rider is 150 kg. What is the necessary force of
friction if the cyclist is to go around a curve of 120 m radius at 20 ms-1?
If the coefficient of friction is 0.6, will the cyclist negotiate the curve successfully?
At what angle should he lean to avoid a spill?

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Solution

We are given that mass m = 150 kg, velocity v = 20 ms-1, radius r = 120m . Therefore

Centripetal force =

Weight of the cyclist W = mg = 150 kg ×9.8 ms-1 = 1470N

Maximum force of friction fs = μsFN = (0.6)(1470) = 882N

Since the force required is less than the maximum possible force of friction, the cyclist will
be able to make it.

which is the angle at which he/she should lean.

Example 2.11

An airplane on its landing approach executes a 180o turn by describing a semi-circular path
at a constant speed with radius 7.2 km. An accelerometer in the cockpit reads
1.8 ms-2 during the turn. How long will it take to complete the turn?

Solution

r
Fig. 2.13:Semi-circular path.

Radius r = 7.2 ×103 m, acceleration a = 1.8 ms-2. Now

And substituting for a and r, we obtain

v = 113.8 ms-1

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But the period T =

So the time taken to complete half-circle is

Summary
In circular motion,
The centripetal acceleration is given by EMBED Equation.3 EMBED
Equation.3 and centripetal force by EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 .
The period of a conical pendulum of length L is given EMBED Equation.3 .
The speed of rotation of a rotor necessary to prevent slipping is given by
EMBED Equation.3 .
For an automobile moving around a curved banked road the banking angle is
given by
= tan-1s or EMBED Equation.3

Self Assessment Test 2

Self Assessment Test 2

1. You are driving a car at speed of 85 km/h when you notice a barrier across the
road 62m ahead.
(a) What is the minimum coefficient of static friction between tyres and the
road that will allow you to stop without breaking the barrier?

54
 (b) Suppose that you are driving at 85 km/h on a large empty parking lot.
What is the minimum coefficient of static friction that would allow you to
turn the car in a 62 m radius circle and in this way, avoid a collision with a
wall 62 m ahead?

2. An airplane is flying in a horizontal circle at speed of 482 km/h. The wings of

the plane are tilted at 38.2o to the horizontal. Find the radius of the circle in
which the plane is flying. Assume that the centripetal force is provided by the lift
force perpendicular to the wing surface.

3. A small coin is placed on a flat, horizontal turntable. The turntable is observed

to make exactly three revolutions in 3.3 s.
(a) What is the speed of the coin when it rides without slipping at a distance of 5.2
cm from the center of the turntable?
(b) What is the acceleration (magnitude and direction) of the coin in part (a)? .
(c) What is the force of friction acting on the coin in part (a) if the coin has a mass
of 1.7 g? (d) What is the coefficient of static friction between the coin and the
turntable if the coin is observed to slide off the turntable when it is more than 12
cm from the center?

4. A woman holds a pail full of water by the handle and whirls it around a
vertical circle at constant speed. The radius of this circle is 0.9 m. What is the
minimum speed that the pail must have at the top of its circular motion if the
water is not to spill out of the upside -down pail?

Suggested Further Reading

1. Physics, 4th Edition, Vol. 1, by Halliday and Resnick , John Wiley and Sons pp 60
(1992).

55
2. Ohanian Physics by Hans C. Ohanian, 2nd Edition, W.W. Norton & Company
Inc.pp 84
3. Physics with modern Physics by R. Wolfson & Jay M. Passachoff , Addison-
Wesley , pp 79 (1999)
4. College Physics, 3rd edition by F.M. Miller, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., pp
165 (1972)
5. Essential Principles of physics by P.M. Whelan 7 M.J. Hodgson, J.W.
Arrowsmith Ltd, Bristol, pp 39 (1978).

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