Analysis of AI-Based Machine Learning Techniques for Enhancing Fault Detection and

Maintenance in Photovoltaic Systems: A Comparative Study

Abdellahi Moulaye Rchid1, Moussa Attia2, Mohamed Elmamy MOHAMED MAHMOUD1, Zoubir Aoulmi2,
Abdelkader Ould Mahmoud1,3

1
Applied Research Unit for Renewable Energies in Water and Environment (URA3E), University of Nouakchott, Nouakchott
BP 880, Mauritania
2
Environment Laboratory, Institute of Mines, Echahid Cheikh Larbi Tebessi University, Tebessa 12002, Algeria
3
Mauritanian Society of Renewable Energies and Green Hydrogen (2SMERHV), Mauritania

Abstract: In this study, we compared five advanced machine learning models for fault detection and
classification in photovoltaic systems. Our research focused on fault detection and identification based on
monitoring the power value change in the photovoltaic array and voltage deviation. The study revealed that the
XGBoost model achieved the highest accuracy of 88% compared to the other models used, making it suitable for
real-time predictive maintenance. Random Forest also proved effective with multiple fault classes. Although
ANN and CNN are not perfect in real-time fault detection, they played a pivotal role in identifying long-term
degradation and supporting preventive maintenance strategies. By making a significant contribution to reducing
downtime and improving operational efficiency.

Keywords: Photovoltaic (PV) systems, Fault detection, Machine Learning, Maintenance, Performance
degradation.

1. Introduction

Solar energy is increasingly recognized as one of the most vital renewable energy sources globally, primarily due
to its capacity to generate clean and sustainable energy while mitigating the detrimental environmental impacts
of traditional energy sources. Photovoltaic (PV) systems play a crucial role in this context by converting solar
energy into electrical energy. Their efficiency and adaptability for various applications, from small-scale
residential setups to large solar systems, position them as a critical solution in the global shift toward renewable
energy sources [1-3]. As the reliance on solar energy grows, ensuring the efficiency and reliability of these
systems is paramount to maximizing their potential for clean energy production [4, 5].

Despite the significant advantages of solar energy, photovoltaic systems are susceptible to various malfunctions
and operational challenges that can adversely affect their efficiency and overall performance. These issues can
range from simple problems, such as reduced energy output due to shading or dust accumulation, to more
complex mechanical and electrical failures, including malfunctioning components or degradation of system
parts. If these malfunctions are not identified and addressed promptly, they can lead to substantial energy losses
and increased operational and maintenance costs, ultimately shortening the lifespan of the systems [6-8]
Effective fault detection mechanisms are thus critical to maintaining the operational integrity of PV systems [9].

Historically, fault detection in photovoltaic systems relied heavily on physical inspections and traditional sensor-
based monitoring methods. However, these approaches often present significant drawbacks, including high costs,
time consumption, and challenges in scalability, particularly in expansive solar systems [10, 11]. Consequently,
there is a pressing demand for innovative solutions that leverage modern technologies to facilitate early fault
detection and enhance maintenance operations [12, 13].

Machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques emerge as promising avenues for improving fault
detection and diagnostic processes in photovoltaic systems. These advanced methodologies can analyse
extensive datasets generated during system operation, identifying patterns that may indicate potential faults. This
analytical power enables the implementation of predictive maintenance strategies, which focus on anticipating
issues before they manifest, thereby preventing significant outages and reducing dependence on costly manual
inspections [7, 12, 14]. By enhancing operational efficiency, these technologies can significantly contribute to
the sustainability and reliability of solar energy systems [6, 13].

With the increasing reliance on solar power, the need for effective automated fault detection is rising. [15] PV
systems are susceptible to various defects, significantly influencing energy generation. These defects can range
from minor difficulties, such as power output decreases due to shade or panel soiling, to more major mechanical
or electrical failures, such as inverter malfunctions or panel degeneration [16]. Each form of failure has a
different impact on energy efficiency, overall operational costs, and system reliability. [17]. Early diagnosis of
these issues is critical for minimizing downtime, optimizing maintenance schedules, and ensuring consistent
energy output [18].

However, standard defect detection methods, such as physical inspections or sensor-based monitoring, are time-
consuming, expensive, and error-prone, particularly in large-scale solar systems [19]. The various defect types
and their differing feature’s complicate fault identification in PV systems. Some areas for improvement, such as
soiling, develop gradually and might be difficult to notice until they reach a critical level [20]. Others, such as
inverter failures, occur unexpectedly and can cause rapid and significant disruptions in system functioning [21].
This diversity makes designing a one-size-fits-all fault detection solution difficult, necessitating adopting
advanced, flexible methods [22]. A system that can detect gradual and sudden failures while giving real-time,
actionable information to maintenance staff is critical for maximizing PV system efficiency [23].

The use of machine learning models for fault detection in PV systems is diverse, with each model offering
unique advantages and limitations. For example, Random Forest and XGBoost are robust and accurate models,
especially when dealing with complex nonlinear relationships in the data [24]. These models are often preferred
because they reduce overfitting and highly accurately manage various fault types [25]. Deep learning models
such as artificial neural networks (ANN) and convolutional neural networks (CNN) excel at capturing detailed
patterns in large datasets. However, they often require significant computing resources and larger datasets to
perform well [26]. Meanwhile, support vector machines (SVM), a traditional classification technique, perform
well in classifying binary faults but may struggle in more complex multiclass settings, especially when fault
patterns are less distinct [27]. The choice of machine learning model directly affects the effectiveness of
troubleshooting and maintenance procedures used in PV systems [28].

[29], For example, SVM and random forest models were used on a dataset of PV system faults, and significant
increases in fault detection accuracy were found over standard techniques [30]. This research departs from
previous studies that mainly emphasize detection capabilities by assessing the accuracy of model fault detection
and incorporating them into maintenance strategies.

This study addresses a gap in evaluating the practical utility of five different machine learning models for
predictive and preventive maintenance through comparative analysis. Similarly, [31] used XGBoost for fault
detection, confirming its ability to handle complex datasets with minimal overfitting [32]. However, these
studies often need to comprehensively evaluate how fault classification guides maintenance decisions, which is
critical to improving system performance and reducing maintenance costs [33]. This study aims to fill this gap
by comparing the fault detection accuracy of five machine learning models—Random Forest, SVM, XGBoost,
ANN, and CNN—and their ability to inform and improve PV system maintenance practices [34]. This study will
analyze operational data from PV systems to discover which models provide the best fault classification
accuracy and reliability, as well as how to integrate the outputs of these models into predictive and preventive
maintenance workflows. As a result, the study provides valuable insights for PV system operators to improve
system efficiency, extend the life of their facilities, and reduce maintenance costs by making intelligent, data-
driven decisions. Furthermore, this study emphasizes the need to customize machine learning models to meet the
unique operational requirements of PV systems. Integrating machine learning models into real-time monitoring
systems can change traditional maintenance procedures, shifting from reactive to proactive approaches [35].
Machine learning models can help operators avoid costly downtime, schedule maintenance more efficiently, and
ensure PV systems operate at peak efficiency by continuously monitoring their health and correctly classifying
faults [29]. The results of this study will benefit PV operators looking to integrate advanced data analytics into
their maintenance processes, leading to more sustainable and reliable solar energy production [36]. The primary
objective of this study is to test the effectiveness of five machine learning models in detecting problems in PV
systems and determine how these models can be used to improve maintenance procedures. We combined
machine learning theory with our PV system by focusing on real-time fault detection and long-term preventive
maintenance. The results of this study provide a roadmap for integrating machine learning models into the
operational management of PV systems, ensuring that renewable energy infrastructure remains resilient, cost-
effective, and easy to implement.

This research compares five advanced machine learning models to improve fault detection and maintenance of
photovoltaic systems. The models to be analyzed include Random Forest, XGBoost, Artificial Neural Networks
(ANN), Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), and Support Vector Machines (SVM). Each of these models
offers different advantages in the fault detection process; for example, Random Forest and XGBoost models
show remarkable ability to handle complex and diverse data and provide high classification accuracy, while
neural networks excel in detecting subtle patterns in large and complex data.

Finally, this study provides a practical framework for integrating machine learning techniques into PV systems
management processes, which contributes to increasing the efficiency and reliability of these systems and
ensuring their sustainability as a significant renewable energy source. The research promotes the transition to
sustainable energy by providing intelligent tools for proactive maintenance and fault detection, thus ensuring
systems' continuity and increasing their future effectiveness.

2. Literature Review

In recent years, machine learning (ML) has emerged as a practical approach to improve fault detection in
photovoltaic (PV) systems. Various ML models have shown utility in identifying potential problems by
analyzing vast amounts of operational data in real-time, reducing downtime, and aiding in preventive
maintenance plans [37]. Among the widely studied models are support vector machines (SVM), random forests,
XGBoost, artificial neural networks (ANN), and convolutional neural networks (CNN). SVMs have already
performed well on binary classification tasks. For example, [38] demonstrated that SVM detected inverter faults
in PV systems with an accuracy of 85%. However, the performance of SVM deteriorates when applied to
complex multi-class classification tasks. [39] found that SVM accuracy dropped to 82% when identifying
voltage spikes in PV systems. This shortcoming highlights the difficulty of SVM in dealing with complex fault
detection environments involving different types of problems.

On the other hand, Random Forest has emerged as one of the most robust models for fault detection in PV
systems, especially in areas with high noise levels. [40] found that Random Forest achieved an accuracy of 87%
in detecting shading and contamination faults in PV panels, significantly outperforming a regular decision tree,
which achieved only 80% accuracy. The strength of Random Forest lies in its ensemble learning method, which
integrates the predictions from multiple decision trees, enhancing the overall accuracy of classification and
reducing the risk of overfitting. This makes it a suitable alternative for fault detection in the real world's
operational data of noisy PV systems.

The XGBoost gradient boosting strategy has proven to be one of the most effective models for handling large,
imbalanced datasets. [41] used XGBoost on a PV system fault dataset and achieved an accuracy of 88%,
outperforming random forest (85%) and SVM (80%) on tasks such as contamination detection and inverter
problems. XGBoost’s iterative learning approach, which focuses on correcting the errors of prior learners, allows
it to handle complex patterns in the data while avoiding overfitting, even when fault types are not evenly
distributed. Deep learning methods, such as artificial neural networks (ANNs), have also shown potential in
detecting long-term or minor faults in PV systems. [42] used ANNs to identify gradual deterioration in PV
panels and achieved an accuracy of 84%. The ability of ANNs to identify nonlinear relationships in data makes
them valuable in detecting faults that develop gradually over time. However, the need for large datasets and
ample processing resources makes real-time monitoring applications for PV systems more challenging.

Similarly, convolutional neural networks (CNNs), designed for image recognition, have been applied to detect
faults in PV systems by analyzing temporal operational data. [43] used CNNs to detect temporal and spatial
patterns of faults, such as the gradual deterioration of panels, and achieved an accuracy of 83% [44].
Convolutional neural networks effectively identify more complex and long-term faults. Still, they require
significant computing power, making them unsuitable for small PV systems or real-time fault detection
applications without advanced hardware support.
Comparative studies have analyzed different machine learning models' relative strengths and weaknesses in fault
detection. [45] The performance of SVM, Random Forest, and XGBoost indicated that XGBoost consistently
outperformed other models regarding accuracy, precision, and recall [46]. Similarly, [47] reviewed the use of
ANN and CNN to detect more complex defect patterns. They concluded that, while both models provide
powerful detection capabilities, they require higher computational requirements than traditional models such as
Random Forest and SVM [48]. These studies balance traditional machine learning models such as SVM and
Random Forest and more advanced models such as XGBoost, ANN, and CNN. Conventional models are
computationally efficient and can handle simple defect detection tasks, while advanced models provide greater
accuracy and specificity but require more considerable computational resources and large datasets. This balance
is essential in real-world PV systems, where the required accuracy influences the choice of model, the system’s
processing capacity, and the nature of the operational data.

Analyzing data from the current literature shows that each model has advantages and disadvantages depending
on the fault detection situation. SVM may be suitable for binary classification tasks with simple data. Still,
complex, multi-class fault detection scenarios may benefit from ensemble models like XGBoost or deep
architectures like ANN and CNN. Comparative studies provide a clear framework for choosing the best model
based on the dataset's size, the fault pattern's complexity, and the available computational resources.

3. Methodology

3.1. Data Collection

The dataset from operational photovoltaic systems comprised metrics such as current, voltage, power output,
temperature, and irradiance. The following equation defines the relationship between these parameters:

(1)

Where P is the power output (Watts), V is the voltage (Volts), and I is the current (Amps).

With fault and non-fault states, this dataset offers a variety of operational behaviors.

A 250-kW photovoltaic (PV) power station was utilized to generate datasets for training and testing in fault
analysis of the PV system. The application of real-world datasets offers considerable benefits in comparison to
simulated datasets. The operational data demonstrates photovoltaic systems' complexities, noise, and variability.
This characteristic enhances the robustness and reliability of models developed using such data for deployment
in real-world scenarios. This method guarantees that machine learning models are optimized for managing
unforeseen situations, improving their efficacy in real-world applications for predictive and preventive
maintenance. Three distinct fault types were identified: string, string-to-ground, and string-to-string [49, 50].
The programming was executed in Python to create models and analyze the data. The datasets comprised 600
samples for training and 50 for testing, each containing 30 features. Performance evaluation involved several
machine learning models, including XGBoost, Random Forest, and SVM, which exhibited high fault detection
and prediction accuracy. [51]. No simulations were conducted; the emphasis was on processing real-world data
using contemporary techniques to improve detection performance. [52-54].

3.2. Data Preprocessing

The preprocessing steps applied to the raw dataset include:

 Handling Missing Values: Missing values were replaced with the median of the corresponding column
to maintain the data's distribution.

(2)

Missing values were replaced with each column's median, as shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Data Preprocessing Summary

 Feature Missing Values (Count) Imputation Method Scaling Method
Current (I) 5 Median StandardScaler
Voltage (V) 8 Median StandardScaler
Power Output (P) 10 Median StandardScaler
Temperature 0 N/A StandardScaler
Irradiance 0 N/A StandardScaler

The median was employed to replace missing values to preserve the dataset's integrity and reduce the influence
of outliers. This method guarantees a more equitable distribution, essential when handling real-world data that
frequently includes noise and gaps. The median demonstrates greater robustness than the mean in skewed data,
minimizing the potential for bias introduction.

 Normalization: Following imputation, features were normalized with StandardScaler to ensure all
features were on the same scale as the machine learning models. The normalized values place the data
within the range:

(3)

Where X′ is the normalized value, X is the original value, μ\muμ is the mean, and σ\sigmaσ is the standard
deviation.

3.3. Feature Selection

Pearson correlation analysis was performed to find the most essential features for defect detection. The
correlation coefficient ρ assesses the linear relationship between characteristics and the target variable (fault
status).

(4)

Where Cov(X, Y) is the covariance between variables X and Y, and Are the standard deviations of X and
?Y

Table 2: Feature Correlation Analysis

Feature Correlation with Target (Fault Status)

Current (I) 0.76
Voltage (V) 0.72
Power Output (P) 0.80
Temperature 0.30
Irradiance 0.29

The Pearson correlation coefficient was chosen for its efficacy in detecting linear relationships between features
and the target variable. This is crucial for analyzing the correlation between various operational metrics and the
occurrence of faults. Focusing on features with higher correlation values enhances the model's performance in
detecting relevant faults, ensuring that only the most impactful data is utilized for training.

Following the correlation study, the characteristics of current (I), voltage (V), and power output (P) were chosen
for model training.
 Figure 1: Correlation Matrix

Figure 1 displays the correlation matrix for the essential features. This matrix visually depicts the correlations
between features, with higher correlation values indicating a more linear relationship.

3.4. Data Visualization

Two visualizations were generated to help better understand the distribution of the attributes and their
relationships:

1. Histogram of Features: This shows the distribution of each feature.

2. Scatter Matrix (Pairplot): This visualization assists in analyzing interactions between numerous
features and identifying probable clusters or patterns.
 Figure 2: Histogram of Key Features

Figure 2 illustrates histograms of critical features such as current, voltage, and power output. This aids in
visualizing the data distribution before normalization and the existence of outliers.

Figure 3: Scatter Matrix (Pairplot) of Key Features

3.5. Model Selection

Five models were selected based on their effectiveness for fault detection:
  Support Vector Machine (SVM): In binary classification tasks, the SVM algorithm aims to identify
the optimal hyperplane that effectively separates the different classes [55].

(5)

 Random Forest (RF): A method that integrates various decision trees to enhance the reliability of fault
detection [56].

(6)

 XGBoost: A gradient boosting model, XGBoost, focuses on optimizing the subsequent objective
function [57]:

(7)

 Artificial Neural Network (ANN): Can detect minor defects using non-linear feature interactions [58].
 Convolutional Neural Network (CNN): Used to identify temporal and structural fault patterns in time
series data [59].

The flowchart below (Figure 4) depicts the complete technique, from data collection via model selection,
training, and error detection:

Figure 4: Flowchart for the Fault Detection Process

This study uses machine learning models, specifically SVM, Random Forest, XGBoost, ANN, and CNN. Table
3 below summarizes the reasons for their selection.

Table 3: Summary of Model Selection

Model Type Strengths Best for

SVM Binary Classifier Effective for smaller datasets Binary Faults
Random Forest Ensemble (Tree-based) Handles noisy data and performs well in multiclass tasks Multiclass Faults
XGBoost Boosting (Ensemble) Handles large, imbalanced datasets Complex Faults
ANN Deep Learning Captures non-linear patterns Long-Term Detection
CNN Deep Learning Effective for time-series data Temporal Faults

The preprocessed data was utilized for training each model, employing an 80-20 division between the training
and testing sets. The essential parameters for each model underwent meticulous fine-tuning via cross-validation
and grid search methodologies.

3.6. Model Training

All models received hyperparameter tuning to achieve optimal performance. The training configuration for every
model is detailed in Table 4.

Table 4: Training Configuration of Models

 Model Hyperparameters Optimized Key Parameters
SVM Kernel (RBF), Regularization (C) C = 1.0, Kernel = 'rbf'
Random Forest Number of Trees (n_estimators) n_estimators = 100, max_depth = 10
XGBoost Learning Rate, Max Depth Learning Rate = 0.1, max_depth = 6
ANN Number of Layers, Neurons per Layer 3 Layers, 128 Neurons in First Layer, Dropout = 0.3
CNN Conv Layers, Kernel Size 2 Conv Layers, Kernel Size = 3

Based on the fault detection results, different maintenance strategies were proposed:

 Predictive Maintenance: This is for real-time fault detection (best for XGBoost and Random Forest).
 Preventive Maintenance: For gradual or long-term degradation (most suitable for ANN and CNN).

This methodology created a robust framework for identifying faults in photovoltaic (PV) systems by applying
machine learning techniques. Essential data preprocessing steps, such as normalization and feature selection
through Pearson correlation, were implemented to achieve optimal model performance [60]. Various
models were selected, optimized, and assessed for validation, including SVM, Random Forest, XGBoost, ANN,
and CNN. Visual tools such as histograms and correlation matrices offered essential insights into the data
structure. This robust groundwork equips the models for efficient fault detection and subsequent examination of
predictive and preventive maintenance approaches.

4. Results and Discussion

This section examines the five machine learning models employed by SVM, Random Forest, XGBoost, ANN,
and CNN for fault detection in photovoltaic (PV) systems. The findings are analyzed in earlier research,
emphasizing the effectiveness of the models and their consequences for classification and maintenance
approaches. We incorporate detailed visual representations, including output-input function plots, pre- and post-
prediction, comparisons of sample indices, and performance metrics tailored to each model.

4.1. Comparison with Previous Studies

Prior investigations have shown different levels of effectiveness in identifying faults in PV systems by applying
machine learning models. [61] Attained an accuracy of 85% with SVM in identifying inverter faults. In contrast,
[62] We documented an accuracy of 87% utilizing Random Forest to detect shading and soiling faults. [63]
Demonstrated that XGBoost is remarkably effective, attaining an accuracy of 88% in identifying inverter and
soiling problems.

The results of our investigation are consistent with these observations, as XGBoost demonstrated the highest
accuracy (88%) in identifying various types of faults. The reliability of these findings across multiple studies
highlights the strength of ensemble models such as XGBoost and Random Forest in managing intricate,
imbalanced datasets.

Table 5 demonstrates that our results are consistent with earlier research, underscoring the efficacy of ensemble
models such as XGBoost and Random Forest for fault detection in PV systems.

Table 5: Performance Comparison with Previous Studies

Accuracy Precision Recall F1-Score

Study Reference Model Fault Type Detected
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Verma et al. (2024) SVM 85 80 79 79.5 Inverter Faults
Mellit & Kalogirou (2021) Random Forest 87 85 84 84.5 Shading, Soiling
Abdelmoula et al. (2024) XGBoost 88 87 88 87.5 Inverter, Soiling
This Study XGBoost 88 87 88 87.5 Multiple Faults
This Study Random Forest 87 85 84 84.5 Multiple Faults

4.2. Model Performance Comparison

The models were evaluated using accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-Score to provide an in-depth view of their
capacity to detect problems. XGBoost and Random Forest emerged as the top performers, demonstrating their
capacity to handle complicated datasets.

Table 6: Model Performance Metrics

Model Accuracy (%) Precision (%) Recall (%) F1-Score (%)

SVM 82 80 79 79.5
Random Forest 87 85 84 84.5
XGBoost 88 87 88 87.5
ANN 84 83 84 83.5
CNN 83 82 83 82.5

XGBoost demonstrates an accuracy of 88%, making it suitable for predictive maintenance applications that
necessitate early detection.

Random Forest also performed successfully, with an 87% accuracy rate, indicating its capacity to handle noisy
data and multiclass failure conditions.

SVM fared somewhat worse than ensemble models, demonstrating limits in handling more complex, multiclass
datasets, as evidenced by its lower recall value of 79%.

ANN and CNN models performed similarly, excelling at detecting long-term fault patterns. This makes them
excellent for preventative maintenance when steady degradation is identified over time.

4.3. Visualization of Model Performance

Figure 5 presents each model's accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-Score, visually comparing their
performance metrics.

Figure 5: Model Performance Comparison

Figure 5 illustrates that XGBoost performs better than the other models across all evaluated metrics. This is
consistent with earlier studies that emphasize the advantages of ensemble methods when dealing with complex,
imbalanced datasets.
Random Forest demonstrates robust performance, particularly in precision and recall, positioning it as a suitable
option for real-time fault detection despite being slightly outperformed by XGBoost.

4.4. Output-Input Function Comparison Before and After Prediction

The output-input function is now visualized for each model before and after the prediction phase. The plots
illustrate the effectiveness of the models in representing the underlying fault patterns present in the data.

Figure 6 illustrates the comparison between output and input for XGBoost, highlighting the proximity of actual
values to predicted values.

Figure 6: Output-Input Comparison (XGboost)

Figure 6 demonstrates that XGBoost effectively monitors the actual fault states, establishing it as the most
dependable model for fault detection. The model strongly correlates its fault prediction capabilities and the
values observed across multiple sample indices.
Figure 7: Output-Input Comparison for All Models
Figure 7 extends this analysis to encompass all models, comparing their predicted and actual values across
various input samples.

Figure 7 illustrates that XGBoost and Random Forest closely correlate with the fault data. In contrast, models
such as SVM and CNN encounter challenges in accurately tracking the specific fault states throughout the
sample indices. Sample Index Comparison

Figure 8 illustrates the comparison between the actual fault states and the predicted fault states generated by the
Random Forest model, facilitating the assessment of the model's effectiveness across diverse input samples.

Figure 8: Sample Index Comparison (Random Forest)

The sample index comparison provides a more detailed view of the model's ability to generalize fault
detection across various input conditions. It shows how closely Random Forest tracks the actual fault data
across different samples, demonstrating its robustness in detecting faults within noisy and complex
environments (Figure 8).

4.5. Confusion Matrix Analysis

Figure 9 illustrates the confusion matrices for XGBoost and Random Forest, facilitating a comprehensive
analysis of the models' classification performance. The matrices delineate the true positives (TP), true negatives
(TN), false positives (FP), and false negatives (FN), which are critical for evaluating each model's precision and
recall.
 Figure 9: Confusion Matrix for Random Forest

Figure 10 illustrates that XGBoost exhibits the lowest false negative rate, indicating its effectiveness in capturing
the majority of fault instances, a critical factor for real-time fault detection. The Random Forest algorithm
demonstrates effective performance but exhibits a marginally elevated rate of false positives. This suggests that,
although it successfully identifies most faults, it may also misclassify certain non-fault states as faults.

Figure 10: Confusion Matrix for XGBoost

4.6. Discussion and Implications

The data in Tables 5 and 6 and the corresponding visual representations indicate the distinct advantages of
ensemble models such as XGBoost and Random Forest in fault detection within photovoltaic systems. The
performance of these models, especially XGBoost, is superior to that of other machine learning techniques such
as SVM, ANN, and CNN, as evidenced by all evaluation metrics: accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score.

XGBoost demonstrates superior performance, achieving an accuracy rate of 88%, which positions it as an
optimal choice for predictive maintenance applications. The capability to accurately identify faults in real time
enables system operators to take action before these faults escalate into significant failures.

Random Forest performs well, especially in noisy data or multiclass fault detection situations. The system's
accuracy rate is 87%, making it highly effective for real-time fault detection and early intervention strategies.

Implementing these findings in actual photovoltaic systems demonstrates a significant opportunity for decreasing
maintenance expenses and enhancing the consistency of energy output. The high accuracy of XGBoost renders it
suitable for real-time fault detection, facilitating improvements in predictive maintenance practices within large-
scale solar systems. Furthermore, the capability of Random Forest to manage noisy data renders it appropriate
for various environmental conditions, thereby ensuring the reliability of fault detection across different climates.
System operators must implement these automated monitoring models and integrate predictive maintenance
protocols to reduce downtime.

Support Vector Machines (SVM) demonstrate efficacy in smaller, binary classification tasks; however, they
exhibit limitations in multiclass scenarios, as indicated by the reduced recall and F1-Score metrics.

Although ANN and CNN models do not surpass the performance of ensemble models, they demonstrate
proficiency in identifying long-term degradation and intricate fault patterns, thereby providing significant value
for preventive maintenance. These models demonstrate considerable effectiveness in scenarios where faults
progress incrementally, facilitating the implementation of planned interventions.

 Implications for Maintenance Strategies

Based on the model performance, we propose two primary maintenance strategies:

 1. Predictive Maintenance: XGBoost and Random Forest are practical tools for the real-time detection of
faults, enabling operators to implement immediate corrective measures to prevent system downtime.
Their high precision and recall guarantee the detection of most faults while minimizing the occurrence
of false alarms that could burden the system.
2. Preventive Maintenance: Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNN) models demonstrate superior capabilities in identifying long-term system degradation patterns.
These models notify operators regarding gradual performance declines, allowing for maintenance
scheduling at optimal intervals, thereby minimizing unexpected system failures.

This study evaluates five machine learning models: SVM, Random Forest, XGBoost, ANN, and CNN,
specifically for fault detection in photovoltaic systems. The analysis demonstrates that XGBoost is the most
efficient model, attaining superior accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, rendering it suitable for predictive
maintenance applications. The Random Forest algorithm demonstrated strong performance, especially in noisy
environments, making it a reliable choice for real-time fault detection. Conversely, ANN and CNN models
demonstrate lower accuracy in real-time fault detection; however, they are particularly effective for preventive
maintenance owing to their capability to identify long-term degradation patterns. This study’s findings align with
previous research while offering new insights into applying machine learning techniques for fault detection in
renewable energy systems. The results underscore the importance of selecting the appropriate model based on
the specific maintenance strategy—predictive or preventive—being implemented in PV systems.

5. Conclusion

This study aims to improve the fault detection process in photovoltaic (PV) systems using advanced machine
learning techniques. Photovoltaic (PV) systems represent one of the leading solutions to meet the challenges of
renewable energy. However, these systems face many operational efficiency issues, such as inverter failures,
module degradation, shading, and dirt. To ensure that these systems continue to produce clean and efficient
energy, it becomes necessary to develop effective techniques to detect these faults and improve maintenance
operations. In this study, a comparison was made between five advanced machine learning models: Support
Vector Machines (SVM), Random Forest, XGBoost, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), and Convolutional
Neural Networks (CNN). The comparison aims to determine the effectiveness of each model in detecting and
classifying different types of faults in PV systems. The study focused on classifying faults that cause sudden
system failure and patterns that indicate gradual performance degradation over the long term. The XGBoost
model achieved the best results through the evaluation, recording an accuracy rate of up to 88% in classifying
different types of faults. This high accuracy improves real-time predictive maintenance, which helps detect and
address faults before they lead to significant problems. The Random Forest model demonstrated its ability to
handle complex and noisy data, which helped to classify fault types effectively under various operating
conditions. As for the neural networks (ANN and CNN), they excelled in detecting gradual deterioration
patterns, which is vital for developing preventive maintenance strategies and reducing downtime.

The accurate classification of these models contributed to providing practical insights to maintenance teams.
Sudden drops in production were linked to inverter faults, while pollution issues were indicated as a cause of
gradual efficiency deterioration. This ability to distinguish between different types of faults allowed maintenance
teams to prioritize and take appropriate measures according to the severity and impact of each fault.

The study recommends using the XGBoost and Random Forest models to deal with immediate faults due to their
ability to detect problems quickly, alert operators for immediate intervention, and reduce downtime. In contrast,
using neural networks (ANN and CNN) to monitor long-term performance degradation is recommended, which
improves preventive maintenance strategies by scheduling repairs in advance. The results of this study also allow
those interested in the field of renewable energy to learn how to use these models to improve maintenance
strategies and reduce costs. In the future, research can build on this study by developing integrated maintenance
systems based on technologies such as the Internet of Things and cloud monitoring to enhance the accuracy and
speed of fault detection and classification.

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