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This page intentionally left blank
 THEORY OF ORBIT DETERMINATION

Determining orbits of natural and artificial celestial bodies is an essential step in the
exploration and understanding of the Solar System. However, recent progress in the quality
and quantity of data from astronomical observations and spacecraft-tracking has generated
orbit determination problems which cannot be handled by classical algorithms. This book
presents new algorithms capable of handling the millions of bodies which could be observed
by next-generation surveys, and which can fully exploit tracking data with state-of-the-art
levels of accuracy.
After a general mathematical background and summary of classical algorithms, the new
algorithms are introduced using the latest mathematical tools and results, to which the
authors have personally contributed. Case studies based on actual astronomical surveys and
space missions are provided, with applications of these new methods. Intended for grad-
uate students and researchers in applied mathematics, physics, astronomy, and aerospace
engineering, this book is also of interest to non-professional astronomers.

an d r e a m i l a n i is Full Professor of Mathematical Physics in the Department of Mathe-

matics, University of Pisa. His areas of research include the N-body problem, the stability of
the Solar System, asteroid dynamics and families, satellite geodesy, planetary exploration,
orbit determination, and asteroid impact risk.
giovanni f. gronchi is a Researcher of Mathematical Physics in the Department
of Mathematics, University of Pisa. His research is on Solar System body dynamics,
perturbation theory, orbit determination, singularities, and periodic orbits of the N-body
problem.

COVER ILLUSTRATION: The orbits of eight potentially hazardous asteroids (PHA); they
have a minimum intersection distance with the orbit of the Earth of less than 0.05 astronom-
ical units. Together with many more smaller objects, they form a swarm surrounding the
orbit of our planet (represented, not to scale, in green, orbit in yellow), are observable with
either telescopes or radar, and provide a good example of an orbit determination problem.
The objects in this figure are the brightest PHA, with diameters larger than 2 km; thus
an impact with the Earth would result in a global catastrophe. There has been interesting
recent progress in the theory of orbit determination, to which the authors of this book have
contributed. New algorithms have been developed to exclude the possibility that any of
these objects have the possibility of impacting the Earth, at least in the next 100 years.
The same result also applies to somewhat smaller PHA, but the impact of either a much
smaller known asteroid or an asteroid still to be discovered is still possible; thus the orbit
determination work must go on. The orbit diagram is superimposed on an actual image
of the sky (courtesy of G. Rhemann, Astrostudio, Vienna) which includes a Solar System
body: a comet discovered in 2008 by A. Boattini, showing its coma.
 THEORY OF
ORBIT DETERMINATION

ANDREA MILANI AND

GIOVANNI F. GRONCHI
Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521873895
© A. Milani and G. Gronchi 2010

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2009

ISBN-13 978-0-511-65827-3 eBook (NetLibrary)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-87389-5 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

PREFACE page ix

Part I Problem Statement and Requirements 1

1 THE PROBLEM OF ORBIT DETERMINATION 3
1.1 Orbits and observations 3
1.2 The minimum principle 5
1.3 Two interpretations 6
1.4 Classification of the problem 7
1.5 How to read this book 13
2 DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS 15
2.1 The equation of motion 15
2.2 Solutions of the equation 16
2.3 The variational equation 18
2.4 Lyapounov exponents 20
2.5 Model problem dynamics 21
3 ERROR MODELS 23
3.1 Continuous random variables 23
3.2 Gaussian random variables 27
3.3 Expected values and transformations 30
4 THE N–BODY PROBLEM 33
4.1 Equation of motion and integrals 33
4.2 Coordinate changes 36
4.3 Barycentric and heliocentric coordinates 40
4.4 Jacobian coordinates 43
4.5 Small parameter perturbation 47
4.6 Solar System dynamical models 54

v
vi Contents

Part II Basic Theory 57

5 LEAST SQUARES 59
5.1 Linear least squares 59
5.2 Nonlinear least squares 62
5.3 Weighting of the residuals 66
5.4 Confidence ellipsoids 68
5.5 Propagation of covariance 72
5.6 Model problem 74
5.7 Probabilistic interpretation 77
5.8 Gaussian error models and outlier rejection 80
6 RANK DEFICIENCY 87
6.1 Complete rank deficiency 87
6.2 Exact symmetries 91
6.3 Approximate rank deficiency and symmetries 93
6.4 Scaling and approximate rank deficiency 96
6.5 Planetary systems: extrasolar planets 98
6.6 Planetary systems: the Solar System 104

Part III Population Orbit Determination 111

7 THE IDENTIFICATION PROBLEM 113
7.1 Classification of the problem 113
7.2 Linear orbit identification 116
7.3 Semilinear orbit identification 120
7.4 Nonlinear orbit identification 124
7.5 Recovery and precovery 130
7.6 Attribution 133
8 LINKAGE 137
8.1 Admissible region 137
8.2 Sampling of the admissible region 144
8.3 Attributable orbital elements 148
8.4 Predictions from an attributable 152
8.5 Linkage by sampling the admissible region 156
8.6 Linkage by the two-body integrals 158
8.7 The space debris problem 163
9 METHODS BY LAPLACE AND GAUSS 171
9.1 Attributables and curvature 171
9.2 The method of Laplace 174
9.3 The method of Gauss 175
 Contents vii

9.4 Topocentric Gauss–Laplace methods 177

9.5 Number of solutions 183
9.6 Charlier theory 185
9.7 Generalization of the Charlier theory 188
10 WEAKLY DETERMINED ORBITS 197
10.1 The line of variations 197
10.2 Applications of the constrained solutions 202
10.3 Selection of a metric 208
10.4 Surface of variations 214
10.5 The definition of discovery 215
11 SURVEYS 219
11.1 Operational constraints of Solar System surveys 219
11.2 Identification and orbit determination procedure 221
11.3 Controlling the computational complexity 223
11.4 Identification management 226
11.5 Tests for accuracy 232
11.6 Recovery of low confidence detections 235
12 IMPACT MONITORING 237
12.1 Target planes 239
12.2 Minimum orbital intersection distance 242
12.3 Virtual asteroids 248
12.4 Target plane trails 251
12.5 Reliability and completion of impact monitoring 256
12.6 The current monitoring systems 258

Part IV Collaborative Orbit Determination 259

13 THE GRAVITY OF A PLANET 261
13.1 The gravity field 261
13.2 Spherical harmonics 266
13.3 The Hilbert space of the harmonic functions 276
13.4 The gravity field along the orbit 280
13.5 Frequency analysis, ground track, and resonance 284
14 NON-GRAVITATIONAL PERTURBATIONS 287
14.1 Direct radiation pressure 288
14.2 Thermal emission 294
14.3 Indirect radiation pressure 299
14.4 Drag 302
14.5 Active spacecraft effects 303
viii Contents

14.6 Case study: asteroid orbiter 306

15 MULTI-ARC STRATEGY 311
15.1 Local–global decomposition 311
15.2 Case study: satellite laser ranging 314
15.3 Perturbation model 315
15.4 Local geodesy 317
15.5 Symmetries and rank deficiencies 319
16 SATELLITE GRAVIMETRY 323
16.1 On-board instrumentation 324
16.2 Accelerometer missions 331
16.3 Gradiometer missions 333
16.4 Resonant decomposition 338
16.5 Polar gaps 339
16.6 Satellite-to-satellite tracking 345
17 ORBITERS AROUND OTHER PLANETS 349
17.1 Science goals for an orbiter around Mercury 349
17.2 Interplanetary tracking 351
17.3 The gravimetry experiment 356
17.4 The rotation experiment 360
17.5 The relativity experiment 364
17.6 Global data processing 367
References 371
Index 379
 PREFACE

This book is a tool for our own teaching and an opportunity to rethink and
reorganize the results of our own research. However, I think such a book can
be useful to others, for two main reasons. First, spaceflight is no longer the
privilege of the few superpowers, but is becoming available to many nations
and agencies. Orbit determination is an essential knowhow, both in the
planning phase of mission analysis and in the operations of space missions.
Thus its mathematical tools need to become widely available.
Second, the knowledge and skill used in orbit determination, for both
natural and artificial celestial bodies, was available only among a restricted
group of specialists. The prevailing attitude was a proprietary one: the
knowledge and the software were protected by formal copyright and/or by
secrecy, although protecting in this way the pure mathematical theory is,
in the long run, impossible. This attitude might have been justified under
the conditions of the world of 30–40 years ago, in the critical phases of the
competition to achieve space firsts. Now it is time to teach and disseminate
this knowledge, allowing the formation of a wider group of specialists.
I know that many of the rules of thumb and practical advice contained
in this book will be rated as well known, even obvious, by the few experts,
but this is not the point. Even well-known results may need to be presented
in a rational, rigorous, and didactically effective new way, together with the
outcome of recent innovative research. On the other hand, this book does
not have the intent of providing a comprehensive review of all that has been
done in this field, because the size would become impractical. This book
is about making widely available the outcome of the research done by my
group over many years, and includes methods for which there are rigorous
mathematical arguments and which have been fully tested by us first hand,
and found to be effective. In the last  15 years there has been enormous
progress in this field, and several other research groups have given important
contributions: we are in no way claiming that their methods would not work,
we are just giving a list of methods which we know to work.

ix
x PREFACE

The above arguments may not be enough for the approval of all the people
in this field, but I do think that to state the mathematical foundations and
rules of orbit determination, thus removing a vague flavor of craftmanship,
can also benefit the already existing specialists. The orbit determination
expert, in the very competitive environment in which space missions and
large astronomical projects are selected today, is too often under pressure to
endorse claims of wonderful results to be achieved with very limited means.
By ignoring the rules of good practice it is possible to claim illusory precision
and/or completeness for the solution, including the orbits and other param-
eters which can be operationally, technologically, and scientifically relevant.
Maybe being able to cite a textbook stating clearly what is appropriate and
what is illusory can help in relieving this improper pressure.
This book is based on the experience accumulated in  30 years of research
with my coworkers of the former Space Mechanics Group (now Celestial
Mechanics Group) at the Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa.
Thus it contains, besides the formal mathematical theory and the teaching
examples, a number of “case studies” based upon actual research projects.
They are about space missions and about natural objects: one of the goals is
to stress the common mathematics used in satellite geodesy and in dynamical
astronomy, and at the same time to present clearly the main differences.
The preparation of this book has been made possible by the collaboration
of my younger colleague, Dr. Giovanni F. Gronchi. Besides classical material
and original results by myself and Gronchi, this book contains the output
of research done by the members of our group and by either regular or
occasional external coworkers. Thus I would like to include a long, but
still possibly incomplete, list of coworkers whose contributions have to be
acknowledged: L. Anselmo, O. Arratia, S. Baccili, A. Boattini, C. Bonanno,
M. Carpino, G. Catastini, L. Cattaneo, S.R. Chesley, S. Cicalò, L. Denneau,
L. Dimare, P. Farinella, D. Farnocchia, Z. Knežević, L. Iess, R. Jedicke, A.
La Spina, M. de’ Michieli Vitturi, A.M. Nobili, A. Rossi, M.E. Sansaturio,
G. Tommei, G.B. Valsecchi, D. Villani, D. Vokrouhlický.
This book is dedicated to two good friends and valuable coworkers: Paolo
Farinella and Steve Chesley. They could have been among the authors of
this book, but they both left in the year 2000, when the book project was
immature. Steve went back to his home country, from where he can still
advise me on these subjects. Paolo went where he can give me neither his
essential scientific insight nor the warmth of his friendship. Thus I would
like to thank both of them for what I learned with them and from them.

Andrea Milani Comparetti, Pisa, December 2008

 Part I
Problem Statement and Requirements
 1
THE PROBLEM OF ORBIT DETERMINATION

In this chapter we define the problem of orbit determination, by specifying

its three basic mathematical elements: the dynamics, the observations and
the error model. We state the minimum principle, the least squares principle
as the main case, and attempt a classification of the types of orbit deter-
mination found in astronomy and astrodynamics. The last section contains
suggestions on the reading sequence, to adapt this book to different needs.

1.1 Orbits and observations

The two essential elements of an orbit determination problem are orbits and
observations. Orbits are solutions of an equation of motion:
dy
= f (y, t, μ)
dt
which is an ordinary differential equation; y ∈ Rp is the state vector, μ ∈

Rp are the dynamical parameters, such as the geopotential coefficients,
t ∈ R is the time. In the asteroid case the equation of motion is the N -body
problem, the asteroid orbit being perturbed by the gravitational attraction
of the planets; for many comets and some exceptionally accurate orbits of
asteroids the non-gravitational effects are also relevant. For an artificial
satellite the equation of motion is the satellite problem, the orbit being
mostly perturbed by the asymmetric part of the geopotential, but also by
non-gravitational perturbations.
The initial conditions are the value of the state vector at an epoch t0 :

y(t0 ) = y0 ∈ Rp .

In the two simple cases cited above we have p = 6, i.e., the vector of the
initial condition is just formed by the position and velocity of the small

3
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Man-servant to Governor Winthrop.

SCENE
A room in Governor Winthrop’s house in the
Massachusetts Bay Colony. The front door of
the house opens at center back of stage, and
has small windows on each side of it. A door
on the left opens into the next room. The
room is very plainly furnished, and is
evidently used for transacting business. On
the right of the front door is a settee, with a
chest standing near it, and on the left of the
door is a chair. Near the front of the stage, on
the right, stands a flour barrel, and beside it,
a table with weighing-scales. On the left side
of the room there is a chair before a desk
covered with papers, etc. Several portraits
and old prints hang on the walls.

[A knock is heard on the front door. Enter

Servant, at the left, who crosses to front door,
and opens it, disclosing Mrs. Freeman and
Patience. Mrs. Freeman has a basket on her
arm.]
Mrs. Freeman. Is the Governor at home?
Servant. Yes, madam; he has just come in.
Mrs. Freeman. Will you let him know that I am here?
Servant. Directly, madam. Please be seated. [Motions them to
settee, and exit, left; Mrs. Freeman and Patience sit down on the
settee. Patience breathes on her hands, to warm them.]
 Patience. [Fretfully.] Mother, do you really think the Governor will
give us some more corn? I’m so tired of having nothing good to eat!
Mrs. Freeman. Why, Patience, of course he will if he can spare us
any; but you must remember how many sick people there are in the
colony, who need it more than we do.
Patience. Yes, Mother, but why can there not be enough for
everybody?
Mrs. Freeman. I hope that there may be before long, my dear. We
must try to think that our ship with provisions is coming in soon. ’Sh-
h! I hear the Governor coming! Now remember your manners! Rise
and curtsey as I have taught you.
[Winthrop enters at left; bows to Mrs. Freeman.
She and Patience curtsey.]
Winthrop. Good day, Mistress Freeman. I trust that you and all
your family are well.
Mrs. Freeman. All well, Your Excellency, and thankful to be so in
this season of want and cold. All that we could complain of is that
our larder is getting low, so I came to see if I could buy a few
pounds of corn.
Winthrop. [Evidently worried, but trying to conceal the fact.] Why,
Mistress Freeman, it is about just that matter that I am awaiting
tidings. This morning I sent word to the chief of the Narragansetts
that we should like to trade with him for corn. I expect that Master
Dudley and Master Wilson, who took the message, will be back
soon. Can you not wait till their return? If our trade is good, we shall
doubtless have plenty of food for all.
[Mrs. Freeman and Patience sit down on settee.
Winthrop sits on chair at left.]
 Mrs. Freeman. I suppose Your Excellency has, as yet, no word of
the good ship Lyon?
Winthrop. Not yet. No doubt the date of her sailing was deferred.
Mrs. Freeman. It would seem so, for Captain Pierce sailed last
August to fetch us provisions, and here it is now February.
Winthrop. If we were all in health, the delay would not matter so
much. But when half our people are too sick to leave their beds, we
long to give them some of the comforts they left in England.
[Knock on front door. Servant enters at left, and
opens door. Enter Mrs. Garrett, who curtseys
to the company. Exit Servant.]
Ah! Mistress Garrett! I was lamenting to Mistress Freeman that
we had few English comforts for our sick, but I did not forget that
we brought the best nurse in England with us!
Mrs. Garrett. Your Excellency is very kind. I could only wish that I
might do more in all the homes where sickness has entered. I
thought, however, that you might like to hear that Master Humphrey
and his wife are much better of their fever. [Sits at center.]
Winthrop. I rejoice to hear such good news, and I trust that you
can give as good an account of your other patients.
Mrs. Garrett. I would that I could, Your Excellency, but what with
this biting cold and our poor victuals, it goes hard with them. Is
there still no hope of the Lyon?
Winthrop. No immediate hope, madam, but I am expecting that
we may be able to buy corn from the Narragansetts.
[Knock on the front door. Enter Servant at left,
opens door to admit Dudley, Wilson, the
Narragansett chief, and the young brave.
Dudley and Wilson greet the company, and,
with the Indians, come forward to right center
of stage. Servant stands in background, at left
of front door.]
 Dudley. [To Winthrop.] We have brought the chief back with us,
Your Excellency, as you directed, but he does not seem favorable to
making a trade. However, we can but try. [Dudley and Wilson then
endeavor to conduct the trade, in dumb show, as follows: Dudley
beckons the chief over to the flour barrel, and indicates to him by
gesture that it is empty. He and Wilson then go to the chest, and
take from it several long and showy strings of beads, which they
offer to the chief, suggesting by their motions that the Indians may
have the beads if they will fill the barrel. The chief shakes his head.
Both men urge him in vain for some time. Winthrop then takes a red
blanket from the chest, approaches the chief, and offers it in similar
fashion. Finally, after all three men have persisted in their offers for
some time, both the chief and the young brave shake their heads
decidedly, and by pointing to their own mouths and showing their
empty hands, indicate that they themselves have not enough to eat.
Upon this Winthrop lays down the blanket upon the table, and Dudley
and Wilson cease their offers, in apparent despair. The Indians then
file stolidly out of the front door, which is opened for them by the
Servant. Exit Servant.]
[A silence falls on the company. It is broken by
Patience, who is frightened, and begins to cry.]
Patience. [Clinging to her mother’s hand.] Mother!
Mrs. Freeman. Yes, what is it, little daughter?
Patience. If we had only stayed in England, we should have had
plenty to eat!
[Mrs. Freeman does not answer her, but puts her
arm around her, and turns to Winthrop.]
Mrs. Freeman. Is it not hard sometimes, Your Excellency, for all of
us to realize how much more precious liberty is than the comforts
we gave in exchange for it?
Winthrop. You speak truly, Mistress Freeman. But we have
crossed the sea in safety; we have been kept from harm among the
savages; we have founded a colony where freedom is to be the
birthright of every citizen. I believe that we have a right to expect to
receive our daily bread. Whatever happens, we must not give up
hope. I will proclaim a day of prayer and fasting for to-morrow. We
must not lose faith, for all may yet be well.
[Wilson, who has been standing by the table,
crosses to the barrel and glances into it.]
Wilson. See, there is still some corn in the bottom of our last
barrel. May not this be a sign that we shall be fed until help comes,
even as we read in the Scriptures that the widow’s handful of meal
lasted till the famine was past? [As the company nod approval to his
words, there is a knock on the front door. Servant enters at left, and
opens door to admit Roger Clap. Clap is wild-eyed and shivering, and
looks distractedly about until he sees Winthrop. Servant stands at left
of door.]
Clap. [Impetuously crossing stage to Winthrop.] Your Excellency,
my wife is dying, and my children have been without food for two
days. Can you give me nothing for them?
[Winthrop goes to barrel, and scoops out a small
portion of meal.]
Winthrop. [Sadly.] This is the last of our corn. [Looks at Mrs.
Freeman.]
Mrs. Freeman. [Promptly.] Let Clap have it, by all means. What say
you, neighbors?
All. Yes, let him have it, to be sure!
[Winthrop puts meal in a dish, which he is about
to hand to Clap, when there is a knock on the
door. It opens before the Servant can reach it,
and Samuel Garrett rushes in.]
Samuel. [To Winthrop, breathlessly.] Your Excellency, the Lyon has
come! [The company are startled and surprised, and scarcely believe
him.]
Winthrop. Boy, is this the truth? How do you know?
Samuel. Indeed, Your Excellency, it is nothing but the truth! I was
down on the shore, when I looked across the bay, and saw a great
ship entering the harbor. And as I ran up to bring you word, I heard
a man saying that Captain Pierce was even now being rowed ashore.
[Before any one can speak, there is a loud knock
on the door, and as the Servant hastily opens
it, Captain Pierce appears on the threshold.
Winthrop rushes to meet him, and seizes him
by both hands.]
Winthrop. Never was man, or ship, more welcome! William
Pierce! Thank Heaven!
 [The others crowd around Pierce, and greet him
with joyous and grateful exclamations.]
Pierce. [To Winthrop.] Your Excellency, I have the honor to report
the safe arrival of the Lyon!
Winthrop. An hour ago we had well-nigh given you up!
Pierce. We have met with many unforeseen delays on our voyage.
Wilson. Did you meet with storms?
Pierce. Many of them, one so severe that one of our sailors was
washed overboard. But our greatest delay was caused by our
meeting a dismasted bark, which we must needs tow back to Bristol.
We could only imagine what you must suffer in our absence. I, too,
thank Heaven we have arrived!
Dudley. Have you provisions aboard?
Pierce. Yes, verily, a goodly store. We have wheat, peas, and
oatmeal; we have beef and pork and cheese and butter! [Great relief
and thankfulness shown by the company.]
[To Winthrop.] If Your Excellency will ask a few
men to volunteer to go down to the Lyon and
help us unlade her, we shall have everybody
fed within the hour.
Samuel. [Eagerly.] I will volunteer!
[All laugh. Pierce pats him on the shoulder.]
Pierce. You shall come down to the ship with me. There is plenty
for smart lads to do as well as men.
Winthrop. Friends, I will now proclaim not a day of fasting and
prayer, but one of praise and thanksgiving for our deliverance.
However great the destiny that may await our colony, struggling
here in the wilderness, this day must never be forgotten!

[Curtain]
 By Content S. Nichols
(A School Morality)

How Everychild sought for a companion on her

quest for Goodness and Beauty, and having at length
chosen, received also certain treasures.

CHARACTERS
Everychild.
Joy.
Mathematics.
Latin.
Idleness.
Service.
Gaiety.
Discipline.
A Page (if necessary).

No stage setting except a chair.

[Enter Everychild.]

Everychild. Were there not voices here? I came to see

If this could be my chosen company.
For I am growing now, and seek to come
Where Goodness, and where Beauty, have their home.
 I am alone; but Everychild, they say,
May choose what friends she’ll have upon her way.
[Thinks.]
I’ll call for Idleness, she is so soft!
She will not make me climb, nor scold me oft.
Idleness! Idleness! come!
[Enter, slowly, Idleness, in soft robes, with large
fan and box of chocolates.]

Idleness. [Languidly.] Beautiful dreams

And chocolate creams
Are all I desire of the world as a boon.
No heat, and no strife;
The pleasantest life
Is to swing in a hammock the long afternoon.
[Sinks into a chair.]

Everychild. But will you talk with me, and guard me well,
And guide where Beauty bright, and Goodness, dwell?

Idleness. No heat and no strife;

The pleasantest life
Is to swing in a hammock the long afternoon.
Beautiful dreams—

Everychild. But will you, Idleness,—

Idleness. Beautiful dreams

And chocolate creams
Are all I desire of the world—

Everychild. I cannot bear you! Lazy thing! away!

I will have friends that laugh, and run, and play!
[Idleness goes languidly out, fanning herself.]

Everychild. I’ll call for Gaiety! She is so fleet.

 Her bright wings fly beyond our mortal feet,
And she has passed all shores, and knows full well
Where radiant Goodness, and where Beauty, dwell.
Gaiety! Gaiety! come!
[Gaiety runs and dances on, in light costume,
with wings. She flies to and fro across the
stage, while Everychild runs after her, crying,
“Take me!” but is left behind. Gaiety slaps her
and runs off.]

Everychild. [Sobbing.] She slapped me just because I could

not fly,
And now she leaves me all alone to cry!
What shall I do? How shall I ever come
Where Beauty bright, and Goodness, have their home?
—I’ll call for Joy! She has bright hair of gold,
Sweet songs, and dancing footfalls, so I’m told.
Joy! O Joy! [No answer.]
“Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee
Jest, and youthful Jollity;
Quips and cranks, and wanton wiles,
Nods and becks and wreathèd smiles,
Such as hang on Hebe’s cheek
And love to live in dimple sleek;
Sport, that wrinkled Care derides,
And Laughter, holding both his sides!”
Joy! Joy! come! [No answer.]
She will not come. Alas!

[Enter Latin, in dark gown, with blue veiling over

hair and shoulders, carrying heavy volumes.]

Everychild. Oh, who are you? you don’t look very nice.

Latin. Stella, stellae, stellae, stellam, stella:

Amo, amas, amat, amamus, amatis, amant.
Everychild. But what’s your name! How old are you!

Latin. My name is Latin. Ages old am I,

And many a state have I seen rise and die.
I reigned alone in Europe many a year;
Barbarians trembled when my voice drew near.
To Dante, Latin was his other tongue;
In Latin, Milton, as in English, sung;
And many a child have I trained up to see
How different Tweedledum from Tweedledee!

Everychild. Oh, I don’t know! You look so old and blue.

And must I study those great books all through?

Latin. Yes, that you must. But take my hand and come,
For I have treasures in my mountain home:
Right habits, carefulness, foundations firm
For every language that the moderns learn,
Choice words, the source of English sound and pure.
How say you? Can you follow, and endure?

Everychild. But can you play with me, and guard me well,
And guide where Beauty bright, and Goodness, dwell?

Latin. Aye, that I can. I know their home on high—

[As Everychild puts her hand in Latin’s and
advances a step, enter Mathematics, also in
dark gown, with head covered, carrying slate
or compasses.]

Latin. Hail, Sister!

Mathematics. Hail!

Everychild. But who is this? And must she with us go?

Your family are all so dark and slow!
 No, I don’t think I like you. What’s your name?

Mathematics. In every tongue my symbols are the same.

2 × 1 are 2, 2 × 2 are 4, 2 × 3 are 6—
My name is Mathematics. Many a year
We’ll doubtless be acquainted—never fear.

Everychild. But you look stiff and stern.

Why don’t you sing,
And smile, and wear soft robes?

Mathematics. A mighty king

I serve, and it is mine to teach and train.
A trinomial is a perfect square when two of
its terms are perfect squares and positive,
and the third term is twice the product of
their square roots.

Everychild. [Who has put her fingers to her ears

during the definition.]
No, I don’t like you! I won’t take your hand,
For you have nothing that I want.
[Turns away.]

Mathematics. Nay, stand!

Stand thou and listen! Royal gifts have I,
Gifts men have sold their mortal lives to buy.
’Tis I that build the house, that count the tide;
I lay the rails, I span the waters wide;
I teach how planets sail the ether high;
I guide the aëroplane that dares the sky;
I tunnel deep where mighty rivers roll;
I plant the stars and stripes upon the pole!
Lo, this is I!

Everychild. Oh, let me go with you! and can you tell

Where radiant Goodness, and where Beauty, dwell?
Mathematics. Their servant am I. I can lead you—Stay!
[As they begin to go off together, enter Discipline,
in black gown and cap, with bunch of
switches, arms folded, frowning.]

Everychild. Oh, I’m afraid—I think I’ll run away.

You naughty thing! How dare you! Go away!

Discipline. Control yourself.

Everychild. I won’t. I want to do just as I choose!

Latin. [After a pause.] Then you must leave us.

Ah—do not refuse
To follow Discipline, for he is good;
He tames the insolent, informs the rude.
He frowns, but he will let you run and grow
If but his precepts you incline to know.

Discipline. Let kittens play, but men must toil and soar;
Honor thyself, but honor others more.
No vulgar aim to monarchs do I bring;
Rule well thy mind, for in it thou art king!

Latin. Through Discipline alone canst thou attain to be

Thyself, thy highest self, eternally.

Everychild. Yes, I was silly. I will take his hand.

He too shall guide me into Beauty’s land.

[She advances to take his hand. As he says the

next lines, he throws down his switches, or, if
a girl, throws off dark gown and veil, and
draws forth a box of treasures. At the same
time, Latin and Mathematics throw off their
dark gowns and veils, and appear in light
 garments, with flowers, fillets, or wreaths on
their heads. The Page may give Latin a wreath,
Mathematics a lighted lantern, and gather up
the gowns.]

Discipline. O strong young child, since you have followed me,

No longer ugly Discipline I’ll be.
A fairer self I show to each brave soul:
In Beauty’s land they call me Self-control.
Mine are these stores of treasures manifold.
[Pouring into her hands.]
My silver rusts not, nor my well-tried gold.

Latin. O thou dear child, that chose with me to come,

Now shall we reach the heights of Beauty’s home.
He that has climbed shall breathe the mountain air;
He that has learned shall read the pages fair,
Shall understand, shall learn himself to speak.
Fair are the flowers on the mountain peak!
[Crowning her with the wreath.]
Beautiful words, and noble thoughts, are these,
Fine feelings, witty sayings, grace, and ease!

Mathematics. O thou dear child, since thou wert not afraid

Of my slow step, dark dress, and heavy tread,
To thy small hand entrust I now this light [gives lantern],
Through all the ages ever burning bright.
Clear thoughts be thine, and Truth shall keep the flame,
For from her altar at the first it came.

[Enter Joy and Service, quickly, hand in hand; in

bright floating dresses, with wings. Joy with
wreath of flowers, a star on her head and a
wand; Service with Greek fillet, scattering
flowers.]
Everychild. Why, aren’t you Joy?

Joy. Oh, yes! I could not stay,

Where Service goes, I follow. That’s our way.

[They kiss, and circle in a little dance, which may

end in a kiss.]

Latin. To guide the child they come, on high command.

Service and Joy go ever hand in hand.

Service. In our bright home I heard the spirits say

A child was seeking me this very day.
Gladly I hastened when I heard them speak;
Who seeketh Service hath not far to seek.
Then followed Joy, the loveliest of our band:
Service and Joy go ever hand in hand.

[They repeat the dance and kiss.]

Service. Now on our happy journey let us come

To that bright land where Goodness is at home,
Where Beauty is, where we desire to dwell.

Joy. Farewell, ye mortals all! Farewell!

[Going.]

Discipline. Farewell!

Latin, Everychild, and Mathematics.

Farewell!
 “EVERYGIRL”
By Rachel Lyman Field

CHARACTERS
Everygirl.
Hope. Wealth. Knowledge. Health. Eight
Mirth. Beauty. Work. Love. Dancers.

SCENE
Twilight in Everygirl’s garden.

DANCE OF THE FLOWERS

[The dancers wear white dresses trimmed with
the flower which each represents.]
[After the dance is finished, enter Everygirl.]

Everygirl. How fair this little garden seems to-night!

Small though it be, I love it well,
For here I learned to know each flower
By name; I never wish to leave it
Till to-night, when a strange voice
Seemed calling me away. I could not sleep,
But wandered here to lose my foolish thoughts
Among the flowers—
Why, here’s a white rose that but yesterday
Was just a bud, half hidden by the leaves
 That tightly curled about it! See it now—
A full-blown rose, and opened to the night.
The gentle winds, the moon, and all the stars!
And thus it is with me; no more am I
A child. And so these restless thoughts
Are but to show me that I now am grown,
And that my life has opened like the rose.

[Enter Hope.]

Hope. Dear Everygirl, these words you speak

are true,
Hark! do you hear that far-off voice? Listen!
It is the World’s voice, Everygirl. It calls—
And you must follow, when the World calls.
I know the garden bids you stay,
And yet the World is stronger; you must go.
So, Everygirl, this night I come with cheer—
To say that you may choose three friends to
go
Journeying with you hand in hand, to share
All joys and sorrows that the World may
give.
Think well, and choose with care these
three,
For they shall go with you forever.

Everygirl. Dear lady, will you go with me?

Hope. Oh, no, I fain would go where sorrow is

And pain, where loss has come and joy is fled.
When all is black and dark, then I
Steal softly in and bring with me new strength
And light. Then tired hearts are glad,
And weary souls rise up to struggle on once more.
 For, Everygirl, my name is Hope, and often shall I visit you.

[Exit Hope.]

Knowledge
Black gown of sateen.
Black cap with brown owl’s head and wings.
Lamp made of gravy-boat, painted brown.
Large pen for sword.

[Enter Mirth, dancing and singing to the tune of

“Funiculi, Funicula”.]

Mirth. With laughter and with joy I come to you,

The flowers among.
For now that you are bright and fresh and fair,
 The world is young.

Oh, come, while all the way is green and glad,

We’ll be so gay
That time will touch us not. Oh, come, oh, come
With me away.

I am Mirth, Everygirl. Gladly will I go

Into the world with you. And you shall be
Lighthearted as I am, to laugh and sing
And frolic all day long. Come, take me;
We will feast and dance, paying no heed
To sorrow, pain, or dark and dreadful things.

Everygirl. Oh, Mirth, while yet you spoke, I heard

A sound of hollow laughter, and a wail
That echoed through deserted banquet halls!
All the bright gold was tarnished, and the flowers
Were lying dead and withered all about.
Oh, Mirth, I like it not, this mocking laughter.
[Mirth stands silenced for a moment, then slowly
exits.]
 Hope
White cotton frock: pale blue tunic,
ornamented with white silk stars applied.
Pale blue fillet on head with silver star.

[Enter Wealth, jingling bags of money.]

Wealth. Aha, my pretty one, so you would go into the world!

See this bright gold—’twill bring you what you ask.
All the World bows to me; and I will go
And be your friend, and always stay
To bring you fame, and joy, and everything
That only I, great Wealth, provide
For those who are my friends and followers.
 All these great bags and more shall be your own,
Vast lands and houses, servants and the like,
Yea, all you ask shall I bring at your word!
I know that you will take me, Everygirl.
No one rejects great Wealth, or what I give.
[Everygirl hesitates, takes one of the bags, but
suddenly drops it, covering her face with her
hands.]

Work
White cotton frock flowered in china blue,
turned back over blue and white striped petticoat.
White apron and cap.

Everygirl. Away! Away! I like you not, great Wealth!

Just now I heard a cry that shivered through my very heart.
It was the cry of toiling women, hungry and oppressed,
Working incessantly through heat and cold.
 And there were little children, too, who wept
And struggled in the darkness of the mines,
And in foul places over all the earth!
The gold is theirs, not mine. Oh, Wealth,
Begone! [Exit Wealth.]

Health
Camp-Fire costume made a little more
elaborate by bead-embroidery and
stencilling. Branch of Pine.

[Everygirl stands weeping. Enter Beauty.]

Beauty. Do not weep, Everygirl! I come to bring you joy and

happiness.
They call me Beauty, and the queen of all
The earth. All men look up to me,
 And smile upon me—beautiful am I,
So shall you be, if I go with you.
All the World will stoop to kiss your hand,
And fairer shall you be than other maids.

Everygirl. [Taking Beauty by the hand.]

And, Beauty, will you always stay with me?
And be my friend, and never go away?

Beauty. Ah, that I cannot do.

You know that I must sometime leave you.

Everygirl. Beauty, stay always with me, never go away.

Beauty. Ah, no! I cannot be your friend forever. [Exit Beauty.]

[Enter Knowledge, clothed in black. Everygirl
shrinks from her.]

Knowledge. You must not fear me, Everygirl, I am your friend.

Always we are friends. Was it not I
Who taught you once the names of all the flowers?
Men call me Knowledge, but I do not show
So fair a face as Beauty; mine is stern
And grim. No easy master am I,
But, if you now will take me for your friend,
I’ll show you all the wonders of the world—
Yea, and of many other worlds, also—
The magic of the deep and of the skies.
If you would have me with you,
You must search for knowledge and ever
Shall you be filled with wild desires
Never quite fulfilled. I’ll tell you all
The secrets of the world, even the thoughts
Of men and women shall be opened to you;
And those who pass along in busy throngs
Shall feel the mystic knowledge you possess.
 Love
Frock of thin white cotton or China silk:
angel sleeves shirred at shoulder:
gold paper heart on left side.
Gold fillet in hair.

Everygirl. And will this knowledge help them too, as well

As me? Will it bring pleasure to sad hearts
And joy to tired lives?

[Knowledge turns sorrowfully away. Everygirl

kneels, her face in her hands.]

Everygirl. I know not what to do, nor whom to choose!

 Mirth
White cotton frock: points of yellow
from neck, with gilded bells: wreath
of daisies, and skipping rope
wound with the same.

[Enter Work, Health, and Love at the back of the

garden. Work, advancing, touches Everygirl
upon the shoulder.]

Work. It is I, Everygirl, who am the solace

And those who toil with me, though hard their lot,
Find gladness in the joy of working.
I would go with you. The World cares not
For idle hands. So take me, though I promise not
 Delights and wild excesses of emotion.
For the great joy of labor and of toil I bring,
And you shall learn to glorify the work
Whate’er it be!

Everygirl. Oh, stay with me, and never go away!

[Work takes her hand. Health advances.]

Health. You see in me the thing that makes work sweet,

Without me all the world is bitter.
For I am Health, and with me beauty
Comes, and strength to labor and do good.
All things do I make possible,
For I create a palace beautiful
In which your thoughts may live and grow more fine
Because of fair surroundings.
Oh, Everygirl, I bring you health,
Oh, surely you will let me go with you?

Everygirl. Yes, yes, you must not leave me, Health.

[Love advances; she is more radiantly beautiful than all the

rest.]
 Beauty
Tunic of soft white silkaline
flowered in pink roses:
American Beauty rose made of wire
and tissue paper for scepter,
White skirt.

Everygirl. Your face I know. You are familiar to me.

I saw you in the blossoming of the flowers,
I saw your eyes in all the shining stars;
Your voice was in the wind among the trees,
Your light is in the eyes of one I know.
Who are you, that I feel your presence everywhere?

Love. I am Love, Everygirl.

Everygirl. Oh, Love, the World is calling, lead me forth.
Tiara may be made
of cheap hat pins.

Wealth
A Princess gown of white, stencilled in gold:
robe of red also stencilled in gold:
collar made of wired net with wild
carrot blossoms sewed flat.

[Everygirl, with one hand held by Work and one

by Health, and led by Love, leaves the garden.
At the gate she turns and faces the
audience.]

Oh, Work, and Health, and Love, I shall not dread

The years that are to come, with you for friends!
Oh, stay you always by my side,
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