Notes on
Modern Steel Making:
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Definition:
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Modern steelmaking encompasses a sophisticated process that optimizes the use of
steelmaking vessels such as converters, ladles, and tundishes within continuous
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casting systems. These vessels play crucial roles in handling molten steel for
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various purposes, such as transferring it to ingot casting or continuous casting.
During this handling, the molten steel resides in these vessels for a signi cant
duration, allowing for re ning operations like composition adjustment, gas removal,
sulfur control, and inclusion removal to take place.
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This has led to the advancement of ladles and tundishes designed speci cally for
re ning operations like deoxidation, inclusion modi cation, and desulfurization, as
well as for tasks like composition adjustment and inclusion removal. The
fundamental concept behind utilizing ladles and tundishes for re ning or adjusting
composition, or for producing clean steels, is to streamline the steelmaking process.
This approach allows the primary steelmaking units, such as converters and electric
furnaces, to focus on re ning hot metal to achieve the desired chemistry without
undue concern for nal composition.
Modern steelmaking typically involves several
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stages:
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a) Primary Steelmaking: This stage involves re ning hot metal or a combination
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of hot metal and scrap into steel using converters or electric furnaces. The aim is to
achieve the desired chemistry in the steel.
b) Secondary Steelmaking: Following primary steelmaking, secondary
steelmaking processes are employed to further re ne the steel, adjusting its
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composition and removing impurities to meet speci c quality requirements.
c) Continuous Casting: Molten steel is continuously cast into semi- nished
products, such as slabs, blooms, or billets, using continuous casting machines.
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d) Finishing Operations: Finally, the semi- nished products undergo various
nishing operations, including rolling, heat treatment, and surface treatment, to
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produce the nal steel products.
Primary Steelmaking:
In converter steelmaking, various techniques are employed to re ne hot metal:
- Top-blown steelmaking involves blowing pure oxygen from the top of the
converter using a water-cooled lance with multi-hole nozzles.
- Some processes combine top blowing with bottom stirring to enhance re ning
ef ciency.
- Others utilize both top and bottom blowing of oxygen, known as duplex blowing
or hybrid blowing.
- Bottom-blown converter processes involve blowing oxygen from the bottom of the
converter.
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Each technique offers distinct advantages and is chosen based on factors such as
ef ciency, product quality requirements, and operational preferences within the
steelmaking industry.
Figure: Types of converter steelmaking (a) Top blown steelmaking (b)
Combined top and bottom blowing, and (c) Bottom blowing
It's crucial to note that all variants of converter steelmaking utilize a pear-shaped
vessel, wherein blast furnace hot metal is re ned to plain carbon steel, often with
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the addition of scrap.
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Key chemical reactions occur during this process:
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Hot metal, containing around 3.5% to 4% carbon, 0.6% to 1% silicon, 0.6% to 0.8%
manganese, and 0.1% to 0.2% phosphorus, undergoes reactions with oxygen blown
from the top:
[Fe] + [O] = (FeO)
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[C] + [O] = {CO}
[Si] + 2[0] = (SiO2)
[Mn] + [0] = (MnO)
2[P] + 5[O] = (P2O5)
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[C] + (FeO) = {CO} + [Fe]
(Fe) + (MnO) = (FeO) + [Mn]
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Several key points to consider:
- No external heat is added; the heat generated by chemical reactions raises the
temperature of the hot metal from approximately 1250°C to 1300°C to the molten
steel tapping temperature of 1600°C to 1650°C.
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- Carbon is removed as a gaseous phase, while other elements form slag.
Achieving the desired chemistry and physical properties of the slag is crucial for
successful converter steelmaking.
- Typically, liquid steel is tapped approximately every 50 to 60 minutes,
maintaining speci ed steel chemistry and dissolved oxygen levels of 500-1000
ppm.
- The duration of oxygen blowing, usually 15 to 20 minutes, remains constant
regardless of the converter's capacity.
Electric arc furnace (EAF):
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Electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking involves the utilization of scrap, hot metal,
and directly reduced iron to produce plain carbon steel. The primary source of
thermal energy in this process is electric energy. Graphite electrodes are employed
to supply the necessary current, as illustrated in Figure 2.2. AC electric arc furnaces,
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available in various con gurations such as normal power or ultra high power
(UHP), with single or twin shells, and with or without bottom stirring or post
combustion, are widely adopted in the industry. However, it's worth noting that EAF
operations generate signi cant noise.
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In recent times, EAFs have gained prominence in the steel industry due to
several advantages:
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1. Flexibility: EAFs can be easily adapted to produce either plain carbon steel or
alloy steel, depending on market demand. This exibility allows steel producers to
quickly adjust their production to meet changing market requirements, enhancing
overall ef ciency and responsiveness.
2. Environmental Considerations: Compared to traditional steelmaking processes,
such as the basic oxygen furnace (BOF), EAFs are generally considered to have
lower environmental impact. They produce fewer emissions and require less energy,
making them more environmentally friendly alternatives.
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3. Scrap Utilization: EAFs rely heavily on scrap steel as a feedstock, contributing
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to the recycling and reuse of steel materials. This reduces the demand for virgin iron
ore and helps mitigate the environmental impact associated with mining and ore
extraction.
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4. Energy Ef ciency: EAFs are inherently more energy-ef cient than some other
steelmaking processes, as they directly convert electrical energy into heat,
minimizing energy loss. This ef ciency can lead to cost savings and reduced carbon
footprint over the long term.
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5. Adaptability to Market Trends: The versatility of EAF technology allows steel
producers to respond quickly to evolving market trends, such as shifts in consumer
preferences or changes in regulatory requirements. This adaptability enhances the
competitiveness of steel manufacturers in a dynamic business environment.
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EAF steelmaking offers a modern and adaptable approach to steel production,
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aligning with the industry's ongoing efforts to improve ef ciency, sustainability, and
responsiveness to market dynamics.
Secondary steelmaking:
Secondary steelmaking aims to re ne and tailor the steel to meet speci c chemistry
and cleanliness requirements through various treatments performed in the ladle.
These treatments include:
a) Stirring the molten steel by purging inert gas through the bottom of the ladle.
b) Injecting slag-forming powder through a lance for further re ning.
c) Producing clean steel by removing or modifying inclusions using suitable
injected materials.
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d) Conducting deoxidation and degassing processes.
Ladle furnaces (LF), equipped with additional heating facilities, have become
essential for secondary steelmaking, ensuring precise control over the steel's
composition and cleanliness.
Various practices are employed for degassing, such as vacuum tank degassing,
stream degassing, and recirculation degassing. In recirculation degassing, steel
ows from the ladle into a separate degassing chamber and then returns after
exposure to a vacuum. In one recirculation degassing method, a degassing vessel is
immersed into the ladle, allowing liquid steel to be raised into the vessel, degassed,
and then reintroduced into the ladle.
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In another practice, a refractory-lined vessel with two legs (known as snorkels) is
used for dipping into the ladle containing molten steel. Pressure reduction and argon
gas ow through one snorkel, raising molten steel into the vessel, which then
recirculates back into the ladle through the other snorkel. These methods ensure
effective degassing and enhance the quality of the steel produced in secondary
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steelmaking operations.
Continuous casting:
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Continuous casting and strip casting play vital roles in modern steel production
processes, enabling the continuous formation of steel products such as billets,
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blooms, slabs, and strips. Depending on the desired product shape, whether long or
at, the casting process is tailored accordingly.
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Continuous casting involves the continuous pouring of molten steel from the
tundish into molds, where the steel solidi es and is continuously withdrawn.
Typically, the setup includes a tundish, mold, and secondary cooling sprays to
facilitate smooth casting. While original continuous casting machines were vertical,
modern setups often feature curved molds or vertical molds with bending rolls.
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The tundish, a refractory-lined vessel, is a crucial component in continuous casting.
It serves to feed molten steel into the molds via a submerged nozzle and acts as a
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reservoir during ladle changeovers and sequence casting. Modern tundishes are
equipped with various features such as dams, weirs, and slotted dams to control the
ow of molten steel during casting.
Recent developments in continuous casting include thin slab casting and liquid core
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reduction, aimed at integrating casting and rolling processes to reduce reheating
costs and improve ef ciency.
Strip casting, another emerging technique, involves casting molten steel directly
into strip form, offering advantages in terms of ef ciency and product quality.
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Final nishing operations complete the steelmaking process, integrating chemistry
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and cleanliness with product development:
- Deformation processing technologies such as forging and rolling are utilized to
shape the steel into its nal form.
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- Heat treatment plays a crucial role in producing nished products by heating the
steel to temperatures in the austenitic region and subsequently cooling it to
achieve desired properties.
- Surface hardening treatments further enhance the properties of steel products,
improving their resistance to wear, corrosion, and other forms of degradation.
By understanding the integration between steelmaking processes and nishing
operations, one can appreciate the critical role of steelmaking in product
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development and performance.
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