Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Performance evaluation of cement-based composites containing phase

change materials from energy management and construction standpoints
Muhammad Faisal Junaid a, Zia ur Rehman b, Nauman Ijaz c, Rashid Farooq d, e, *, Usama Khalid f,
Zain Ijaz c
a
Department of Materials Engineering and Physics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava 81005, Slovakia
b
School of Civil Engineering and Surveying, University of Portsmouth, Portland Building, Portland Street, Portsmouth PO1 3AH, United Kingdom
c
Key Laboratory of Geotechnical and Underground Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
d
Department of Civil Engineering, International Islamic University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
e
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne 3122, Australia
f
National Institute of Transportation (NIT) Risalpur, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad 44000, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Thermal energy storage in building envelopes is critical to promoting renewable energy, implementation of
Phase change materials which requires thermal performance enhancement of construction materials. In this regard, phase change ma­
Cement based composites terials (PCMs) are often incorporated with cement-based composites (CBCs) materials, which are most commonly
Mechanical performance
used in construction. The current article provides a state-of-the-art review of PCM-incorporated CBCs (PCM-
Thermal performance
Durability
CBCs) considering various CBCs, incorporation methods, and their challenges and solutions. Additionally, per­
Energy efficiency formance evaluation of PCM-CBCs is carried out based on thermal, mechanical, durability, sustainability, energy
efficiency, and resource conservation-based performances. It was identified that in terms of thermal perfor­
mance, energy efficiency, and natural resource conservation, the research on PCM-CBCs has been well estab­
lished, and they find vast application in TES management systems. On the other hand, although healthy research
data is available on the appraisal of the mechanical performance of PCM-CBCs, more efforts are required to
control the detrimental impact of PCM incorporation with CBCs to make them more durable and desirable for
construction where they must undergo mechanical loading. This article provides a consolidated perspective for
researchers, practitioners, and educators working to make PCM-CBCs more practical.

1. Introduction building components and provides a passive energy storage solution [3].
Meanwhile, phase change materials (PCMs) are used for LHS and
The demand for renewable energy has been exacerbated due to considered to be more effective owing to their lightweight, thermo­
inexorable population growth and energy demand over the last few physical characteristics and phase transition mechanism during tem­
decades. The concept of renewable energy heavily relies on alternate perature variation. The governing mechanism which makes PCMs to be
energy resources and storage materials. In this context, the imple­ more efficient in terms of heat storage comprises thermal energy ab­
mentation of thermal energy storage (TES) systems in buildings and sorption, storage and release. This enables PCMs-based TES systems to
other construction facilities is vital to promote sustainability and energy be sustainable and renewable energy sources as it involves the absorp­
conservation. There are several options available today for cost-effective tion of energy from the outer environment during the maximum energy
and relatively stable thermal energy management (TEM) solutions for availability period and subsequently release it during peak energy de­
buildings [1,2]. In TES systems for buildings, usually, two types of en­ mand [4,5].
ergy storage mechanisms prevail i.e., sensible heat storage (SHS) and There are generally two application schemes by which PCMs can be
latent heat storage (LHS). SHS is mainly dependent on the encasement of incorporated into buildings namely active and passive thermal man­
different energy storage materials derived from waste byproducts in agement systems. Active systems include TES devices while passive

* Corresponding author at: Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne 3122, Australia.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z. Rehman), [email protected], [email protected] (N. Ijaz), [email protected]
(R. Farooq), [email protected], [email protected] (U. Khalid), [email protected] (Z. Ijaz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135108
Received 22 October 2023; Received in revised form 13 January 2024; Accepted 17 January 2024
Available online 28 January 2024
0950-0618/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

systems imply façade elements, walls and ceilings [6,7]. Generally, of PCM-CBCs, focusing on basic characterization, technological
inorganic (salt hydrates, metals) organic (paraffins), biobased (fatty advancement, sustainability and environmental aspects. By systemati­
acids) and their eutectic mixtures have been used for different building cally examining the types, characteristics, pros and cons, and applica­
applications [8]. Comprehensive literature is available considering tions of PCM-CBCs, this article aims to quantify the research status,
which different types of PCMs can be classified for various building identify advancements, and critically evaluate the implications for in­
applications based on their thermal and thermophysical characteristics. dustrial and socioeconomic development. While previous reviews have
Such a database is important for the selection of certain PCMs for a touched upon various aspects of PCMs, a specific gap exists in the
specific building application [9]. Several functional materials known as literature regarding a holistic review on PCM-CBCs. This study also aims
PCMs use high energy storage densities over a constrained temperature to address this gap by presenting a comprehensive and consolidated
range and display four types of phase transition i.e., liquid–gas, solid­ perspective, contributing to the broader understanding of PCM-CBCs
–liquid, solid–gas and solid–solid. Due to the considerable volume within the scientific community.
changes that occur during phase transition in both solid-gas and
liquid-gas PCMs, containment requirements are more stringent, and this 2. PCM-CBCs
factor also governs the potential of a particular PCM for different
building applications [10]. The selection of PCM for a building appli­ Cement-based composite materials include a list of materials among
cation and its incorporation in building materials/elements is mainly which the most pertinent to the PCM applications are mortar, concrete
dependent on the operational temperature range and phase transition and wallboards. Several applications can be traced in the construction
scheme [11]. sector considering the aforementioned cement-based composite mate­
The successful use of TES materials in building applications for the rials integrated with PCM. Generally, PCM is integrated with these
achievement of thermal suitability in indoor environments has been the materials to enhance the indoor thermal comfort and storage capacity of
subject of several studies over the past few decades. In this regard, PCMs TES systems. For the development of building envelopes, cement-based
are considered to be the most suitable materials to implement TES sys­ plaster or mortar is a typical construction material. Cement mortar is
tems in building applications owing to their stable thermal properties composed of cement, sand, and water. In addition to enhancing the
and thermophysical response. These investigations not only offered bonding of masonry structures, cement mortar provides thermal and
robust TES composites with adequate structural and mechanical char­ acoustic insulation [36]. It is important to note that the cement mortar’s
acteristics but also manifested a revolutionary approach to achieving thermal behavior has a major impact on indoor thermal comfort.
thermal efficiency in various environments. Furthermore, material re­ Cement-based plaster and mortar have undergone a number of thermal
searchers are looking for novel ways to improve the thermal charac­ property enhancement initiatives in recent years [9]. In this regard, PCM
teristics of cement-based composites using modern technologies to integration into cement-based mortars has yielded notably positive
achieve cost-effective and sustainable thermally efficient building ma­ outcomes considering the thermal characteristics [37–39]. The investi­
terials [12–18]. The year 1990 marks the discovery of one of the first gation conducted by Kontoleon et al. [40] revealed that the TES capacity
evidence of the integration of PCMs with cement-based composite ma­ of the cement mortar containing PCM has increased considerably. On
terials [19,20]; however, the most revolutionary work was conducted in the other hand, heat flux penetration decreased in the PCM-integrated
the two decades to make it a practical choice for construction. It is specimen as compared to the native mortar specimen. Further, the in­
eminent that substantial efforts have been made to promote terval between temperature peaks was lengthened. However, the spec­
PCM-integrated CBCs (PCM-CBCs); however, there are still a few imen of cement mortar with PCM was less workable than the specimen
research gaps that need to be filled in order to make it more sustainable without PCM. Different incorporation methods of PCMs in cement-based
and ecofriendly. In this context, reduction of carbon footprint, utiliza­ mortars have also been thoroughly evaluated by various researchers.
tion of waste byproducts, curtailment of energy demand and imple­ Ryms et al. [41] used post-pyrolysis char as a PCM carrier in cement
mentation of resource conservation strategies are the way forward [21, mortar and revealed that it improves thermal characteristics with 32%
22]. Further, the mechanical characteristics of PCM-CBCs are the major PCM with the char. Similarly, different types of mortars have also been
governing factors for implementing them in building construction thus evaluated for their thermal performance by incorporating PCMs with
any research that has to be conducted to promote thermal efficiency, them. For instance, instead of conventional mortar, Guardia et al. [42]
sustainability and environment-friendliness must not be compromised used cement-lime mortar with microencapsulated PCM (m-PCM) and
[23,24]. Moreover, rich literature is also available on different appli­ observed a significant improvement in thermal characteristics by 20%
cations of PCM-CBCs in construction i.e., floors, slabs and walls. Liter­ PCM. Also, many researchers have used PCM-incorporated mortars to
ature manifests that for each application, a certain set of mechanical and produce commercially usable aggregate for TES applications. In this
thermophysical characteristics are required. This can limit the wide­ regard, Yoo et al. [43] mixed ordinary portland cement (OPC), fine
spread application of any single type of PCM with cementitious mate­ aggregate, silica fume, silicon carbide, zeolite and PCM to engineer TES
rials owing to which an increasing trend of research publication is aggregate (Fig. 1). Such kind of aggregate can be used to control the
evident on preparing and appraising a variety of PCM-CBCs for different thermal fluctuation of conventional mortars for various building appli­
applications [25–29]. cations. For example, by using the aforementioned TES aggregate, Yoo
The research publication data is important to gauge technological et al. [43] demonstrated an approximately 11% decrease in the thermal
advancement, technical appropriateness and future aspects of a subject fluctuation of conventional mortar. Moreover, a number of studies have
matter and it directly links with social, industrial and economic devel­ appraised the performance of various types of PCMs i.e., organic, inor­
opment [30]. Thus, reviewing available literature on a subject matter ganic and eutectics for incorporation with cement-based mortar. In this
and quantifying it to understand research status and future aspects is context, many studies have been conducted considering any singular
critical for scientific advancement. Several studies indicate the impor­ type of PCM i.e., inorganic or organic. Encouraging results are demon­
tance and usefulness of PCM-CBCs and establish eminent technological strated by singular organic PCMs i.e., capric and polyethylene glycol
advancement in this field; however, there is a need to collate available with OPC [44]. Similarly, interesting findings have been presented by
useful research data which currently can be found in scattered form. various studies investigating the incorporation of eutectic mixture with
Recognizing the importance of literature review and PCMs, numerous cement-based mortars. For instance, Hekimoğlu et al. [45] demon­
review papers have been published recently covering different aspects of strated that organic eutectic mixture of capric-stearic acid not only en­
PCMs i.e., types, characteristics, pros and cons, and applications [8, hances thermal performance of cement-based mortar but also imparts
31–35]. Considering the foregoing discussion, this study aims to stability against thermal cycling. Thus, a variety of PCMs can be used for
consolidate scattered research data and provide an integrated overview incorporation with cement-based mortars for various TES applications.

2
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of TES aggregate preparation as presented by Yoo et al. [43] and reproduced here for illustration purpose.

Some researchers have also evaluated the real scale performance of PCM Increased energy efficiency can be achieved by embedding PCM into
incorporated cement-based mortars by conducting physical model concrete to increase its latent heat storage capacity, which consequently
studies to boost the confidence of practitioners in them [46]. Kusama improves the thermal behavior of indoor space by lowering thermal
and Ishidoya [47] evaluated the performance of m-PCM incorporated loads and fluctuations [50]. Many studies have been conducted to
cement plaster in ceiling and walls of a test residential room. This study evaluate the thermal performance of PCM-embedded concrete struc­
revealed that such plaster enhances thermal insulation and TES capacity tures which show that indoor temperature fluctuation is reduced by
of building promoting energy saving and sustainability. around 50% along with the rise in peak temperature [51]. As a result,
Another important cementitious construction material is concrete substantial cost savings in terms of energy has also been witnessed by
due to its high strength, durability, formability and fire resistance. many studies. Different incorporation methods of PCMs have different
Cement is the main constituent of concrete which plays a binder role to effects on the thermal performance of concrete; however, the thermal
intact the coarse and fine aggregates upon the addition of water to form performance of concrete is reported to be improved by all these methods
a solid matrix [48]. Concrete is also a thermal mass material used in in the literature [52,53]. In addition, along with the type of PCM, the
buildings as the thermal comfort of the building is very much dependent constituents of concrete also have a significant effect on the thermal
on the thermal characteristics of concrete [49]. With the technological performance and leakage of PCM integrated concrete. For instance, the
advancement of incorporation methods, PCMs have been widely inte­ leakage of PCM incorporated concrete is reduced by the addition of
grated with concrete for indoor thermal comfort and TES applications. supplementary cementitious materials along with OPC.

Fig. 2. Framework of PCM integration with CBCs adapted from Junaid et al. [35].

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M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

3. Incorporation methods

To incorporate PCMs in/with cementitious construction materials for

TES applications there are different techniques available depending on
construction type. A general framework of incorporation of PCM with
CBCs is presented in Fig. 2 discussing the advantages and disadvantages
of different incorporation methods and application criteria. These
techniques can be categorized into four main classes i.e., direct incor­
poration, micro/macroencapsulation, shape stabilization and porous
inclusion. The adoption of a specific incorporation technique depends on
the construction method and construction material. For instance, in the
case of the dry construction process, macroencapsulation technique is
the most suitable. On the other hand, for the wet construction process, Fig. 3. Shape-stabilized c-PCM as presented by Khadiran et al. [68] and
both direct and indirect incorporation techniques such as shape stabi­ reproduced here for illustration purpose.
lization and microencapsulation could be adopted. All the incorporation
methods have advantages and disadvantages of their own which also
construction element. Thus, this method is important in terms of con­
play an important role in selection of any of these methods in practice.
struction material conservation and provides a simplified incorporation
The simplest, most practical, and least expensive way of incorpo­
technique. The applicability of this method is limited to lightweight
rating PCMs with construction material is the direct incorporation
concrete and other construction elements having porous materials [23,
method [54,55]. In this method, liquid or powdered PCMs are added to a
71,72]. Several porous materials have been tested and approved by
mixture of cementitious materials. Since no additional equipment is
various researchers that could be used for different construction utilities
needed, the procedure’s simplicity and cost-effectiveness are its key
as initially provided by [73] (Table 1). Further, based on the literature,
benefits. However, PCM leakage during the melting phase is the major
the advantages and disadvantages of different incorporation methods
issue with this method potentially resulting in low fire resistance of the
have been summarized in Table 2 as per [74]. Each incorporation
impregnated materials and even incompatibility between the mixture
method has its pros and cons of its own; the selection of incorporation
materials limiting its practical implementation [54,56]. The microen­
method depends on the availability of materials, application, and
capsulation technique provides several advantages as compared to other
financial considerations. Various studies have demonstrated that the
approaches including reduced leakage during phase transformation,
higher costs involved in construction materials integrated with PCM
efficient heat transfer rate, high thermal reliability and chemical sta­
make practical implementation of the technology impossible. The
bility, and high resilience against freezing/melting cycles. Despite of
technique used for PCM encapsulation showcases a few drawbacks, the
aforementioned advantages, there are several challenges associated
most notable of which include the cost of acquiring PCM, time required
with microencapsulation which reduce its practical application i.e., high
for materials production, materials cost and materials adaptation to the
cost, reduced mechanical characteristics, and low compatibility with
technique. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to investigate and
construction elements due to the rigidness of shell subsequently
create functional construction materials (e.g., non-encapsulated PCM)
affecting heat transfer rate. Also, PCMs can be incorporated into build­
based on straightforward manufacturing process and inexpensive raw
ing elements using large-size rigid containers which resolve the leakage
materials with superior thermal performance. Even though extensive
problem. Macroencapsulation provides flexibility in the design and
research has been conducted using PCMs, the direct incorporation
shape of PCMs incorporated systems as per specified requirements [57].
technique still represents a topic that has not been fully investigated.
However, macroencapsulation suffers from low thermal conductivity
One novel and potentially promising approach to reduce a building’s
and tends to solidify at the container edges [58]. In the design of
energy dependence is to engineer cement-based mortars/concrete
m-PCMs based systems, placement of encapsulation container is criti­
through direct incorporation of non-encapsulated PCM.
cally important thus requiring special attention. Most of the past studies
advocate to place the encapsulation container on site in construction
4. Potential and challenges of PCM-CBCs
elements for proper placement and functioning [59,60]. PCMs can also
be incorporated in cementitious construction materials and elements by
The inclusion of PCMs in cementitious materials used in buildings
shape stabilization which is regarded as the most efficient method,
appears to be the most appealing alternative in an attempt to reduce the
especially for cementitious mortar and concrete. In this method, PCM is
large energy consumption associated with building heating and cooling.
absorbed in a supporting material and then incorporated with cemen­
This method eliminates the need for heating and cooling systems by
titious construction materials [61]. The supporting platform for PCM in
allowing the adjustment of indoor temperature through the storing of
this technique is made compatible with cementitious mortar and con­
latent heat energy. PCMs can be critical due to the huge heat exchange
crete which makes it a sustainable incorporation method. For instance,
surfaces in concrete and mortar. In addition, the finished functional
PCM absorbed supporting platform can be taken as a replacement for
material can be customized in a broad range of sizes and shapes. These
aggregates in lightweight concrete helping to improve energy efficiency
PCM composites may be utilized in various practical applications
and conservation of natural materials. This technology not only provides
because concrete and mortar are common building materials since
high compatibility of PCMs with cementitious construction materials
quality control can be maintained easily in the manufactured materials.
but also improves thermal conductivity, shape maintenance during
Owing to the excellent thermal and mechanical properties, current
phase transition, thermal stability against freezing/melting cycles and
research on PCM-CBCs is primarily focused on cement and gypsum
apparent specific heat [62–66]. The supporting materials are typically
compositions. Initially, consideration was given to CBCs used in ma­
capable of preventing PCM leakage (Fig. 3) [57,67,68]. Shape stabili­
sonry following the evaluation of PCMs integrated cementitious systems
zation also enables to use waste byproducts as supporting material
in order to appraise their energy efficiency. These experimental findings
which promotes a circular economy paradigm. However, this method is
demonstrated that the addition of PCMs significantly reduces the me­
complex and demands high specialty for practical implementation [69,
chanical characteristics of CBCs, particularly for cement pastes [75–78].
70]. Apart from PCMs incorporation using supporting materials in
As a result, the application of such PCM integrated CBCs is limited to
cementitious construction elements, it can be directly absorbed into
interior and/or exterior coatings in the shape of mortar, which undergo
porous construction materials such as lightweight aggregates. In this
marginal loadings. Although cement provides excellent binding in
method, the supporting material is replaced by the parent material of the

4
 M.F. Junaid et al.
Table 1
Properties of porous materials for incorporation of PCMs.
PCM Aggregate Max. Technique Coating Host Ref. PCM Aggregate Max. Method Coating material Host Ref.
Absorption material material Absorption material

LA EC 49.2 (wt%) Vacuumed Epoxy/ –– [73] Paraffin EC (Leca S) 26.36 (wt%) Direct –– –– [74]
impregnation customized impregnation
cement paste
Paraffin EC 70.5 (wt%) Epoxy resin GP, SF [15] Clay, perlite, Ranges –– Polyurethane, weber Dry –– [75]
expanded cork, between Lastic, bituminous
EC, EV 25–275 (wt emulsion
%)
EP –– [76] EC 95% Vacuumed Rubber emulsion, Graphite [77]
impregnation polyster resin, waterproof spray and
membrane carbon fiber
EP 70.5 (wt%) –– Epoxy resin GP, SF [78] Paraffin, LA, EC 200, 150, –– Cement paste, –– [79]
MA 100, 50 (wt styreneacrylic emulsion,
%) polyurethane resin
solution, and cement
5

paste/emulsion
composite
Recycled 25 (wt%) –– –– [80] n-Octadecane EV, EP 80.66 (wt%), –– –– [81]
crushed 59.34 (wt%)
concrete block
EP 50.1% Direct and Silicon –– [82] CA, PA, Pumice/ 30 – 35 (wt [83]
(vacuum) vacuumed coating dodecanol, gypsum %)
35% (direct) impregnation heptadecane
EV 37.5 (wt%) Vacuumed [84] Paraffin Pumice, perlite, 10.5–21.2 Direct [85]
impregnation slate, shale/clay (vol%) impregnation
ES 23.7 (wt%) [86] ES 30 wt% [74]
Paraffin EC and Greek 10-35 (wt%) Direct [23] Hydrophilic and 35 (wt%), 50 Vacuumed [87]
PEG400, pumice impregnation hydrophobic EP (wt%) impregnation

Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

PEG600,
PT4
Paraffin Hydrophobic 50 wt% Vacuumed [88]
EP impregnation

LA: Lauric acid; CA: Capric Acid; PA: Palmitic acid; MA: Myristic acid; EC: Expanded clay; EP: Expanded perlite; EV: Expanded vermiculite; ES: Expanded shale; GP: Graphite powder; SF: Silica fume
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Table 2 storage and thermal energy progression (TEP) respectively. A general

Comparison of different incorporation methods of PCM-CBCs. comparison of maximum TES between different construction materials
Incorporation Advantages Disadvantages shows that the TES of all other materials is far inferior to PCMs owing to
method which these materials should be used in tandem with PCM to enhance
m-PCM Improved chemical stability The capsules are costly; their their thermal performance (Fig. 4). Thermal conductivity is one of the
and thermal dependability; stiffness may inhibit natural major characteristics governing the applicability of PCM to building
decreased PCM leakage convection and lower the envelopes. The lower thermal conductivity of different PCMs limits their
during phase transition; rate of heat transmission; building applications owing to the loss of their primary goal of TES and
increased heat transfer rate. and the mechanical
characteristics of the
TEP [39]. Although thermal conductivity is an inherent characteristic of
building components may be certain PCM that is to be incorporated with cementitious material, the
compromised. incorporation method has a huge impact on it. For instance, microen­
Form-stable Very affordable; strong Required sophisticated capsulation curtails the thermal conductivity of PCM-CBCs even at low
composite PCM retention without equipment to prepare.
concentrations of encapsulated shells in the overall composite. Litera­
leaking over its melting
point. ture manifests that a 5% concentration of encapsulated shells in
Direct impregnation Practical simple, and cheap. Leakage and incompatibility PCM-CBCs reduces the thermal conductivity by 37% thus, the incorpo­
can arise, impacting the ration technique has a huge impact on the thermal characteristics of
building materials’ PCM-CBCs [103]. Similarly, composite PCM (c-PCM) incorporated by
mechanical characteristics
and durability
shape stabilization in PCM-CBCs also reduces the thermal conductivity
Direct incorporation Cheap and simple. Possible leaking of PCM in of such composites. A 10% c-PCM incorporated in a mortar reduces
the melting condition; thermal conductivity by 13.8% ± 5% [104–106]. The reduction in
flammability of the thermal conductivity of PCM-CBCs due to the incorporation of c-PCM by
impregnated components;
shape stabilization is linked with a reduction in the apparent density of
and incompatibility of the
materials. PCM-CBCs and an increase in porosity [107]. Apart from incorporation
Shape-stabilized Large apparent specific For their preparation, techniques, the density of PCM and entrapped air in PCM-CBCs also
PCM heat; adequate thermal sophisticated machinery is largely impacts the thermal characteristics i.e., the thermal conductivity
conductivity; capacity to required, and additives are of PCM-CBCs [108,109]. Several studies have been conducted to rectify
preserve PCM form after required to increase the heat
thermal conductivity issue due to shape stabilization by using expanded
phase shift; long-term conductivity.
thermal dependability graphite, carbon nanotubes, graphene and graphite.
decreased leakage The TES capacity of PCM-CBCs is the most important characteristic
phenomenon. in terms of its utilization for building envelopes and other TES appli­
Macroencapsulated A substantial amount of The insertion into the
cations. However, despite its vast application, no standards have been
PCM PCM is packed in the structure must be done in
container; ease of use and situ; Exhibits poor thermal designated for the thermal characteristics of PCM-CBCs owing to limited
compatibility for any conductivity and inclination specialized testing facilities [110,111]. Considering this recently many
particular application. to solidify at the borders. researchers have developed different intuitive testing equipment to
determine the TES capacity of PCM-CBCs [112]. Similarly, the literature
on the TES capacity of PCM-CBCs is limited in an account of presenting
PCM-CBCs, its usage is criticized on account of large CO2 emissions
state-of-the-art experimental results however, sufficient studies can be
during production, high cost and vast consumption of natural resources.
found in the literature to get a brief idea about the TES capacity of
To replace cement in PCM-CBCs, other binders i.e., hydraulic lime [76,
PCM-CBCs. The cyclic thermal performance of microencapsulated
79,80], aerial lime [81–83], and in certain cases, geopolymers, have
PCM-CBCs demonstrates that the fluctuation of temperature i.e.,
been investigated and developed recently [84–87]. The PCM lowers
increase/decrease occurs at a smaller rate in comparison to orthodox
temperature fluctuations, and the use of the composite material may
cement-based mixtures [113]. This renders that the incorporation of
effectively ameliorate interior comfort temperature. Generally, the
PCMs in cement-based mixtures substantially improves the thermal
incorporation of PCMs in a mortar efficiently improves both TES and the
inertia in comparison to conventional concrete and mortar. Also, the
thermal conductivity of CBCs which helps in managing the indoor
thermal mass of PCM-CBCs is observed to be significantly higher than
temperature of a building [88–90]. In the case of applying PCMs to the
any conventional cement-based mixtures. Literature manifests that the
interior and exterior of the building in the form of PCM-CBCs may result
incorporation of PCMs in cement-based composites can improve thermal
in the generation of micro-organisms and hazardous substances
mass by a margin of 13 oC which is important for the thermal perfor­
depending on the type of PCM employed. The use of certain additives
mance of buildings [114]. Different studies have reported an increase in
(TiO2-based nanoparticles) in PCM-CBCs enables the creation of multi­
the TES capacity of PCM-CBCs by 30% due to the incorporation of PCMs
functional materials [91–93] that may even breakdown pollutants while
in it. Further, application-based assessment of the thermal characteris­
preventing the buildup of dirt and the development of micro-organisms
tics of PCM-CBCs also shows encouraging results for instance, the
on surfaces. Table 3 as per Sharma et al. [94] presents an overview of
improved thermal inertia of cement-based panels was reported in the
different solutions adopted by different researchers in order to overcome
literature with a maximum temperature difference between the top and
the challenges associated with PCM-CBCs from thermal and mechanical
bottom of the panel about 2.4 oC. In addition, heat attenuation of PCMs
performance standpoints.
incorporated cement-based panels is reported to be increased up to
30 min during the heating process. Similarly, the internal heat flux was
5. Performance evaluation of PCM-CBCs
also observed to be reduced during the cooling process due to PCMs
incorporation in cement-based panels. Furthermore, the performance of
5.1. Thermal characteristics
PCMs based panels remained intact even after 100 thermal cycles [115].
These results are promising in terms of the application of such panels for
The main purpose of integrating PCMs in cementitious materials as a
indoor thermal comfort [116].
composite is to utilize them for thermal energy storage and transmission.
PCMs also enhance the inherent thermal characteristics of cement-
To serve this purpose, the thermal characteristics of PCM are of prime
based composites i.e., concrete and cement mortar which enhance
importance referring that PCM should have a high latent heat and
their application for indoor thermal comfort. Building materials like
excellent thermal conductivity to ensure efficient thermal energy
concrete may benefit greatly from PCMs by increasing their inherent

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M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Table 3
A brief overview of the literature to overcome thermal and mechanical vulnerabilities of PCM-CBCs.
PCM integration technique/ PCM Addition/replacement Properties Performance Reference
material

Cement mortar/Porous Paraffin Sand was substituted with fck 28 days strength is 12%, 33%, 53%
[95]
inclusion PCM in percentages of 20%, and 70% less than the control
40%, 60% and 80% by specimen replacing 20%, 40%, 60%
volume and 80%, respectively
ρ0 Declines as the composite PCM
replacement level rises
K Decreased when composite PCM
replacement levels increased
TES Maximum TES capacity of the 80%
capacity included PCM mortar mix was
124 kJ⸳kg-1, in comparison to
48 kJ⸳kg-1 in normal concrete
Self-compacted Powdered mixture of paraffin 5%, 3%, and 1% addition by fck Compressive strengths reduce
[96]
concrete/ waxes, microcapsules mass of concrete significantly by increasing the PCM
Microencapsulation (Micronal DS 5008X) dosage
composed of encapsulated K Decreased thermal conductivity due
polymethyl methacrylate to PCM incorporation particles into
concrete mass
cp Notably increased cp by raising the
PCM’s content in the mix (for 5%
PCM addition, approx. 3.5 times)
Mortar/Microencapsulation Paraffin based 5%, 3% Isothermal calorimetry In comparison to the control mix, [97]
m-PCM and 1% m-PCM replaced by there is an increase and a delay in
(Micronal DS 5040X) mass of sand the maximal rate of heat of
hydration
TGA Dehydroxylation of C-H and
desiccation of C-S-H were observed
in the temperature range of 35 –
540 oC
DSC Loss of weight was greater over the
temperature ranging from
50–800 oC
K Decreased as PCM in mortar is
increased
fck Porosity rises with soft
microencapsulated PCM, reducing
the strength
Structural-functional Impregnated LWA with Partial replacement of PCM- fck Reduction of compressive strength
[98]
integrated Concrete/ Rubitherm SP22 LWA by volume of by increasing PCM-
Macroencapsulation (commercially available coarse aggregate LWA in mixture
inorganic PCM) (25% and 50%) PCM-LWA panel’s PCM-LWA reduces energy
thermal performance consumption by decreasing indoor
temperatures and shifting loads
Concrete/ Paraffin octadecane (PO) Using PO-filled hollow steel fck PCM-containing concrete strength
[99]
Macroencapsulation balls to replace 25%, 50%, reduced as PCM quantity in the mix
75%, and 100% of typical increased
coarse gravel aggregate Concrete panel’s thermal Peak indoor air temperature reduced
performance by 25-33% through placement of
(macroencapsulated PCM-integrated concrete panel in
PCM-HSB) comparison with control sample
Ultra-high performance Paraffin wax-based m-PCM Incorporated binder weights fck The compressive strength of UHPC
[28]
concrete/ of 5% and 10% m-PCM decreases due to the low strength of
Microencapsulation microcapsules and mortar leakage
during mixing
K Reduces when m-PCM concentration
increases
TES capacity Heat storage capacity increases as
measured by DSC
Mercury intrusion m-PCM increases transition pores
porosimetry and the capillary volume, but
proportion of large pores and gel
remain significantly small
Concrete with structural- Macroencapsulated paraffin By vol. of normal weight fck The compressive strength of
[15]
functional integration and based LWA aggregate, 50%, 33%, and concrete incorporating simply LWA
macroencapsulation 7% macroencapsulated is lower than macroencapsulated
paraffin-LWA were used paraffin based LWA
Thermal performance Test room with macroencapsulated
paraffin based LWA exhibit low
inner temperature than the
reference room for cooling and
heating cycles
(continued on next page)

7
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Table 3 (continued )
PCM integration technique/ PCM Addition/replacement Properties Performance Reference
material

Mortar/Microencapsulation Impregnation of n-octadecane Reference mortar mixture fck After curing for 28-days, mortar’s
[100]
(C18H38) with no sealed CenoPCM, strength without sealed CenoPCM,
in cenospheres and CenoPCM Mortar. CenoPCM and with sealed CenoPCM
Having sealed CenoPCM was 42.86, 50.78 and 47.95,
mortar respectively - shell surface is
responsible for PCM absorption and
subsequent lowest strength of
mortar having unsealed CenoPCM
High performance m-PCM (max. Replacement (by wt%) of fck 16.39% decrease after 28 days with
[28]
cementitious composites particle size ~ 300 µm) silica sand with 5% ECC.
developed with hybrid m-PCM by 5%, 3%, 2% and K Between 0.90 and 1.1 W⸳m-1⸳K-1, an
fibers /Microencapsulation 1% increase in micro PCM shows very
little impact
cp Increases the thermal absorption
capacity by increasing the phase
transition enthalpy ranging from
(55-73 ◦ C)
Macro-PCM integrated Organic paraffin-filled Thermal performance PCM-equipped wall managed the [101]
hollow wall made of fired metallic steel macrocapsules thermal loads much better than
clay brick /Macro PCM-unequipped wall
encapsulation
LWA as PCM carrier Liquid PCM (paraffin) 5% by total vol. K With a total content of PCM i.e., 5% [85]
by vol. in mortars, the heat
conductivities of LWA mortars
impregnated with PCM are 10–20%
lower than those of control (water-
saturated) LWA mortars
LWA impregnated with PCM/ fck The PCM-containing LWA functions
Porous inclusion similarly to the water-containing
LWA since there is no leakage of
PCM from the LWA during heat
release and storage
DSC The vacuum-impregnated EP/ [102]
erythritol composite had 83% of
untreated erythritol’s latent heat
Cyclic stability test As heating and cooling cycles
increase, amount of accumulated
latent heat decreases (i.e., 334.3,
295.1 and 238.2 kJ⸳kg-1 for without
cycle, 1st, and 2nd cycle,
respectively).

fck : Compressive strength; ρ0 : Apparent density; K: Thermal conductivity; cp : Specific heat capacity; TGA: Thermogravimetry; DSC: Differential scanning calorimetry

thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, and thermal diffusivity due

to the unique thermophysical characteristics of PCMs. PCMs also help
prevent concrete from cracking due to temperature changes and
improve thermal energy storage. Many studies can be found in the
literature investigating the different aspects of PCM-CBCs [14,117,
95–97]. For instance, the thermal and mechanical properties of geo­
polymer mortar (GPM) containing m-PCM were assessed by Shadnia
et al. [98]. The employed material was Microtek m-PCM 28D, which has
a melting point of 28 oC and a latent heat of 180–195 J⸳g-1. Three
305 mm × 305 mm x 305 mm cubes were used to investigate the
effectiveness of PCM incorporated into a geopolymer wall for regulating
interior temperature. Findings showed that the thermal inertia of the
structure was significantly improved by employing GPM in the wall
construction. In this way, it became possible to effectively manage the
amount of energy used for cooling and heating of buildings [99]. The
specific heat capacity of various PCM-Geopolymer concrete (GPC)
investigated by [98,100] is depicted in Fig. 5. Gained heat during the
phase change of PCM led to an increase in the TES capacity between
21–28 ◦ C. The findings indicated that the TES capacity of GPC is affected
by the type and quantity of PCMs used. The heat capacity of GPC with
MF/PCM24 is greater than that of GPC with PMMA/PCM26. The heat
capacity of the GPM made with 20% PCM is also greater than that of the
Fig. 4. Maximum TES of different construction materials (18–26 ◦ C for the
material thickness of 10 mm and 24h of time), adapted from Sharma et al. [94]. sample made with 10% PCM. It is pertinent to mention that the TES of
GPC and GPM between 10–40 ◦ C is insignificant without any PCM. This
underlines the importance of the incorporation of PCM with CBCs for

8
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Fig. 5. Thermal heat capacity of GPC and with/without PCM as presented by Rao et al. [118], Wadee et al. [119] and reproduced here to illustrate the thermal
performance of GPC with PCM.

better thermal performance. have been reported in the literature with few exceptions by the incor­
The impact of PCM addition on the thermal conductivity of cemen­ poration of PCMs in CBCs.
titious composites and gypsum was investigated by several researchers.
Thermal conductivity of materials can be measured in a number of ways, 5.2. Physicomechanical characteristics
the most common of which fall into two broad categories: steady-state
and transient. The thermal conductivity of cementitious composites PCMs have a significant influence on the early-age and later-age
containing PCMs has been measured most frequently using the steady- characteristics of cement-based materials, irrespective of the method
state hot disk and guarded hot disk techniques [101]. Furthermore, through which they are incorporated. It is essentially important to assess
research has shown that m-PCM may deteriorate the thermal conduc­ the impact of PCM addition on fresh properties of cement-based mortars
tivity of concrete. Because PCM microcapsules (PCMm) have a lower to achieve optimized mix design and to lessen any unintended draw­
thermal conductivity than other materials [103], increasing the dose of backs on the mixing procedure and subsequent hardening properties.
PCMm has a higher effect on decreasing thermal conductivity. Lower PCM leakage from the composite (micro/macro) is a major factor
thermal conductivity was also seen when PCMm included in the affecting the workability of cement-based materials [122]. In most
cementitious matrix [102]. This was a result of the increased voids in the cases, the workability of cement-based mortars is significantly reduced
cement based composite matrix. However, the thermal conductivity of by the addition of m-PCM. In practical terms, the specific surface area is
concrete may not alter noticeably when treated with moderate con­ considerably increased due to the involvement of fin spherical-shaped
centrations of PCMm [52]. The inclusion of PCMs in building materials m-PCM particles decreasing the quantity of water needed for lubrica­
can significantly alter their specific heat capacity due to PCMs’ latent tion of CBCs system [123]. Furthermore, the water demand of the
heat capacity [103]. On a high concentration, the incorporation of PCMs cement-based mixture could rise due to water adsorption through the
in CBCs improves specific heat capacity, however, more rigorous hydrogen bonding of imino and hydroxyl groups and the
methods are required to accurately measure the specific heat capacity of water-absorbing characteristic of the polymeric shell of the microcap­
PCM-CBCs. Thermal diffusivity of (α) cement-based materials as defined sules [124,125]. The inclusion of m-PCM results in a considerable
below can also be affected by the incorporation of PCMs in CBCs. reduction in the amount of free water and a rise in the mix water
k requirement (⁓ 22%) in an effort to compensate for the loss of work­
α= (1) ability (Fig. 6) [77,126–129]. There is a substantial scarcity of infor­
ρcp
mation available in the literature regarding the c-PCM effect on
where, ρ, k and cp denote the density, thermal conductivity, and specific
heat capacity, respectively. 300
It is deduced from the literature that the thermal diffusivity will
decrease after PCMm has been incorporated into the mortar and con­ 250
crete. This is due to the fact that the incorporation of PCMm lowers the
200
thermal conductivity of the material and significantly increases its
Water (kg/m3)

specific heat capacity [103]. In addition, the incorporation of PCMs into

150
cementitious composites has a significant impact on the processes that
occur during the hydration of Portland cement and the geo­
100
polymerization of fly ash [52,120]. According to the research, the hy­
dration processes that take place in mortars with broken PCMm take 50
significantly longer to complete than those that take place in mortars
with intact PCMm. It was determined that PCM leakage and its interac­ 0
tion with the cementitious matrix components were to blame for this by mass of concrete by volume of concrete
delay in hydration kinetics [121]. Thus, it can be inferred that PCMs
Without PCM With 5% PCM
have a significant effect on thermal properties such as latent heat,
thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, thermal diffusivity, and Fig. 6. Impact of m-PCM on water requirement of concrete mix modified after
heat of hydration of CBCs. Generally, improved thermal characteristics Drissi et al. [39], Hunger et al. [131].

9
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Table 4
Mechanical performance of m-PCM-CBCs.
Replacement

Type of m-PCM Technique/Mixture m-PCM (%) Increase/decrease* (%) Logical reasoning Ref.

Wet cake Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/concrete 5 -9 m-PCM possessed a low [134]
10 -15 mechanical strength.
15 -17 With increasing m-PCM,
20 -26 the volume fraction of
cement dropped
m-LDPE-EVA-Rubitherm Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/concrete 3.2 -42 m-PCM exhibited low [135]
(RT27) Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/GPC 2.7 -51 mechanical strength,
increased porosity, and
weak contact between
m-PCM particles and
concrete
PCM-E Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/mortar 5 23 m-PCM particles were [90]
10 34 uniformly dispersed; no
15 23 actual damage was
20 8 detected due to the
coating of hydration
product along with
denser contact between
mortar and m-PCM
particles
PCM-M 5 -14 m-PCM particles had
10 -20 limited mechanical
155 -37 strength and hydration
20 -39 reaction was interfered
owing to leakage of
organic PCM. The
behavior of
agglomerated m-PCM
particles in the mortar
was like that of voids
Micronal DS 5040X, BASF Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/concrete 1 -33 m-PCM particles [97]
3 -63 demonstrated reduced
5 -69 strength than sand
Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/mortar 5 -38 particles while an
10 -14 increase in porosity.
20 ** -27 Although, the mix
35 -43 turned out to be more
55 -50 linear due to the high
volume of m-PCM
particles
m-PCM: shell composed of Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/air entrained lime mortar 20 ** -50 Porosity and water-to- [104]
melamine-formaldehyde 40 -75 binder ratio increased
for paraffin encapsulation 60 -90
Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/CEM II-mortar 20 ** -38
40 -57
60 -65
Addition
m-PCM/Flaky graphite doped Cement paste/Addition (wt% cement) 10 -28 m-PCM exhibits low [130]
20 -41 strength coupled with
25 -48 increased pores of
30 ** -58 samples
CA-LA (inorganic PCM) Concrete/addition (vol% concrete) 1 -20 m-PCM particles and [136]
2 -30 cement grains have a
CA-MA (inorganic PCM) 1 -13 poor interfacial
2 -28 connection. The
distribution of solid m-
PCM particles in the mix
was challenging. The
uneven void space in the
concrete was generated
by agglomerated m-PCM
particles
PEG/SiO2 (inorganic shell) Concrete/addition (wt% concrete) 1.5 -37 m-PCM exhibits low [137]
3 -50 compressive strength
4.5 -68 with low density
6 -71
7.5 ** -81
9 -84
12 -90
15 -93
18 -95
(continued on next page)

10
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Table 4 (continued )
Replacement

Type of m-PCM Technique/Mixture m-PCM (%) Increase/decrease* (%) Logical reasoning Ref.

m-PCM28 Mortar/addition (vol% mortar) 14.8 -50 Water absorption by m- [92]

22.1 -62 PCM particles was
29.3 -73 greater than that of
Concrete/addition (vol% concrete) 8.6 -44 others. After the
13 -61 capsules had been
25 -85 damaged, m-PCM began
to function as both a
fluid and a lubricant. In
terms of their effect on
the mix’s mechanical
strength, m-PCM
particles acted quite
similar to voids
m-PCM-graphite Concrete/addition (wt% concrete) 5 -26 m-PCM exhibits low [138]
10 -34 mechanical strength
15 -43 with an increase in pores
20 -49 size in cement mortar
and poor interfacial
connection between the
m-PCM particles and
concrete
Micronal DS 5008X Soaked lime-mortar/Addition of total solids (wt%) 10 -20 Mechanical strength [92]
20 7 increased: m-PCM
30 53 helped to improve pore
size distribution (the
pore size distribution)
CEM II-mortar/Addition of total solids (wt%) 10 -13 Decreased in mechanical
20 -24 strength with overall
30 -36 increase in porosity
Micronal DS 5001X, BASF Concrete/addition (wt% concrete) 3.2 -68 m-PCM incorporation [139]
method. An increase in
water content of the
mixture due to m-PCM
Wet cake Concrete/addition (wt% concrete) 5 -24 m-PCM particles exhibits [134]
10 -40 no strength.
15 -38 With increasing m-PCM,
20 -41 the volume portion of
cement dropped
Micronal DS 5038X Concrete/addition (vol% concrete) 1 -14 Hydration reaction [93]
3 ** -39 affected by leaked
5 -47 paraffin; m-PCM-mortar
produced less hydration
heat than ordinary
mortar. There was a
delay in cement
hydration
Micronal DS 5008X Concrete/addition (wt% concrete) 1 -30 Paraffin leakage [96]
3 ** -53 interfered with the
5 -71 hydration reaction
through impeding water
transport. The leaked
paraffin may form a
phase interface

* The signs (-) and (+) indicate a decrease and increase in mechanical strength of PCM-CBCs, respectively; ** best possible quantity of PCM

workability. Typically, c-PCM possesses a high affinity for water that composite matrix [103].
could trigger water demand for the cement-based mortar mix [130]. Healthy research data is available on the effect of PCM integration on
Furthermore, superplasticizer utilization is mainly intended to maintain the mechanical response of CBCs. A brief overview of the mechanical
all mixtures with constant workability (with and without PCM) dem­ performance of various types of PCM-CBCs is critically evaluated in
onstrates c-PCM effect on workability [105,106]. According to the Table 4 and Table 5 as per [39]. There is a consensus among published
aforementioned data, it appears that c-PCM and m-PCM represent research that the addition of PCMm is detrimental to the compressive
comparable effects on workability; thus, common techniques to strength of concrete with few exceptions. The possible causes of the
compensate for workability loss include the addition of a suitable decrease in concrete strength that contains PCMm are presented in Fig. 7
amount of superplasticizer and extra water. [73]. It has been reported that the intrinsic softness of PCMm is one of
As PCMm possesses relatively low density, the incorporation of PCMm the primary reasons for this behavior which does not provide a
into the mortar, portland cement and GPC generally decreases their considerable mechanical resistance [52,75,103,102,126]. Further, the
density [75,103,102,126]. For instance, concrete aggregates have a bulk incorporation of soft PCMs can improve the deformability and ductility
density considerably higher than Micronal DS5001 (bulk density of concrete and mortar [132]. This is because the soft PCMs act as a
ranging from 250–350 kg⸳m-3) [126]. In addition, composite density buffer, absorbing and dissipating energy during deformation and
becomes lower because PCMm normally gives rise to the porosity in the reducing the likelihood of cracking or failure [133].

11
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Table 5
Mechanical performance of c-PCM-CBCs.
Replacement

Type of c-PCM Technique/Mixture c-PCM (%) Increase/decrease* (%) Logical Ref.

reasoning

LWA/paraffin Replacement by coarse aggregate (wt%)/LWA concrete 50 7 The c-PCM [78]

100 13 coating
material was
high in
strength.
Incorporation
of silica fume
as a layer for
the material
that makes up
the coating
EP/paraffin Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/mortar 20 12 c-PCM shows [122]
40 33 low stiffness
60 53
80 70
DP/paraffin Replacement by cement (wt%) /Mortar 10 -26 – [121]
15 -29
20 -45
30 -48
Vermiculite/paraffin Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/mortar 50 -47 Compared to [84]
100 -56 sand, c-PCM
had lower
mechanical
strength
EP/paraffin EP/CaCl2-paraffin Replacement by fine aggregate (vol%)/ EP with GPM 30 1 c-PCM [107]
4 enhanced pore
structure while
decreasing
porosity
Addition
Process A: compressed air used for surface drying Addition of cement (vol%)/mortar 13.1 -29 Inadequate [74]
21.5 -41 interface
33.6 -53 between the c-
Process B: Surface oven dried 13.1 -26 PCM and the
21.5 -53 cement paste
33.6 -56
Paraffin/EP Addition of cement (wt%)/mortar 5 -23 Compared to [140]
10 -25 sand and
15 -41 cement, c-PCM
20 ** -43 exhibited less
30 -61 mechanical
strength
PCM28/LWA Addition of cement (vol%)/mortar 15.7 -25 In comparison [141]
22.6 -31 to sand, LWA
was
significantly
more porous
and had a
lower strength
n-octadecane/EG Addition of cement (wt%)/mortar 0.5 -32 – [120]
1.2 -41
1.7 -49
2.5 -56

*The signs (-) and (+) indicate a decrease and increase in mechanical strength of PCM-CBCs, respectively; ** best possible quantity of PCM

The intrinsic softness of PCMs can marginalize the strength and represents another factor influencing the compressive strength of con­
stiffness of the composite material. This is owing to the fact that soft crete [144,119,145]. PCM leakage can occur when the shell of the mi­
PCMs may not provide as much support or load-carrying capacity as the crocapsules is ruptured during concrete mixing/loading and tends to
surrounding stiff matrix, resulting in lower overall stiffness and strength hinder the ability of cement particles to make contact with water [98,
[142]. Moreover, the setting and hardening of the cementitious matrix 129]. PCM incorporation in concrete usually increases the porosity
could be affected due to the presence of PCMs, which also results in which is another potential reason for reduction in compressive strength
lower compressive strength and prolonged setting times [143]. Overall, [75,78,103,102,146,147]. For instance, this phenomenon was observed
the impact of the intrinsic softness of PCMs on the mechanical charac­ by [75,147] while evaluating the porosity of both GPC and Portland
teristics of cementitious composites is complex and depends on multiple cement-based mixtures through X-ray tomography imaging and mercury
factors, for instance, the amount and type of PCM, strength and stiffness intrusion porosimetry.
of the surrounding matrix and the testing methods [118]. More intensive There are several strategies that can be employed to ameliorate the
research is required to effectively comprehend these effects and opti­ reduced strength of concrete and mortar due to the inclusion of PCMs as
mize the application and design of PCM-CBCs. Similarly, PCM interferes per existing literature. One strategy is the optimization of the amount
with reactions that take place during the hydration of cement which and type of PCM used, which can prominently affect the mechanical

12
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

with each increase in the amount of PCM dosage [9,47,50–53]. Mainly,

the degree of strength reduction is dependent on the incorporation
method of PCM in concrete. Thus, the approach of directly incorporating
PCM into concrete is now considered to be antiquated. Research has
shown that the detrimental effect of PCM on concrete strength can be
mitigated by using PCM-filled porous aggregate with epoxy coating. This
prevents PCM from interacting directly with the concrete matrix,
increasing the strength of the concrete [54]. However, the usage of PCM
is effectively practiced in building components that primarily function
as heat storage devices (floor panels ceiling tiles, wallboard, etc.) and
marginal strength is usually required [55]. These building elements
perform the function of a non-structural component while satisfying the
requirement of minimum performance outlined by ASCE 7 [56]. It is also
essentially important for the building in the achievement of operational
Fig. 7. Criteria of strength reduction of PCMm incorporated concrete modified performance following an earthquake [74]. The entire operational ca­
after Marani et al. [73]. pacity of the building could be disturbed by the failure of non-structural
parts. The time and cost required to restore the structure are also critical
properties of the PCM-CBCs [46]. Another strategy is to upgrade the considerations. Considering this, the current issue lies in achieving
PCM morphology i.e., shape, size, and chemical composition to improve seismic certification for non-structural components that incorporate
its interaction with the surrounding matrix [148]. Furthermore, the PCM.
addition of reinforcing fibers, using chemical admixtures, and opti­ Microstructure also provides a deep insight into the mechanical
mizing curing conditions can improve the strength of the composite response of PCM-CBCs. For instance, many studies have reported that
material [149]. Eventually, optimizing the benefits and shortcomings of PCMs are well integrated within the micro matrix of CBCs posing a good
PCM incorporation in cement-based materials is a key to control the bonding between PCM and cement-based binders [153,135,154]. On the
strength and durability of PCM-CBCs. other hand, the microstructural analysis of broken PCM-CBCs specimens
According to findings from most recent research, the type of shell after applying excessive unconfined compressive load manifests that
material used for PCMm has the potential to significantly influence PCMs possess low stiffness and shear strength based on their micro
concrete strength [75,150]. Liu et al. [150] observed that microcapsules failure mechanisms [98]. In addition, for porous CBCs, microstructure
that are fortified with silica sol and manufactured using ceno-spheres analysis shows that a good absorption of PCM in micropores of CBCs
could have the potential to significantly recover the strength loss tends to help in improving pore structure, strength and porosity [84].
induced by conventional PCMm. Literature manifests the reduction of Thus, integration of PCM with CBCs has a noticeable impact on the
modulus of elasticity by the addition of PCMm into cementitious mate­ microstructure of CBCs which governs their physicomechanical
rials (i.e., concrete, cement mortars) [151,139,152]. In this regard, response.
Haurie et al. [102] examined the PCMs based cement mortars for elastic Moreover, to further understand the impact of PCM integration on
modulus through different methods i.e., ultrasonic wave propagation the mechanical response of CBCs, the effect of PCM on the hydration
and fundamental resonance frequency. The findings confirmed the reaction of cement is indispensable to gauge. PCMs are generally inte­
reduction in modulus of elasticity due to the known effect of PCM grated with CBCs to absorb heat thus, it is very likely that it absorbs heat
incorporation in cementitious materials. Moreover, several research from the hydration process. This property of PCM is advocated by many
studies have indicated that the strength of concrete begins to decrease researchers to control the early-age temperature rise of structures due to
the heat of hydration of cement. Different researchers have measured
the impact of PCM on heat of hydration by using non-isothermal and
isothermal calorimetry. The outcomes of these studies demonstrate that
the overall temperature of CBCs is reduced by PCM due to its heat ab­
sorption capacity. For instance, Kim et al. [155] reported a decrease in
the temperature of concrete by 3 oC by incorporation of m-PCM with
different cementing binders i.e., slag, fly ash and OPC. Apart from heat
absorption during the hydration process, PCM also controls the peak
hydration temperature and delays the hydration process. Many re­
searchers e.g., [78,156–158] reported a decrease of almost 5 oC in peak
hydration temperature and a delay of up to 60 min to reach peak hy­
dration temperature. Similar results are reported by Šavija et al. [159] in
a numerical study wherein they analyzed that such a decrease and delay
in peak hydration reduces the thermal cracking. It is quite obvious that
reduction and delay in peak hydration temperature minimize the
stresses caused by the thermal effect of the hydration process within the
concrete matrix. Various studies have also reported the impact of
different types of PCMs (i.e., m-PCM and c-PCM) on different types of
cement mortars. It was observed that the reduction and delay in peak
hydration temperature is roughly two times that of concrete in mortars
due to the incorporation of PCM [40,160–162]. Thus, PCM has a sig­
nificant effect on the evolution of heat of hydration of cement and its
consequences (thermal cracking and excessive heat release) on CBCs.

Fig. 8. Stress development of PCM incorporated cement and quartz paste after
curing of 7-days as presented by Wei et al. [143] and reproduced here to
illustrate the mechanical performance of PCM-CBC.

13
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

5.3. Durability m-PCM on reinforcement corrosion. However, there is a scarcity of

research on the coupling effect of m-PCM and reinforcement on the
The durability of cement-based composites is important to determine durability of PCM-CBCs.
from a long-term serviceability point of view. In order to make PCM-
CBCs more sustainable and resilient their durability characteristics are 5.4. Sustainability in terms of energy efficiency
needed to be well investigated; however, little research has been con­
ducted on the durability of PCM-CBCs. Regardless of the incorporation The fundamental goal of PCMs incorporation into mortar and GPC is
method, the primary goal of using PCMs in cement-based composites is to create a material that is both sustainable and energy efficient [131,
to increase durability and sustainability [23]. Recent research has 170]. Previous research suggested that PCM integrated GPC could
centered on finding ways to prevent cracks formation at an early and minimize energy consumption in buildings [129,171,172]. In
later age and minimizing the damage caused by freeze/thaw cycles real-time/actual conditions, higher cost and more time is required for
[143,163]. Cementitious mortars with m-PCMs have been investigated experimental measurement of the reduction in energy. Therefore, nu­
for durability by [163]. The PCMm were utilized namely Microtek merical simulation is an alternative strategy that may be utilized to
m-PCM (43D, 24D, 6D) and Micronal DS 5008X. After the addition of forecast energy consumption in a variety of scenarios [173]. In the past,
m-PCM to cement mortar, the stability of the phase change enthalpy was numerical methods have been developed by various researchers to
initially investigated, and it was discovered that there was a 25% drop in model energy consumption in response to changes in temperatures
the phase transition enthalpy. In this case, the reduction was primarily (indoor and outdoor) [174,175]. In addition, a number of studies
caused due to chemical interactions of PCMm with sulphate ions rather assessed the thermal efficiency of PCMs integrated materials by devel­
than mechanical damage to these PCMm during mixing. Results revealed oping different numerical methods [176–180]. For instance, Cao et al.
that PCMm are responsible for lowering the phase transition enthalpy as [129] investigated the GPC containing PCM and exposed one face of
a result of chemical interactions with the sulfate-laden environment of specimens to a heating/cooling cycle while the outdoor temperature was
cement-based mortars; the findings of this investigation confirmed that kept between 23–20–32–20 ◦ C. The indoor temperature for the other
they do not substantially impact the mortar durability [163]. In addi­ side was maintained at 23 ◦ C. The following equation was utilized in
tion, such studies highlighted the significant role of microcapsules in order to compute the overall energy consumption for the specimens.
maintaining the durability of cement-based composites. Furthermore,
PCMm must be intact and should not experience any damage for the ∫t2
whole lifespan of the host material in order to achieve sufficient sus­ |Øindoor |dt
tainability and durability [97,117]. Thus, it is possible that both Q=
t1
(2)
chemical and mechanical factors may contribute to the rupture and 3600.103
deformation of the microcapsule shells, which subsequently led to the Energy savings for heating and cooling purposes were observed up to
leakage of the PCM core. Tests related to drying shrinkage, water ab­ 15% for the GPC incorporating 2.7% m-PCM. Furthermore, they
sorption and durability demonstrated that cement mortars incorporating discovered that the reduction in energy usage for standard concrete that
PCM capsules exhibited no detrimental effect on durability in contrast to contains 3.2% m-PCM is around 11% when compared to concrete mixes
the susceptibility of PCMm in the sulphate-laden environment of that do not contain m-PCM. They also concluded that the increased
cementitious paste [73,163]. porosities resulted from the addition of m-PCMs could be responsible for
In relation to the long-term behavior of cement based composite more decline in the GPC samples in comparison to the Portland cement
materials shrinkage has received considerable attention. It has been samples. In a different study, Cao et al. [100] examined the energy
revealed that shrinkage deformation is predicted to rise with the consumption and amount of heat transmission through PCM integrated
incorporation of compliant inclusions (i.e., PCMm) in comparison with GPC by using a small chamber. The sinusoidal outdoor temperature was
stiff inclusions i.e., quartz sand [164]. Studies manifested that the drying calculated while fixing the indoor temperature at 23 ◦ C as follows:
shrinkage of cement mortar containing quartz sand is lower than that of
cement mortar incorporating the same volume of PCMm [14]. This is due Tmax + Tmin Tmax − Tmin π 2π
Toutdoor (t) = + sin t− (3)
to the fact that PCMm play a role similar to air voids (pertaining to 2 2 43200 3
shrinkage) in the surrounding environment and do not prevent cement Tmin and Tmax denote 10 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C, respectively.
paste shrinkage [163]. Therefore, the cement paste response governs the They also demonstrated that the samples with more m-PCMs were
degree of shrinkage [14,143,165,166]. Generally, there is no difference able to maintain an indoor temperature very near to the human comfort
in the shrinkage mechanism of plain cement mortars and PCMs level (i.e., 23 ◦ C) while consuming less energy than the samples that did
microcapsules-based cement pastes [167]. Based on this finding, PCM not contain m-PCMs. In addition, the numerical method was utilized in
incorporation reduces the material’s strength, and it is anticipated that order to conduct the heat transfer analysis of the walls [181]. According
PCM-CBCs are more prone to controlled shrinkage cracking. It has been to the findings, there exists a good agreement between experimental
demonstrated that these mortars are more robust (i.e., that cracking measurements and numerical simulation. It was observed that energy
develops at a later age) than their equivalent quartz sand counterparts consumption can be cut by as much as 35% when utilizing 75 mm of
(Fig. 8) [143]. It has been mainly attributed to deflection and cracking GPC incorporating m-PCM up to 5.2 wt%. As a result, the use of these
blunting produced by soft PCM inclusions and to a lower extent to building materials holds great potential for enhancing human comfort
increased stress relaxation [143]. Limited research has been conducted while simultaneously lowering overall building energy consumption. In
on the transport-related characteristics of PCM-CBCs. Wei et al. [163] another study, Cao et al. [182] observed that incorporation of m-PCM in
found that the inclusion of PCMm decreases the material’s water uptake. GPC for walls can reduce energy demand by 32%.
Because the microcapsules do not have any pores, they function only as According to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Report 2021
inclusions within the cement matrix, which causes the matrix to become [183], the annual improvement rate of energy efficiency was 2% from
more tortuous and consequently slows down water transport. In fact, 2010 to 2018. To achieve the goals that have been set for the period from
this kind of behavior has been noticed in concrete as well [168,134, 2018 to 2030, an improvement rate of 3% in energy efficiency is
136–138]. It is anticipated that the addition of solid inclusions has a required. The importance of making major efforts to ensure the safety
similar effect on other transport properties e.g., chloride transport, and wider acceptability of modern forms of renewable energy, particu­
although this has not been thoroughly investigated [140,141]. Cellat larly in the area of the building energy sector has also been emphasized
et al. [169] investigated the corrosion of reinforcement due to the in the report as well. When compared to the statistics from 2010, the
incorporation of PCMs and observed that there is no influence of eutectic percentage of energy that comes from renewable sources has increased

14
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Fig. 9. Comparison of (a) ITDover in ordinary cement board and PCM-cement

board test huts, and (b) FTDover in ordinary cement board and PCM-cement
board test huts as presented by Ramakrishnan et al. [188] and reproduced
here to illustrate the performance of PCM-CBC.

by 4.27% in 2018. At the moment, fossil fuels are the primary source of
electricity that is utilized for building heating and cooling. In contrast,
the PCM in combination with CBCs makes use of renewable energy
within buildings for both cooling and heating purposes, thereby
reducing the amount of electricity that is primarily based on fossil fuels
consumption. The strategy to unearth a link between UN SDGs and the
outcomes of using PCM integrated building materials is yet to be
established. The direct assessment of the decline in electricity con­
Fig. 10. Temporal thermal performance for different building refurbishments:
sumption generated by fossil fuels after employing PCM based products (a) indoor operative temperature and (b) inner surface temperature of the west
in a building as part of the field projects will encourage engineers, wall as presented by Ramakrishnan et al. [189] and reproduced here to illus­
policymakers, and society as a whole. The evaluation of the results of trate the performance of PCM-CBC.
PCM integrated construction materials will enable design engineers and
architects for precise measurements and visualization of the contribu­ waste byproducts as a partial replacement of cement and control leakage
tion related to their material selection and building design in fulfillment issue of CBCs [184]. Further, quarry dust, construction and demolition
of UN SDGs. As the world moves closer to 2030, incorporating PCM into waste, waste-based lightweight aggregate, incinerator ash, fly biomass
building materials not only coincides with the UN SDGs but also bottom ash, agricultural waste and many others could be used as
significantly contributes to the global effort to battle climate change. aggregate material in PCM-CBCs to promote resource conservation and
The most recent developments highlight the importance of reshaping recycling [185]. In addition, another novel aspect in promoting a cir­
energy consumption patterns and propelling sustainable growth. cular economy in PCM-CBCs is the utilization of waste-based PCMs such
as non-edible plant oil, waste edible oil, animal fat and food waste
5.5. Resource conservation and recycling emulsions [8]. Vast research is underway to enhance the performance of
waste-based PCMs and their application with different construction
Apart from sustainable energy efficiency, indoor thermal comfort, materials i.e., CBCs. Although there is considerable proof in the litera­
high thermal performance and energy storage, PCM-CBCs can also ture concerning the practicability of these waste-based PCMs, further
promote circular economy and resource conservation. In this domain, research is still required. Lack of knowledge about the thermal, ther­
many researchers have utilized waste-based materials within PCM- modynamic and mechanical properties and the inconsistency of the
CBCs. The waste materials can majorly be recycled in PCM-CBCs by composition of waste materials is the main problem when waste mate­
taking them as a constituent of cementing admixture. In this area, many rial is employed in various PCM-CBCs. Because of these obstacles, the
researchers have used supplementary cementitious materials such as fly use of waste materials as a component of PCM-CBCs is constrained; more
ash, silica fume, and blast furnace slag, etc. which mainly are industrial research into their physicochemical and thermal properties is required

15
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

exposure period to excessive heat measured using FTDover. As was the

case with both GPB and FSPCM-CB, the reduction in FTDover after
refurbishment with FSPCM-CM was insignificant compared with the
OCPB test hut.
In another study, Ramakrishnan et al. [189] investigated the impact
of thermal stimulation on cementitious material containing FSPCM
designed to be used as surface mortars for the interior of building walls.
The composite PCM was engineered from paraffin/hydrophobic
expanded perlite with subsequent incorporation in cementitious com­
posites (i.e., 80% replacement by volume of fine aggregate). A test cell
prototype built from PCM incorporated cement boards has been used to
experimentally assess the thermal performance of PCM integrated
cementitious composites. These test cells were analyzed under realistic
temperature cycles and two reference prototypes were made of GPB and
OCPB. In comparison to the test cell with GPB, the PCM incorporated
Fig. 11. Indoor center temperature (ICT)-time variations of the control and test cement board prototype lowered indoor peak temperature by as much as
chambers as presented by [44] and reproduced here to illustrate the perfor­ 4.43 ◦ C and 2.8 ◦ C on summer design and typical summer days,
mance of PCM-CBC. respectively. During nighttime, PCM application to the interior surfaces
exhibits restricted cold storage capacity. Nevertheless, the imple­
[186]. In practice, there is a significant potential for making use of waste mentation of night ventilation can augment the cold storage potential of
byproducts from a variety of industries in PCM-CBCs; hence, it can PCM. The combined integration of PCM incorporated cement boards and
potentially be seen as an environmentally friendly solution to the night ventilation resulted in a notable reduction in peak indoor opera­
problem of waste management. Considering the resources conservation, tive temperature i.e., 3.4 ◦ C. In comparison, the use of PCM-cement
recycling, waste management and circular economy, literature identifies board alone in building refurbishment resulted in a lower reduction of
the following areas: the characterization of more waste material for use 2.5 ◦ C. Fig. 10a and Fig. 10b illustrate the enhanced thermal perfor­
in PCM-CBCs; assessment of thermal and mechanical performance of mance of a renovated building quantified through the measurement of
waste based PCM-CBCs; mitigation and assessment of hazardous impacts convective heat gain rate on the interior surface or indoor operative
of waste byproducts in PCM-CBCs; life cycle assessment and durability of temperature (IOT). A comparison was made between a conventional
waste-based PCM-CBCs [187]. plasterboard and a PCM-cement board. On some days, the PCM refur­
bishment had a significant effect on reducing IOT. However, on other
6. Thermal regulation performance of PCM-CBCs days the impact was insignificant. During the second and third days of
the observation period, the impact of PCM-based refurbishment was
Innovative buildings are increasingly turning to TES systems that non-existent primarily attributed to the lower solar radiation levels
incorporate PCMs as passive thermal regulators to improve energy ef­ and/or outdoor air temperature experienced on these specific days.
ficiency in a sustainable manner while offering an effective strategy to Consequently, the insufficient thermal energy transfer to the PCM layer
maintain indoor thermal comfort. The incorporation of PCM into mor­ during those particular days resulted in the underutilization of its latent
tars modifies their mechanical and physical characteristics while heat capacity.
simultaneously enhancing their thermal properties. Ramakrishnan et al. Sarı et al. [44] also studied a cost-effective supporting material (i.e.,
[188] studied the feasibility of employing form stable PCM incorporated pumice) to produce energy-efficient composites with enhanced leak­
cement mortar (FSPCM-CM) to minimize overheating and enhance proof characteristics. These composites incorporated capric acid (CA)
summer thermal comfort in building envelopes. In a full-scale test hut, and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as PCMs. Additionally, the developed
the FSPCM-CM was used as an interior surface-plastering mortar and leakproof composites were combined with OC to create innovative
compared with identical test huts built using gypsum plasterboard (GPB) plaster with TES capabilities enabling effective thermoregulation in
and ordinary cement plasterboard (OCPB). These test huts were exposed buildings. The laboratory test revealed that cubic chambers individually
to outdoor climate conditions throughout the summer. The aim was to plastered using pumice/PEG/OC and pumice/CA/OC were able to
assess the impact of incorporating PCM on reducing overheating. To maintain indoor temperatures within a reasonable range compared to a
analyze the effects of PCM, parameters such as the frequency of thermal control room plastered only with OC mortar (Fig. 11).
discomfort (FTDover) and the intensity of thermal discomfort (ITDover) In order to enhance thermal regulation in buildings, Gencel et al.
were continuously monitored and measured. This enabled a thorough [190] developed an innovative cement mortar by incorporating a
assessment of the PCM’s performance in reducing thermal discomfort form-stable composite comprising of (bottom ash) BA/Capric-Stearic
brought on by excessive heat. It was found that FSPCM-CM can reduce (C-S) acid eutectic mixture. The inclusion of composite PCM showed
the peak indoor temperature up to 2.4 oC compared with GPB and OCB. potential for energy savings and reduction in carbon emissions in
The analysis of the overheating effect revealed that FS-PCM reduces buildings paving the way for the development of mortars, concretes,
FTDover at low levels of intensive thermal discomfort. The reduction of bricks and energy-efficient panels for temperature regulation in indoor
ITDover became dominant with increasing thermal discomfort intensity. environments. Thermally enhanced energy storage mortar panels
There was no noticeable decrease in the intensity or duration of (200 × 200 × 20 mm) were fabricated for lab-scale thermoregulation
discomfort at extremely high thermal discomfort levels. Fig. 9 shows the performance evaluation through a specially designed testing setup that
results of FSPCM-CM in reducing the overheating effects measured using includes data logger, experiment and reference places, thermocouples
ITDover and FTDover in the testing hut. The reduction of daily ITDover and heating bulbs. The difference in peak temperature at the inner
after replacing OCB with FSPCM-CM is plotted in Fig. 9a. This reduction surface of reference (35.10 oC) and thermally enhanced mortar
was smaller than that against the GPB test hut. For instance, FSPCM-CM (31.70 oC) after 78 min of heating period was found to be 3.4 oC. The
test hut experienced a reduction of ITDover by as much as 14% on days energy storage mortar and reference mortar panel exhibited a peak
with higher temperatures i.e., the third and sixth days. This behavior is temperature of 19.03 ◦ C and 20.20 ◦ C at the inner surface, respectively
due to the lower thermal capacity GPB in comparison with OCPB. after 62 min of cooling period. In addition, the indoor temperature of
FSPCM-CM performance improvement was also reduced (~ 3.5%) on test rooms made with both reference mortar and thermally enhanced
extremely hot days (i.e., fourth day). In contrast, Fig. 9b shows the mortar were observed for the heating period (30.20 oC and 27.40 oC)

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M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

and cooling period (17.15 oC and 16.30 oC). The findings clearly associated costs for a small test cell. This test cell was coated with
demonstrate that the novel energy storage mortar efficiently mitigates various mortars each based on different binders and activated with
indoor temperature fluctuations by utilizing its latent heat storage and m-PCMs. The study focused on examining the impacts of PCM utilization
release characteristics. The ability of the mortar to retain and release on energy requirements in a specific location situated in northern
heat aids in the building’s improved energy management. Thus, it may Portugal during spring and autumn months. The findings of this study
be possible to reduce the dependency on mechanical cooling and heating revealed a significant reduction in heating and cooling demands when
systems which might save energy and lead to a more environmentally PCM-CBCs were employed. Moreover, the results indicated a note­
friendly method of maintaining indoor thermal comfort. worthy cost reduction (i.e., > 52%) across all binders that were exam­
ined. These outcomes also highlight the cost-effective benefits of
7. Economic analysis of PCMs integrated building solutions PCM-CBCs. Such incorporation not only enables a reduction in energy
consumption but also yields significant cost savings, especially in re­
The economic evaluation of thermal storage technology specifically gions that experience seasonal temperature variations. In addition, the
focusing on PCMs is now in its early phases of development. This is aforementioned investigation offers significant contributions to
ascribed to the inherent complexity resulting from the wide-ranging comprehend the potential benefits of incorporating PCMs into CBCs. It
external temperature patterns and the different array of construction presents a more viable and cost-effective approach for improving energy
methods utilized for PCM integration. Variability results not just from efficiency in construction applications.
the selection of a particular PCM but also from factors e.g., the quantity M’hamdi et al. [193] analyzed the impact of employing various types
of PCM, the technique used for its integration and its placement within of PCMs in different categories of buildings situated across three
the structural configuration. Consequently, the existing corpus of liter­ different climatic regions in North Africa. This study encompassed both
ature pertaining to cost analysis in this specific field is comparatively economic and environmental analyses with the aim of evaluating the
limited in comparison to the considerable research efforts focused on multidimensional effects of PCM integration. The findings revealed that
assessing PCM-infused solutions in relation to their thermal, physical the PCMs incorporation resulted in notable advantages. Specifically, it
and mechanical characteristics. A thorough investigation is required to was found that PCM application led to a noteworthy 10% reduction in
fully understand the complex interaction of several aspects that impact energy-related costs with a drop in CO2 emissions amounting to
the cost analysis of PCMs-TES. Factors like variations in external tem­ 707 kg/year. These findings demonstrate the potential of PCM tech­
perature and the complex integration methods used for PCMs provide nology as a viable approach to improve both environmental sustain­
significant variability to economic evaluations. The primary emphasis of ability and economic efficiency in building operations. It also highlights
researchers has been on conducting empirical tests to evaluate the the potential of PCMs’ contribution to energy cost savings and the
performance of different additive solutions for PCMs in terms of phys­ mitigation of CO2 emissions presenting a persuasive argument for their
ical, mechanical, and thermal properties. The focus on experimentation incorporation in the construction sector. The influence of PCM in the
has made a substantial contribution to the comprehension of the oper­ Mediterranean region was studied by Panayiotou et al. [194]. The
ational mechanisms of PCM-infused systems. However, it also highlights findings revealed a range of energy savings between 21.7% and 28.6%
the urgent need for more research on the financial consequences asso­ attributable to PCM integration. Importantly, PCM integration in
ciated with the implementation of these technologies. As the area of conjunction with a common arrangement of thermal insulation resulted
study continues to advance, it is expected that a more comprehensive in substantial energy savings reaching 66.2%. Furthermore, LCCA was
framework for economic analysis will be established that will be aimed performed to evaluate the economic viability. The results indicated that
to provide useful insights into the practicality and financial sustain­ the PCM-based solution exhibited a payback period of 14.5 years. This
ability of PCMs-TES. duration represents the amount of time necessary for the cumulative
Gholamibozanjani and Farid [191] conducted an experiment cost savings to equal or exceed the initial investment. In contrast, the
involving the construction of two identical test cells each with external combined solution involving PCMs and conventional thermal insulation
dimensions measuring 2.7m × 2.7m × 2.7 m. In one of these test cells, exhibited a notably reduced payback period of 7.5 years.
an air-PCM heat storage unit (constituting an active TES system) was The field of economic analysis in this particular domain has received
installed while in the other test cell, PCM was incorporated into the limited attention and there is a scarcity of studies dedicated to this
wallboards (creating a passive TES system). The results of this study specific aspect [192,195–198]. Mi et al. [198] conducted one of the only
revealed that the test cell equipped with the air-PCM heat storage unit studies to utilize the concept of dynamic payback period. The afore­
exhibited several advantages. Notably, it consumed less energy led to mentioned dynamic approach incorporates critical financial concepts i.
cost savings and maintained a more comfortable indoor environment. e., time value of money. The authors made a systematic analysis in
However, it is noteworthy that the reduction in operational costs was which they compared the values of the dynamic payback period with the
not directly proportional to the decrease in energy consumption. Spe­ more conventional static payback period calculations using different
cifically, on the selected day under analysis, a 20% reduction in energy discount rate scenarios. This novel methodology provides insight into
consumption corresponded to a 32% reduction in cost. Additionally, the the intricate financial considerations that are taken into account when
study findings demonstrated that the active thermal storage system evaluating the viability of particular investments, therefore making a
involving the air-PCM heat storage unit outperformed the passive significant addition to the comprehension of economic aspects within
thermal storage system in terms of energy efficiency and overall effec­ this area of research. The cost-effectiveness of PCMs integrated con­
tiveness. This study highlights the advantages of active TES systems in struction solutions is significantly influenced by the prevailing inflation
improving energy efficiency and reducing costs in building environ­ and discount rates. Thus, PCMs-infused solutions tend to demonstrate
ments when compared to their passive counterparts. Moreover, it enhanced economic viability in the context of increasing inflation rates
highlights the non-linear correlation between the reduction in energy and decreasing discount rates [195].
consumption and the resulting cost savings. Thus, it indicates the need
for a more precise comprehension of these dynamics within the context 8. Environmental aspects of PCM-CBCs in construction
of TES systems. The aforementioned results provide significant insights
that may be used to enhance the optimization of thermal storage tech­ In recent years, the demand for resource conservation and sustain­
niques in building design and construction. Consequently, these findings able construction practices has led to an increase in interest in devel­
contribute to the development of sustainable and economically efficient oping PCM-CBCs [9,152,199]. This novel approach not only improves
construction practices. the building’s thermal performance but also yields substantial envi­
Cunha et al. [192] assessed the monthly energy consumption and ronmental benefits [200]. Therefore, it is vitally important to explore

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M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

Fig. 12. Visualizing the network of co-occurring keywords from the compiled literature using an overlay approach.

the environmental aspects of PCMs incorporation in cementitious ma­ industry to embrace more sustainable practices that align with the
terials and its role in promoting resource conservation. The rapid ur­ broader objectives of resource conservation. Moreover, the integration
banization of the world has become a serious matter of concern of PCMs in the building sector can lead to a decrease in energy con­
regarding the environmental implications associated with construction sumption which in turn can have an indirect positive impact on resource
materials. Cement, an essential component in the construction sector, is conservation by alleviating the burden on energy infrastructure [206,
widely recognized for its significant energy consumption and carbon 207]. A decline in energy demand can result in reduced pressure on
emissions during the manufacturing process [201]. The Global Cement power plants, hence decreasing the necessity for energy generation that
and Concrete Association (GCCA) states that the production of cement requires significant resources [208]. The aforementioned phenomenon
contributes to around 7% of worldwide CO2 emissions [202]. This can potentially lead to a cascading effect in the context of resource
concerning number highlights the urgent need to identify and imple­ conservation as it results in a reduction in the need for fossil fuels, water,
ment sustainable solutions within the construction industry. The and primary materials utilized in energy generation. An additional
incorporation of PCMs into CBCs offers a range of environmental ben­ aspect of resource conservation in the inclusion of PCMs in CBCs per­
efits. The implementation of this strategy aids in the reduction of energy tains to the potential for recycling and reusing PCM materials
demand associated with heating and cooling processes which account [209–211]. With the advancement of technology, there has been an
for a significant proportion of a building’s overall energy consumption increasing inclination towards the recycling of PCMs extracted from
[203]. The utilization of PCM-CBCs in regulating indoor temperatures demolished buildings or their utilization in new construction projects.
plays a significant role in enhancing the energy efficiency of building Not only does this practice result in waste reduction, but it also con­
envelopes. This, in turn, leads to a reduction in the reliance on me­ tributes to the conservation of resources that would otherwise be allo­
chanical heating and cooling systems that are powered by fossil fuels or cated to the production of new PCMs [212,213].
electricity. Consequently, this leads to a decrease in CO2 emissions and a The practice of PCMs is in accordance with the fundamental princi­
reduced environmental impact linked to energy generation. Further, the ples of the circular economy which aims to maximize the utilization of
integration of PCM has been found to extend the lifespan of buildings. materials and minimize the reliance on new resources. By recycling
PCMs play a crucial role in mitigating the adverse effects of cracking PCMs, the lifespan of these materials is extended, hence reducing the
induced by thermal stress on building materials while effectively man­ demand for virgin resources. In addition, the integration of PCMs has the
aging temperature fluctuations [14,73,204]. potential to enhance the thermal efficiency of existing buildings, hence
Similarly, the integration of PCMs into cementitious materials can mitigating the necessity for energy-intensive renovations or de­
make a valuable contribution towards resource conservation by facili­ molitions. By implementing the integration of PCMs-enhanced materials
tating the utilization of sustainable and recycled materials [205]. Sus­ into existing structures, the construction industry has the potential to
tainable building practices place emphasis on the use of materials that extend the lifespan of these buildings while concurrently mitigating the
possess minimal environmental impact e.g., recycled aggregates, fly ash, environmental impacts linked to the development of new ones. This
and slag in cement production. The adoption of PCM technology in the method is in accordance with the objectives of sustainable development
construction industry has the potential to provide incentives for the goals and resource conservation initiatives as it aims to optimize the

18
M.F. Junaid et al. Construction and Building Materials 416 (2024) 135108

utilization of existing infrastructure and renewable energy resources. In conducted, with the co-occurrence threshold set at 5 (refer to Fig. 12).
summary, the integration of PCMs into cement-based materials is a The findings of this analysis revealed that the primary areas of inquiry
prospective approach to tackle the environmental issues linked to the center around PCM types, integration methods, building applications,
building sector. This new technology makes a substantial contribution to microstructural analysis, as well as the thermal and mechanical prop­
resource conservation and sustainable construction through the reduc­ erties of PCM-CBCs. Significantly, a discernible emerging trend in
tion of energy consumption, extension of building lifespans, promotion research is observed, emphasizing considerations of environmental and
of sustainable practices, and facilitation of resource recycling. The socioeconomic factors, as underscored by the significant inclusion of
integration of PCMs is expected to have a significant impact on the keywords such as climate and waste in recent publications.
construction industry’s transition towards more environmentally Future research directions become important areas of focus in the
conscious practices ultimately leading to the development of a more changing landscape of integrating PCMs with CBCs. Firstly, the opti­
sustainable built environment. mization of PCM selection and composition represents a fundamental
task necessitating a comprehensive exploration of diverse PCM types
9. Discussion on research perspectives encompassing organic, inorganic, and eutectic mixtures to carefully
tailor their performance characteristics according to specific applica­
The integration of PCMs into CBCs represents a significant tions. Secondly, the development of PCM-enhanced construction sys­
advancement with far-reaching implications in the field of construction tems encompassing structural elements, HVAC systems and smart
and environmental sustainability. Cement-based composite materials, control strategies is essential for the holistic integration of PCM-CBCs
including mortar, concrete, and wallboards, have gained prominence in into building environments aimed at maximizing energy efficiency
various construction applications. PCM integration with these materials and thermal comfort. Moreover, the application of comprehensive LCA
has been instrumental in enhancing indoor thermal comfort and is pivotal in comprehending the environmental impact of PCM-CBCs
expanding the storage capacity of TES systems. Recent research has across their entire life cycle accounting for factors like production,
demonstrated the positive impact of PCM integration into cement-based usage, and disposal. In parallel, research efforts must address the scal­
mortars improving their thermal characteristics. Various methods of ability and cost-effectiveness of PCM-CBCs by standardizing
incorporating PCMs into cement-based mortars have been explored, manufacturing processes and optimizing PCM encapsulation techniques,
with promising results observed suggesting a wide range of PCM options thereby encouraging broader market adoption. The long-term perfor­
for integration into CBCs for diverse TES applications. Furthermore, mance and durability of PCM-CBCs under diverse environmental con­
physical model studies have been conducted to assess the real-scale ditions require sustained investigation to ensure their robust integration
performance of PCM- CBCs recently gaining more attention of re­ into construction projects. Collaboration between researchers and pol­
searchers. The growing demand for resource conservation and sustain­ icymakers is crucial in establishing guidelines, standards, and in­
able construction practices has enhanced interest in PCM-CBCs. PCM centives, thereby promoting the adoption of PCM-CBCs as a sustainable
integration has been found to extend the lifespan of buildings by miti­ construction practice. Finally, interdisciplinary collaboration across
gating the effects of thermal stress-induced cracking on building mate­ materials science, architecture, engineering and environmental science
rials and effectively managing temperature fluctuations. Moreover, PCM is required to effectively manage the multifaceted challenges and po­
integration facilitates the utilization of sustainable and recycled mate­ tential in PCM-CBC development. These research directions have the
rials in construction. The recycling and reuse of PCM materials from potential to greatly develop PCM-CBCs while fitting with the primary
demolished buildings or their utilization in new construction projects objectives of resource conservation and sustainability within the con­
significantly contribute to waste reduction and resource conservation. struction sector.
Hence, the integration of PCMs into cement-based materials presents a
promising approach to addressing environmental challenges in the 10. Summary
construction sector. Recent advancements in the integration of PCMs
into CBCs can lead to sustainable construction. These innovations are The integration of thermal energy storage systems within building
significantly enhancing energy efficiency by regulating indoor temper­ envelopes is fundamental to the widespread adoption of renewable en­
atures, reducing reliance on energy-intensive heating and cooling sys­ ergy sources in the construction industry and there is a need to improve
tems. Building serviceability is also extended as PCMs mitigate thermal the thermal performance of construction materials. PCMs are commonly
stress-induced structural damage limiting the need for costly renova­ employed in this context due to their distinctive ability to absorb and
tions. Resource conservation is considered of prime importance with release thermal energy through phase transitions induced by tempera­
recent research focusing on incorporating sustainable materials and ture fluctuations. Therefore, the integration of PCMs into building en­
recycling PCMs from demolished buildings. This approach aligns with velopes presents a compelling opportunity to enhance the overall energy
circular economy principles minimizing waste and conserving re­ efficiency of the construction industry. CBCs are commonly employed in
sources. Furthermore, these advancements may contribute to reducing various construction applications playing a vital role as an essential
carbon emissions which is critical in the context of climate change structural component. To optimize the advantages of PCMs in the field of
concerns. Scalability and cost-efficiency efforts are making PCM-CBCs construction, it is imperative to achieve a seamless integration of PCMs
more accessible encouraging their broader adoption in the construc­ with CBCs. This article provides an in-depth review of the current status
tion industry. Consequently, the latest developments in PCM-CBCs are of PCM-CBC technology including different types of CBCs, approaches
emerging to drive the construction sector toward a sustainable future for PCM integration and addressing pertinent challenges while propos­
through the reduction of environmental impacts and promoting more ing potential solutions. In addition, this study conducts a comprehensive
eco-friendly construction practices. Moreover, the current database as­ assessment of the performance of PCM-CBCs from several technical
sesses research status and identifies emerging trends by investigating the standpoints. These include thermal properties, mechanical characteris­
common themes and areas of focus in various studies as shown in tics, durability, sustainability, energy efficiency, and resource conser­
Fig. 12. The present review involved a comprehensive examination of vation. It is worth mentioning that previous studies have emphasized the
the utilized database, focusing on the assessment of co-occurrences considerable progress made in terms of thermal performance, energy
among keywords and the interdisciplinary dimensions evident in efficiency improvements, and resource conservation achieved through
various studies. Utilizing VOSviewer software, co-occurrence analyses PCM-CBCs. These findings clearly indicate the substantial potential of
pertaining to publication keywords were visually represented. Within integrating PCM-CBCs into TES management systems. However, it is
the scope of this review, which incorporates citations from a diverse imperative to recognize that despite the considerable amount of
array of articles, a meticulous analysis of more than 1000 keywords was research that has been carried out to evaluate the mechanical properties

19
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