I

J
@

Vertical section 1:5. Opening window

within stick glazed wall

3-D view of stickglazed wall with

outer glazed screen

CD @
Details 10. Floor slab
I. Extruded aluminium transom I I. Floor finish
2. Extruded aluminium mullion 12. Ceiling finish
3. Extruded aluminium section I 3.Thenmal break
4. Single glazed or double glazed unit 14. Projecting bracketto support
5. Pressure plate external screen
6. Rubber-based seal
7. Metal honeycomb panel
8. Capping piece

Vert ical section I :5.Sticksystem with addit ional outer glazed 9. Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced
screen to provide solar shading or aspart of a twin facewall insulated panel

MCH 121
Walls 02
Glass I: stick systems

Corner and angled glazing panel connections

spanning mullions vert ically from floor to by the use of metal flashings or by special W ith the wiring concealed within the fram-
floor from brackets fixed at each floor level, components that form part of proprietary ing,the visual impact of motors and window
by either hanging each mullion and restrain- systems, such as synt het ic rubber strips that opening arms has been reduced significant ly
ing it at the floor level below, or by support - are glazed into the system on one side ofthe in recent years.Junctions at floors are closed
ingthe mullion at floor level and restraining strip, and are bonded directly to the face of by bringing floor finishes up to the transom,
it at the floor slab above.The hanging mul- adjacent concrete or masonry surfaces on which is also set at floor level to close off the
lion option usually allows a smaller mullion their projecting face.This provides a continu- gap between floors.The spandrel panel has a
to be used, but this depends on the specific ity of wat erproofing across the interface of smoke seal between separated floors, but a
application. Mullion sections are joined from tw o systems, with thermal insulation and full fire barrier is required in some countries
floor to floor with a sliding connection that vapour barrier set behind to form a continu- where the spandrel panel is required to be
allows the glazing between each floor level ity of the complete construction. fire resisting and to provide a barrier that
to move independently while maintaining W indows are fitted into stickglazing by stops flames from passing from floor to floor.
the overall continuity of the system.The applying an additional sub frame within the Corners are formed,typically, either with a
movement joint is visible in the facade and is main framing against which the opening light special extr usionthat allows a glass-to-glass
accommodated either at the junction of the is closed.The overall widt h of the window junction at the corner, or has two mullions
mullion and the transom above, or within frame is usually of similar width to that of the meeting at a corner and an insulated metal
the length of the transom, usually within main framing of mullions andtransoms. Both flashing turning the corner. Parapet copings
the spandrel panel. Brackets supporting the outward or inward opening windows and are formed by glazing the bottom edge of
framing are fixed either onto the floor at the door s are used, with some with their frames the metal flashing into the top transom and
edge ofthe slab,or on the vertical edge of silicone bonded t o the glass to reducetheir foldingthe flashing over the top of the para-
the slab. visual impact externally,though the frames pet.Junctions between mullions and adjacent
look similar from wit hin t he building. Electri- areas of wall in a different material are made
System details cally operated windows, such as those at in the same way.
Interfaces with openings, edges and dif- high level, usually have a motor in a box that
ferent adjacent materials are formed either fits within the height of the window frame.

MCH 122
 0

® ..-- -
..
I
T\ I

University Library Delft, Holland,Architect:Mecanoo

Architekten

ING headquarters. Budapest Hungary.Architect Erick van

Egeraat

3-D view showing flexibility of stick glazing to allow

Hospital. Madrid. Spain. Architect: Raphael Moneo discontinuity of capping pieces

MC H 123
- - -Walls 02'- - - - - - - - - ----.
Glass systems 2: unitised glazing
Details
8. Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced
I. Extruded aluminium transom
insulated panel
2. Extruded aluminium mullion
9. Floor finish
3. Extruded aluminium section
10. Ceilingfinish
4. Single glazed or double glazed unit
5. Rubber-based weather seal
6. Rubber-based air seal
7. Floor slab

3-D view of glazing panel assembly

Vertic al section 1:5 through unitised

transom

Horizontal sectio n 1:5 t hrough uniti sed mul-

3-D view of panel arrangement
lion

MC H 124
Detail of system assembly Detail of frame assembly

System design
Unitised glazing is essentially a method as assist in internal drainage.The t erm semi- gaskets which are pressed t ogether;either
of using prefabricated panels which are fixed interlocking is also used for stick systems in the form of'fli pper' gaskets or as com-
together on site to form a complete glazed where large-scale frames, covering several pressible hollow seals.These are made from
wall. Like stickglazing, unitised glazing uses bays both vertically and horizontally are pre- synthetic rubber; typically EPDM. Behind this
aluminium framing to support the glazing, assembled in the factory and then lifted in outer seal is a drained and pressureequal-
but where stick glazing is secured to a con- place on sit e.The glass units and pressure ised chamber closed off by an inner seal,also
tinuous supporting frame all of which is fixed plates are then fixed on sit e as per regular formed typically in EPD M.At the internal
on sit e, unitised glazing is put together in the stick glazing methods. face of the panel is an air seal. In hot and
factory.Panels are delivered to site and lifted The double glazed units in unitised glaz- humid climates, typically in South East Asia,
into place and set next to one another;the ing are fixed to the supporting frame either it is assumed that moisture will find it s way
gaps between each panel being sealed with from the outside of the panel or the inside, to the back of the supporting aluminium
synthetic rubber gaskets.These gaskets int er- to suit the strategy for glass replacement in frame. Consequently, seals are in horizontal
lock from panel to panel vertically, but typi- the event of accidental damage.The double joints to drain moisture from the back of the
cally are separated at each floor level with glazed units are secured with pressure plates system to the front face of the panel. where
a continuous horizontal gasket that follows which are either mechanically fixed to the it is released t o the outside. In more tem-
the horizontal joint between panels. Some main frame, or form part of the frame itself perate climates, unitised panels are sealed
systems have panels which are completely An alt ernative method of fixing glass is to in t he mid-depth of the framing,with the
separate structurally from the adjacent pan- bond the glass unit s to a sub frame which inner joint, visible from within the building,
els, allowing a damaged panel to be removed is then mechanically fixed to the aluminium serving as an air seal only.Any rainwater that
if damages occur; either during construction frame.This method provides an all-glass penetrates the outer seal is drained down
or later; but the junction between vertical appearance on the outside, usual ly wit h a through the inner chamberand is expelled
and horizontal joints requires special atte n- recessed joint between panels giving a shad- at the base of each unitised panel,typically
tion. Other systems are semi-interlocking ow gap appearance betw een panels. at floor level. Hor izontal joints between the
on horizontal joints in order to combine Vertical joint s between panels have an t ransoms formed by the t op of one panel
the structural capacity of members aswell out er seal which is usually formed by two and the bott om of the panel above are

MCH 125
W alls 02
Glass systems 2: unitised glazi ng

~Ill IlL
=Ilrr
Vert ical section I:25 through transparent panel

====:!
~
===;

®
Vert ical section I:25 through opaque panel

0
Details
I. Extruded aluminium transom
2. Extruded aluminium mullion
3. Extruded aluminium section
4. Single glazed or double glazed unit
5. Rubber-based weather seal
====:!J 6. Rubber-based air seal
7. Floor slab
8. Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced insu-
lated panel
9. Floor finish
®
I 10. Ceiling finish
I I. Silicone seal wit h optional aluminium
I = Il.',
corner extrusion
I I
1111 Ilr
I Elevation 1:50

formed in the same way, with seals aligned sliding spigot joint set into the vertical joint
wit h those in the vertical joints to ensure between mullions.This movement is taken
that rainwater is drained to the outside. out horizontally in the horizontal joint, typi-
Unitised panels typically include at least one cally at floor level.
additional transom to provide a spandrel In common with stickglazing,unitised
® zone at floor level, for example, though panels have thermal breaks set within the
some systems incorporate an additional framing in order to reducethe transmis-
transom set against the inside face of the sion of heat or cold from the outside of the
glass only, so that it is not visible externally, frame to the inside, or vice versa. Since the
but provides a horizontal edge against which inner ventilat ed chamber is typically deeper
]fi-l = = = = = @=
internal ceiling finishes can be set. than that used in stickglazing, the thermal
Panels are set so that they span from break is positioned accordingly in order that
floor slab to floor slab, and like stickglaz- the thermal break and double glazed unit are
ing, are either hungfrom a floor slab and aligned.The overall width,or sight line, of the
restrained on the floor below, or are sup- unitised panels is greater than those used for
ported on a floor slab and are restrained stickglazing, from around 80mm to 120mm
Vertical section I:25 showing typical on the floor above. Like stick glazing, move- depending on the application.The greater
details
ment between panels is provided by a width often suits the needs of internal parti-

MCH 126
 3-Ddetails of corner connections

Horizontal section 1:5 @

through un framed corner Horizontal section 1:5 through framed corner

tions which are required to intersectwith made usually with a 45° angled mullion to
the framing members of the facade. reduce the visual impact and sight lines of
the mullion.
System details Parapet copings are formed by sealing
An essential aspect of unitised glazing and waterproofing the gap between the top
isthat the panels use the same perimeter of the panel andthe parapet wall behind
framing, which can however be of different with a synthetic rubber seal that is integral
shape and have different materials set within with the panel.Thermal insulation is used to
them. Corner panels are the most common provide a complete continuity of insulation
of the atypical panels, and are often the from wall to roof.A metal coping is set on
most complex to construct in the factory. In top of the panel to provide protection to
common with stickglazing, unitised panels the membrane beneath. Elsewhere, most
can have vertical glass-to-glass joints rather interfaces follow the principles of stickglaz-
than settinga mullion at the corner; provid- ing, with an integral EPDM strip that can be
ing a visual crispness of the frameless corner. fixed to project out beyond the edges of the
The unitised frame is stiffened internally to panels, allowing the strip to be bonded to
compensate for the loss of structural stability adjacent construction. lAC headquarters, New York, USA.
of the corner. Regular framed corners are Architect: Frank Gehry & Studios Architecture

MCH 127
Walls 02
Glass systems 3: clamped glazing

Details
I. Stainless steel patch plate
2. Single glazed or double glazed
unit to suit applicat ion
3. Siliconeseal
4. Glass fin
5. Support bracket
6. Floor slab
7. Ceiling finish
8. Floor finish
9.Access ladder
10. Clamped glazed wall
I I. Inner curtain walling
12. Maintenance access deck
@ , ,

; : :
I I

. .
: ::::: :

3-D view of wall assembly with detail of clamp

(inset)

System design
There are tw o types of'point fixed' glaz- surface. W here a sealed facade is required,
ing used for facades: clamped glazing and joint s are sealed with si licone through the
bolt fixed glazing. Both syst ems are used t o full t hickness of the joint typically with a pol-
increase the transparency of a facade,and ymer-based backing rod in the mid depth of
this is parti cularly successful in open jointed the joint. Clamped glazing was the first point
single glazing as used in double skin facades. fixed glazing system used commercially and
W here double glazed units are used wit h developed in the I960s, using metal plates
their black edge band and joints between called 'patch plates' set on either side of glass
unit s, the width is usual ly equal t o that of sheets at their corners.This techniques is
framed glazing, but the omission of framing still used,t hough with increasing geometric
provides a visual continuity of glass where complexity
transparency is required.The all-glass appear- The clamped glazing system positions
ance has visual benefits to oblique views the fixings holding the plates in place such
3-D detail of clampfixing in outer wall of tw in
across a facade where the double glazed that they pass through the joint s between
facade system
units are seen as a continuous uninterr upted the glass to avoid the additional complexity
surface, made all the more dramatic by and cost of drilling the glass. Becausefixings
changes in direction provided by corners, are positioned at the glass edges, rather
as well as increasingly by folds in the glass than within the glass itself, t he span between

MCH 128
= -
I
~
@
,,,= o
0"'= =

--- -
- - ----

-
-
@ ~
r=-----
I

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Horizontal section I:50 through cable hung clamped glass facade

~o

1 0 ,

3-D view of twin wall con-

struction with outer wall in
clamped glazing

fixings is higherthan for an equivalent bolt are formed by setting a synthetic rubber
fixed solution and glass thicknesses may be gasket. typically EPDM, between the stain-
higherfor a clamped glazing solution as a less steel plate andthe glass sheet. A bolt is
result.When used in a single glazed con- passed through one sideof the plate and is
figuration in double skin facades, the glass is secured into the other plate, usually with a
joined with clamps, plates and brackets, the countersunk type. ~ -- .~

' ~I _ -
preferred material is stainless steel due to Clamped glazing often uses glass fins to
its resistance to corrosion.The use of plates
allows a more complex geometry of glass to
provide structural stability, set at 90° to the
plane of the glass, typically supported at its
[Dr
be used, such as in a shingled arrangement base on the floor slab. Glass fins are usually
of lapped glass panels where air can pass up in lengths equal to the height of each panel,
through gaps between lapped glass sheets with a patch plate connection occurring at
while admitting only small amounts of rain- each horizontal joint of the glass, to form
water into the buffer zone behind. Glass can a single structural section, wit h the dead
be supported either at the corners, or along load of each panel transferred to the glass
its edges to suitthe supporting structure for panel below, in the case of single glazing, or
the glass, which is usually visually lightweight alternatively to the glass fin behind. Installa- Vertical section I:50 through cable hung clamped
glass facade
in order to maximise transparency. Clamps tions have reached up to around 15 metres

MCH 129
 ails 02
Glass systems 3: clamped glazing
@
Details
I. Fixing bracket 1
2. Extruded aluminium
mullions
3. Opaque glazing
4. Ground slab
5. Backing wall
6. Inclined and lapped
glass
7. Cable support
8. Corner clamp
9. Cast metal fixing
bracket
10. Clamp bracket Plan and section 1:5. Clamping
I I . Metal parapet coping configurations in cable hung
12.Thermal insulation systems
I 3. Single or double
glazed unit

Detail of lapped glazing connection

Section I:I O. Opaque clamped glazed panels.Junctions at ground

level, movement joint and panel-to-panel conditions

Rheinisches Landesmuseum. Bonn, Germany,

Architect:Archtektengruppe, Stuttgart Lapped, clamped glazing Mediatheque, Sendai, Japan,Architect:Toyo Ito &
Associates
MC H 130
 Sectio n 1:5. Clamp and cable
connection

@
o

@ CD
,
•

3-D view of co rne r clamped glaz-

Section I:20. Clampe d
ing system
glazing with cast steel
Right: Elevation of cast stee l clamp
clamps held in place by
forming part of a co n-
tinuo us t russ

in height, though these are flat glass walls or ings can be set at the corners of glass panels, is clamped to the glass unit above.
those forming vertical walls which are curved where units intersect, or be set along t he Clamped glazing is usually able to
in plan. Glass panels and fins are joined with length of joints.The choice of fixing position accommodate higher amounts of structural
cleats and plates at the corner junctions,and depends on both the geometry and size of movement than an equivalent framed glaz-
are usually fixed through holes in the glass the glazing. ing system, which has encouraged t he use
rather than through the joints in order t o of t ensioned cables, usually set verti cally, to
transfer loads effectively thro ugh the plates. System details which the glass is fixed. Cables are usually set
Clamping plates usually have a polished finish Clamped glazing with glass fins is usu- immediately behind vertical joints to reduce
for ease of cleaning, but brushed finishes are ally set into a glazing channel at floor level in their number and visibility, since plates offset
also used. order to fix the glass in place and support its from the vert ical joint require either an addi-
This method of glazing has evolved into dead weight. A glazing channel also forms a tional vertically-set cable, or a met al bracket
an economic method of fixingglass to a reliable weat her seal with the outside ground to connect the two patch plates back to a
continuous supporting frame behind the level. Supporting glass fins which are sup- single cable. In supporti ng cable structures,
glass joints as an alt ernative t o the capped ported at floor level rather than ceiling level which allow higheramounts of structural
glazing techniques of stick and unitised sys- are usually set below floor level in order to movement, doors are required to be set
t ems,with silicone seals set between the conceal the patch plate brackets, which are independently of the glazed wall,usually with
glazed units.This makes it suitable for facades usually set either with the floor finisheszone a metal frame around the opening which is
wit h complex frame design, particularly or wit hin a pocket in the floor slab where fixed at floor level only,and is structurally
when combined with a glazed roof that uses this zone is insufficient ly deep.The same independent of the glazed wall.
the same system.Triangular framed glazed solution is used where the fin is hung from
walls, where the glass is required to have a the ceiling. Clamp plates are also used for
smooth, continuous surface free of cover doors to give a continuous appearance to
caps,allow clamps to be fixed through the the facade. Doors are set typically on floor
joints between the glass directly back t o the springs, set into the floor,and are supported
supporting structure set behind. Clamp fix- at the to p of the door leaf with a pivot which

MCH 131
 ails 02
Glass systems 4: bolt fixed glazing

Tower Bridge House, London, Uk.Architect:Rogers St irk Harbour + Partners

Details
I. Caststeel connector 7. Bolt fixing
2. Mild steel or stainless steel 8. Stainless steel cable
angle bracket 9. Insulated panel
3. Single glazed or double 10. Floorslab/structural wall
glazed unit to suit application I I. Bolt based cable end
4. Silicone seal 12. Glazing channel at floor level
5. Floor Finish I 3. Structural column
6. Support bracket 14. Steel arm for lateral support

3-D overview of basic bolt fixed glazing system Exploded view of bolt fixed componentassembly

MC H 132
 CD
0~' 1 G)

~~

CD

:r (7)

~~
CD
I

Vertical section I: 10. bolt fixed

Detail of bolt fixing and 4 point glass connection glazing detail

System design System details

Like clamped glazing, bolt fixed glazing is be fixed back to tensioned cables or rods, W ith both to p hung and botto m sup-
used for its ability to provide transparency, allowing a visually lightweight supporting ported methods of support , bolt fixed glazing
but usually with fixings set within the glass structure to be used,but which requires lat - uses a similar fixing bolt which is determined
rather than at their edges. In common with eral stability to overcome the higher deflec- by the size of the glass panel,the way it
that system, it was originally developed for tions associated with cable stru ctures. Lateral connects to the support ing structure and
single glazing, but is more commonly used stability is usually provided by forming a whether the fixing is countersunk or surface
with double glazed units, with their SOmm vertically-set cable truss from the primary fixed.The bolt fixing is the mechanical con-
joint width which includes the edge of the cable supporting the glass unit s, or by adding nection which is fixed through a hole formed
unit Despit e the overall SOmm black joint horizont al outriggers from structural col- in the glass sheet or double glazed unit. Bolts
width,the absence of framing and continuity umnsto restrain the horizontal movement can have a disc fixed to each external face
of the reflective surface of glass makes this of the cables. In common wit h clamped glaz- of the glass, be countersunk to be flush with
frameless system more visually lightweight ing,glass fins or mild steel posts can be used the outer face of the glass, or penetrate only
than framed glazi ng. Setting bolt fixings with- to support the glazing,typically supported the inner glass of a double glazed unit. St ruc-
in the glass can have an advantage in reduc- from their base. Glass fins are fixed perpen- tural movement and deflections betw een
ing the span of the glass between fixings, dicular t o the vertical joints between glazed the supporting structure and the glass are
ensuring that the glass t hickness is optimised units,with an L-shaped bracket with a bolt accommodated with a rot at ing swivel con-
t o a greater extent versus supporting the fixing at each end, with glass panels stacked nection at the junction of the bolt fixing that
glass at its edges only. one above the other, using the glass fins to passes through the glass and the end of the
Wh ere clamped glazing is supported provide lateral support. Glass fins can also be threaded rod that projects forward of the
directly onto a support ing structure, bolt fixed at the t op of the wall or at ceiling level, glass which is connected to the support ing
fixed glazing can be fixed on brackets which where they serve as stiffeners in a down- structure.The rotating joint is allowed to
are cantilevered away from the supporting stand condit ion,wit h the glass still being move 12° in all directions away from its regu-
structure, which can be either hung from supported at it s base. Glass fins have clamps lar posit ion.The bolt fixings t hemselves can
the top of the wall,or is supported at its fixed t o them as per the pat ch plate system vary from t hose with a fully visible thread and
base.These cant ilevered brackets can also described in the previous section. nuts, to a fully integrat ed type where all these

MCH 133
 als 02
Glass systems 4: bolt fixed glazing

@ /'
)
@

Section I:I0 Glass panels supported

on cables or rods

3-D overview of bolt fixed glazing

system supported from cables

com ponents are co ncealed in sleeves. Corner fixings are made eit her by cant ile- it ed rotation at th eir fixing point has led to
The bolt fixing is secured t o fixing brack- vering th e meet ing panels out in each glazed thei r support ing str uctures being structur ally
ets wh ose shape suit s th e geom etry of t he wall form ing t he corner, and linking th e glass ambit iou s, w it h a mixture of steel trusses and
inte rsection of four bo lt fixings with the sup- panels tog ether w it h bolt fixings in a pin con- cables used t o minimise the amou nt of mate -
porting stru cture . In small-scale applicat ions, nection , or by int ro ducing structu re at the rial needed t o support glazed units.Som e
fixing brackets can be formed from a simple corner, wit h bo lt fixings being attache d t o a have horizontally set w ind trusses t hat stiffen
steel angle, wit h one side supporting t he bo lt primar y member.W here a corner bracket an all-cable str uctu re, w hile others use full
fixing and the other side fixed to t he sup- is used in conjunction with a cantilevered height ver t ical steel trusses w ith additio nal
porting co lumn, or truss, for example. Larger- junct io n, manufacturers increasingly provide vertically set cables t o reduce the number of
scale applicat ions typically use X -shaped o r a limit ed range of standard compo nents, t ru sses required .T hey also pro vide a fixing
H- shaped con nectors to suit the po sit ion t hough it is not uncommon for special con- w hich is separat e fro m the seals betwee n
of bolt s set around the interse ctio n of fo ur nections t o be provided, partic ularly fo r junc- glazed unit s,though bot h bolt fixed and
glass panels. Connectors are made as eit her ti on s w here th e meeting angle is not a right clamped glazing methods have been pro ved
castings or machined/welded co mpo nent s angle. Like clamped glazing, bolt fixed glazing to be highly reliable in their weath erproofing
depending on th e quantity of connecto r s is sealed between glazed panels w it h silicone performance.W here clamped glazing is used
and t heir comp lexity.W here several parts seals,providing a single barrier t o w at er pen- wit h flat surfaces or glazed w alls of single
are required t o be w elded and machined, it et ration, but one w hich is reliable if properly cur vat ure , bo lt fixed glazing has t he possibility
is usually more eco nomic and visually prefer- undert aken. of being set on a surface w hich curves in two
able t o use a casting. Th e ability of bolt fixings to provide lim- direction s, as in th ose creat ed by cable net

MCH 134
3-D view of bolt fixed w all system

0 o D
structures. Special care is needed to ensure o
€l
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9
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"""'* ~~ !
that the angles of incidence at joints provide
a reliable weathertight joint. An additional
0
t \
o Glass movable in
Glass fixed
advantage is beingable to fix the glass that is one direction

visibly forward of the supporting structure,

sometimes creating a visual contrast between
large structural members and a thin glazed
skin set forward of it.This is particularly used
\I

8 ':r'
Q

A
+ + '01

8
+ +
ifthe supporting structure is set in one pri-
mary direction,giving the appearance of the
glass joints inthe opposite direction of span- G lass free
t o move
ning freely.
o

Elevation I: IO. Fixing condit ions for typi cal bolt fixed wa ll

MCH 135
Walls 02
Glass systems 5: glass blocks and channels

..i

I~ - rr-rH-+4-1-u UJ Maison Hermes,Tokyo,Japan,

Architect: Renzo Piano BuildingWo rkshop
J
I
Typical glass block dimensions
I
I I I I I I
I I I I
_I_ _I "" w _ I

I I I \

L
I
~
I t
typically 2000-
I ~ 4500mm
.1

I I

3-D detail of glass blocks supported by box section

System design
Glass blocks have been used in recent panels,formed eithe r as open ings in walls
years for t heir qualities of robustness com - o r as bays of a st ructu ral frame, typically in
bined w it h fire resistance t o form econom ic, reinforced concrete or st eel.The cont inu-
t ranslucent, glazed wa lls,Their translucency ous vertical and horizonta l joints of t hese
varies with t he thickne ss of t he w all of the non-Ioadbearing panels give th eir charac-
individual glass block, w hich can range from terist ic gridded appearance , w it h panel sizes
solid t o ho llow t ype,T he hol low ty pe has limit ed fro m around 3600mm x 3600mm
the advantage of slightly greater t hermal in area, to aro und 4500mm x 4500mm in
insulation and acoustic insulati on, but the area, depe nding on block thickness.The
th ermal insulation levels are we ll below panel size can be adjusted in prop ort ion to
th ose expecte d from regular do uble glazed give a maximum height of around 6000mm
units, so they tend to be used in locat ions and a maximum width of around 7500mm,
w here this is not a design considerat ion , such Glass blocks are well suited to pro viding an
as in naturally ventilat ed spaces,T he most econo mic glazed fire resisting construction,
common block sizes are a nomina l 200mm One hour fire resisting panels can be made
x 200mm and 300mm x 300mm, generally in panel sizes of aro und 3000mm x 3000mm
I OOmm th ick, Blocks are arranged in stack in area,w ith a maximum height or w idt h
3-D view of glass bock wall assembly
bonded rectili near grids th at fo rm individual of 4000mm. Panels providing fire resistance

MCH 136
Examples of glass blocks in curved applications

3-D sectional detail of glass blocks sup-

ported by I-sections

greater than 60 minutes (usually up to 90 glass blocks.An advantage of glass channels is

minutes) require metal channel restraints that they are made either with a patterned
at the perimeter of the panel due to their surface characteristic of casting, or be made
200!300mm
greater reliability than cement mort ar or clear, with no pattern or hue.They can be
si licone seals. Low-E coated to assist thermal insulation,and
An alternative to glass blocks is cast when interlocked can be thermal ly insulated
glass channels, a long spanning material which with proprietary gel to significantly improve
can reach storey height without intermedi- their thermal perfor mance,though this proc- Typical glass block dimensions
ary supports. Channels resemble half glass ess can be disproport ionat e to the cost of
Details
blocks in section, manufactured in lengths up the cast glass channels. Solar protection can
I. Glass block
to around 7000mm. Most are made around also be added. Like glass blocks, cast glass
2. I-section or box section
250mm wide and 60mm deep. Channels channels are known for their properties of 3.Metal edge frame
are set either vert ically or horizontally in a sound insulation combined wit h robustness. 4. External cladding

single layer, or can be int erlocked by setti ng W hen st acked vertically, channels can be set 5. Steel fiat or T-section
6.Thermal insulation
channels facing one another to form a dou- out to form a curved wall, a characterist ic
7. Enclosing wall or adjacent wall
ble layer with smooth internal and external well known with glass block walls. 8.Window casement
appearance.The int erlocked version also The relatively poor thermal insulation 9. Cast glass channel
provides a U-value similar to that of hollow of glass blocks and cast channels,when IO. Floor slab

MCH 137
Walls 02
Glass syste ms 5: glass blocks
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Det ails of glass block connections

w ithin window casement

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3-D view of glass blocks set within window casement in w all assembly

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Horizont al section I: IO. Glass blocks support ed by w elded sect ions int o w indow fram es in masonry wall

MC H 138
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Elevation and section I:20. Glass blocks 3-D view of typical glass panel Section I:20 Left: double skin of interlocking
supported by box sections vert ically hung glass horizontal channels. Right: Single skin

compared to double glazed unit s, can lead combination of these. In smaller openings, a silicone-based or with metal angle restraints.
to condensation occurring on the interio r T-section is set into joint s to stiffen the panels The angles are usually concealed by wall
face of the block,and adequate ventilation at mid height between floor and ceiling/sof- finishes, both internally and externally. Flex-
is requiredto avoid this. Consequently,their fit. Larger panels can be formed by adding a ible seals are used where a door or window
use remains ideally suited to semi-external rectangular box section to the backedge of opening is introduced int o a glass block wall.
conditions in temperate climates, such as cir- the T-section to form a complete structural The door is usually fixed at its base only in
culation spaces. Glass block panels fixed into frame. Some manufacturers offer these mate- order to allow the block wall t o be structur-
reinforced concrete frames or wall openings rials as proprietary systems which include ally independent. but sometimesthe door
are bedded in either mortar or silicone,with edge framing channels, thoughthe appear- is tied into the horizontal joints of the glass
flexible joints introduced on the sides and ance of these can be concealed by adjacent block wall, depending on the amount of
top edge to allow for structural movement. finishes. expected structural movement.
Glass blocks are set within the frame which Glass blocks usually have bed reinforce- Cast glass channels are fixed into alu-
formsthe external wall,or on the edge of ment between joints,typically a metal ladder- minium extrusions at their ends, and are
reinforced concret e floor slabs. Storey height type reinforcing strip which is set within the sealed with silicone-based seals between long
panels on the edge of floor slabs require joints and is not visible. Silicone is also used joints.vertically-set channels can be bottom
metal angle restraints at the top of the open- to bond blocks, with a sealing silicone used supported, but in horizontally-set arrange-
ing to accommodate the deflection in the on the external face to provide a weath- ments, each channel is individually supported
slab.This can be overcome by setting the ertight seal.Cement-based mortar s are rather than each channel being supported on
glass blocks forward of the floor slab on a also used, with the choice of material being the channel below.As with glass blocks,the
steel frame in the manner of glazed curtain governed largely by visual considerations. edge frame can be concealed by wall finishes,
walling. Corners are formed usually with either the but cast channels are increasingly being used
structure that supports the panel or special as a primary material on facades where they
System details corner panels which form a part of most are used, as they are not required to be set
Both glass blocks and cast channels can proprietary systems, mainly 90° and 45° into framed panels, and can be used in storey
also be set into steel frames made from corners.Junctions of blocks with adjacent height form in long lengths.
I-sections, box sections,T-sections or a walls are formed with a flexible seal, either

MC H 139
 W alls 02
Glass systems 6: steel windows
--- Det ails
I. Outside
2. Inside
3. Rolled steel glazing section
4.Transom
5. Mullion
6. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit
application
7. Fixing bead
8. Fixing lug
9. Projecting transom
10. Rubber-based seal
I I. Fixed light
12. Inward opening light
I 3. O utward opening light
14.W indow cill
15. Condensation tray
16. Internal finish

Matsunoyama Museum of N atural Science. Matsunoyama.Japan.Architect:TezukaArchitects.

Plan I:S. Rolled steel frames glazed Intemally

Rolled steel glazing connection detail

Plan 1:5. Rolled steel frames glazed externally

System design
Steel framed windows made from rolled aluminium-based stickglazing. glazed units usually have extruded clipsthat
sections have been preferred for their thin Steel framed windows with thin frames hold the glass in place.
sight lines when compared to those in alu- without thermal breaks in thin double glazed Larger scale,thermally broken, windows
minium for small-scale window openings. units are madewith rolled steel sections to and doors are used primarily for their ability
However, the thermal performance of the form windows of a maximum size of around to provide fire resistance.They are made as
frames is considerably less than thermally 3000mm x 1800mm down to a minimum pressed steel sections in sizes similar to an
broken aluminium sections, due to the dif- size of 250mm x 400mm. Fixed lights and equivalent in aluminium but with slightly dif-
ficulty of intro ducing a thermal break int o openingwindows can be joined together ferent profiles governed by the process of
small sections. Larger scale steel windows withT-sections to provide a supporting pressing,which cannot provide the complex-
and glazed walls made from pressed steel frame. Larger-scale steel curtain wallinghas ity in section of extruded aluminium profiles.
sections, used mainly for their fire resisting a grid of pressed steel mullions (verticals) Unlikealuminium windows, where new extru-
qualities, can incorporate a thermal break and transoms (horizontals) to which double sions can be made economic for each project,
but their sightlines are similar to those of an glazed units are fixed with steel pressure pressed and rolled sections for steel windows
equivalent aluminium window or glazed wall. plates. Seals are provided with synthetic rub- cannot produce new sections as easily. Fully
Steel framed windows are either fitt ed into ber gaskets similar to those used in alumini- glazed walls are made by fixing individual
wall openings or are joined together to form um curtain walling systems. Single glazed units windows into a frame of pressed box sec-
a glazed wall with deeper sections as fram- have small channels or angle shaped glazing tionswith integral thermal breaks.There is a
ing members, which is slightly different to full beadsto hold the glass in place,while double wide variety of standard sectionsavailable for

MCH 14 0
De t ail of pro ject ing mul lion in st eel glazing Matsunoyama Mu seum of N at ural Science. Mat sunoyama, Japan. Arch itect: Tezuka Architects.

~
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@ Fixed bead
with proj ecting
transom :
@

Sect ion s 1:5. Rolled ste el frame s glazed int ernally and exte rnally

th e pressed steel profi les th at support t he

Opening
glass, th ough it is more difficult t o develop a w indow with
projecting
pro file for an individual project due t o t he transom

constraints of pre ssing steel sheet, w hich is

expensive to modify for individual pro jects.

Syste m details
Outward ope ning lights for bot h w indows
in small-scale rolled sections and larger-scale
pressed sections have profiles that lap over
t he front of t he surrou nding fixed frame, w ith
a drip above the wi ndow t o avoid rainw a-
t er finding its way in through th e top of t he
G il detail
frame.A ny water t hat finds its way into t he
frame is drained dow n t he sides and out at
the bottom. Most win dows have synt hetic
rubber seals to both assist drainage and
reduce air infilt rat ion t hro ugh t he open ing 3-D view of ro lled steel wi ndow details

MCH 14 1