Strength of Materials 2

Deflections of Statically Determinate Beams

Beam deflections can be computed using the
applicable differential equation of the deflection curve.
Next the basic equation for the deflection curve of a
beam is formulated.
An example of a beam deflection is shown below:

This is a cantilever beam subject to a concentrated

load acting upward at the free end. Under the action of
this load, the beam deforms into a curve shown in
Figure (b). The reference axes are x -axis directed to
the right and the y -axis directed upward. Deflection

curve is v( x ) (shown in Figure (b)) and is the displacement in the y direction. Note that
y -axis is positive upward and consequently, the deflections are also positive when upward
and negative when downward.

Differential equation of the deflection curve v( x ) is given by

d 2v
EI = M( x ) Eq. (1)
dx 2
Equation (1) should be integrated for each case of beam loading and boundary conditions
and several examples given below to illustrate the computation of the deflection curve
using the above equation. In equation (1), the bending moment M ( x ) is, in general, a
function of x . The term EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam where E is the Young’s
modulus of the beam and I is the moment inertia of the beam cross section.

In computing the moment expression M ( x ) , sign conventions should be used. In this

respect note that

Coordinates: x and y axes are positive to the right and upward, respectively.

The deflection v( x ) is positive upward.

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 dv
The slope and the angle of rotation θ are positive when
dx
counter-clockwise with respect to the positive x axis;

The bending moment M ( x ) is positive when it produces

compression in the upper part of the beam, that is the deflection
curve is concave upwards (positive curvature as shown in the
figure 

The bending moment M ( x ) is negative when it produces

tension in the upper part of the beam, that is the deflection curve
is concave downward (negative curvature as shown in the figure


Concerning the moments, also note that:

A typical deflection of a beam under

concentrated loads is shown in the
figure on the right. Its deflection (Figure
c) indicates that section AC has
negative curvature and consequently,
the moment is negative in AC (Figure
b). Its deflection section CD has
positive curvature and consequently,
the moment is positive in CD (Figure
b). Deflection curve changes from
negative curvature to positive
curvature at C and point C is called the
inflection point. At the supports B and
D, deflections are zero. At point D, the moment is zero because of the hinge support.
However, note that at point B, the moment is not zero. It is noted that the maximum deflection
may be at point A or at point E and both points need to be checked to determine which one
is the maximum.
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Another example of the deflection of a
cantilever beam is shown in this figure.
In this case, the beam is a cantilever
beam and is subjected to a
concentrated load P at mid-point and a
moment M on the right hand side (point
C). The beam is fixed at point A and
consequently the deflection and slope
are zero at this point (the fixed end).
Its deflection (Figure c) indicates that an
initial section has a negative curvature,
and consequently, the moment is
negative in this initial region (Figure b).
Its deflection has positive curvature in the rest of the beam, and consequently, the moment
is positive in the positive curvature section (Figure b). The point when the deflection curve

changes from negative curvature to positive curvature. The maximum deflection ΔD occurs
at point D.

As the sign conventions have to be observed in the

computation of the deflection curves using the
applicable differential equation, the sign conventions
are shown in the next figure. Other equations that can
be used to compute the deflection curve are obtained
from the relations between bending moment M ( x ) ,

shear force V ( x ) , and the distributed load q( x ) .

These equations are:
dV _
= q( x ) Eq. (2)
dx

dM
= V( x ) Eq. (3)
dx
By using Eqs. (1) and (3), we obtain:

d 3v
EI = V( x ) Eq. (4)
dx 3

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Similarly, by using Eqs. (1) and (4), we obtain:

d 4v
4 = _ q( x ) Eq. (5)
dx
To simplify the writing of these and other equations, primes are often used to denote
differentiation as follows:

dv d 2v d 3v d 4v
v′ = v′′ = v′′′ = v′′′′ = Eq. (6)
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx 4
Using this notation, the differential equations (1), (4) and (5) can be expressed as follows

EIv′′ = M ( x ) , EIv′′′ = V ( x ) , EIv′′′′ = _ q( x ) Eq. (7)

These equations are referred to as the bending-moment equation, the shear force equation,
and the load equation, respectively. By differentiating the equations Eqs. (7), with respect to
x , with the right hand sides determined correctly and by using the correct boundary
conditions, one can determine the deflection curve applicable to the specific beam and for
a specific loading case. We will refer to these equations as the bending-moment equation
(Eq. (1)), the shear force equation (Eq. (4)), and the load equation (Eq. (5)). These equations
are derived based on the assumptions that the material is linearly elastic, that is, Hooke’s
law applies, the slopes of the deflection curve are very small. These assumptions are
satisfied by most beams used in engineering applications.

Choosing the x coordinates

In most cases, one needs to use more than one
coordinate axis to determine the deflection curve
of the beam. In the example shown in the figure,
three axes are needed to determine the

deflection curve, namely, x1 for section AB, x2

for section BC and x3 for section CD.

Note that:
x1 is valid only in AB
x2 is valid only in BC
x3 is valid only in CD
At points B and C, the deflection and the slope are continuous and as such continuity
conditions are applied at B and C to determine the integration constants.

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Note that when the differential equation to
determine the deflection is integrated twice,
this will produce two integration constants.
Not all of these constants can be determined
from the boundary conditions, and some
must be determined using continuity
conditions. Consider the beam in the next
figure. Here two x coordinates are chosen with origin at A. Once the functions for the slope
and deflection are obtained, they must give the same values for the slope and deflection at
point B so that the elastic curve is physically continuous. Expressed mathematically, these
continuity conditions are
θ1( a ) = θ2 ( a ) for the continuity of slope
v1( a ) = v2 ( a ) for the continuity of deflection
These equations are used to evaluate the two integration constants. Once these functions
and the integration constants are determined, then the slope and deflection (elastic curve)
for each region of the beam are given for each region, that is, for sections AB and BC.
NOTE: Coordinate axes can be chosen from right to left or from left to right. Decision on
how to choose the coordinates is based on which ones are more convenient to solve the
problem.

Boundary conditions
When the differential equations for the
deflection curve are integrated, the final
solution contains integration constants. These
constants are determined from the boundary
conditions. The boundary conditions for a
simply supported beam are shown in the next
figure. These boundary conditions are:

Deflections at points A and B are zero:

Point A: v A = 0 where x = 0 . Also the moment M A = 0 at x = 0 because the

support at point A is a hinge support, that is, free to rotate, hence no moment.

Point B: v B = 0 where x = L ( L is the length of the beam). Also the moment

M B = 0 at x = L since support at B is also a hinge support.

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The boundary conditions for a cantilever beam are shown
in the next figure. These boundary conditions are:

Deflection and slope at point A are zero:

Point A: v A = 0 where x = 0 . However, the moment

M A is NOT zero at x = 0 because the support at point
A is clamped (fixed) support, that is, NOT free to rotate,

Point B: The moment M B = 0 at x = L since support at

B is free to rotate.

Procedure for analysis

The following procedure provides a method for determining the slope and deflection of a
beam using the method of integration.
Elastic Curve:
 Draw a view of the beam’s elastic curve. Note that zero slope and zero displacement
occur at fixed supports, and zero displacement occurs at simple supports.
 Establish the x coordinate axes. The x axis must be parallel to the undeflected beam
and can have an origin at any point along the beam, with a positive direction either to
the right or to the left.
 If several discontinuous loads are present, establish x coordinates that are valid for
each region of the beam between the discontinuities. Choose these coordinates so
that they will simplify subsequent algebraic work.
Load or Moment Function.
 For each region in which there is an x coordinate, express the loading q(x) or the
internal moment M(x) as a function of x. In particular, always assume that M acts in
the positive direction when applying the equation of moment equilibrium to determine
M = f (x).
Slope and Elastic Curve.
_
 Apply either the load equation EIv′′′′ = q( x ) , which requires four integrations to

get v = v( x ) , or the moment equation EIv′′ = M ( x ) , which requires only two

integrations. For each integration it is important to include a constant of integration.
 The constants are evaluated using the boundary conditions and the continuity
conditions that apply to slope and displacement at points where two functions meet.

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 Once the constants are evaluated and substituted back into the slope and deflection
equations, the slope and displacement at specific points on the elastic curve can then
be determined.
 The numerical values obtained can be checked graphically by comparing them with
the sketch of the elastic curve. Positive values for slope are counterclockwise if the x
axis extends positive to the right, and clockwise if the x axis extends positive to the
left.

Examples on the Deflection of Statically Determined Beams

Example 1

Figure 9-8

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Figure 9-9

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Example 2

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Example 3

Figure 9-12:

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Figure 9-13

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 Deflections by Integration of the Shear-Force
and Load Equations
The equations of the deflection curve in terms of the shear force V(x) and the load q(x)
[Eqs. (4) and (5), respectively] may also be integrated to obtain slopes and deflections.
Since the loads are usually known quantities, whereas the expressions for the bending
moments must be determined from free-body diagrams and equations of equilibrium, it
may be more convenient to start with the load equations in some cases.

The procedure for solving either the load equation or the shear-force equation is similar to
solving the bending-moment equation, except that more integrations are required. For
_
instance, in the case of the load equation [ EIv′′′′ = q( x ) ], four integrations are needed
in order to determine the deflections. Thus, four constants of integration are introduced for
each load equation that is integrated. As before, these constants are found from boundary,
continuity, and symmetry conditions. These conditions now include conditions on the shear
forces and bending moments as well as conditions on the slopes and deflections.

When the shear-force and bending-moment conditions are added to those for the slopes
and deflections, there are always enough independent conditions to determine the
constants of integration.

The following examples illustrate the techniques of analysis in detail. The first example
_
begins with the load equation [ EIv′′′′ = q( x ) ], and the second one begins with the

shear-force equation, that is, EIv′′′ = V ( x )

Example 4

Determine the equation of the deflection curve for a cantilever beam AB supporting a
triangularly distributed load q = q( x ) as shown in the Figure 9-14a below. Also, determine
the deflection vB and angle of rotation θ B at the free end (see Figure 9-14b). Use the
fourth-order differential equation of the deflection curve using the load equation. The beam
has length L and flexural rigidity EI.

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Figure 9-14a Figure 9-14b

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Example 5

Figure 9-15a Figure 9-15b

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Figure 9-15a Figure 9-15b

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