CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND DEVOTIONAL TEXTS This

chapter discusses how textual traditions have been used by

historians to understand Bhakti-Sufi traditions.
A mosaic religious beliefs and practices •Perhaps the most striking
feature of this phase is the increasing visibility of a wide range of
gods and goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts. •At one level, this
indicates the continued and even extended worship of the major
deities – Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess – each of whom was
visualised in a variety of forms. (Mosaic=Diversified with different
colours) *One of the most striking examples of this process is evident
at Puri, Orissa, where the principal deity was identified, by the
twelfth century, as Jagannatha (literally, the lord of the world), a
form of Vishnu.
The integration of cults • Such instances of integration are evident
amongst goddess cults as well. • Worship of the goddess, often
simply in the form of a stone smeared with ochre(pale yellow clay-
kavi), was evidently widespread. • These local deities were often
incorporated within the Puranic framework by providing them with
an identity as a wife of the principal male deities – sometimes they
were equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, in other instances,
with Parvati, the wife of Shiva.
Tantric worship •The forms of worship often associated with
goddess were classified as Tantric. •Tantric worship was wide spread
in the subcontinent. It was open to women and men. •Those who
followed Tantric rejected the caste and class within the ritual
context. •Many of these ideas influenced Shaivism and the
Buddhism.
Conflicts that arose during the Bhakti movement • There were
conflicts between those who followed the Vedic tradition and those
who practiced the Tantric way of worshipping deities. • Those who
valued Vedic tradition often condemned the practices that went
beyond the performance of sacrifices and chanting of mantras. •On
the other hand those who engaged in Tantric practices ignored the
authority of the Vedas. Difference and conflict • The traditions of
devotion or bhakti need to be located within this context.
•Devotional worship had a long history of almost a thousand years
before the period we are considering. •During this time, expressions
of devotion ranged from the routine worship of deities within
temples to ecstatic (great delight) adoration where devotees
attained a trance-like state.(eg: komaram) • The singing and chanting
of devotional compositions was often a part of such modes of
worship. • This was particularly true of the Vaishnava and Shaiva
sects.
POEMS OF PRAYER EARLY TRADITIONS OF BHAKTHI • The historians
of religion classified Bhakti traditions into two broad categories:
saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes). • Saguna
included traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities
such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the
goddess or Devi. •Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of
an abstract form of god.
Early Traditions of Bhakthi Bhakthi Traditions Saguna Nirguna
Anthropomorphic form Abstract form The Alvars and Nayanars of
Tamil Nadu • During the sixth century, some of the Bhakti
movements were led by the Alvars and the Nayanars. • The literal
meaning of the Alvars is those who are immersed in devotion to
Vishnu. • The meaning of the word Nayanars is those who were
devotees of Shiva. • They travelled from place-to-place singing
hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods. • During their travels the
Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their
chosen deities. • Later big temples were built at those places and
developed as pilgrimage centres. Alvars and Nayanars • 12 Alvars •
10th Alvar – Kulasekhara Alwar – Only Keralite. • Periyapuranam-
Sekkizhar- ref about 63 Nayanars • Works of 12 Alvars compiled in
the 10th C- Nalayira Divya Prabandham • Compilation of Appar,
Sundarar, Sambandhar- Thevaram.
Attitude towards caste
• According to some historians, the Alvars and the Nayanars started
a movement of protest against the caste system and the Brahmanas
and attempted to reform the system. • The devotees came from the
different social backgrounds such as artisans, cultivators and even
from the caste that were considered “untouchable” Compositions of
the Alvars and Nayanars • The compositions of the Alvars and the
Nayanars are considered to be as important as the Vedas. • For,
instance, one of the anthologies of compositions of the Alvars, the
Nalayira Divyaprabandham was described as the Tamil Veda and the
text was significant like the Vedas that were used by the Brahmanas.
Women devotees.
• One of the striking features of these traditions was the presence of
women. • For example, there was a saint-poet called Andal, a
woman Alvar. • Her compositions were sung and sung even today. •
Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva adopted
the path of extreme asceticism to attain her goal. • Her compositions
were preserved within the Nayanar tradition. • These women
renounced their social obligations, but did not become nuns. • Their
presence was a challenge to patriarchal norms.
Opposition to Buddhism and Jainism
•The saint –poets the Alvars and the Nayanars were opposed to
Buddhism and Jainism. •This hostility is well marked in their
compositions particularly of the Nayanars. •Historians say that his
conflict was due to competition between members of different
religious traditions for royal patronage.
Relation with the state Patronage of Chola rulers • The Chola rulers
supported the bhakti traditions and built temples for Shiva and
Vishnu. • Some of the magnificent temples for Shiva such as temples
in Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholpuram were
constructed under their patronage.
• The Chola rulers-built temples often to claim divine support and
proclaim their own power and status and adorned those temples
with stone and metal sculpture to represent the visions of the
popular saints. Patronage of Chola rulers • They made the
spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture. • The Chola
kings introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns under royal
patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organize them into a
text (Tevaram). • According to Inscriptional evidence, the Chola king
Parantaka I had constructed the metal images of Appar, Sambandar
and Sundarar in a Shiva temple. • These were carried in procession
during the festivals of these saints. Brihadwiswara Temple, Tanjavoor
Madurai, Meenakshi Temple tower The Virashaiva tradition in
Karnataka The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new
movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna
(1106-68) who was initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of a
Chalukya king. His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of
Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga). Lingayats continue to be an
important community in the region to date. They worship Shiva in
his manifestation as a linga, and men usually wear a small linga in a
silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder. The Virashaiva
tradition in Karnataka • Lingayats believe that on death the devotee
will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore,
they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in
the Dharmashastras. • Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead.
The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution”
attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the
theory of rebirth. • These won them followers amongst those who
were marginalised within the Brahmanical social order. • The
Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the
Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage
of widows. • Our understanding of the Virashaiva tradition is derived
from vachanas composed in Kannada by women and men who
joined the movement. Basavanna’s attitude towards rituals and the
real world…When they see a serpent carved in stone, they pour milk
on it. If a real serpent comes, they say: “Kill, kill.” To the servant of
the god who could eat if served they say: “Go away! Go away!” But
to the image of the God which cannot eat they offer dishes of food….
Religious ferment in North India (Religious condition of north India) •
According to historians, in north India there was a period when
several Rajput states emerged and in most of these states
Brahmanas occupied important place by performing rituals. • There
was no attempt to question their position directly. At the same time
there were other religious leaders who were out of the orthodox
Brahmanical systems, and were gaining ground. • These included the
Naths, Jogis and Siddhas. Many of them came from artisanal groups
such as weavers who were well organized. Religious ferment in
North India (Religious condition of north India) • These religious
leaders questioned the authority of the Vedas. However, they were
unable to win the support of the ruling elites. • Turkish conquest
culminated in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. • The power
of many Rajput rulers was thus undermined and also of the
Brahmanas who were associated with those kingdoms. • The coming
of the Sufis was a significant part of these developments. The coming
of Turks and the Islamic tradition • Muhammed bin Qassim
conquered Sind in 711 AD. Sind became a part of the caliph’s
domain. During the thirteenth century the Turks and Afghans
established the Delhi Sultanate. • Sultanates were also formed in the
Deccan and other parts of the subcontinent. Islam was recognized as
the religion of several areas. This continued with the establishment
of the Mughal Empire. • Muslim rulers were to be guided by the
Ulema, which were expected to ensure that they ruled according to
the Sahri’a. The coming of Turks and the Islamic tradition • The
Zimmi means “protected” and is derived from the Arabic word
zimma, protection. It was developed for peoples who followed
revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians, and lived under
Muslim rule. • They paid a tax called jizya and received protection
from Muslims. In India this status was extended to Hindus as well. •
In general, rulers often adopted a flexible policy towards their
subjects.
• For example, several rulers gave land endowments and granted tax
exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish
religious institutions. • They also showed respect and devotion
3towards non-Muslim religions. The popular practice of Islam • The
developments that followed the coming of Islam were not confined
to ruling elites; in fact, they permeated far and wide, therethrough
the subcontinent, amongst different social strata – peasants,
artisans, warriors, merchants, to name a few. • All those who
adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five “pillars” of the faith:
that 1. There is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his
messenger (shahada) 2. Offering prayers five times a day
(namaz/salat) 3. Giving alms (zakat) 4. Fasting during the month of
Ramzan (sawm) 5. Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) The
popular practice of Islam • The universal features of Islam declined
due to the sectarian practices and the influence of local customary
practices. • For example, Arab Muslim traders who settled Malabar
Coast adopted Malayalam language and matriliny system. • The best
example of the blending of a universal faith and local traditions is
mosques. • The architectural features of mosques are universal
(orientation towards Mecca and the placement of the mihrab (prayer
niche) and the minbar (pulpit). • There are variations such as roofs
and building materials.
The Growth of Sufism
• Sufis were a group of religious minded people in Islam. They were
critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of
interpreting the Quran. They emphasized interpretation of Quran on
the basis of personal experience.
• By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a well-developed
movement with a body of literature on Quranic studies and Sufi
practices. Sufism was organized in an institution around the hospice
or Kanqah controlled by a teaching master known as sheikh, pir or
murshid. He enrolled disciples and appointed a successor. He
established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between
inmates as well as between laypersons and the master. The growth
of Sufism Silsila’s Silsila literally meaning a chain signifies a
continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an
unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammed. Sufi
Silsila’s began to appear in different parts of the Islamic world
around the twelfth century. Dargah Dargah is a Persian term. Its
meaning is tomb-shrine. When the sheikh died, his tomb shrine
became the centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the
practice of pilgrimage or ziarat to his grave, particularly on his death
anniversary. It was believed that, after death the soul of sheikh get
united with the soul of Allah. People sought their blessings to attain
material and spiritual benefits. Thus evolved the cult of the sheikh
revered as wali. The growth of Sufism Ba-sharia and Be-sharia sufis •
Ba sharia were those Sufis who adhere with the Shariat and Be-sharia
Sufis were those who ignored shariat. The Chishtis in the
Subcontinent Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late
12th C, the Chishtis were the most influential. This was because they
adapted successfully to the local environment and adopted several
features of Indian devotional traditions. Chishti Order- founded in
India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti- His disciple was the famous
Bhaktiyar Kaki. Famous Chishti Leaders- Nizamuddin Ouliya and
Nazir-ud-din-Chirag-I Delhi. Suhravadi Order- Famous leaders-Shaik
Shihabiddin Suhravadi and Hamid-UdDin-Nagori. Life in the Chishti
khanqah The khanqah was the centre of social life. It comprised
several small rooms and a big hall where inmates and visitors lived
and prayed. The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall
where he met visitors in the morning and evening. There was an
open kitchen (langar). From morning till evening people from all
walks of life, came to seek the blessings from the Shaikh in various
matters. Other visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and
Amir Khusru and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani and all of them
wrote about the Shaikh. The practices that were adopted by the
Chishtis in their kanqah • Bowing before the Shaikh • Offering water
to visitors • Shaving the heads of initiates • Yogic exercises Shaikh
Nizamuddin appointed his disciple to set up hospices in various parts
of the sub continent. In this way they came in touch with the people
which led to the popularization of chishti practices, teachings and
also the fame of Shaikh. Chishti devotionalism: Ziyarat and qawwali •
Pilgrimage called Ziyarat tombs of Sufi saints is prevalent all over the
Muslim world. This practice is an occasion for seeking the Sufi’s
spiritual grace (barakat). • For more than seven centuries people
from different walks of life expressed their devotion at the dargahs
of the five great Chishti saints. • The use of music and dance
including mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians or
qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy is also part of ziyarat. • The Sufis
remember God either by reciting the zikr(the Divine Names)or
evoking His presence through sama or performance of mystical
music known as qawwali. Dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin • The most
popular dargah is that of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly known as
“Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).The dargah became so
popular because of the following reasons. • The austerity and piety
of the Shaik, greatness of his spiritual successors and the patronage
of royal visitors. • Location of Ajmer was another factor for its
popularity. As it was located on the trade route connecting Delhi and
Gujarat, it attracted number of travellers. • Muhammad bin Tughlaq
was the first Sultan to visit the dargah. • Akbar, the Mughal emperor
visited dargah at Ajmer fourteen times in his life and these visits
were aimed at seeking blessings for new conquests, fulfilling of his
vows and to get sons. • Many of his wishes were soon fulfilled and
thus as an offering: He gave generous gifts on each visit He offered
a huge cauldron to facilitate cooking for pilgrims. He even got a
mosque constructed within the dargah Sufis and the state. • The
chishti tradition was austere but it did not isolate political power.
The Sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the
political elites. The sultans set up charitable trusts (auqaf) as
endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam). • The
chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind and used for their
immediate requirements such as food, clothes, living quarters and
ritual necessities such as sama.The moral high status of the Sufis
attracted people from all walks of life. Sufis and the state • The kings
wished to secure their support. Kings simply did not need to show
their association with Sufis and also required legitimating for them.
When the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, Sufis resisted the
insistence of the ulama on imposing shari’a as state law because they
anticipated opposition from their subjects. • The sultans also came
to depend on the sufis to interpret the Sahri’a.It was believed that
Auliya could intercede with god to improve the material and spiritual
conditions of the people. As a result, kings got the shrines of the
Sufis near built near their tombs. • There were instances of conflict
between the Sultans and the sufis. To assert their authority both
expected certain rituals performed like kissing of the feet etc.
Languages and communication • The Chishtis composed their poems
in several languages. The Chishtis used Hindavi or Persian language.
Sufis such as Baba Farid composed poetry in local language. Some
Sufis composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine
love using human love as an allegory. • Sufi poetry was composed in
the Dakhani language around the Bijapur and Karnataka region.
Women while performing household chores like grinding grain and
spinning sang these poems. • Other poems were in the form of
lurinama(lullabies) or wedding songs(shadinama).The Sufis of this
region were inspired by the kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and
the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur. New devotional
paths: Dialogue and Dissent in North India • During the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries, Kabir was one of the most outstanding
examples of a poet-saint. Verses ascribed to Kabir have been
compiled in three distinct traditions. Sources to reconstruct the life
of Kabir • The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or
sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and in Uttar Pradesh. The Kabir Granthavali
is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan and many of his
compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib. All these
compilations were made after the death of Kabir.Kabir’s poems have
survived in several languages and dialects and sometimes with
special language of nirguna poets (the sant bhasha) and others
known as ulatbansi(upside-down sayings). Teachings of Kabir • Kabir
tried to describe the Ultimate Realityincluding Islam. According to
him the Ultimate Reality was Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also
used certain Vedic terms such as Brahman and Atman. • He also
used some yogic traditional terms such as shabda(sound) or
shunya(emptiness). Some poems of Kabir expressed conflicting and
diverse ideas. Some poems attacked Hindu polytheism and idol
worship and others use sufi concept of zikr and ishq(love) to express
the Hindu practice of nam-simaran (remembrance of God’s name).
Teachings of Kabir • Historians have tried to analyse the language,
style and content of these poems. Debates about whether Kabir was
a Hindu or a Muslim by birth are well reflected in hagiographies. •
Hagiographies within the Vaishnava tradition suggest that he was
born a Hindu, Kabirdas but brought up by a poor Muslim community
of weavers. They also suggest that he was initiated into bhakti by a
guru, Ramananda. • The poems of Kabir used words guru and
satguru but do not mention the name of any specific guru. Historians
pointed out that it is very difficult to establish that Ramananda and
Kabir were contemporaries. Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word •
Baba Guru Nanak was born in a village called Nankana Sahib near
Ravi in Punjab in 1469.He trained to be an accountant and studied
Persian. He was married at a young age but he spent most of his time
among sufis and bhaktas. He also travelled widely. Teachings of Guru
Nanak • His teachings are well reflected in his hymns. These hymns
suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna bhakti. He rejected
sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship and the scriptures of Hindus
and Muslims. oAccording to him, the Absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender
or form. He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by
remembering the Divine Name. oHe expressed his ideas through
hymns called “shabad” in Punjabi, the language of the region and
sang with different ragas. oHe organized his followers into a
community. He set up rules for congregational worship (sangat). He
appointed one of his disciples, Angad, to succeed him as the
preceptor (guru).Guru Nanak did not want to establish a new
religion. Teachings of Guru Nanak • After his death, his followers
consolidated their own practices to form a distinct community. • The
fifth guru, Guru Arjun compiled Guru Nanak”s hymns along with
those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid,
Ravidas and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. These hymns called
“gurbani” are composed in various languages. • The tenth Guru,
Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru;
Guru Tegh Bahadur.This scripture was called the Guru Grantha Sahib.
Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth
(army of the pure). • He also defined its five symbols: Uncut hair, a
dagger, a pair of shorts, a comb and a steel bangle. • It was under
the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh that the community became a
socio-religious and military force. Mirabai, the devotee princess •
Mirabai was the best known woman poet within the bhakti tradition.
She was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar. • She was married
to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar against he wishes. She
defied her husband and not submit to the traditional role of wife and
mother. • She recognized Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu as her lover.
Her in-laws tried to poison her, but she escaped and lived as
wandering singer composing songs with intense expressions of
emotion. Mirabai, the devotee princess • Her most famous
preceptor was Raidas; a leather worker. It shows her defiance of the
norms of caste society. • She had donned the white robes of a
window or the saffron robe of the renouncer. Although she did not
attract a sect or group of followers, she has been recognized as a
source of inspiration for centuries. • We get information about her
from the bhajans attributed to her. Reconstructing histories of
religious traditions • Historians used a variety of sources to
reconstruct histories of religious traditions. These include stupas,
monasteries, and temples. • Historians also draw on textual sources
including devotional literature and hagiographies. These sources
enable historians to understand certain religious beliefs and
practices. • They range from the simple direct language of the
vachanas of Basavanna to the ornate language of the farman of the
Mughal emperors. • Understanding each type of text requires
different skills. Historians have to acquire familiarity with several
languages and to be aware of the subtle variations in style that
characterize each type.